New  Biographical 
Dictionary 


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Biographical  Dictionao 


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BY    KI>ITORS   OF   THE 

CASSELL'S 

Standard  Reference  Books,  Dictionaries,  &c. 


CONTAINING 

Memoirs  of  the  Most  Eminent  Men  and  Women 

OF  ALL 

Ages  and  Countries 


fteuiseft  jEdition 


PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher 
I022  Market  Street 


Copyright,  1893,  by  CASSELL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 
Copyright,  1899,  by  DAVID  McKAY. 


URL 


INTRODUCTOKY  NOTE. 


It  is  a  trite  thing  to  say  of  a  book  that  it  "  meets  a  long  felt 
want";  but  when  that  is  so  absolutely  the  case  as  with  Cassell's 
"  New  Biographical  Dictionary,"  ii  is  almost  impossible  to  abstain 
from  using  the  phrase.  Biographical  dictionaries  are  no  new 
thing  ;  there  are  many  and  excellent  ones  in  existence  ;  but  they 
are  all  more  or  less  bulky  and  consequently  expensive.  The  aim 
of  the  publishers  in  making  this  book  has  been  to  make  it  first  a 
thorough]}^  reliable  book  of  reference  ;  then  to  make  it  concise, 
convenient  to  refer  to,  and  inexpensive.  That  tliey  have  fulfilled 
this  aim  there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  the  words  of  one  eminently 
fitted  to  judge,  this  Dictionary  is  "a  thoroughly  reliable  Avork  of 
reference,  giving  particulars  of  the  world's  celebiities,  whether 
living  or  dead,  from  the  earliest  times  up  to  the  present  date.  It 
also  gives  the  twins  de  plume  of  popular  writers,  with  their  real 
names.  So  carefully  has  it  been  edited  that  so  recent  an  event 
as  the  death  of  Lord  Tennyson  is  noted."  While  tl>e  details  are 
necessarily  brief,  all  the  important  facts  are  there.  To  the 
student  and  the  man  of  letters,  or  to  the  busy  man  of  afl:"airs,  this 
will  be  found  a  most  valuable  book  of  reference,  and  one  that  once 
used  will  never  be  dispensed  with. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Aagaxd,  Christian  [b.  1616,  d.  1664),  Danish, 
writer  of  Latin  poetry  ;  his  compositions 
will  be  found  collected  in  Rostgaard's 
Delicia  Quormidiim  Poetaj-um  Danorum. 

Aali  or  All,  Mustapha  Ben  Achmed  {d. 
1597),  Turkish  historian,  whose  principal 
work  was  a  universal  history. 

A'all  or  All,  Pacha,  Mehemet  Emin 
{b.  1815,  d.  1871),  a  distiaguished  statesman 
of  the  Ottoman  empire,  was  employed 
diplomatically  at  the  courts  of  Austria  and 
England,  and  finally,  returning  to  Con- 
stantinople, was  five  times  appointed  grand 
vizier. 

Aaron,  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  the  elder  brother  of 
Moses  and  Miriam.  He  appeared  with 
Moses  before  Pharaoh,  and  was  the  first 
high  priest  of  Israel,  his  sons  being  also 
consecrated  to  the  priesthood.  He  shared 
the  sin  of  Moses  at  Meribah,  as  well  as  its 
punishment,  his  death  taking  place  shortly 
afterwards  on  Mount  Hor. 

Aaron,  Saint,  the  reputed  founder,  in  the 
sixth  century,  of  the  first  monastery  in 
Brittany. 

Aarsena,  Francis  van  (6.  1572,  d.  1641), 
Dutch  politician  and  diplomatist  of  dis- 
tinction, was  ambassador  at  several  courts, 
notably  France ;  the  execution  of  Barueveldt 
was  mainly  due  to  his  influence. 

Aarshot,  PhiUppe  {d.  1595),  second  Duke 
of  Croi,  a  Flemish  noble,  commander  of 
the  forces  sent  against  the  Duke  of  Cleves. 
In  the  Spanish  war  of  the  Low  Countries  he 
first  espoused  the  cause  of  Philip  II.,  and 
was  made  president  of  the  council ;  after- 
wards sichng  with  the  States,  he  became 
governor  of  Flanders,  and  in  the  rising  of 
Ghent  was  seized  by  the  mob  and  imprisoned. 
On  his  release  he  took  refuge  in  Venice. 

Aartsen  or  Aertsen,  Pieter  (6.  1519,  d. 
1566),  historical  painter,  son  of  a  stocking 
weaver  of  Amsterdam. 

Abad  I.,  About  Cacem  Mohammed  (d. 
1042),  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Abad- 
tydes,  and  first  Moorish  king  of  Seville. 


Abad  n.  (6,  1012,  d.  1069),  a  prince  of 
great  ability  and  ambition,  succeeded  to  the 
above  and  added  largely  to  his  dominions. 
He  was  fond  of  literature  and  poetry,  but 
was  voluptuous,  cruel,  and  superstitiovis. 

Abad  III.,  Abou  Cacem  Mohammed  al 
Mohammed  Billah  {h.  1039,  d.  1095),  son  of 
the  above,  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
kingdom  of  Malaga,  but  was  finally  defeated 
by  Yousuf-ben  Taschfyn,  and  carried  cap- 
tive to  Africa,  where  he  died. 

Abaka  Khan  (rf.  1222),  a  Persian  emperor, 
eighth  of  the  Jliengis  dynasty,  married  the 
daughter  of  Michael  Palseologus,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

Abamonti,  Giuseppe  (6,  1759,  d.  1818), 
Neapolitan  statesman,  who  took  an  active 
part  in  the  revolutionary  movement.  In 
1799  he  was  arrested  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  was  pardoned,  and  he  retired  to 
Milan,  returning  to  Naples  in  1805. 

Abancourt,  Charles  Xavier  Joseph  Fran- 
queville  [b.  1758,  d.  1792),  appointed  minis- 
ter of  war  in  1792  by  Louis  XVI.,  was 
afterwards  denounced  as  an  aristocrat  by 
Thuriot,  and  put  to  death  as  a  sop  to  the 
popular  party. 

Abano,  Pietro  (3.  1246,  d.  1320),    a  na 
tive  of  Padua,  celebrated   for  his   skill  in 
alchemy  and  medicine. 

Abascal,  Jos^  Fernando  (5.  1763,  d. 
1821),  Viceroy  of  Peru  during  several  years 
of  the  South  American  war  of  independ- 
ence. 

Abati  or  Abbati,  Niccolo  {b.  1512,  d. 
1572),  Italian  painter,  a  native  of  Modena, 
principally  known  for  the  frescoes  which  he 
painted  at  Fontainebleau,  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  greater  part  have  been  destroyed. 

Abauzit,  Firmin  {b.  1679,  d.  1767),  theo- 
logian, mathematician,  antiquarian,  and 
historian.  A  native  of  Uzes  in  Languedoc, 
he  was  of  Arabian  descent,  and  travelled 
through  Germany,  Holland,  and  England, 
and  was  honoured  witJi  tlie  friendship  of 
Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  Newton, 


Abb 


(2) 


Abd 


Abbas  I.,  Shah  (b.  1557,  d.  1628),  ascended 
the  throne  of  Persia  in  1585,  and  after 
defeating  the  Uzbegs  was  able,  with  the 
assistance  of  Sir  Anthony  and  Sir  Robert 
Shirley  from  England,  to  overthrow  the 
Turks,  regaining  all  his  lost  provinces. 

Abbas,  Mirza  (b.  1795,  d.  1833),  Prince 
Royal  of  Persia,  an  enlightened  reformer  of 
his  country.  He  sent  several  youths  to 
England  to  be  educated,  and  established  the 
first  printing  press  in  Persia  at  Tabritz. 

Abbas,  Pacha  (b.  1813,  d.  1854),  eldest 
son  of  Mehemet  Ali,  succeeded  his  uncle, 
Ibrahim  Pacha,  in  the  viceroyalty  of 
Egypt,  1834. 

Abbassah  {d.  1634),  appointed  Pacha  of 
Erzerum  by  the  Aga  of  the  Janissaries, 
twice  revolted  against  Murad  IV. ,  by  whom 
he  was  finally  put  to  death. 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin  (b.  1852),  a  weU- 
known  American  artist  in  black  and  white, 
educated  at  the  Pensylvanian  Academy. 
His  water-colour  drawings  also  have  at- 
tracted attention  both  in  America  and  ia 
England. 

Abbey,  Henry  {b.  1842),  American  author, 
was  educated  at  Kingston  Academy  and  the 
Hudson  River  Institute. 

Abbot,  Ezra,  LL.D.,  D.D.  (d.  1819,  d. 
1884),  American  critic,  very  precocious  as  a 
child,  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  and 
settled  at  Cambridge,  gaining  considerable 
reputation  as  a  biblical  critic.  He  contri- 
buted to  periodicals,  and  also  wrote  several 
critical  works,  and  ia  support  of  Unitarian- 
ism  ;  the  best  known  is  that  on  The  Author- 
ity of  the  Fourth  Gospel. 

Abbot,  George  (*.  1562,  d.  1633),  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  son  of  a  cloth- 
worker  of  Guildford.  He  early  became  a 
popular  preacher  and  author,  and  his  efforts 
to  establish  episcopacy  in  Scotland  and  a 
pamphlet  he  wrote  upon  the  conviction  of 
George  Sprot,  brought  him  into  favour  with 
James  I.  He  was  first  appointed  Bishop  of 
London,  and  then  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Later,  his  action  with  respect  to  the  mar- 
riage of  the  Earl  of  Essex,  his  Calvinistic 
views,  the  growing  influence  of  Laud,  and 
his  accidental  shooting  of  a  keeper,  brought 
him  into  disfavour,  and  though  he  attended 
James's  death-bed,  and  crowned  Charles  I., 
he  was  soon  placed  under  confinement.  The 
almshouses  he   founded  at   Guildford  still 


Abbot,  Henry  Larcom  (b.  1831),  Ameri- 
can engineer,  graduated  at  West  Point, 
and  entered  the  tojjographical  engineers. 
During  the  Civil  war  he  rose  to  be  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  after  the  close  of  the  war 
was  actively  engaged  on  various  matters, 


notably  the  invention  and  development  of 
the  U.S.  system  of  marine  mines  for  coast 
and  river  defence. 

Abbot,  Joel  (b.  1793,  d.  1855),  American 
naval  officer ;  during  the  second.  American 
war  with  England  his  bravery  and  self- 
devotion  were  conspicuous.  The  latter  part 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  China,  where,  as 
flag-officer,  he  discharged  deHcate  diplo- 
matic duties  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  his 
Government. 

Abbot,  Lemuel  {b.  1762,  d.  1803),  an 
English  portrait  painter  of  naval  heroes. 

Abbot,  Samuel  (d.  1839),  American  lawyer, 
invented  the  method  of  obtaining  starch 
from  the  potato  ;  he  was  burnt  to  death  in 
his  factory. 

Abbott,  Benjamin  Vaughan  {b.  Boston, 
1830),  has  produced  several  works  conjointly 
with  his  brother  and  partner,  Austin,  and 
also  many  separately.  He  was  appointed 
to  revise  the  statutes  of  the  United  States, 
and  compiled  important  "digests"  of  de- 
cisions, etc. 

Abbot,  Charles  Conrad  {b.  1843),  Ameri- 
can naturalist,  educated  at  Trenton,  and 
Pennsylvania,  graduated  in  medicine  in 
1863.  His  investigations  concerning  pre- 
historic man  are  valuable  and  interesting. 

Abbt,  Thomas  (b.  1738,  d.  1766),  a  learned 
German  educated  at  Ulm  and  Halle.  In- 
tended for  the  church,  his  inclinations  led 
him  to  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  modern 
languages ;  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  of  mathematics 
at  Riuteln.     He  died  at  Bucksberg. 

Abdallah  (d.  1818),  the  fourth  and  last 
Scherif  of  the  Wahabites,  succeeded  his 
father  in  1814,  but  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Mehemet  Ali  and  beheaded  by  the  Sultan. 

Abdallatif  (b.  1162,  d.  1231),  Arabian 
physician  and  philosopher,  and  author  of 
several  books,  notably  on  Egypt. 

Abdal  Wahab  (b.  1692,  d.  1787),  an  Ara- 
bian religious  reformer,  and  founder  of  the 
sect  of  Wahabites. 

Abd-el-Kader,  Sidi-el-Hadjo-Ouled  Mah- 
iddin  (b.  near  Mascara,  1807,  d.  1883),  dis- 
tinguished Algerian  commander,  led  the 
native  tribes  against  the  French  when  the 
latter  had  taken  possession  of  Algeria.  For 
fourteen  years  he  kept  them  at  bay,  and 
secured  to  himself  the  virtual  sovereignty  of 
Oran.  Finally  he  surrendered  to  General 
Lamorici^re,  and  was  restored  to  freedom  by 
Napoleon  III.  upon  undertaking  not  to  take 
up  arms  against  the  French.  In  1860  he 
defended  the  Christians  against  the  Druses 
in  the  massacre  at  Damascus. 

Abd-er-ralunan    L     (b.    731,    d.    787), 


Abd 


(3) 


Ab€ 


founder  of  the  royal  race  of  the  Ommeyades, 
Emirs  of  Cordova,  laudiug  in  Granada 
755,  and  reported  introducer  of  the  palm- 
tree,  pomegranate,  apricot,  and  peach  into 
Spain. 

Abd-er-raliinan  II.  {b.  788,  d.  852),  the 
fourth  Emir  of  Cordova  of  the  Ommeyade 
line,  and  called  "  Ab  Mutrif,"  or  '*  The  vic- 
torious, ' '  from  his  successes  over  the  native 
Spanish  kings. 

Abd-er-raHman  III.  (b.  891,  d.  961), 
"  Prince  of  the  Faithful,"  was  eighth  Emir 
of  the  race,  and  first  to  assume  the  title  of 
Caliph.  He  reigned  for  forty-nine  years  in 
prosperity  and  splendour,  haviug  defeated 
his  enemies,  and  built  the  magnificent 
palace  and  city  of  Azzahrah. 

Abd-er-rhaman  {b.  1778,  d.  1859),  Em- 
peror of  Morocco  and  Fez.  He  was  involved 
in  troubles  with  several  of  the  European 
powers,  especially  France,  which  took 
Algiers  and  attacked  Tangiers,  while  his 
attempts  to  annex  Oran  were  rendered  futile 
by  the  opposition  of  Abd-el-Kader. 

Abdul-aziz  Khan  {*.  1830,  d.  1876), 
Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  succeeded 
his  brother,  Abdul  Medjid,  in  18G1.  Brought 
up  under  a  French  tutor,  he  imbibed  many 
European  ideas,  inti'oduced  improvements 
in  agriculture,  reformed  the  courts  of  jus- 
tice, and  personally  discarded  polygamy. 
In  1862  he  conquered  the  Montenegrins, 
and  visited  England  in  1867.  An  insurrec- 
in  Herzegovina  was  settled  by  European 
intervention  (1876),  but  the  extravagance 
and  despotism  of  the  Sultan  rendered  him  so 
unpopular  as  to  provoke  his  deposition, 
which  was  quickly  followed  by  his  suicide 
or  murder. 

Abdul  Hamid  (b.  1725,  d.  1789)  suc- 
ceeded to  tlie  Ottoman  throne  iu  1773.  In 
1774  he  concluded  peace  with  Kussia  by  the 
Treaty  of  Kaiiiardji,  but  three  years  later 
war  again  broke  out,  the  battle  of  Kinbum 
was  lost,  and  finally  Russia  took  all  the 
provinces  north  of  the  Danube. 

Abdul  Hamid  II.  {b.  1842),  reigning  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  succeeded  his  brother,  Murad  V. 
(deposed  on  account  of  alleged  insanity),  in 
August,  1876.  Abdul  Hamid's  rule,  ushered 
in  by  the  famous  Bulgarian  atrocities,  has 
been  marked  by  disturbances  in  every  por- 
tion of  his  dominions.  His  government  is 
autocratic,  even  insignificant  departmental 
measures  requiring  his  approval.  His 
ministers  are  frequently  deposed  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice.  Of  a  morbidly  nervous 
disposition,  he  is  extremely  sensitive  to 
hostile  reflections  on  Turkish  matters  in  the 
press,  over  which  his  officials  have  to  exer- 
cise a  very  severe  censorship.  He  has 
brought  the  Turkish  army  to  a  great  state 
of  perfection  with  the  aid  of  numerous 
b2 


German  officers.  He  is  held  in  great  awe 
by  his  subjects,  but  in  his  intercourse  with 
foreign  envoys  and  visitors  bis  manners  are 
gracious  and  engaging. 

Abdullah  ben  Zobair  {b.  622,  d.  692), 
sovereign  of  Mecca,  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  personages  in  the  early  times  of 
Islamism. 

Abdul  Medjid  Khan  (/;.  1823,  d.  1861), 
Sultan  of  Turkey,  succeeded  his  father  1839. 
The  empire  was  then  in  a  most  critical  state, 
but  the  treaty  of  1840  between  England, 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  followed  by 
the  taking  of  Acre  and  the  bombardment  of 
Beyrout,  saved  Turkey  from  Ibrahim. 
Early  in  his  reign  the  young  Sultan  issued 
the  great  "Tanzimat,"  or  Magna  Charta  of 
Turkey  ;  he  re-organised  the  anny  and  the 
penal  code,  formed  a  postal  system,  and 
erected  telegraphs.  Troubles  with  Servia, 
Albania,  SjTia,  Bosnia,  and  Montenegro, 
culminated  in  war  with  Russia  in  1854,  but 
the  intervention  of  England,  France,  and 
Sardinia  resulted  in  the  taking  of  Sebasto- 
pol,  1854,  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1S56. 

Abel,  the  second  son  of  Adam,  slain  by  his 
brother  Cain. 

Abel  (d.  1252),  King  of  Denmark,  1241 ; 
was  slain  in  battle  with  his  Frisian  subjects. 

Abel,  Clarke  {b.  1780,  d.  1826),  doctor  of 
medicine  and  naturalist,  accompanied  Lord 
Amherst  to  China  in  1816,  and  gave  the 
name  Abelia  to  a  species  of  plant  brought 
back  with  him. 

Abel,  Johann  Joseph  {b.  1768,  d.  1818), 
Austrian  painter.  He  studied  in  Vienna 
and  Rome. 

Abel,  Karl  Friedrich  {b.  Vilb,  d.  1787), 
a  native  of  Anhalt,  musician  and  composer. 
He  gave  in  England  a  series  of  concerts  in 
conjunction  with  Bach. 

Abel,  Niels  Henrik  {b.  1802,  d.  1829), 
mathematician,  born  at  Fiudoe,  iu  Norway. 
He  especially  investigated  the  theory  of 
elliptic  functions. 

Abelard  or  Abailard,  Pierre  {b.  1079,  d. 
1142),  studied  philosophy  under  Cham- 
peaux,  and  divinity  under  Anselm,  to  such 
effect  that  in  each  case  he  excelled  his 
master,  and  his  reputation  spread  through 
Europe.  While  teacher  of  a  school  of 
rhetoric  at  Paris  he  conceived  a  violent 
passion  for  the  eautiful  and  accomplished 
Heloise,  and  tk  story  of  their  love  is  well 
known.  Helois-  took  the  veil  and  Abelard 
became  a  monk  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis, 
where  his  lecture'  attracted  crowds,  but  his 
writings  were  .nounced  as  heretical. 
Condemned  in  his  bsence  by  the  Council 
of  Soissons,  he  witholrew  to  the  banks  of  the 
Ardisson.    PeiBecuti«*i  followed  him   here 


Abe 


(4) 


Abr 


and  elsewhere,  aud  he  died  at  the  Priory  of 
St.  Marcellus,  Chalous.  His  remaius  aud 
those  of  Heloise  uow  rest  in  Pere-la-Ohaise. 

Abelin,  Johauu  Pliilipp  {d.  circa  1646),  a 
prolific  Gennau  author. 

Abenezra  or  Hezra  {!>.  1119,  d.  1174),  a 
celebrated  rabbi  aud  expositor  of  the  Bible ; 
boru  at  Toledo. 

Abercrombie,  John,  M.D.  (6.  1781,  d. 
1844),  a  native  of  Aberdeen  aud  distin- 
guished member  of  the  medical  profession 
in  Edinburgh,  esteemed  both  for  his  pro- 
fessional skill  and  his  philosophical  attain- 
ments. His  best  known  work  is  his  In- 
qtiiries  concerning  the  Intellectual  Poivers. 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph  (b.  1734,  d.  1801), 
a  distinguished  British  general,  a  native  of 
Clackmannanshire.  After  studying  law  at 
Edinburgh  aud  Leipsic  he  entered  the  army, 
and  in  1793  accompanied  the  Duke  of  York 
into  Holland  as  lieutenant-general.  His 
abilities  won  for  him  high  commendation, 
aud  his  career  in  the  West  Indies,  whither  he 
weut  in  1795  as  commander-in-chief,  was  a 
brilliant  success.  He  afterward  served  in 
Ireland,  in  Holland  against  Helder,  and  was 
sent  to  Egypt  against  the  French.  Land- 
ing at  Aboukir,  he  won  the  sanguinary  aud 
obstinate  battle  of  Alexandria,  but  received 
a  mortal  wound. 

Aberdeen,  George  Hamilton  Gordon,  4th 
Earl  of  (h.  1784,  d.  1860),  statesman,  an 
accomjilished  scholar  and  man  of  taste,  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  Cambridge.  He  was 
early  chosen  a.represeutativepeer  of  Scotland 
and  rewarded  for  important  political  services 
by  being  made  a  British  peer,  with  the  title 
of  Lord  Gordon.  Under  Tory  administration 
he  occupied  successively  the  office  of  Foreign 
Secretary  and  of  Secretary  to  the  Colonies, 
and  while  in  the  latter  post  established 
the  entente  cordiale  between  England  and 
France.  In  1852,  as  head  of  the  Peel  Party, 
he  became  Prime  Minister.  The  Eastern 
question  came  into  prominence.  Lord  Pal- 
merston  retired  from  the  Ministry,  and  Lord 
Aberdeen  allowed  the  country  to  "drift" 
into  the  Crimean  war.  The  war  was  mis- 
managed, and  he  resigned  upon  what  was 
practically  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence,  aud 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement. 

Abernethy,  John  (b.  1680,  d.  1740),  an 
Irish  dissenting  minister,  educated  in  Scot- 
land. He  agitated  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  Act. 

Abernethy,  John  {h.  1765,  d.  1831), 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  professedly 
an  Iiishman  :  he  studied  medicine  at  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital,  London,  and  rapidly 
rose  to  be  one  of  the  first  surgeons  of  the 
day,  aud  a  lecturer  of  great  power.     He 


was  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  to 
the  Koyal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  his  pro- 
fessional writings  are  still  standard  works. 

Abigail,  a  sister  of  David. 

Abigail,  the  wife  of  Nabal,  and  after- 
wards of  liavid. 

Abildgaard,  Peter  Christian  {b.  1740,  d. 
ISikS),  noted  Danish  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, aud  ouo  of  the  fouuders  of  the  Veter- 
iuu.ry  College  of  Copenhagen. 

Abimelecli,  the  name  of  various  kings  of 

Philistia. 

Abinger,  James  Scarlett,  Lord  («.  1769, 
d.  1844),  eminent  English  barrister,  pos- 
sessed of  marvellous  influence  over  both 
judge  and  jury.  In  1816  he  entered  Par- 
liament as  a  Whig,  but  afterwards  joined 
the  amalgamation  of  parties  under  Canning, 
and  held  the  office  of  Attorney  General  till 
his  retirement  on  the  accession  of  William 
IV.  Under  Peel's  ministry  in  1834  he  was 
appointed  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer, 
aud  the  following  year  made  Baron  Abinger. 

Abington,  Frances  {b.  1731,  d.  1815),  popu- 
lar English  actress  ;  the  first  Lady  Teazle. 

Abisbal,  Enrique  O'Donnell,  Count  of 
{b.  1770,  cl.  1834),  Spanish  general  of  Irish 
descent,  who  commanded  the  army  in 
Catalonia,  and  defeated  the  French  at 
Abisbal,  from  which  he  took  his  title.  He 
afterwards  made  himself  master  of  Madrid, 
but  on  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  retired 
to  France,  where  he  died. 

Ablancourt,  Nicholas  Perrot  d'  {b.  1606, 
d.  1G()4),  translator  of  repute,  and  member 
of  the  Academy ;  he  found  patrons  in  both 
England  and  France. 

Abner,  the  son  of  Ner,  and  consequently 
cousin  to  Saul,  whose  army  he  commanded. 

About,  Edmond  Francois  Valentin  (b. 
1828,  (I.  1885),  unsuccessful  as  a  dramatist, 
he  obtained  a  great  reputation  as  a  novelist 
and  essayist.  Les  Mariages  de  Province 
and  La  Question  Eomaine  are  his  most 
remarkable  works.  He  acted  as  corre- 
spondent for  LeSoir  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
war.  A  work  entitled  Alsace,  which  he 
wrote  after  the  i^eace  when  living  in  the 
newly-aimexed  provinces,  and  in  which  he 
attacked  the  Prussians,  was  the  cause  of  his 
being  temporarily  imprisoned. 

Aboville,  Fran9ois  Maret  (b.  1730,  d. 
1819),  French  general  of  artillery  who  served 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  under  Napoleon 
became  a  senator,  and  member  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  while  Louis  XVIII- 
made  him  a  peer. 

Abradates,  King  of  Susa,  at  first  fought 


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against  Cyrus  with  the  Assyi-ians,  but  after- 
wards, joining  Cyrus,  fell  in  battle  with  the 
Egyptians. 

Abraham,  the  son  of  Terah,  and  pro- 
genitor of  the  Jews. 

Abrantes,  Don  Jose  Maria,  Marquis  of 
(b.  1784,  d.  1827),  Portuguese  nobleman, 
detained  by  Napoleon  as  a  hostage.  He 
afterwards  assisted  Miguel  in  the  revolution 
of  1823 ,  but  for  his  coinphcity  in  the  murder 
of  the  Marquis  of  Soule  he  was  banished, 
and  went  first  to  Italy,  then  to  London, 
where  he  died. 

Absalom,  the  third  son  of  David,  by 
Maachah,  daughter  of  Talmai,  King  of 
Geshur. 

Abt,  Franz  {b.  1819,  «?.  1885),  German 
composer,  educated  originally  for  the 
Church,  but  devoted  himself  to  music. 
Became  kapellmeister  at  Zurich,  and  after- 
wards at  Brunswick,  but,  though  he  wrote 
many  light  pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  is  best 
known  by  his  numerous  and  graceful  songs. 

Abu-bekr  (i.  571,  d.  634).  This  name 
(Father  of  the  Virgin)  was  assumed  by 
Abd-ul-Kabah  ou  the  marriage  of  Mahomet 
with  his  daughter.  He  proved  a  faithful 
ally  to  his  son-in-law,  whom  he  survived. 

Abu-1-Fazl  {d.  1600),  the  wise  and  en- 
lightened minister  of  Akbar,  celebrated  for 
his  learning  and  justice.  He  was  attacked 
by  rebels  and  slain. 

Abu-1-Feda,  Ismail,  sumamed  "The  Vic- 
torious" {i).  1273,  d.  1331),  King  or  Governor 
of  Hammah  in  Syria,  and  a  man  of  great 
bravery  and  learning.  He  left  many  works, 
the  chief  being  An  Abridgment  of  the  His- 
tory of  Mankind. 

Abu-1-Easim  or  Albucasis,  the  most 
famous  Arabic  wiuter  ou  surgery,  bom  at 
Cordova  in  the  eleventh  century.  His  great 
■work  is  At  Tassrif,  or  £ook  of  the  Theory 
and  Fractice  of  Medicine, 

Abu-Said,  ninth  of  the  Persian  kings  of 
the  dynasty  of  Hulaku.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1317,  and  won  the  sui'name  of 
Bahadur  (the  Valiant)  by  his  prowess  in 
battle  when  only  17. 

Abu-Teman  {h.  805,  d.  845),  celebrated 
Arabian  poet,  born  at  Damascus.  He  com- 
piled a  biography  of  tlie  best  poets,  and  a 
selection  from  their  writings. 

Abu-Yakub  Yusuf  (/;.  1139,  d.  1184), 
third  Sultan  of  Africa  and  Spain,  of  the 
dynasty  of  Almohades.  Defeated  and  slain 
by  the  Spaniards  at  Sautarem. 

Abu-Yakub  Yusuf  {!>.  IIGO,  d.  1189),  son 
of  the  preceding,  routed  the  Christians  at 


Alarcos,  and  conquered  a  large  portion  of 
Spain. 

Acarie,  Madame  Barbe  {b.  Paris  1565, 
d.  1618),  religious  enthusiast,  who,  aided 
by  Cardinal  de  Berulle,  set  herself  to  reform 
the  monasteries  in  France. 

AcciajuoU,  Mccolo  {b.  1310,  d.  1366), 
Florentine  statesman,  prominently  engaged 
in  the  political  affairs  of  Naples  during  the 
reign  of  Joanna  and  Luis,  to  whom  he  ren- 
dered many  important  services,  both  civil 
and  military.  He  was  a  patron  of  literary 
men  and  the  friend  of  Petrarch  and  Strada, 
and  spent  his  great  wealth  in  works  of 
charity  and  utility. 

Accius  or  Attius,  Lucius,  the  greatest  of 
the  early  tragic  poets  of  Rome,  born  about 
B.C.  170.  His  style  is  based  on  that  of 
^schylus. 

Accum,  Friedrich  (b.  1769,  d.  1838), 
German  chemist,  who,  in  conjunction  with 
Ackermann,  applied  himself  to  the  subject 
of  gas  lighting ;  to  their  exertions  was  due 
the  adoption  of  gas  lights  in  London.  He 
also  wrote  several  treatises  on  chemical 
subjects,  notably  Chemical  Meagents  and 
Culinary  Chemistry. 

Acevedo,  Christobal,  a  highly  esteemed 
historical  painter  of  Murcia  in  the  16th 
century,  a  pupil  of  Carducci. 

Acevedo,  Felix  Alvarez  {d.  1820),  a  pro- 
minent personage  in  the  Spanish  revolution 
of  1820.  He  routed  the  Royalists  at  Miuho, 
but  was  shot  by  them  while  addressing  the 
miUtia  at  Zaderneto. 

Achaeus,  of  Eretria  (J.  B.C.  484),  a  tragic 
poet,  who  contended  unsuccessfully  with 
Euripides. 

Achard,  Franz  Karl  (i.  1753,  d.  1821), 
a  chemist  of  Berlin,  who  made  numerous 
and  valuable  contributions  to  science,  and 
especially  directed  his  attention  to  the 
method  of  extracting  sugar  from  beetroot. 

Acharius,  Eric  (b.  1757,  d.  1819),  Swe- 
dish botanist  and  physician,  and  pupil  of 
Linnaeus.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
the  study  of  lichens  and  has  left  many 
valuable  works,  of  which  the  principal  is 
Lichenographia  Universalis.  The  geniis 
Acharia  was  named  in  his  honour. 

Achates,  a  companion  of  .Slneas  in  his 
journeyings  after  the  fall  of  Troy.  In  the 
JFjiciA  he  is  always  designated  "fidus"= 
trusty. 

Achates,  Leouardus,  a  German  printer, 
who  introduced  the  art  of  printing  into 
Italy  towards  the  end  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, and  published  at  Padua,  Venice  and 
Vicenza, 


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Ada 


Achen,  Hans  vau  (i.  1556,  d.  1621),  a 
paiuter  who  studied  at  Venice  under  the 
celebrated  Gaspard  Earns,  and  afterwards 
visited  Rome,  Munich  and  Prague.  Sixteen 
of  his  works  are  in  the  Gallery  at  Vienna. 

Achenbacli,  Andre  {h.  1815),  German 
paiuter  of  repute,  a  member  of  the  Academies 
of  Berlin,  Amsterdam,  and  Antwerp.  His 
pictures  are  chiefly  landscape  and  marine 
pieces,  and  his  earlier  works  are  after  the 
Dusseldorf  school.  The  best  collection  of  his 
works  is  at  Munich. 

AchenweU,  Gottfried  {b.  1719,  d.  1772). 
German  political  economist,  who  may  be 
considered  the  founder  of  the  science  of 
statistics.  He  held  a  professorship  at  the 
University  of  Gottingen  from  1748,  and  also 
lectured  on  international  law. 

Acliilles,  the  son  of  Peleus,  king  of  the 
Myrmidoues,  and  the  hero  of  the  Iliad.  His 
history,  much  of  which  is  fabulous  and 
traditionary,  is  gathered  from  ancient 
poems,  in  which  he  is  described  as  a  partisan 
of  the  Greeks  before  Troy,  performing  pro- 
digies of  valour,  and  finally  killing  Hector 
and  being  slain  himself  by  Paris  and  buried 
on  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont. 

Ackermann,  G'^nrad  Ernst  (i.  1710, 
d.  1771),  celebrated  German  comedian, 
who  may  be  considered  the  founder  of  the 
modern  stage  of  Germany. 

Ackermann,  Rudolph  (6.  176-lr),  at  first 
a  coachbuilder,  then  a  seller  and  publisher 
of  prints  in  London ;  it  was  he  who,  in 
conjunction  with  Accum,  introduced  gas- 
Hghtiug,  and  to  him  is  also  due  the  credit  of 
introducing  lithography  into  England. 

Acoluth,  Andreas  (6.  1654,  d.  1704),  one 
of  the  greatest  linguists  of  his  age,  conver- 
sant with  both  Eastern  and  European 
languages.  He  was  appointed  preacher  at 
Breslau,  and  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  the 
Elizabethan  Gymnasium.  His  works  are 
still  of  great  value  to  students  of  Oriental 
literature. 

AconziO,  James  (i.  1492,  d.  1566),  philo- 
sopher and  theologian,  whose  work  on 
method,  entitled  iJe  Methodo,  hoc  est,  de 
recta  inrestigandarum  tradendarumqtw  scien- 
tiariim  ratione,  is  remarkable  as  antici- 
pating portions  of  Bacon's  philosophy.  He 
was  pensioned  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Acoris,  King  of  Egypt,  and  ally  of  Eva- 
goras  against  Artaxerxes,  B.C.  385. 

Acosta,  Joaquim  (b.  1799,  d.  1852),  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  historians  and  geo- 
graphers of  South  America.  He  early 
entered  the  army,  in  which  he  attained 
eventually  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  ex- 
plored the  valleys  of  the  Socorro  and 
Magdalena,  and,  besides  his  valuable  his- 
tory of  the  discovery  and  colonisation  of 


New  Granada,  he  contributed  important 
geographical  and  archaeological  papers  to 
the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris. 

Acquaviva,  a  noble  family  of  Naples, 
distinguished  for  their  love  of  learning. 

Acropolita,  Georgius  (b.  Constantinople, 
1220,  d.  1282),  an  liistorian  of  repute,  and 
"logotheta,"  or  controller  of  the  revenue, 
to  Michael  Palaeologus. 

Acropolita,  Constantius,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, an  historian  and  "logotheta"  to 
Andronicus. 

Acton,    Sir   John   Francis    Edward    [b. 

1736,  d.  1811),  entered  the  Tuscan  navy 
and  took  part  in  the  expedition  against 
Algiers.  Being  appointed  to  reorganise  the 
Neapolitan  navy  in  1779,  he  contrived  to 
render  himself  exceedingly  powerful  in  that 
state,  and  held  successively  the  offices  of 
Minister  of  Finance  and  Prime  Minister. 
The  intervention  of  France  in  1799  caused 
his  removal  from  power,  and  he  finally  took 
refuge  with  the  Court  in  Sicily,  where  he 
died. 

Acuna,  Antonio  d'  {b.  1459,  d.  1526), 
Bishop  of  Zamora.  He  headed  the  insur- 
rection^pf  Castile  against  Charles  V.,  with 
a  following  of  over  5,000  men,  but  was  de- 
feated by  the  Conde  de  Haro,  and  finally 
captured,  imprisoned  and  killed. 

Acuna,  Don  Pedro  Bravo  d',  Spanish 
Governor  of  the  Philippine  Islands  under 
Philip  II.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
Cadiz  on  the  occasion  of  Drake's  attack, 
and  succeeded  in  re-conquering  the  Moluccas 
from  the  Dutch  in  1605. 

Adair,  Et.  Hon.  Sir  Robert,  G.C.B.  (b. 
1763,  d.  1855),  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Gottingen,  and  entered  ParUament  in 
1802.  He  was  soon  employed  diplomatically 
at  Vienna  and  Constantinople,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation.  It  was  to  him  that  the 
peace  of  the  Dardanelles  was  mainly  due, 
and  later  his  diplomacy  probably  prevented 
the  outbreak  of  war  between  Holland  and 
Belgium.  He  retired  from  political  life  iu 
1835. 

Adam,  the  first  of  the  human  race. 

Adam,  Adolphe  Charles  {b.  1803,  d.  1856), 
French  dramatic  composer ;  of  his  numer- 
ous works  the  best  is  Le  Fostillon  de  Long- 
jumeau.  In  1847  he  opened  in  Paris  a 
third  theatre  for  comic  opera,  but,  being 
compelled  to  close  it  during  the  revolu- 
tionary disturbances,  found  himself  ruined, 
and  compelled  to  earn  money  by  giving 
lessons  and  vmting  musical  reviews. 

Adam,  Alexander,  LL.D.  {b.  1741,  d. 
1809),  rector  of  the  High  School  of  Edin- 
burgh from  1768.    A  man  of  great  learning, 


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he  left  several  works,  amongst  them  being 
Roman  Antiquities,  Classical  Bioyraphies, 
amd  the  first  Latin  Grammar  that  was  writ- 
ten in  English. 

Adam,  de  La  Halle,  a  French  poet  of  the 
13th  ceutuiy,  attached  to  the  Coiu-t  of 
Naples,  and  suniamed  Le  Bossu  (the  hunch- 
back). One  of  his  poems,  Le  jeti  du  Beryer 
et  de  la  Beryere,  affords  perhaps  the  earliest 
example  of  the  modern  drama. 

Adam,  Lambert  (i.  1700, «?.  1759),  sculptor, 
studied  at  Rome,  and  executed  several 
works  for  Louis  XV.  for  the  decoration  of 
St.  Cloud  and  Versailles. 

Adam,  Robert  {b.  1728,  d.  1792),  archi- 
tect, and  the  most  celebrated  of  the  four 
brothers  Adam,  who  erected  the  buildings 
known  as  Adelphi,  between  the  Strand 
and  the  Thames,  besides  many  others  in 
London  and  elsewhere.  Robert  especially 
did  much  to  influence  aud  improve  the 
street  architecture  of  Loudon. 

Adamnan,  or  Adomnan  {d.  704),  Abbot 
of  lona,  author  of  a  description  of  Palestine 
and  a  life  of  St.  Columba. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis  {b.  1807,  d.  1886), 
son  of  J.  Q.  Adams,  spent  his  childhood  in 
Europe,  and  returuiug  to  America  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  College,  1825.  He  was 
educated  for  the  law,  but  adopting  politics, 
eventually  joiued  the  coalition  now  known 
as  the  Republican  party,  and  was  appointed 
minister  to  England,  1861-8.  He  was  arbi- 
ti-ator  for  America  for  the  settlement  of 
claims  under  the  Treaty  of  Washington, 
1871,  and  continued  to  take  an  active 
interest  in  political  life.  He  wrote  bio- 
graphies of  his  father  and  grandfather. 

Adams,  John  {b.  1735,  d.  1826),  second 
President  of  the  United  States,  graduated 
at  Harvard,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1761.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  at  the 
Congress  at  Philadelphia  1774,  and  through- 
out encouraged  the  movement  for  inde- 
pendence, in  which,  as  chairman  of  the 
board  of  war,  he  took  an  active  part.  He 
was  commissioner  to  the  Court  of  France 
1788,  aud  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
England  1779.  He  was  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  Union  in  1789,  aud  succeeded 
Washington  as  President  in  1797,  but  in 
1801  failed  to  gain  re-election,  and  then 
retired  from  public  affairs. 

Adams,  John  Couch  (i.  1816,  d.  1892), 
son  of  an  agi-icultural  labourer,  early 
showed  a  capacity  for  matliematics,  and 
graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1838,  being 
Senior  Wrangler.  He  devoted  himself  espe- 
cially to  astronomy,  and  from  protracted 
study  of  the  perturbations  of  Urauus  pre- 
dicted the  existence  aud  the  precise  position 


of  the  disturbing  body,  almost  at  the  same 
time  at  which  M.  Le  Verrier  arrived  inde- 
pendently at  the  same  conclusion.  Their 
predictions  were  verified  by  the  telescope, 
and  the  planet  Neptune  thus  discovered. 
In  1858  Adams  was  appointed  to  the 
Lowndesian  chair  of  astronomy  in  Cam- 
bridge. 

Adams,  John  Quincy  {b.  1767,  d.  1848), 
son  of  President  John  Adams,  and  sixth 
President  of  the  United  States,  studied 
at  Leyden  and  Harvard,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1791.  He  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  was  successively  Ameri- 
can minister  in  Holland,  England,  and 
Prussia,  and  as  a  senator  (1803-1808)  he 
supported  Jefferson's  Embargo  Act.  From 
1806-1809  he  occupied  the  chair  of  rhe- 
toric at  Harvard  College.  After  holding 
various  offices,  in  1825  he  was  elected 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  being 
returned  to  Congress  in  1830,  became  a 
vigorous  supporter  of  the  Abolitionists. 
He  was  author  of  Letters  on  ISiltnia,  Lectures 
on  Rhetoric,  and  a  poem  Dermot  Mac- 
Mar  rogh. 

Adams,  Samuel  (b.  1722,  d.  1803),  edu- 
cated at  Boston  and  Harvard,  entered  his 
father's  brewery,  aud  began  public  Hfe  as 
a  tax-collector.  By  his  tii'mness  in  1770  he 
obtained  the  withdrawal  of  the  British 
troops  from  Boston,  and  it  was  he  who 
instigated  and  led  "  the  Boston  Tea 
Party."  He  was  a  member  of  Congress, 
1794,  and  ardently  supported  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  In  1794  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  and 
died  at  Boston. 

Adanson,  Michel  {b.  mi,  d.^  1806), 
naturalist :  a  pupil  of  Jussieu  and  Reaumur ; 
he  travelled  in  Africa,  making  a  map  of  the 
Senegal  and  Gambia,  aud  studying  the 
languages.  His  great  work  Families  des 
I'lantes  was  published  in  1763. 

Adaschoff,  Alexay  Theodorovich  {d.  1561), 
the  favourite  minister  of  Ivan  IV.  of  Russia, 
whose  life  he  saved  from  the  populace 
during  the  conflagration  of  Moscow,  1547. 
He  used  his  power  wisely  and  well,  revising 
the  laws  and  encouraging  commerce,  but 
was  imprisoned  by  his  enemies  on  a  charge 
of  sorcery,  in  Livonia,  where  he  died. 
Addington.  [See  Sidmouth,  Lord.] 
Addison,  Joseph  (b.  1672,  d.  1719),  passed 
from  Charterhouse  school  to  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  aud  graduated  at  Magdalen 
College  in  1693.  He  spent  four  years 
travelling  on  the  Continent,  returning  in 
1703,  and  in  1704  The  Campaign,  a  poem 
celebrating  the  victory  of  Bleuheim,  brought 
him  into  favour.  In  1708  he  was  sent  to 
Ireland  as  secretary  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant. 
He  contributed  largely  to  the  Tatler  and 
Spectator  from  their  commencement,  and 


Ade 


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Ado 


wrote  274  numbers  for  the  latter.  In  1713 
he  brought  his  tragedy  of  Cato  before  the 
public,  and  at  Drury  Lane  it  proved  an 
unprecedented  success.  In  1716  he  mar- 
ried the  Countess  Dowager  of  Warwick,  and 
the  following  year  was  appointed  Secre- 
tary of  State.     He  died  at  Holland  House. 

Adelaide  (b.  931,  d.  999),  widow  of 
Lothaiie  II.  of  Italy,  was  imprisoned  by 
Berengarius  II.,  but  rescued  and  married 
by  Otho  I.,  951.  During  the  minorities  of 
her  son  and  grandson  (Otho  II.  and  III.) 
she  acted  as  regent,  showing  both  zeal  and 
ability. 

Adelaide  (d.  1091),  "The  Marchioness," 
daughter  of  Manfredi,  Count  of  Turin,  and 
wife  of  Oddo,  Marquis  of  Italy,  acted  as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  sons, 
displaying  considerable  energy  and  ability. 

Adelard,  of  Bath,  eminent  English  phi- 
losopher of  the  twelfth  century,  called 
"  the  Father  of  natural  philosophy  in  Eng- 
land." He  travelled  in  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  was  the  first  to  translate  Euclid's  fifteen 
books  from  the  Arabic ;  he  also  left  several 
treatises  on  physics. 

Adeler,  Cort  Siverstein  (b.  1622,  d.  1675), 
naval  commander,  of  Danish  birth,  who 
served  with  distinction  in  the  navies  of 
Holland  and  of  Venice,  signalising  himself 
especially  in  the  war  between  the  latter 
country  and  Turkey.  Returning  to  Den- 
mark, he  was  given  control  of  the  navy,  and 
appointed  to  command  in  the  war  with 
Sweden,  but  failing  health  compelled  him 
to  resign. 

Adeler,  Max,  the  pseudonym  of  Charles 
Heber  Clark,  the  American  humorist,  author 
of  Out  of  the  Hurly  Burly  (1874),  and  other 
works. 

Adil  Shah,  Yusuf  (b.  1443,  d.  1510), 
after  the  death  of  Mahommed  II. ,  in  whose 
service  he  had  attained  considerable  distinc- 
tion, withdrew  to  Bejapoor,  and  in  1489 
assumed  the  title  of  royalty,  and  succeeded 
in  establishing  his  empire  in  the  Deccan. 
He  was  successful  in  an  attack  upon  the 
Portuguese  at  Goa,  but  died  shortly  after. 

Adimari,  Ludovico  {b.  1644,  d.  1708), 
Professor  of  the  Tuscan  language  at  Flor- 
ence, and  one  of  the  best  satirical  poets  of 
Italy. 

Adler,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hermann  (4.  1839), 
appointed  principal  of  the  Jews'  college  in 
London  1863,  and  minister  of  the  Bays- 
water  synagogue  1864,  and  succeeded  his 
father  as  Chief  Rabbi. 

Adler,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Nathan  Marcus 
(b.  1803,  d.  1890),  studied  in  Germany, 
and  in  1845  was  appointed  Chief  Rabbi 
of  the  L'uited  Congregations  of  the  Brit- 
ish   Empire.      Besides   commentaries   and 


sennons,    he  wrote   a    brief    exposition  of 
'The  Jewish  Faith. 

Adlerbeth,  Gudmund  Goran  {b.  USl, 
d.  1818),  a  Swedish  poet  and  translator,  and 
twice  President  of  the  Swedish  Academy  ; 
he  also  filled  political  posts,  and  in  1809 
assisted  in  drawing  up  the  fundamental 
laws  of  the  new  constitution. 

Adlerfeld,  Gustaf  {b.  1671,  d.  1709),  his- 
torian, travelled  with  the  Court  of  Charles 
XII.  His  Journal  of  the  Wars  has  been 
published  in  French  and  German.  He  was 
killed  by  a  caimon  ball  at  Pultowa. 

Adlzreiter,  Johann  (*.  1596,  d.  1662), 
lawyer,  who,  under  Maximilian  I.  of 
Bavaria,  rose  rapidly  to  the  position  of 
Privy  Chancellor.  He  wrote  a  history  of 
Bavaria  from  the  earliest  times  to  1652. 

Adolphus,  Duke  of  Guelders  {b.  1438, 
d.  1477),  wrested  the  dukedom  from  his 
father,  Arnold,  in  1465.  The  interference 
of  Charles  the  Bold  ultimately  resulted  in 
his  father's  release  and  his  own  imprison- 
ment. Released  in  1477,  he  again  headed 
the  insurgents,  but  was  killed  the  same  year. 

Adolphus  I.,  Count  of  Holstein  (cZ.  1131), 
was  er  trusted  by  the  Emperor  Lothair 
with  «he  government  of  Holstein  in  1106, 
and  contrived  to  subdue  his  enemies,  pro- 
mulgate Christianity,  and  establish  a  dynasty 
which  lasted  350  years. 

Adolphus  II.,  Count  of  Holstein  {d.  1164), 
succeeded  the  preceding  in  1131.  His  reign 
was  troubled,  and  he  was  slain  at  the  siege 
of  Demmin. 

Adolphus  III.,  Count  of  Holstein,  and  son 
of  the  preceding,  assisted  Heury  the  Lion 
at  the  battle  of  Haltefeld,  by  whom  he  was 
afterwards  driven  from  his  throne,  but  was 
restored  by  Barbarossa  of  Denmark.  In 
1200  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  Canut  VI. 
of  Denmark,  and  on  his  release  retired  to 
Schauenberg,  where  he  soon  afterwards 
died. 

Adolphus  rv.,  Count  of  Holsteia  (d.  1252), 
son  of  the  preceding;  in  1227  defeated 
"Waldemar  at  the  battle  of  Bornhoved  ;  but 
in  1238  retired  into  a  Franciscan  monastery. 

Adolphus  VIII.,  Duke  of  Schleswig  {d. 
1459) ,  was  educated  at  the  court  of  the  Em- 
peror Sigismimd.  After  a  long  warwith  Den- 
mark for  the  possession  of  Schleswig,  he 
received  it  in  1440,  as  a  fief  of  that  country. 
On  the  death  of  King  Christopher  he  was 
offered  the  crown  of  Denmark,  which,  how- 
ever, he  refused. 

Adolphus,  Frederick  II.  {b.  1710,  d. 
1771),  succeeded  to  the  Swedish  throne  in 
1731,  but  was  destitute  of  the  necessary 
power  of  mind  for  such  a  position. 


Ado 


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^pi 


Adolphus,  John,  Duke  of  Saxe  Weis- 
senfels  {b.  1685,  d.  1746),  a  valiant  soldier 
whose  courage  aud  skill  attracted  the  notice 
of  Marlborough  ;  iu  1734  he  took  Dantzic, 
and  was  made  field-marshal  of  the  Saxon 
army.  He  succeeded  his  brothers  to  the 
dukedom,  and  took  part  in  the  Quadruple 
Alliance  of  1745. 

Adolpnus,  John  {b.  1768,  d.  1845), 
historian  and  criminal  lawyer.  He  defended 
the  Cato  Street  conspirators  in  1820 ;  and, 
besides  other  works,  wrote  a  History  of 
England,  from  the  accession  of  George  III. 
to  1783. 

Adolphus  of  Nassau,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1292.  For  his  cruelty  and  oppression  he 
was  deposed  in  1298,  and  killed  in  battle 
with  his  rival  Albert  of  Austria,  who  had 
been  elected  by  the  Diet  of  Mainz. 

Adonijah,  the  fourth  son  of  David,  by 
Haggith.  His  three  elder  brothers  being 
dead,  Adonijah  made  an  attempt  on  his 
father's  throne,  which  was  entirely  frus- 
trated by  David's  immediate  abdication  in 
favour  of  his  youmger  son,  Solomon. 

Adorno,  a  wealthy  family  of  Genoa, 
several  members  of  which  were  Doges  of 
the  republic  in  the  14th,  loth,  and  16th 
centuries.  The  Adomo  and  Fregoso  fami- 
lies were  rivals,  and  their  contentions 
continually  disturbed  the  republic  till  both 
were  expelled. 

Adrets,  Francois  de  Beaumont,  Baron 
des  (h.  1513,  d.  1587),  a  Huguenot  leader, 
though  a  Eoman  Catholic,  a  brave  and  skil- 
ful, but  cruel  soldier.  Under  Charles  IX. 
he  changed  sides. 

Adrian  I.  {d.  795),  pope,  a  Eoman  by 
birth,  was  raised  to  the  papal  chair  in  772. 
Sought  aud  received  the  protection  of 
Charlemagne  against  Desideriu,  King  of 
the  Longobards.  The  firm  establishment  of 
the  temporal  power  of  Eome  may  be  at- 
tributed to  him. 

Adrian  IL  {d.  872),  pope,  867,  an  able 
prince  who  well  maintained  the  papal 
authority  over  European  monarchs.  During 
his  time  the  separation  of  the  Greek  and 
Eoman  churches  commenced. 

Adrian  III.  {d.  885),  pope,  884,  a  Eoman 
named  Agapetus,  the  first  to  change  his 
name  on  assuming  the  tiara. 

Adrian  IV.  {d.  1159).  pope,  1154,  Nicholas  ' 
Breakspere,  the  only  Englishman  who  has  ' 
occupied  the  papal  chair.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  servitor  to  a  monastery,  and  entered  a 
French  monastery  as  clerk,  and  rose  to  be 
abbot,  cardinal,  and  legate,  and  was  finally 
elected  pope. 


Adrian  V.,  pope,  1276,  a  noble  Genoese, 
who  had  been  legate  in  England.  He 
occupied  the  papal  chair  one  month  only. 

Adrian  VI.  {b.  1459,  d.  1523),  cardinal  and 
pope,  1521,  a  native  of  Utrecht,  of  mean 
parentage,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Tortosa, 
and  regent  during  the  minority  of  Charles 
V.  of  Spain. 

Adriano  {d.  1630),  Spanish  painter,  and 
lay-brother  of  the  Carmelite  convent  at 
Cordova. 

Adye,  General  Sir  John  Miller,   G.C.B. 

{b.  1819),  entered  the  army  in  1836,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Ciimean  war, 
the  Indian  mutiny,  and  the  Sitana  expedi- 
tion. In  1882  he  was  chief  of  the  staff 
to  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  and  took  part  in 
the  actions  of  Mahsameh  and  Tel-el-Kebir. 
From  1883  to  1886  he  was  Governor  of 
Gibraltar. 

.ffiacides,  King  of  Epirus  (d.  b.c.  313), 
father  of  Pyrrhus,  and  liueal  descendant  of 
Achilles.  He  allied  himself  with  Olympias 
against  Cassauder,  but  was  defeated  and 
slain. 

iEgidius,  Colonna  {d.  1316),  a  monk  of 
the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  and  a  distin- 
guished disciple  of  Thomas  Aquinas.  He 
taught  philosophy  in  Paris,  and  was  pre- 
centor to  the  sons  of  Philip  III. ;  Bishop  of 
Bourges,  1294. 

^lianus,  Claudius,  Italian  waiter  of  the 
third  century,  and  Greek  scholar.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  peculiarities  of  animals, 
and  a  Miscellaneous  History. 

Aelst,  Evert  van  {b.  Delft,  1602,  d.  1658), 
an  eminent  painter  of  still  life. 

Aelst,  Willem  van  {b.  Delft,  1620,  d. 
1679),  nephew  and  pupil  of  the  preceding, 
whom  he  surpassed. 

^ffimilia,  one  of  the  most  ancient  pa- 
trician families  of  Eome,  to  which  several 
of  the  consuls  belonged,  notably  : — Lucius 
Mamercus,  thrice  consul ;  Lucius  Paulus, 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Cannae  ;  Lucius 
Paulus,  his  sou,  twice  consul,  and  victor 
over  the  Macedonians  at  Pydna. 

^ffineas,  a  hero  of  the  Trojan  war,  and 
founder  of  the  Latin  race.  From  the  Ho- 
meric poems  aud  the  ^neid  we  learn  that, 
on  the  capture  of  Troy,  iEueas  escaped,  and 
arriving  iii  Italy  built  the  city  of  Lavinium, 
which  he  named  in  honour  of  his  wife  La- 
vinia,  daughter  of  King  Latinus.  On  the 
death  of  his  father-in-law  .^ueas  succeeded 
to  the  kingdom,  but  four  years  later  was 
slain  in  battle  with  the  Eutuli. 

.ffipinus,  Franz  Maria  Ulrich  {b.  1724, 
d.    1802),    a  German    mathematician    and 


iEpi 


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Aga 


Bcieutist,  who  discovered  the  electrical  pro- 
perties of  lieated  toui-maltue,  aud  published 
several  works  ou  electricity. 

JEpinus,  Johaiin  {b.  1499,  d.  1553),  one  of 
the  early  reformers,  aud  a  friend  of  Luther. 
In  1534  be  came  to  England  to  advise 
Henry  VIII.  respecting  the  reformation  of 
the  English  chm'ch. 

^rius,  a  native  of  Pontus,  in  the  fourth 
century ;  first  a  follower  of  Arius,  he  later 
established  a  sect  known  as  Brians. 

^schines  {b.  b.c.  389,  d.  b.c.  314),  cele- 
brated Athenian  orator.  Failing  in  an 
attack  on  Demosthenes,  was  twice  sent  on 
an  embassy  to  Philip  of  Macedonia,  and  re- 
tired to  Rhodes,  where  he  founded  a  school. 

^schylus  {b.  B.C.  525,  d.  b.c.  456), 
Athenian  tragic  poet ;  distinguished  also 
for  his  valour  at  the  battles  of  Marathon, 
Salamis,  and  Platea.  First  gained  the 
prize  for  tragedy  in  484  B.C.  He  retired 
for  some  years  to  Sicily,  but  returning  to 
Athens,  received  the  prize  for  tragedy  for 
his  famous  trilogy,  Oresteia.  He  event- 
ually returned  to  Sicily,  where  he  died. 
Of  the  seventy  tragedies  said  to  have  been 
written  by  him,  only  seven  remain,  includ- 
ing Prometheus,  Agamemnon,  etc. 

^sopus  {b.  B.C.  619,  d.  B.C.  564),  said 
to  have  been  a  Phrygian  slave,  com- 
poser of  the  well-known  fables.  Having 
obtained  his  freedom,  he  was  well  received 
by  Croesus,  King  of  Lydia,  but  when  visit- 
ing Delphi  gave  offence  by  his  sarcasm,  and 
was  put  to  death. 

.ffitius  {d.  454),  Eomau  general,  who 
was  four  times  consul,  defeated  the  Bur- 
guudians  and  Franks,  and  drove  Attila 
beyond  the  Rhine,  but  having  excited  the 
jealousy  of  Valentinian,  was  put  to  death. 

Affleck,  Sir  Edmund  {d.  1787),  rear- 
admiral,  went  with  Sir  George  Rodney  to 
the  relief  of  Gibraltar,  aud  afterwards,  in 
the  West  indies,  rendered  such  signal 
services  that  he  was  rewarded  with  a 
baronetcy  in  1782. 

AflFre,  Denis  Auguste  (b.  1793,  d.  1848), 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  a  man  of  benevolence 
and  learning,  who  did  much  to  improve 
education  in  his  country.  While  endea- 
vouring to  mediate  in  the  disturbances  of 
1848,  the  insurgents  by  mistake  opened  fire, 
and  he  was  killed. 

AflFry,  Louis  Auguste  Augustin  d'  (b.  1713, 
d.  1798),  served  in  the  French  army, 
rising  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  He 
protected  Louis  XVI.  on  the  5th  aud  6th 
October,  1789,  but  afterwards  supported 
the  revolutionary  party. 

Affry,  Count  Louis  Augustin  Philippe  d' 
(ft.  1745,  d.  1810),  commander  of  the  anny 


on  the  Upper  Rhine  during  the  revolution, 
was  appointed  chief  magistrate  of  Switzer- 
land, after  Bonaparte  had  proclaimed  him- 
self protector  of  the  Helvetic  confederacy. 

Afzelius,  Adam  {b.  1750,  d.  1836),  Swe- 
dish botanist,  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  aud 
professor  of  botany  at  tipsala.  He  travelled 
much,  published  valuable  papers,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  England. 

Aga,  Mohammed  Khan  {h.  1734,  d. 
1797),  founder  of  the  present  dynasty  of 
Shahs  of  Persia,  and  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  the  Kadjars.  He  conquered  Ispahan, 
Shiraz,  and  the  south  of  Persia,  and  crossed 
the  Ai'axes  aud  invaded  Khorassan,  but  was 
murdered  by  two  condemned  slaves. 

Agamemnon,  King  of  Mycenae,  was 
entrusted  with  the  command  of  the  allied 
forces  of  Greece  in  the  Trojan  war.  He 
sacrificed  his  daughter  Iphigenia  at  Aulis  to 
appease  the  vn-ath  of  Diana.  Ou  his  return 
to  Mycenae  he  was  killed  by  his  wife,  Clytem- 
nestra. 

Agapetus  I.  {d.  536)  succeeded  John  II. 
as  i^ope  in  535.  He  was  the  first  Roman 
Poutitt'  who  exercised  authority  over  the 
Eastern  Church,  aud  was  a  diligent  opponent 
of  Ariauism. 

Agapetus  II.  {d.  956),  pope,  succeeded 
Martin  III.  in  946 ;  was  aided  by  Otho  in 
953  against  Berenger. 

Agardh,  Karl  Adolph  (6.  1785,  d.  1859), 
Swedish  scientist  and  politician,  distin- 
guished in  many  branches  of  learning,  was 
particularly  eminent  as  a  botanist,  being 
especially  devoted  to  the  study  of  Algsa 
and  marine  plants.  He  left  writings  on 
many  subjects,  his  great  work  being  Sys- 
tema  Algarum,  1834. 

Agassiz,  Alexander  {b.  1835),  son  of 
Louis  Agassiz,  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1855,  and  afterwards  assisted  his  father  in 
the  study  of  marine  zoology.  A  fortuna,te 
enterprise  in  copper  mining  relieved  him 
from  all  fear  of  pecuniary  embarrassment, 
and  he  devoted  himself  to  the  promo- 
tion of  his  favourite  study,  both  by  personal 
research  and  munificent  endowment. 

Agassiz,  Louis  Johann  Rudolph  {b.  1807, 
d.  1878),  eminent  naturalist,  was  the  son 
of  a  Swiss  Protestant  clergyman.  He 
studied  medicine  and  graduated  at  Munich, 
but  devoted  himself  principally  to  ichthyo- 
logy, aud  was  employed  to  classify  and 
arrange  the  collection  brought  from  Brazil 
by  Martins  and  Spix.  In  1840  he  went  to 
America,  where  he  was  well  received,  aud 
accepted  the  chair  of  zoology  aud  geology  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge  (Harvard 
College).  In  1865  he  visited  Brazil,  and 
on  his  return  placed  the  large  collection  he 


Aga 


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Agn 


had  made  in  the  museum  of  Cambridge. 
He  wrote  numerous  very  valuable  works, 
and  was  to  the  last  a  disbeliever  in  the 
Darwinian  theory  of  evolution. 

Agathocles  {b.  b.c.  361,  d.  b.c.  289), 
tjiant  01  Syracuse,  a  soldier  of  fortune, 
who  became  wealthy  by  his  marriage  with 
the  widow  of  his  patron,  Demas.  Being 
banished  on  account  of  his  intrigues,  he 
raised  an  anny  and  became  sovereign  of 
Syracuse  B.C.  317.  He  gained  many  vic- 
tories over  the  Carthaginians.  Is  supposed 
to  have  died  of  poison. 

Agathon  (6.  circa  B.C.  448,  d.  circa  B.C. 
401),  Greek  tragic  poet,  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Plato,  Aristophanes,  audEuripides. 
Only  fragments  of  his  works  remain. 

Agazzari,  Agostino  (b.  1578,  d.  1640), 
Italian  musician  and  composer,  maestro  of 
the  cathedral  of  Sienna. 

Ageladas,  Greek  sculptor,  who  flou- 
rished in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  waa 
master  of  Myron,  Rheidias,  and  Polycletus. 

Agelet,  Joseph  Le  Paute  d'  {b.  1751, 
d.  1786),  French  astronomer,  who  took  part 
in  the  South  Sea  expedition  of  1773,  and 
(1785)  accompanied  LaPerouse  on  the  voyage 
of  exploration  in  which  they  both  perished. 

Agelli,  Antonio  (b.  1532,  d.  1608),  author 
and  scholar.  Bishop  of  Acerno,  was  chosen 
by  Pius  V.  to  assist  in  revising  the  Septu- 
agint,  and  also  assisted  in  the  revision  of 
the  Vulgate. 

Agesander,  sculptor  of  Rhodes  in  the 
time  of  Vespasian,  was  one  of  the  three 
artists  who  executed  the  group  of  Laociion 
and  his  Sons,  now  in  the  Vatican. 

Agesilaus  11.  (b.  b.c.  445,  d.  b.o.  361), 
King  of  Sparta,  son  of  Archidamus,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  B.C.  398.  After 
successes  against  the  Persians,  he  defeated 
the  combined  forces  of  Athens,  Argos, 
Corinth,  and  Thebes  at  Coroneia  in  B.C. 
394.  He  next  invaded  Argos  and  Corinth, 
and  in  277  b.c.  attacked  Thebes.  He  died 
on  his  way  home  from  a  campaign  in  Egjrpt. 

Agesipolis  L  («?.  b.c.  380),  King  of 
Sparta,  sou  of  Pausanias,  commanded  ex- 
peditious against  Argos,  B.C.  390,  and  Man- 
tineia,  B.C.  385,  and  was  chosen  chief  of  the 
Lacedemonian  forces  against  Macedonia, 
but  died  during  the  war. 

Agiluphus,  Duke  of  Turin,  who,  by  his 
marriage  with  Theudalinda,  the  widow  of 
King  Autaris,  became  king  of  Lombardy 
in  590.  He  extended  his  dominion  over  the 
greater  part  of  Italy. 

Agls  I.,  King  of  Sparta,  succeeded  his 
father  Eurysthenes,  and  reduced  his  con- 
quered subjects  to  a  state  of  vassalage,  and 


the  inhabitants  of  Helos  to  that  condition  of 
slavery  which  gave  rise  to  the  name  of  helot. 

Agis  XL  (d.  B.C.  399)  ascended  the  throne 
B.C.  427.  He  invaded  Argolis  B.C.  418,  and 
later  defeated  the  allied  armies  of  Argives, 
Athenians  and  Mantineians  at  Mantineia. 
In  B.C.  413  he  invaded  Attica,  and  waged 
war  successfully  against  the  Eleans,  B.C.  401. 

Ag^s  III.,  King  of  Sparta,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  388  B.C.,  resisted  the  en- 
croachments of  Alexander  the  Great,  but 
was  defeated  by  Antipater,  and  slain  after 
a  brave  and  prolonged  resistance,  B.C.  331. 

Agia  rv.  (d.  B.C.  235),  King  of  Sparta  B.C. 
144,  a  brave  and  prudent  man  who  did  all  in 
his  power  to  avert  the  decline  of  the  State. 
His  exertions,  however,  aroused  consider- 
able opposition ;  after  varying  success  his 
rival,  Leonidas,  gained  the  upper  hand, 
and  he  was  seized  while  taking  sanctuary 
in  the  temple  of  Pallas,  and  was  executed. 

Agneaux,  Robert  and  Antoine,  two 
brothers,  natives  of  Normandy,  who  pro- 
duced in  1582  the  first  French  translation 
of  Virgil  and  afterwards  of  Horace. 

Agnes  (d.  1077),  daughter  of  William, 
Duke  of  Aquitaine,  wife  of  Henry  III.  of 
Germany,  was  appointed  regent  during  the 
minority  of  her  son  Henry,  but  finding 
herself  unequal  to  the  difficult  position, 
retired  to  a  monastery,  where  she  died. 

Agnes,  Saint  {d.  303),  a  Roman  maiden 
martyred  during  the  Diocletian  persecution. 

Agnes  of  Austria  (b.  1280,  d.  1364), 
daughter  of  Albert  I. ,  and  wife  of  Andrew 
III.  of  Hungary  :  her  cruel  revenge  for  the 
murder  of  her  husband  caused  her  to  be 
universally  hated  ;  she  died  in  a  monastery. 

Agnes  Sorel  or  Soreau  {b.  1409,  d.  1450), 
the  favoiuite  mistress  of  Charles  VII.  of 
France,  distinguished  for  her  beauty  and 
wit,  and  her  influence  with  the  king, 
which  she  used  to  such  good  purpose  as  to 
gain  for  herself  the  good- will  and  affection 
of  the  people.  Her  death  is  attributed  to 
poison. 

Agnesl,  Maria  Gaetana  (5. 1718,  d.  1799), 
a  woman  of  great  learning,  both  in  lan- 
guages and  mathematics,  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  at  the  tiniversity 
of  Bologna,  and  her  text-book  on  this  sub- 
ject has  been  translated  into  French  and 
English.  Towards  the  end  of  her  life  she 
entered  a  monastic  order. 

AgnolO,  Baccio  {b.  1460,  d.  1543),  emi- 
nent Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  re- 
commended by  Michael  Angelo  to  Clement 
VII.,  to  restore  the  statues  in  the  Belvedere 
Museum  at  Rome. 


Ago 


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Aha 


Agoracritus,  sculptor  of  Pares,  aud  the 
favourite  pupil  of  Phidias. 

Agostini,  Paolo  {h.  1593,  d.  1660),  emi- 
neut  musiciau  aud  maestro  of  the  chapel  of 
St.  Peter's  at  Kome. 

Agostino,  Veneziano  or  Augustiuus  de 
Musis,  Veuetiau  eugraver  of  the  16th  ceu- 
tury,  engraved  inauy  of  Raphael's  desigus. 

Agresti,  Livio  (d.  1580),  a  Roman  his- 
torical paiuter,  worked  in  the  Vatican 
under  Gregory  XIII. 

Agricola,  Cuaeus  Julius  {b.  2/1,  d.  94), 
Eoman  commander  in  Britain  luider  Sueto- 
nius Pauliuus,  became  Governor  of  Britain, 
77,  and,  pushing  his  conquests  northward, 
built  the  chain  of  forts  from  the  Clyde  to 
the  Firth  of  Forth. 

Agfricola,  Georg  (b.  1494,  d.  1555),  whose 
real  name  was  Laudmaun,  German  metal- 
lurgist, travelled  in  Italy  and  Germany,  aud 
finally  settled  at  Chemnitz. 

Agricola,  Johann,  surnamed  Islabius  {b. 
1492,  d.  1566),  at  first  the  friend  and  advo- 
cate of  Luther,  but  afterwards  opposed  him, 
and  became  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Anti- 
nomians. 

Agricola,  Johann  Friedrich  {b.  1720,  d. 
1774),  GeiTnan  composer  and  musician,  a 
pupil  of  Bach,  wrote  several  operas. 

Agricola,  Rudolph  (A.  1443,  d.  1485),  phil- 
ologist and  scholar  of  the  loth  century,  tra- 
velled in  Italy  1476,  and  afterwards  in  Ger- 
many, dwelling  at  Worms  and  Heidelberg. 

Agn^ippa,  Heinrich  Cornelius  {b.  1486,  d. 
1535),  scientist  and  theologian,  was  secre- 
tary to  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  studied 
at  Paris  1506,  and  taught  theology  at 
D61e,  in  Burgundy ;  nf tor  mnny  wander- 
ings he  settled  at  lAntwerj).  His  treatises. 
Be  Vanitate  Scientiarum  and  De  Occulta 
Philosophia,  brought  him  into  discredit ; 
he  was  several  times  imprisoned,  and  after 
Bome  years  of  poverty  died  at  Grenoble. 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius  {b.  B.C.  63,  d. 
B.C.  12),  three  times  consul,  and  twice 
governor  of  Syria,  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  wars  which  followed  the  death  of 
Julius  Caesar ;  defeated  Sextus  Pompeius 
at  sea,  B.C.  38,  and  greatly  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Octavius  at  Actium. 

Agrippa,  Menenius  Lanatus  {d.  circa  B.C. 
493),  Roman  consul  about  B.C.  502,  con- 
quered the  Sabines,  and,  by  the  fable  of 
the  belly  and  its  members,  appeased  the 
Plebs  when  they  had  seceded  to  the  Aven- 
tine  Hill. 

Agrippa  I.,  Herod  {h.  b.c.  10,  d.  a.d.  44), 
son  of  Aristobulus  aud  Berenice,  aud  graud- 
Bou  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  tetrarch  of 


Abilene,  and  afterwards,  \mder  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  king  of  Judea  and  Samaria.  He 
persecuted  the  Christians,  killing  James,  the 
brother  of  John,  and  imprisoning  Peter. 
He  died  at  Caesarea. 

Agrippa  II.,  Herod  {b.  27,  d.  94),  son  and 
successor  of  the  preceding,  and  last  of  the 
Jewish  monarchs  of  the  family  of  Herod  the 
Great.  He  took  the  part  of  the  Romans 
against  his  countrymen  on  several  occasions, 
aud  it  was  before  him  that  St.  Paul  was 
brought  iu  69. 

Agrippina  {d.  63),  daughter  of  M.  V. 
Agrippa,  married  Germanicus,  after  whose 
death  she  was  banished  by  Tiberius  a.d.  30. 

Agrippina  {d.  59),  daughter  of  above, 
the  mother  of  Nero,  a  cruel,  licentious 
woman,  poisoned  her  uncle  and  third 
husband  Claudius  to  secure  the  elevation  of 
her  sou,  who  caused  her  to  be  put  to  death 
a  few  years  later. 

Aguesseau,  Henri  Francois  d'  (b.  1668, 
d.  1751),  orator  and  advocate,  took  part 
iu  the  contest  between  the  Pope  and  the 
Gallican  Church,  1699 ;  was  made  Procureur- 
General  in  1700,  and  defended  the  Gallicau 
Church  against  the  Ultramoutaue  party. 
After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  was  ap- 
pointed Chancellor  in  1717,  but  was  twice 
deprived  of  the  seals,  retiring  from  Paris 
1722,  but  was  finally  restored  in  1727.  He 
was  a  great  scholar  and  j  urist. 

Aguilar,  Grace  (b.  1816,  d.  1847),  Jewess 
of  Spanish  extraction,  authoress  of  The  Bays 
of  Bruce,  as  well  as  of  many  moral  tales  and 

religious  tracts. 

Ahab,  son  of  Omri,  and  seventh  king  of 
the  separate  kingdom  of  Israel,  married 
Jezebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  King  of  Sidon. 
His  reign  is  marked  by  the  attempted  ex- 
termination of  the  followers  of  Jehovah, 
the  death  of  Naboth,  and  his  oven  death  in 
battle  with  the  Syrians. 

Ahasuerus,  the  name  or  title  of  one 
Median  and  two  Persian  kings,  mentioned 
in  the  books  of  Daniel,  Ezra,  and  Esther, 
and  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Cyaxares, 
Cambyses,  and  Xerxes  respectively. 

Ahaz,  eleventh  Idng  of  Judah,  and  son 
of  Jotham,  became  tributary  to  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  King  of  Assj'ria,  whom  he  had  sum- 
moned to  assist  him  iu  reijelliug  the  kings 
of  Israel  aud  Damascus.  He  adopted  the 
necromantic  practices  of  the  Syrians,  and 
died  after  a  reign  of  sixteen  years. 

Ahaziah,  called  also  Azariah,  fifth  king 
of  Judah,  was  the  son  of  Jehoram  and 
Athaliah  the  daughter  of  Ahab.  He  was  an 
idolater  ;  being  mortally  wounded  by  Jehu, 
died  at  Megiddo  after  a  reign  of  one  year. 


Ahe 


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Ain 


Ahenobarbi  or  ^nobarbi  (Brazenbeards), 
a  distiuguished  family  of  the  Geus  Domitia 
of  Rome,  members  of  which  filled  the 
highest  othces  in  the  State  from  B.C.  496  till 
the  first  century  a.d. 

AMi  Shirazi,  a  Persian  poet  and  native 
of  Shiraz,  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century ; 
his  chief  work  is  the  Kanidajs. 

Ahlwardt,  Christian  Wilhelm  {b.  1760, 
d.  18o0;,  linguist,  rector  of  the  gymnasiums 
of  Oldenburg  and  Grafswald,  and  writer  of 
several  translations  from  the  classical 
authors. 

Ahmed  or  Aliinud  (Shah),  a  cruel  and 
warlike  prince  of  the  Bahmuny  dynasty  in 
the  Deccau.  He  was  bitterly  hated  by  his 
Hindoo  neighbours,  who  compassed  his 
death  in  1435. 

Alimed  or  Achmet  L  {b.  1590,  d.  1617J 
succeeded  his  father  as  Sultan  of  Turkey  in 
1603.  While  fond  of  scvt,  he  was  weak  and 
voluptuous,  and  embroiled  his  country  in 
civil  commotions  and  foreign  wars. 

Alimed  or  Achmet  II.  {b.  1643,  d.  1695), 
Sultan  of  Turkey,  succeeded  his  brother  in 
1691.  He  was  defeated  by  Germany  at 
the  sanguinary  battle  of  Salankeman. 

Ahmed  or  Achmet  III.  (3.  1673,  d. 
1739)  ascended  the  throne  in  1703  on  the 
abdication  of  his  brother,  and  found  himself 
involved  in  internal  troubles  and  foreign 
wars.  Against  Russia  and  Venice  the  Otto- 
man arms  were  successful,  but  Ahmed  was 
defeated  by  Austria,  and  afterwards  by 
Persia,  and  a  rebellion  of  the  Janissaries 
compelled  him  to  abdicate  in  1730. 

Ahmed  IV.  [See  Abdul  Hamid.] 

Ahmed  Ibn  Ahmed  {b.  1577,  d.  1632), 
known  also  as  Ahmed  al  Mak-kari,  a 
learned  native  of  Telemsan,  who  lectured  at 
Damascus.  His  great  work  is  The  History 
of  the  Mahometan  Empire  in  Spain. 

Ahmed  Ibn  Tulun  {b.  835,  d.  884),  one  of 
the  generals  of  the  Caliph  Al  Mamun,  and 
founder  of  the  Egyptian  dynasty  of  the 
Tuiunitess 

Ahmed  Khan  Abdali  {b.  1723,  d.  1773), 
founder  of  tlie  Durani  dynasty  in 
Afghanistan.  He  avenged  the  death  of  his 
master,  Nadir  Shah,  was  crowned  at 
Kandahar  in  1747,  and  in  a  series  of  brilliant 
victories  overran  the  Punjaub,  and  routed 
the  army  of  the  Mahrattas. 

Aibek,  Azak  Ed-din,  founder  of  the 
Egyptian  dynasty  of  Mameluke  Baharites. 
Originally  a  slave,  his  valour  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  widowed  Sultaness,  wlio  mar- 
ried him.      He  was  acknowledged  Sultan 


in  1254,  but  was  soon  afterwards  assassi- 
nated by  his  wife. 

Aid6,  Hamilton,  a  well-known  author. 
Besides  novels  he  has  wi-itteu  several  popu- 
lar drawing-room  songs,  plays  and  other 
works. 

Aignan,  Etienne  {b.  1773,  d.  1824),  a 
zealous  but  moderate  revolutionist,  and  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  distin- 
guished as  a  poet  and  dramatic  author.  He 
has  produced  many  works  of  a  miscel- 
laneous nature,  including  several  tragedies, 
and  a  translation  into  verse  of  the  Iluid. 

Ajguillon,  Armand,  Due  d'  {d.  1800), 
joined  the  Duke  of  Orleans  against  the 
Royahsts,  but  was  eventually  compelled  to 
fly,  first  to  Loudon,  and  then  to  Hamburg, 
where  he  died. 

Aikin,  John,  M.D.  {J>.  1747,  d.  1822),  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  was  educated  uuder  hia 
father  at  Warrington.  He  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  literature,  and  among  his  works, 
some  of  which  were  written  in  conjunction 
with  his  sister,  afterwards  Mrs.  Barbauld, 
is  his  General  Biography . 

Aikin,  Lucy  {h.  1781,  d.  1864),  daughter 
of  the  preceding,  by  whom  she  was  educated. 
Besides  historical  works,  she  wrote  several 
poetical  pieces. 

AiMns,  Hon.  James  Cox  (b.  1823), 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  province  of 
Manitoba,  entered  the  Canadian  House  of 
Assembly,  in  lf5o4,  as  representative  for 
county  Peel.  After  holding  various  political 
posts  he  was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor 
in  1882. 

Ailly,  Pierre,  learned  theologian  of  the 
14th  ceutury,  who,  as  cardinal,  had  great 
influence  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  joined 
in  the  condemnation  of  Huss. 

Aimard,  Gustav  {b.  1818,  d.  1883), 
French  novelist.  After  leading  a  life  of 
adventure  in  America  for  many  years,  he 
travelled  in  Europe,  aud  finally  settled  in 
Paris.  Several  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  the  most  popular 
being  Les  Trappeurs  de  V Arkansas. 

AinmitUer,  Max  Emmanuel  {b.  1807, 
d.  1870),  German  paiuter  on  glass,  who  exe- 
cuted the  new  wiudows  in  Ratisbon  Cathe- 
dral, as  well  as  several  at  Spires,  Cologne, 
and  in  St.  Paul's,  London. 

Ainsworth,  William  Francis  (b.  1807), 
natural  historian  aud  author.  Entering  the 
medical  profession  while  quite  young,  he 
devoted  himself  to  natural  history.  He 
travelled  first  in  Europe,  but  in  1835  ha 
accompanied  Chesney's  Euphrates  expedi- 
tion, and  later  on  was  sent  into  Asia  Minor. 


Ain 


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Ala 


Besides  general  literature,  he  has  published 
a  variety  of  works  giving  accounts  of  his 
travels. 

Ainswortll,  William  Harrison  (6.  1805,  d. 
1882),  English  novelist.  Originally  in- 
tended for  the  bar,  he  decided  in  1824  to 
devote  himself  to  literature.  His  first  con- 
siderable work,  Sir  John  Chiverton,  won 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  admiration ;  it  was 
quickly  followed  by  many  others,  including 
The  Tower  of  London,  Old  Si.  Faults,  and 
Jac/c  Sheppard. 

Aird,  Thomas  {b.  1802,  d.  1876),  Scotch 
poet  and  journalist,  graduated  at  Edin- 
burgh. Besides  writing  separate  works  he 
contributed  to  JB lack  wood'' s  Magazine,  and 
was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  Edinburgh 
Weekly  Jotirnal,  and  the  Dumfries  Herald. 

Airey,  George  Biddell  {b.  1801,  d.  1892), 
English  astronomer,  a  native  of  Alnwick, 
educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  held 
various  professorships,  including  that  of 
astronomy.  In  1835  he  was  appointed 
Astronomer  RoyaL 

Airey,  Eichard,  General  and  Baron 
(b.  1803,  d.  1881),  was  educated  at  Sand- 
hurst, and  entered  the  army  in  1821.  After 
serving  in  the  Ionian  Islands  and  British 
North  America,  he  went  through  the  Crimean 
war,  and  in  1865  was  made  Governor  of 
Gibraltar.  He  retired  from  service  in  1876 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Airey,  but  in  1879  was 
president  of  the  Airey  commission  of  inquiry 
into  the  new  short  service  system. 

Aitcliison,    George,    B.A.,    and    A.R.A. 

(b.  1825),  architect,  was  educated  at  Mer- 
chant Taylors'  school,  and  after  enteiing 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1847,  spent  two 
years  abroad.  He  gained  medals  at  the 
Exhibitions  of  Philadelphia,  Sydney,  and 
Melbourne,  and  has  lectured  at  the  Royal 
Academy  since  1882.  The  practical  results 
of  his  work  are  to  be  seen  in  many  large 
warehouses,  the  London  and  St.  Katherine 
Docks,  and  in  the  decoration  of  many  houses 
of  the  aristocracy. 

Aivazovski,  Gabriel  (Pfere  Gabriel)  [b. 
1812),  learned  Amienian  scholar,  belonging 
to  the  convent  of  St.  Lazaro,  near  Venice. 
He  is  author  of  many  valuable  works,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Armenian 
College  of  Grenelle  near  Paris. 

Ajax,  son  of  Oileus,  King  of  the 
Locrians,  and  one  of  the  heroes  who  be- 
sieged Troy,  but  on  his  return  perished  by 
shipwreck. 

Ajax,  son  of  Telamon,  King  of  Salamis, 
a  brave  and  handsome  man  of  great  stature. 


who  fought  single-handed  with  Hector  in  the 
Trojan  war, 

Akber  (Jabul-ud-dinMohammed)  (b.  1542, 
d.  1605),  the  son  of  Humayun,  was  a  wise 
and  just  monarch.  It  was  he  who  first  col- 
lected the  various  tribes  of  India  into  a  single 
empire,  with  himself  at  its  head.  He  en- 
couraged literature  and  commerce,  and  for- 
bade the  burning  of  Hindoo  widows  against 
their  will.  Domestic  sorrows  troubled  his 
declining  years,  and  he  died  1605. 

Akenside,  Mark  (*.  1721,  d.  1770), 
British  physician,  and  son  of  a  Newcastle 
butcher ;  he  is  now  remembered  only  as  a 
poet.  His  chief  work  is  Fleasures  of  the 
Imagination. 

Akerblad,  John  David  {b.  1760,  d.  1819), 
celebrated  Oriental  scholar,  and  an  author- 
ity on  Phoenician  inscriptions  and  Coptic 
literature.  His  publications  in  archaeology 
and  hieroglj'phics  are  still  regarded  as  ex- 
ceedingly valuable. 

Akerman,  John  Young  (h.  1806,  d.  1873), 
antiquary  and  nimiismatist.  After  holding 
similar  posts  he  became  secretary  to  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1848.  He  was 
honorary  member  of  many  foreign  societies, 
and  started  the  Numismatic  Journal  in  1836, 
besides  numerous  other  works  on  his  favour- 
ite subjects. 

Akhbar  Kban  {d.  1847),  son  of  Dost 
Mahomed  of  Cabul.  During  the  rebellion  of 
1840  he  headed  the  Afghan  troops,  and  after 
considerable  success  besieged  Jellalabad,  but 
was  twice  defeated  by  General  Pollock. 

Akiba,  Ben  Joseph  {d.  135),  learned 
Jewish  doctor,  said  to  have  studied  under 
Gamaliel.  After  gathering  round  him  vast 
numbers  of  disciples,  he  joined  the  pseudo- 
Messiah  Bar  Cochba,  but  being  defeated  by 
the  Romans,  was  put  to  death  with  the 
greatest  cruelty. 

Akimoo,  Ivan  [b.  1754,  d.  1814),  Russian 
painter  and  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts.  His  works  are  of  considerable 
merit. 

Alabaster,  Wilham  (Jb.  1567,  d.  1640), 
divine  and  poet,  and  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's.  Besides  other  works  he  left  a 
pentaglott  dictionary,  in  Hebrew,  Chaldaic, 
Syriac,  Talmudico -Rabbinic,  and  Arabic. 

Ala-ed-Dewlet  {d.  1515),  Prince  of  Mer'- 
ash  in  the  loth  and  16th  centuries,  who  made 
himself  master  of  the  vast  dominions  of  the 
dynasty  of  Zulkadr.    He  was  slain  in  battle. 

Alarcon  y  Mendoza,  Don  Juan  (6.  1590, 
d.  1639),  one  of  the  greatest  Spanish  dra- 
matists, and  especially  successful  in  delinea- 
tions of  character.     Le  Menteur  of  Comeille 


Ala 


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Alb 


is  based  on  one  of  Alar9on's  best  plays. 
Personally  he  was  unpopular,  and  bis  works 
were  neglected  for  nearly  twenty  years, 

Alaxd,  Delphin  {b.  1815),  a  pupil  of 
Habeneck,  and  one  of  the  most  skilful 
violinists  of  the  century.  In  1848  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  vioHn  in  the 
Conservatoire  of  Paris. 

Alarlc  I.  (d.  410),  King  of  the  Visigoths, 
had  served  in  the  Roman  army,  but  on  the 
death  of  Theodosius  headed  his  countrymen 
in  revolt  against  Rome.  After  fruitless  at- 
tempts on  Greece  and  Italy,  he  was  successful 
in  402  in  reaching  Rome,  which  he  thrice 
besieged,  finally  taking  and  pillaging  the 
city.  He  died  at  Cosenza,  and  was  buried 
in  the  bed  of  the  Basento. 

Alaxic  II.  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
484,  but  was  slain  in  battle  with  the  Franks 
under  Clovis.  To  him  is  due  the  code  of 
laws  known  as  Breviarium  Alaricianiim. 

Alasco,  John  (b.  1499,  d.  1560),  PoHsh 
theologian  and  scholar,  and  one  of  the  early 
Protestant  reformers.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Zwingli,  Erasmus,  and  Melauchthon,  and 
did  much  to  further  the  Reformation,  especi- 
ally in  Holland. 

Al-ashari  (Abu  - 1  -  hassan)  (b.  860, 
d.  935),  founder  of  the  sect  of  Asbarites ; 
his  doctrines  spread  through  Syria,  Egypt, 
and  Spain. 

Alaux,  Jean  (b.  1786,  d.  1864),  French 
painter,  and  pupil  of  Vincent  and  Guerini, 
He  was  patronised  by  Louis  Philippe,  and 
his  works  are  still  at  Versailles,  St.  Cloud, 
and  Fontainebleau,  the  best  known  being 
Pandora  and  The  Fight  of  the  Centaurs  and 
Lapithce. 

Alava,  Miguel  Ricardo  d'  (J.  Vittoria, 
1771,  d.  1843),  Spanish  soldier,  who  in 
1807  took  the  side  of  France,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Assembly  of  Bayonne,  but 
about  1811  changed  sides,  and  obtained 
considerable  distinction  under  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  He  was  afterwards  President 
of  the  Cortes,  and  adopted  the  cause  of 
Maria  Christina,  but  finally  withdrew  to 
France,  where  he  died. 

Alava  y  Nerarete,  Don  Ignacio  {d.  1817), 
a  Spanish  naval  officer,  who  served  under 
Admiral  Cordova  in  the  war  with  England, 
and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  at  Cadiz,  and  died  there. 

Alban,  Saint,  a  Roman  soldier  martyred 
in  Britain  about  285,  and  in  honour  of  whom 
a  monastery  was  founded  at  Verulam. 

Albani,  Annibale  {h.  1682),  cardinal,  and 
chief  librarian  of  the  Vatican. 


Albani,  Alessandro,  his  brother,  cardinal, 
and  patron  of  learning. 

Albani,  Emma  (i^.  circa  1847),  whose  real 
name  is  La  Jeunesse,  a  native  of  Canada, 
is  a  brilliant  operatic  singer.  She  married 
Mr.  Ernest  Gye. 

Albani,  Francesco  (6.  1578,  d.  1660), 
historical  and  portrait  painter,  who  worked 
at  Rome,  Florence,  and  Bologna.  Of  his 
numerous  works,  chiefly  on  sacred  subjects, 
many  are  still  in  the  galleries  of  Rome  and 
Munich. 

Albani,  Giuseppe  [b.  1750),  president  of 
the  Annona,  and  auditor-general  of  the 
Apostolic  Chambers. 

Albany,  Leopold  George  Duncan  Albert, 
Duke  of  [b.  1853,  d.  1884),  fourth  son  of 
Queen  Victoria.  In  spite  of  early  delicacy 
he  was  unusually  accomplished  and  culti- 
vated. He  married  in  1882  the  Princess 
Helene  of  Waldeck,  by  whom  he  ha4  two 
children. 

Albany,  Louisa  Maria  Caroline,  Countess 
of  (A.  1753,  d.  1820),  the  daughter  of  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  of  Stolberg-Goderu.  She 
was  married  in  1772  to  Charles  Stuart,  the 
Young  Pretender,  but  separating  from  him, 
put  herself  imder  the  protection  of  Alfieri, 
with  whom  she  lived  till  his  death  in  1803. 

Albatenius,  an  Arabian  astronomer  of 
the  9th  century,  whose  works  were  much 
read  and  valued  by  his  successors. 

Alber,  Erasmus,  Superintendent-General 
of  Neubrandenburg,  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  the  age  of  Luther,  and  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  Reformer's  doctrines. 

Alberico  da  Barbiano,  celebrated  con- 
dottiere  in  the  14th  century,  who  formed  a 
company  of  free  lances  and  took  service 
under  Urban  VI.,  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconte, 
and  others. 

Alberoni,  Giulio  {b.  1664,  d.  1752),  car- 
dinal, and  first  minister  of  Spain.  Whilst 
secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Vendome  he  in- 
gratiated himself  with  Philip  V.,  and 
formed  schemes  for  the  extension  of 
Spanish  power,  but  his  projects  failing,  he 
was  dismissed  and  exiled,  and  retired  to 
Rome,  where  he  died. 

Albert  (I'Ouvrier),  a  French  button-maker 
and  journalist,  who  took  part  in  the  insur- 
rection of  Paris  in  1848,  started  the  Atelier, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  Provisional 
Government.  He  was  afterwards  aiTested 
and  imprisoned. 

Albert,  Francis  Charles  Augustus  Em- 
manuel, Prince  Consort  of  England  [h.  1819, 
d.  1861),  was  the  second  son  of  Ernest,  Duke 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.     After  his  first  visit 


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to  England  in  183G,  Prince  Albert  spent 
some  time  at  tlie  University  of  Bonn,  and  in 
European  travels,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  in  1830  the  arrangements  for  his 
marriage  with  the  Queen  were  made,  the 
ceremony  being  performed  at  St.  James's 
Palace,  Feb.  lOth,  184ii.  In  the  very  difficult 
situation  iu  which  he  was  now  placed  Prince 
Albert's  conduct  was  sometimes  miscon- 
strued, but  the  news  of  his  death  from 
typhoid  fever  on  Dee.  14th,  1861,  was 
received  with  unfeigned  sorrow  by  the 
nation  at  large.  He  was  the  chief  promoter 
of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  and  being 
a  man  of  wide  intelligence  and  benevolent 
feeling,  took  part  in  most  of  the  public 
movements  of  his  day. 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  "Wales  (b.  1841), 
eldest  son  of  Queen  Victoria,  studied  at 
the  Universities  of  Edinburgh,  Oxford,  and 
Cambridge.  In  1862  he  married  the  Princess 
Alexandra  of  Denmark,  by  whom  he  has 
issue  two  sons  and  three  daughters.  The 
anxiety  manifested  by  the  nation  during 
his  dangerous  illness  in  1871  led  to  the 
memorable  public  thanksgiving  early  in 
the  following  year,  when  the  Queen  and 
Prince  made  a  royal  progress  to  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral.  The  prince  has  visited  India, 
America,  and  Palestine.  He  sits  as  Duke  of 
Cornwall  in  the  House  of  Lords,  where  he 
made  his  maiden  speech  iu  1884.  During 
many  years  of  the  Queen's  reign  the  burden 
of  court  or  public  ceremonial  has  fallen 
almost  entirely  on  his  shoulders,  and  the 
tact  and  grace  with  which  he  acquits  him- 
self of  his  functions  have  won  for  him  a 
very  large  degree  of  popularity. 

Albert  Victor,  eldest  son  of  the  above  {b. 
1864,  d.  1892),  created  Duke  of  Clarence  and 
Avondale  1890.  Was  for  a  time  in  the 
navy,  and  served  on  board  H.M.S.  £ac- 
chante ;  afterwards  joined  the  10th  Hussars, 
in  which  he  became  captain. 

Albert,  Duke  of  Saxony  {h.  1443,  d.  1.500), 
ruled  for  a  time  jointly  with  his  brother 
Ernst.  In  1485  they  divided  the  kingdom, 
and  Albert  took  Meissen,  and  was  the 
founder  of  the  present  reigning  family  of 
Saxony. 

Albert,  first  Duke  of  Prussia  (*.  1490,  d. 
1568),  received  the  territory  of  Lower 
Prussia  as  an  hereditary  fief  from  the  King 
of  Poland,  in  return  for  military  services  he 
had  rendered.  He  adopted  and  diffused  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  and  founded  the  uni- 
versity of  Konigsberg. 

Albert  I.,  Duke  of  Austria  and  Emperor 
of  Germany  (*.  1248,  d.  1308).  Upon  the 
deposition  of  Adolphus  of  Nassau,  Albert 
was  elected  emperor,  and  after  slaying 
Adolphus  at  the  battle  of  Gelheim,  he 
was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.      After  a 


succession  of  wars  he    was  killed  by  his 
nephew,  John  of  Swabia. 

Albert  II.  of  Austria  (J.  1298,  d.  1358), 
surnamed  the  Wise,  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  dukedom,  but  declined  the  imperial 
crown.  He  established  peace  with  the 
neighbouring  powers,  but  was  defeated  by 
the  Swiss  at  Morgarten. 

Albert  III.  of  Austria  (i.  1349,  d.  1395). 
On  the  death  of  Albert  II.  his  sons  suc- 
ceeded jointly  to  his  dominions,  and  on  the 
division  amongst  the  survivors  in  1379, 
Austria  fell  to  Albert.  He  was  an  active 
and  vigilant  prince,  and  a  patron  of  the  fine 
arts. 

Albert  IV.,  Duke  of  Austria,  surnamed 
"the  Pious"  {h.  1379,  d.  1414),  son  of  the 
preceding,  allowed  his  cousin  Wilhelm  to 
share  his  dukedom,  and  was  named  suc- 
cessor to  the  thrones  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  but  was  poisoned  in  1414  by  the 
Margrave  of  Moravia. 

Albert  v.,  Duke  of  Austria,  and  II.  of 
Germany  {h.  1397,  d.  1439),  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  dukedom,  and  obtained 
Moravia  by  marriage.  In  1438  he  was 
crowned  King  of  Hungary,  and  elected 
Emperor.  He  was  a  wise  and  judicious 
prince,  but  his  reign  was  marred  by  a  cruel 
war  with  the  Hussites.  He  died  suddenly 
whilst  repulsing  an  invasion  of  the  Turks. 

Albert  I.,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg  {h. 
1106,  d.  1170),  the  son  of  Otto,  received 
Brandenburg  in  return  for  Alsatia  and 
Bavaria,  and  was  driven  from  his  territories 
by  Henry  the  Lion,  but  was  restored  in  1142. 

Albert  II.,  of  Brandenburg,  succeeded  his 
brother.  Otto  II.,  in  1206.  He  acquired 
Lower  Alsatia  and  part  of  Pomerania,  and 
died  1221. 

Albert  III.,  of  Brandenburg  [h.  1414,  d. 
1486),  a  man  of  such  strength  and  skill  that 
he  acquired  the  appellations  of  "Achilles" 
and  "Ulysses." 

Albert  IV.,  of  Bavaria  (*.  1447,  d.  1508), 
surnamed  '  the  Wise."  A  learned  and 
prudent  prince,  he  largely  increased  and 
consolidated  his  dominions,  and  concluded 
a  compact  by  which  the  duchy  should 
descend  intact  to  the  eldest  son. 

Albert  V.,  of  Bavaria,  suniamed  "the 
Magnanimous  "  (6.  1528,  d.  1579),  a  noble 
patron  of  the  fine  arts,  and  a  man  of  great 
piety,  who  largely  endowed  religious  com- 
munities. 

Albert  I.,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  surnamed 
"  the  Great  "  {h.  1236,  d.  1278),  a  brave  and 
warlike  prince,  who  liberated  Queen  Mar- 
garet of  Denmark,  and  was  for  some  time 
regent  of  that  country. 


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Albert  II.,  Duke  of  Brunswick  {d.  1318), 
son  of  the  preceding,  assumed  the  govern- 
ment in  1382.  He  quarrelled  with  his 
brothers,  and  was  of  extravagant  habits. 

Albert  L,  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  a 
monk  of  Treves,  and  indefatigable  mission- 
ary, who  endeavoured  to  establish  Chris- 
tianity ia  Russia. 

Albert  II.,  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg  in 
1205.  For  his  services  to  Otto  of  Brunswick 
he  received  a  large  grant  of  laud,  over 
which  he  ruled  with  prudence  and  ability. 
He  died  in  1233. 

Albert  V.,  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg  (h. 
1489,  d.  1545).  He  was  also  Commissioner 
of  Indulgences,  and  thus  became  involved 
in  controversy  with  Luther  and  the  re- 
formers, who  attacked  him  vigorously. 

Albert  II.,  of  Mecklenburg  (d.  1412), 
and  King  of  Sweden  (1363),  was  in- 
volved in  disastrous  wars,  and  finally 
defeated  and  imprisoned  at  Falkopping  in 
1388.  Being  unable  to  pay  the  ransom 
demanded,  he  abdicated,  and  died  iu  a 
convent. 

Albert  V.,  of  Mecklenburg  {d.  1.547),  ruled 
jointly  with  his  brother  Heiurich.  He 
actively  opposed  the  Lutheran  doctrines, 
and  took  arms  on  behalf  of  the  Catholics, 
while  Heinrich  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Protestants. 

Albert,  Friedrich  Rudolph  {b.  1817), 
Archduke  of  Austria,  son  of  the  Archduke 
Charles,  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Novara, 
1849,  and  in  1866  defeated  the  Italians  at 
Custozza.  After  Sadowa  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  army, 
which  post  he  held  till  1869. 

Albert  or  Albert!,  Heinrich  {b.  1604, 
d.  1651),  a  musician  and  poet,  appointed 
Kapellmeister  at  Kunigsberg  in  1626. 
He  was  an  excellent  lyrical  poet,  and 
introduced  into  his  country  many  improve- 
ments of  the  Italian  school. 

Albert!,  Benedetto,  a  Florentine  of  the 
14th  centurj',  remarkable  for  his  moder- 
ation. At  first  he  joined  Salvestro  de 
Medici,  but  when  the  populace  proceeded 
to  extremities,  took  the  part  of  the  higher 
classes ;  but  finding  favour  with  neither 
side,  went  abroad  and  travelled  in  the  Holy 
Land. 

Albert!,  Leon  Battista  {b.  1404,  d. 
1472),  Italian  scholar,  mathematician, 
architect,  painter  and  sculptor.  One  of 
his  best  works  is  the  exterior  of  the 
church  of  San  Francesco  at  Rimini ;  he 
also  wrote  treatises  on  architecture  and 
painting. 

Albert!,  Salomon  {h.  1540,  d.  1600),  an 
eminent  x^hysician  and  anatomist;  he  held 


the  chair  of    anatomy    and  philosophy  at 
Wittenberg. 

Albertoll!,  II  Cavaliere  Gioconda  {b. 
1742,  d.  1840),  an  eminent  Italian  architect 
who  especially  excelled  in  ii'teriors.  The 
Palazzo  Reale  in  Naples,  and  the  imperial 
villa  of  Maria  Theresa  at  Monza  were 
decorated  by  him. 

Albertrandy,  Jan  Chrzciciel  {b.  1731, 
d.  1808),  Polish  antiquary  and  numismatist 
of  the  18th  century.  He  was  director  of 
the  antiquities  of  King  Stanislaus,  and 
founder  of  the  society  of  "  Les  Amis  des 
Sciences." 

Albertus  Magnus  {b.  1193,  d.  1280),  a  man 
of  great  sanctity  and  learning,  was  ap- 
poLated  Bishop  of  Ratisbon,  and  assisted  at 
the  General  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274.  He 
left  numerous  works,  and  amongst  his 
scholars  was  the  famous  Thomas  Aquinas. 

Albery,  James  [b.  1832,  d.  1889),  dramatic 
writer,  wrote  The  Two  Roses  {\ilQ),- Pink 
Dominoes  (1877),  and  other  pieces. 

Albini,  Franz  Joseph  {b.  1748,  d.  1816). 
Originally  intended  for  the  law,  he  early 
showed  great  aptitude  for  politics,  and  was 
employed  on  affairs  of  importance  by  the 
Emperor  Joseph  II.  and  afterwards  by  the 
Elector  of  Mayence.  He  ably  represented 
the  Elector  at  the  Congress  of  Kastadt 
(1797),  showed  himself  a  skilful  general  ia 
encounters  with  Augereau  (1800),  and  on 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  secured 
the  accession  of  Dalberg. 

Albinus,  Bernard  {b.  1653,  d.  1721),  a 
German  physician  and  medical  writer  of 
repute.  He  was  physician  to  the  Elector 
Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg,  and 
from  1702  occupied  the  chair  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  at  the  university  of  Leyden. 

Albinus,  Bernard  Siegfried  {b.  1697,  d. 
1770),  son  of  the  preceding,  and  reader  of 
anatomy  and  surgery  at  Leyden.  He  also 
held  the  chairs  of  anatomy,  surgery,  and 
therapeutics,  and  was  considered  the  best 
German  anatomist  of  his  day. 

Albinus,  Clodius  [d.  197),  an  able  Roman 
general,  whose  victories  ia  Gaul  gained 
him  much  renown.  On  the  death  of  Per- 
tinax  he  was  one  of  four  competitors  for 
the  empire,  but  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Severus  in  a  sanguinary  battle  near 
Lyons. 

AlWtte,  Antoine  Louis  {b.  1760,  d.  1812), 
a  French  advocate  who  took  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  revolution. 

Alboin,  King  of  the  Longobards  or  Lom- 
bards (d.  oli).  He  gained  considerable  re- 
nown iu  exploits  against  the  Gepidse,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  exterminating.  After  making 


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Ale 


himself  master  of  great  part  of  Italy  he 
was  murdered  at  Verona,  at  his  wife's  insti- 
gation. 

Alboni,  Maria,  Countess  de  Pepolo  {b. 
1823),  a  celebrated  contralto  singer  and 
pupil  of  Rossini.  After  singing  in  various 
European  cities,  she  came  to  London  in 
1S47,  and  her  appearance  in  Covent  Garden 
was  a  very  great  success.  She  married 
Coxmt  de  Pepolo,  and  after  his  death 
seldom  appeared  in  public. 

Albornoz,  Gil  Alvarez  {b.  1300,  d.  1367), 
Archbishop  of  Toledo,  fought  against  the 
Moors,  and  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Alge- 
ciras.  Clement  VI.  made  him  a  cardinal. 
Innocent  VII.  despatched  him  to  Rome  as 
cardinal  legate,  and  in  1367  he  was  legate 
at  Bologna. 

Albrechtsberger,  Johann  Georg  (*.  1736, 
d.  1809),  a  famous  musical  composer,  who 
numbered  amongst  his  pupils  Beethoven, 
Eybler  and  Weigh  His  great  theoretical 
work  Grundliche  Amversung  zur  Compo- 
sition has  been  translated  into  English. 

Albret,  Ciesar  Phebus  d'  (A.  1614,  d.  1676), 
a  marshal  of  France,  rendered  celebrated 
by  the  wit  of  Scarron  and  Saint  Evremond 
\mder  the  name  of  Miassans. 

Albret,  Charles,  Sire  d'.  Constable  of 
France  in  the  15th  century.  He  com- 
manded the  French  troops  agaiust  the 
English  invaders,  but  in  spite  of  immensely 
superior  numbers  his  troops  were  utterly 
routed  and  himself  slain  at  the  battle  of 
Agincourt,  1415. 

Albumazar  (b.  776,  d.  885),  Persian  as- 
tronomer of  great  renown,  who  lived  to  an 
extraordinary  old  age,  and  left  about  fifty 
works,  chiefly  on  astrology. 

Albuquerque,  Alfonse  d'  (J).  1453,  d. 
1515),  Portuguese  viceroy  of  the  East  Indies, 
in  the  place  of  Almeida.  Whilst  distingmsh- 
ing  himself  by  his  wise  and  humane  conduct, 
he  succeeded  in  conquering  Goa,  Malacca, 
and  Ceylon,  and  in  relieving  Malacca  from 
an  attack  by  the  Persians. 

Alcaeus,  a  Greek  lyric  poet  who  flourished 
about  600  B.C.,  was  a  native  of  Mytilene, 
from  which  he  was  banished  by  Pittacus, 
but  afterwards  pardoned.  Only  fragments 
of  his  works  remain. 

Alcamenes,  a  Greek  sculptor,  the  pupil 
and  rival  of  Phidias.  He  flourished  about 
400  B.C. 

Alcantara,  San  Pedro  d'  {b.  1499,  d.  1562), 
a  religious  ascetic,  who  founded  a  monastic 
order,  and  spent  his  life  in  penitence  and 
self-denial.  He  was  canonised  by  Cle- 
ment IX. 


Alcester,  Right  Honourable  Frederick 
Beauchamp  Paget  Seymour,  Baron,  G.C.B. 
(b.  1820),  entered  the  royal  navy  in  1834,  and 
was  created  full  Admiral  in  1882.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Burmese  war  of 
1852—3,  and  in  New  Zealand,  1860-1,  and 
in  1877  was  made  a  K.C.B.,  and  appointed 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Mediterranean. 
In  1880  he  commanded  the  AUied  fleet 
posted  on  the  Albanian  coast,  and  in  the  war 
with  Egypt  (1882)  he  held  supreme  com- 
mand until  the  arrival  of  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley.  For  his  services  he  received  the 
thanks  of  Parliament,  and  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Alcester  of  Alcester. 

Alcibiades  (6.  450  b.c,  d.  404  B.C.), 
Athenian  statesman,  acquired  political 
power  after  the  death  of  Cleon,  and  took  a 
large  part  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  In  415 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Sicilian  expedition,  but  was  detained  in 
Athens  on  a  charge  of  sacrilege.  He  fled 
to  Sparta,  and  aided  that  state  against 
Athens.  He  subsequently  took  refuge  with 
the  Persian  Tissaphemes.  In  407  he  re- 
turned to  Athens,  but  was  again  compelled 
to  fly  in  the  following  year.  He  was 
assassinated  in  Phrygia  while  with  the 
Persian  satrap  Pharnabazus. 

Alciphron,  a  Greek  Sophist,  who  flourished 
about  300  B.C. 

Alcmseon,  a  native  of  Lydia,  who  lived 
between  671  and  631  B.C.,  and  was  originally 
a  slave.  He  was  the  only  lyrical  poet  of 
note  that  Sparta  has  produced. 

Alcman,  or  Alcmseon,  a  native  of  Crotona, 
who  lived  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  was 
a  pupil  of  Pythagoras.  He  was  a  distin- 
guished anatomist,  wrote  on  physics,  medi- 
cine, and  anatomy,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  dissect  the  human  subject. 

Alcock,  John  {b.  1430,  d.  1500),  Bishop  of 
Ely,  English  ecclesiastic  and  politician,  was 
Master  of  the  Rolls  in  1462,  and  in  1471 
went  on  a  mission  to  Spain.  The  same 
year  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Rochester,  and 
in  1477  was  elevated  to  the  see  of  Worcester. 
In  1485  he  was  translated  to  Ely.  He 
founded  Jesus  College,  Cambridge. 

Alcock,  Sir  Rutherford  (*.  1809),  served 
with  distinction  on  the  medical  stafE  of 
the  British  auxiliary  forces  employed  in 
Spain  1832 — 37.  In  1844  he  was  appointed 
consul  at  Foo-Chow,  afterwards  holding 
several  other  official  posts  in  China  and 
Japan.  In  1876  he  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  in  1882 
presided  over  the  Health  department  of  the 
Social  Science  Congress. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May  (J>.  1833,  d.  1888), 
an  American  authoress.    She  began  early 


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to  ■write,  but  met  with  no  marked  success 
till  the  publication  of  Little  Women 
in  1867.  She  wi-ote  many  other  books,  the 
material  for  her  first  vobime,  Hospital 
Sketches,  being  gathered  during  her  expe- 
rience as  nurse  in  the  military  hospital  at 
Washington,  where  she  went  in  1862. 

Alcuin,  English  theologian,  especially 
noted  as  the  coadjutor  of  Charlemagne 
in  his  educational  reforms.  At  the 
invitation  of  that  emperor  he  left  Eng- 
land, and  settled  in  France,  where  he 
founded  several  schools  ;  but  on  being  made 
Abbot  of  Tours  be  abandoned  the  Court 
axid  devoted  himself  to  theology, 

AldegrafiF,  Heinrich  {b.  1502,  d.  1562), 
painter  and  engraver,  and  pupil  of  Albert 
Diirer.  Many  of  his  paintings  are  in  the 
churches  and  convents  of  Germany. 

Aldhelm,  Saint  {b.  circa  641,  d.  709)  first 
Bishop  of  Sherborne,  and  head  of  the 
monastic  school  at  Mahnesbury.  His  great 
learning  attracted  many  pupils. 

Aldini,  Giovanni  (b.  1762,  d.  1834),  an 
eminent  natural  philosopher,  and  nephew  of 
Galvani,  whose  discoveries  he  followed  up. 
He  was  professor  of  physics  at  Bologna. 

Aldred,  or  Ealredus  {d.  1096),  Archbishop 
of  York  in  the  1 1th  century.  He  was  esteemed 
by  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Hastings  tendered  his  allegiance  to 
WilUam  the  Conqueror,  whom  he  crowned 
at  Westminster  Abbey. 

Aldrich,  Henry  [b.  1647,  d.  1710),  was 
educated  at  Westminster,  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  becoming  afterwards  dean  of  his 
college.  He  is  said  to  have  designed  the 
chapel  of  Trinity  College,  and  he  exercised 
his  musical  skill  in  composing  religious 
services.  His  System  of  Logic,  written 
in  Latm,  was  used  at  Oxford  for  many 
years. 

Aldricli,  Thomas  Bailey  (b.  1836),  Ameri- 
can poet  and  novehst,  author  of  The  Bells 
(1855),  Lyrics  and  Sonnets  (1880),  Daisy^s 
Necklace  (1857),  The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy 
(1869),  The  Stillwater  Tragedy  (1880),  and 
other  works. 

Aldridge,  Ira  {d.  1867),  a  negro  trage- 
dian, known  as  the  "African  Roscius." 
Bom  in  America,  he  met  with  great  success 
on  the  English  stage,  especially  in  the 
character  of  Othello.  He  visited  various 
European  countries,  and  received  many 
decorations.  He  died  on  his  way  to 
St.  Petersburg. 

Aldringer,  Johann  (d.  1634),  a  common 
soldier  in  the  imperial  army.  During 
the    Thirty    Years'    war    he   rose    to    the 

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position  of    field-marshal.      He  was  slain 
at  the  engagement  of  Laudschut. 

Aldrovandri,  Ulissi  {b.  1522,  d.  1607),  an 
Italian  naturaUst,  and  author  of  a  valuable 
and  voluminous  treatise  on  natural  history. 

Aleandro,  Girolamo  {b.  1480,  d.  1542),  a 
learned  cardinal,  and  Archbishop  of  Brindisi, 
and  a  violent  opposer  of  the  reformed  doc- 
trines. He  wrote  a  Greek  lexicon  and 
grammar,  and  a  Latiu  dictionary.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  whilst  with  Francis  I.  at  the 
battle  of  Pavia. 

Alegre  Yves,  Baron  d'  (d.  1512),  a  French 
soldier  who  served  in  the  Italian  wars  under 
Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.,  and  was 
made  governor  of  Milan  in  1499.  He  was 
slain  at  the  siege  of  Ravenna. 

Alegre  Yves,  Marquisd'  (6. 1653,  d.  1735), 
a  brave  and  skiKul  soldier  who  fought  under 
Marshal  Luxemburg  at  Fleurus,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  (1690)  by  his  brave, 
though  unsuccessful  defence  of  Bonn.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English,  but 
subsequently  liberated,  and  made  marshal  of 
France  in  1724. 

Aleko  Pasha,  Prince  Vogorides  (b.  1830), 
was  appointed  governor  of  Eastern  Rou- 
melia  in  1879.  He  firmly  opposed  the 
attempts  of  Russia  to  gain  a  footing  in  that 
country,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  her 
withdrawal,  but  was  recalled  in  1885. 

Aleksaeev,  Feodor  (6.  1755,  d.  1821),  a 
Russian  painter  who  studied  at  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Venice,  and  attained  considerable 
eminence  in  architectural  painting. 

Aleman,  Louis  {b.  1390,  d.  1459),  cardinal, 
and  Ardibishop  of  Axles.  He  was  a  president 
of  the  Council  of  Basle,  and  supported  the 
claim  of  Felix  V.  to  the  papal  throne. 

Aleman,  Mateo  (d.  1610),  a  Spanish  writer 
of  the  16th  century.  His  most  celebrated 
work  is  Guzman  de  Alfarache. 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Rond  d'  {b.  Paris,  1717, 
d.  1783),  a  celebrated  scientist  and  mathe- 
matician. He  early  showed  great  precocity, 
and  in  spite  of  delicate  health  and  the  dis- 
couragement of  his  Jansenist  teachers, 
acquired  an  insatiable  love  for  study,  and 
especially  for  mathematics.  He  tried,  but 
in  vain,  to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of 
medicine,  as  being  more  lucrative.  His 
tastes  lay  in  other  directions,  and  a  clever 
treatise  on  the  integral  calculus  procured  his 
admission  to  the  Academy  of  Science.  Soon 
after,  when  only  26  years  of  age,  he  enunci- 
ated the  great  principle  of  the  conservation 
of  energy,  which  underlies  every  problem  of 
applied  mathematics,  and  upon  the  recogni- 
tion of  which  that  science  made  great 
advances.    D'Alembert  soon  found  himself 


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celebrated,  and  in  correspondence  with,  all 
the  distiuguislied  men  of  his  time.  He  was 
pensioned  by  Frederick  II.  and  Louis  XV., 
but  disappointment  in  a  protracted  love 
affair  gave  him  a  severe  shock,  and  he  died 
after  long  and  severe  suffering. 

Aleii9on,  Francois,  Duke  of  {b.  15.54,  d. 
1584),  took  arms  against  his  brother, 
Henry  III.,  on  behalf  of  the  Huguenots,  till 
in  1576,  having  signed  the  Catholic  League, 
he  took  command  of  the  army  sent  against 
his  fonner  partisans.  He  sued,  but  in  vain, 
for  the  hand  of  Elizabeth  of  England.  In 
1582  he  was  acknowledged  Duke  of  Brabant 
and  Count  of  Flanders,  but  on  his  death 
without  issue  in  1584  his  territories  lapsed 
to  the  Crown. 

Alessi,  Galeazzo  (*.  1512,  d.  1572),  an 
Italian  architect,  who  built  many  splendid 
palaces  at  Genoa.  The  church  of  Santa 
Maria  di  Carignao  may  be  considered  his 
masterpiece. 

Alexander,  Michael  Solomon  (b.  1799,  d. 
1845),  an  eminent  rabbi  of  Jewish  ex- 
traction, but  converted  to  Christianity  in 
1826,  and  consecrated  iirst  Bishop  of  the 
United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland  in 
Jerusalem  in  1841. 

Alexander,  Stephen,  LL.D.  (b.  1806,  d. 
1883),  an  American  astronomer  who  filled  the 
chairs  of  astronomy  and  mathematics  at 
Princeton  till  his  retirement  in  1878.  He 
has  written  a  considerable  number  of  papers 
on  scientific  subjects,  some  of  which  have 
been  translated. 

Alexander  Aphrodiensis,  a  Carian,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  commentators  on  Aris- 
totle. Besides  other  works,  he  wrote  an 
inquiry  into  the  opinions  of  Aristotle  on 
fate  and  free-will,  entitled,  A  Treatise  on 
Fate.     He  died  in  the  third  century. 

Alexander  Balas,  a  man  of  low  origin, 
who  ascended  the  throne  of  the  Greek  kirig- 
dom  of  Syria  150  b,c.  He  was  defeated  in 
a  battle  with  his  son-in-law,  and  subse- 
quently treacherously  murdered. 

Alexander  of  Cappadocia,  Bishop  of 
Cappadocia  in  the  third  century.  He  suffered 
persecution  under  the  Emperor  Septimus 
Severus.  and  being  translated  to  the  see  of 
Jerusalem,  was  again  thrown  into  prison, 
where  he  died. 

Alexander  of  Hales  (d.  1245),  English 
theologian,  lectured  at  Paris,  and  after- 
wards joined  the  Minorite  order  of  Fran- 
ciscans. His  most  celebrated  work  is 
Summa   Vniversa  Theologim. 

Alexander  Jagellon,  {h.  1461,  d.  1506), 
King  of  Poland  and  Duke  of  Lithuania, 
succeeded  his  father  in   1501.      His  short 


reign  was  marked  by  a  Russian  war,  and 
by  the  incursions  of  the  Turks,  who  ravaged 
Lithuania,  but  were  totally  defeated  at 
Kieck  in  1506. 

Alexander  Jannseus,  succeeded  his  brother 
Aristobulus  in  105  B.C.  He  extended  his 
dominions  along  the  coasts  of  Palestine, 
and  crushed  a  rebellion  of  the  Pharisees  with 
great  cruelty. 

Alexander  Karageorgewitz  {p.  1801), 
son  of  Kara  or  Czerni  Georges.  He  was 
elected  Prince  of  Servia  in  1843,  and  for 
some  years  devoted  himself  to  the  internal 
improvement  of  his  country;  but  his  foreign 
policy  provoked  much  discontent,  and  in 
1857  the  prince  was  forced  to  fly  to  Austria 
and  his  throne  was  declared  vacant.  Later 
he  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the  assas- 
sination of  Prince  Michel  of  Servia,  and 
being  tried  at  Pesth,  was  sentenced  to  eight 
years'  imprisonment. 

Alexander  Nevskoi,  Saint  (J.  1219, 
d.  riG3),  Prince  of  Novogorod.  A  brave 
soldier,  his  surname  of  "Nevsky"  was 
given  him  after  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Swedes  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva.  He  sub- 
mitted to  Batu  Khan,  the  Tartar  chief,  who 
confirmed  him  in  his  dominions,  and  also 
bestowed  upon  him  the  sovereignty  of 
Southern  Russia. 

Alexander  the  PapMagonian,  a  noted 
impostor  of  the  second  century.  He  was 
initiated  into  the  art  of  magic  by  his  friend 
Apollonius  Tyanaeus,  and  claiming  the  gift 
of  prophecy,  obtained  great  influence  over 
the  people. 

Alexander  Severus  (6.  205,  d.  235), 
Emperor  of  Rome,  defeated  the  Persians  in 
232,  but  was  murdered  in  Gaul  by  Maximin. 

Alexander  I.,  Prince  of  Bulgaria  (6. 1857), 
son  of  Alexander  of  Battenberg,  was  elected 
Hereditary  Prince,  in  compliance  with  the 
terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  by  the  Assem- 
bly of  Notables,  gathered  at  Timova,  in  1 879. 
He  was  at  first  received  with  enthusiasm, 
which,  however,  soon  cooled,  and  in  1881  he 
felt  obliged  to  demand  the  suspension  of  the 
Assembly.  Other  complications  arose.  In 
1885  Alexander  was  invited  to  add  Eastern 
Roumelia  to  his  original  territories,  and  at 
the  same  time  Servia  declared  war.  The 
Servian  troops  were  repulsed,  and  an  arm- 
istice concluded.  An  attempt  made  by  the 
partisans  of  Russia  to  kidnap  the  prince 
resulted  ultimately  in  his  triumphant  return 
to  Sophia,  but  was  shortly  followed  by  his 
abdication  in  1886. 

Alexander  I.,  of  Macedon,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  B.C.  500.  The  Persians  invaded  his 
kingdom,  and  compelled  him  to  join  them  in 
the  invasion  of  Greece. 


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Alexander  II.,  of  Macedon  {d.  367  B.C.), 
Bucceeded  to  the  throne  B.C.  369.  He  waged 
a  successful  war  with  Thessaly,  but  was 
murdered  by  his  brother  Ptolemy. 

Alexander  III.,  of  Macedon,  sumamed 
"The  Great"  (6.  B.C.  356,  d.  B.C.  323),  son 
of  Phihp.  He  was  educated  partly  by  Aris- 
totle, and  early  gave  proofs  of  skill  and 
courage.  A  revolt  of  Thebes  at  the  com- 
mencement of  his  reign  was  promptly 
quelled  with  great  severity  ;  then  crossing 
the  Hellespont,  he  marched  against  the 
Persians,  whom  he  repeatedly  defeated, 
conquering  Phoenicia  and  Egypt.  After  the 
final  defeat  of  Darius  at  Gaugamela,  and 
the  capture  of  Babylon,  Susa,  and  Perse- 
polis,  Alexander  commenced  the  conquest 
of  India,  but  after  crossing  the  Indus  and 
penetrating  as  far  as  the  Ganges,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  return  to  Babylon,  but  paused  at 
Susa  to  celebrate  his  marriage  with  the 
daughter  of  Darius.  He  died  at  Babylon 
after  a  reign  of  about  13  years  ;  his 
body  was  embalmed  and  taken  to  Alex- 
andria, which  city  had  been  founded  by  him 
and  named  in  his  honour. 

Alexander  I.,  Paulovich  (l>.  1777,  d. 
1825),  Emperor  of  Russia  and  King  of 
Poland.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1801,  and  showed  himself  a  brave  and 
judicious  monarch.  He  entered  into  a  treaty 
with  England,  Austria  and  Sweden  to  resist 
the  encroachments  of  France,  but  was  de- 
feated at  the  battles  of  Austerlitz,  Eylau,  and 
Friedland,  and  compelled  to  make  peace 
with  Napoleon  at  Tilsit.  In  1812  war  again 
broke  out,  and  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  in 
1814  Alexander  visited  England  and  Poland. 
He  was  succeeded  oa  the  throne  by  his 
brother  Nicholas. 

Alexander  II.,  Nicholavich,  Emperor  of 
Russia  (/>.  181S,  d.  1881),  succeeded  his  father 
as  Czar  in  1855.  He  married  in  1841  Maria, 
daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  Louis  II. 
of  Hesse  Darmstadt.  He  terminated  the 
Crimean  war  soon  after  his  accession  by 
the  Treaty  of  Paris.  Though  trained  by  his 
father  to  a  military  life,  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  internal  affairs  of  his  country, 
improved  the  popular  education,  and  eman- 
cipated the  Russian  serfs.  He  waged  war 
successfully  on  Turkey  in  1877-8.  He  was 
assassinated  in  the  streets  of  St.  Petersburg. 

Alexander  III.  j^^.  1845),  was  the  second 
son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded 
to  the  imperial  throne.  He  married  in  1866 
the  Princess  Dagmar  of  Denmark.  His 
reign  has  not  been  signalised  by  any  re- 
forms, and  is  chiefly  notable  for  the  ad- 
vances made  by  Russia  in  Central  Asia. 

AlexanderI.,of  Scotland(</.  1124),  ascended 
the  throne  in  1 107.  He  married  the  daughter 
of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  in  spite  of 


ecclesiastical  disputes  respecting  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Scottish  Church,  contrived 
to  keep  on  good  terms  with  his  father-in-law. 

Alexander  II.,  of  Scotland  (6.  1198,  d. 
1249),  succeeded  his  father  William  the  Lion 
in  1214.  He  supported  the  English  barons 
in  their  revolt  against  King  John,  though 
afterwards  consenting  to  do  homage  to 
his  successor  Henry  III.  He  died  whilst 
attempting  to  quell  a  revolt  in  the  Western 
Highlands. 

Alexander  III.,  of  Scotland  {b.  1241,  d. 
1286),  son  of  the  preceding.  While  still  a 
child  he  married  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Henry  III.  of  England,  and  afterwards  did 
homage  to  Edward  I.  During  his  reign  the 
great  battle  of  Largs  (1 263)  was  fought  be- 
tween the  Scottish  and  Norwegian  troops, 
and  resulted  in  the  withdrawal  of  the 
invaders. 

Alexander  I.  (Pope),  Bishop  of  Rome 
during  the  reign  of  Trajan.  He  is  said  to 
have  suffered  martyrdom  in  117. 

Alexander  II.  (Pope),  Anselmo  Badagio 
{d.  1073),  bom  at  Milan  in  the  eleventh 
century ;  he  studied  at  Bee  in  Normandy, 
and  took  part  in  the  controversies  at  Milan, 
and  on  the  death  of  Nicholas  II.  in  1061 
was  elected  Pope.  A  rival  pope,  Honorius 
II.,  supported  by  the  emperor,  was  de- 
feated, and  his  claim  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Mantua. 

Alexander  III.  (Pope),  Rolando  Ranuc- 
cio  {d.  1181),  a  member  of  the  Bandinelli 
family  in  Sienna ;  he  held  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Bologna,  and  being  elected  by 
a  majority  in  1159  was  acknowledged  as 
Pope  by  Sicily,  England  and  France.  The 
Emperor  Frederick  I.  supported  his  rival, 
and  a  lengthy  war  ensued,  but  after  be- 
sieging Alexandria  in  vain  for  seven 
months,  and  being  defeated  at  Legnano  in 
1176,  the  emperor  agreed  to  recognise 
Alexander. 

Alexander  IV.  (Pope)  (d.  1261),  Rinaldoof 
Anagni,  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia,  was 
elected  Pope  in  1254.  He  continued  the  war 
with  the  Two  Sicilies  which  his  predecessor 
Innocent  IV.  had  initiated,  established  In- 
quisitors in  France  at  the  request  of  St. 
Louis,  and  endeavoured  to  unite  the  Greek 
and  Latin  churches. 

Alexander  V.  (Pope),  Peter  Filargo 
{d.  1410),  a  Franciscan  monk  and  learned 
divine  who  ascended  the  Papal  throne  at 
the  age  of  70,  and  died  at  Bologna  ten 
mouths  later. 

Alexander  VI.  (Pope),  Rodrigo  Lenzoli 
(Borgia)  {'>.  1431,  rf.  1503),  a  man  of  dissolute 
life  who  was  made  cardinal  and  archbishop 
by  his  uncle,  Pope  Calixtus  III.,  and  on  the 
death  of  Innocent  VIII.   secured  his  own 


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election.  He  resorted  to  all  sorts  of  un- 
justifiable means  of  raising  money,  and 
thus  aroused  the  opposition  of  Savonarola, 
who,  however,  was  excommxmicated  and 
put  to  death. 

Alexander  VII.  (Pope),  Fahio  Chigi  (J. 
1599,  d.  1667),  succeeded  to  the  popedom  in 
1655.  He  exerted  himself  nobly  during  the 
ravages  of  the  plague  in  Rome,  and  did 
much  to  improve  that  city. 

Alexander  VIII.  (Pope),  Pietro  Otto- 
boni  {h.  1610,  d.  1691),  Bishop  of  Brescia, 
and  afterwards  of  Frascati :  he  became 
Pope  in  1689,  and  succeeded  in  reforming 
many  abuses  and  re-establishing  friendly 
relations  with  France.  He  placed  in  the 
Vatican  the  fine  collections  of  books  and 
manuscripts  left  him  by  the  Queen  of 
Sweden. 

Alexandre,  Jacques  {h.  Orleans,  1653,  d. 
1734),  a  learned  Benedictine,  who  wrote 
several  treatises  on  horology,  and  La  1698 
constructed  a  clock  which  showed  both  the 
true  and  the  mean  time,  and  was  the  first 
of  the  kind  exhibited. 

Alexandrl  Basil!  {b.  1821),  a  Roumanian 
author,  who  wrote  both  in  prose  and  poetry, 
and  undertook  the  management  of  two 
theatres  at  Jassy.  He  pleaded  the  cause  of 
his  coimtry  through  the  French  press,  and 
set  the  example  of  emancipatuig  serfs. 

Alexis,  a  comic  poet,  bom  in  Magna 
Grecia  about  B.C.  394.  His  plays,  which 
were  highly  valued  by  Athenseus,  are  said 
to  have  numbered  245,  but  only  fragments 
are  extant. 

Alexis,  Mikhaylovich,  sumamed  "the 
Wise"  {b.  1629,  d.  1676),  Czar  of  Russia, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1645.  After 
the  revolt  of  1648,  consequent  upon  the 
favouritism  which  he  exhibited,  Alexis 
devoted  himself  to  the  interests  of  his 
country,  revising  the  laws,  promoting  com- 
merce, and  making  improvements  in  both 
the  army  and  the  Church.  He  also  waged 
war  with  Poland,  and  by  the  peace  of 
Andrusov  added  to  his  dominions  the  Polish 
territories  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dnieper. 

Alexis,  Petrovich  (6.  1690,  d.  1718), 
son  of  Peter  the  Great.  His  sad  life  and 
miserable  death  are  a  dark  stain  on  his 
father's  fame.  Never  on  good  terms,  the 
breach  between  father  and  son  widened 
with  time,  and  at  last,  in  spite  of  solemn 
assurances  that  he  would  not  be  harmed, 
Peter  caused  his  son  to  be  seized,  im- 
prisoned, and  tried,  and  but  too  probably 
l^oisoned  in  the  prison  where  he  died. 

Alexis  I.,  Alexius  Comnenus,  Emperor 
of  Constantinople  (h.  1048,  d.  1118),  son  of 
John   Comnenus ;    he    served  successively 


imder  Ducas  and  Nicephorus  III.,  but 
his  popularity  roused  the  jealousy  of  the 
latter,  aud  Alexis  was  compelled  to  fly. 
The  troops,  however,  proclaimed  him  em- 
peror, and  Constantinople  was  taken  and 
Nicephorus  deposed  in  1081.  Alexis  suc- 
ceeded in.  protecting  his  country  against 
the  Turks  aud  the  Normans,  and  died  after 
a  busy  and  intriguing  reign. 

Alexis  II.,  Comnenus  (6.  1167,  d.  1183), 
Emperor  of  Constantinople,  ascended  the 
throne  1180.  His  reign  was  only  nominal, 
the  real  power  being  wielded  first 
by  his  mother,  and  later  by  Andronicus 
Comnenus,  who  usurped  his  throne  and 
caused  him  to  be  put  to  death. 

Alexis  III.,  Angelus  (d.  1210),  deposed 
his  brother  Isaac,  and  assuming  the  name  of 
Comnenus  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Coa- 
stantinople  in  1195.  On  the  arrival  at 
Constantinople  of  his  nephew,  Alexis  fled, 
and  died  in  a  monastery. 

Alexis  IV.,  Angelus  [d.  1204),  son  of 
Isaac,  succeeded  his  uncle  in  1203,  but 
after  reigning  a  few  months  only  was  mur- 
dered by  Alexis  Ducas  Murzuphlus. 

Alexis  v.,  Murzuphlus,  murderer  and 
successor  of  the  preceding,  became  Emperor 
in  1204,  but  was  attacked  by  crusaders,  and 
afterwards,  for  his  conduct  towards  Alexis 
IV.,  coudemned  to  be  thrown  from  the 
Column  of  Theodosius  at  Constantinople. 

Alfarabius  (d.  950),  a  celebrated  Arabian 
philosopher,  who  wrote  on  numerous  sub- 
jects. After  studying  at  Bagdad,  he  settled 
at  Damascus. 

Alfaro  y  Gomez,  don  Juan  d'  (6.  1640, 
d.  1680),  a  Spanish  painter  of  historical 
pictures,  and  a  pupil  of  Velasquez. 

Alfez,  Isaac  (6.  1013,  d.  _  1103).  a 
learned  Jewish  rabbi,  who  established  a  col- 
lege and  synagogue  at  Lugeua,  and  is  noted 
as  the  author  of  The  Lesser  Talmud. 

Alfleri,  Vittoria  (6.  1749,  d.  1803),  one  of 
the  greatest  modern  dramatists  and  poets 
of  Italy.     Of  good  birth  and  independent 
means,  he  travelled  extensively  in  Europe, 
and  produced  his  first  tragedy,  Cleopatra,  in 
i  1775.  This  was  folio  wed  by  numerous  others, 
'  and  meantime  Alfieri  had  been  captivated  by 
I  the  charms  of  the  Countess  of  Albany,  the 
j  wife  of  the  Young  Pretender,  with  whom 
j  he  lived  until  his  death.    Towards  the  end 
of  his  life  he  wrote  comedies  with  extra- 
ordinary rapidity,    but    his    health    broke 
1  down  and  he  died,  having  done  much  to 
j  reform  and  elevate  the  Italian  drama. 

Alfonso  I.,  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1104.  A  warlike 
prince,  who  successfully  waged  war  with 
the  Moors  of  Saragossa,  slaying  their  king 


Alf 


(23) 


Alf 


and  capturing  Saragossa.  He,  however, 
failed  in  an  attack  upon  Valencia  and 
Granada,  being  defeated  by  the  Almora- 
vides. 

Alfonso  n.,  of  Aragon  (6.  1152,  d.  1196), 
ascended  the  throne  whilst  still  a  child, 
but  proved  a  valiant  soldier,  defeating  the 
Moors  of  Valencia  and  Murcia,  and  assistiug 
in  the  taking  of  Cuenca. 

Alfonso  III.,  of  Aragon  (6.  1265,  d. 
1291),  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  father,  Pedro  III.,  in  1285.  He  was, 
however,  compelled  to  transfer  tauch  of  the 
royal  power  to  the  Cortes. 

Alfonso  IV.,  of  Aragon  (6.  1299,  d. 
1366),  ascended  the  throne  on  his  brother's 
abdication  in  1327.  His  reign  was  chiefly 
occupied  by  a  war  with  Genoa. 

Alfonso  v.,  of  Aragon.  [See  Alfonso  I., 
of  Naples.] 

Alfonso  I.,  of  Asturias  and  Leon  (6.  693, 
d.  756) ,  a  wise  and  brave  king,  who,  elected 
iu  739,  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Moors 
from  Galicia,  Leon  and  Castile.  He  also 
established  towns,  built  churches,  and  gener- 
ally improved  the  internal  condition  of  his 
country. 

Alfonso  II.,  of  Asturias  and  Leon  {d.  842), 
left  a  monastery  for  the  throne  in  791, 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  with  the 
Moors,  and  made  Oviedo  his  capital. 

Alfonso  III.,  of  Asturias  and  Leon 
(d.  912),  sumamed  "the  Great,"  suc- 
ceeded his  father  on  the  throne  of  Oviedo 
in  866.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  wars 
with  the  Moors,  and  by  the  revolts  of  his 
subjects,  and  after  many  victories  Alfonso 
abdicated  in  910,  and  died  at  Zamora. 

Alfonso  IV.,  of  Leon  (d.  932),  sumamed 
"The  Monk,"  after  an  xinsatisfactory  reign 
of  sixteen  years,  resigned  the  throne  to  his 
brother  Ramiro,  and  entered  a  monastery. 
A  few  months  later  he  attempted  to  regain 
his  kingdom,  but  was  defeated,  and  com- 
pelled to  re-enter  the  monastery,  where  he 
died. 

Alfonso  v.,  of  Leon  (b.  994,  d.  1028). 
He  ascended  the  throne  on  his  father's 
death  in  999,  and  ruled  well  and  wisely,  at 
first  under  the  regency  of  Melendo  Gon- 
zalez, and  then  alone.  He  was  slain  by  an 
arrow  at  the  siege  of  Viseo. 

Alfonso  VI.  {b.  1030,  d.  1109),  of 
Leon  and  I.  of  Castile,  ascended  the 
throne  of  Leon  and  Asturias  on  his 
father's  death,  while  Castile  and  Galicia 
fell  to  his  brothers,  Sancho  and  Garcia. 
A  war  with  Sancho  resulted  iu  Alfouso's 
defeat  and  compulsory  abdication,  but 
on  the    death  of    Sancho   he   succeeded  to 


both  kiagdoms.  He  afterwards  carried 
on  a  vigorous  war  with  the  Moors,  and  in 
spite  of  disastrous  defeat  at  Zalaca,  added 
largely  to  his  dominioas.  He  died  at 
Toledo,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  daughter 
Urraca. 

Alfonso  VII.,  of  Leon.  [See  Alfonso  I.,  of 
Aragon,  who  claimed  the  throne  of  Leon 
in  right  of  his  wife  Urraca.] 

Alfonso  VIII.,  of  Leon,  and  II.  of  Castile 
{b.  1105,  d.  1157),  an  able  and  excellent 
monarch  who,  on  the  death  of  his  mother, 
Urraca,  came  into  possession  of  the  two 
countries  in  1126.  He  weakened  the  power 
of  the  Moors,  and  caused  himself  to  be 
crowned  Emperor  of  Spain. 

Alfonso  IX.,  of  Leon  (d.  1230),  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  1188.  A  war  with  Alphonse 
of  Castile  was  ended  by  the  marriage  of 
Alfonso  of  Leon  to  his  cousin  Bereugaria 
of  Castile,  but  the  Pope  refused  to  sanction 
a  marriage  of  cousins,  and  laid  the  kingdom 
under  an  interdict.  The  separation  at 
length  took  place,  and  the  Pope  reconciled 
the  two  kings. 

Alfonso  X.,  of  Leon  and  Castile  (p.  1226, 
d.  1284),  succeeded  to  the  throne  iu  12.52 ; 
aspired  to  be  emperor  of  Germany,  and  in 
1257  divided  the  election  with  Richard  of 
Cornwall.  In  1272  he  again  unsuccessfully 
attempted  to  gain  the  imperial  crown.  He 
was  driven  from  the  throne  by  his  son 
Sancho.  He  was  the  most  learned  ruler  of 
his  time. 

Alfonso  L,  of  Castile.  [See  Alfonso  VI., 
of  Leon.] 

Alfonso  IL,  of  Castile.  [See  Alfonso  VIII., 
of  Leon.] 

Alfonso  ni.,  of  Castile  (b.  1155,  d.  1214), 
attacked  the  invading  Moors,  but  was 
defeated  with  great  loss  at  the  battle  of 
Alarcos  ia  1195  ;  some  years  later  he  joined 
the  kings  of  Leon  and  Navarre  against 
their  common  foe,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  the  brilliant  victory  of  Tolosa,  1212. 

Alfonso  X.,  of  Castile.  [See  Alfonso  X., 
of  Leon.] 

Alfonso  XI.,  of  Castile  (h.  1310,  d.  1350), 
displayed  great  administrative  and  martial 
ability,  quelling  the  internal  disturbances  of 
his  country,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the 
King  of  Portugal,  gaining  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  Moors  at  Tarifa. 

Alfonso  XII.  (h.  1857,  d.  1885),  King  of 
Spain,  was  proclaimed  king  iu  1875.  His 
reign  was  troubled  by  the  continuance  of 
the  Carlist  war,  as  well  as  frequent  dis- 
turbances in  the  army  and  elsewhere,  aud 
attempts  were  twice  made  on  the  king's  life. 
He  married  twice,  his  second  wife  being 


Alf 


(24) 


Alf 


Maria  Christina,  daughter  of  the  late  Arch- 
dxike  Charles  Ferdinaud,  of  Austria. 

Alfonso  XIII.,  King  of  Spain  {b.  1886), 
son  of  the  preceding.  As  direct  heir  to  the 
throne  iu  the  male  line  his  birth  gave  great 
satisfaction,  and  Queen  Christina  was  ap- 
pointed regent  during  his  minority. 

Alfonso  I.,  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  and  V.  of 
Aragon  {h.  1385,  d.  1458),  succeeded  his 
father  as  King  of  Aragon  in  HI  (>.  He  ruled 
also  over  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  taking  part 
•with  Joanna  of  Naples,  compelled  Louis  to 
raise  the  siege  of  that  city,  but  afterwards 
quarrelled  with  the  queen,  and  was  forced 
to  leave  Naples.  On  the  death  of  Joanna 
he  seized  the  throne,  and  was  proclaimed 
king  in  1442. 

Alfonso  II.,  of  Naples  (6.  1448,  d.  1495), 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1494,  but  caused 
himself  to  be  so  hated  for  his  cruelty  and 
licentiousness  as  to  be  left  without  followers, 
and  in  a  panic  he  abdicated,  and  took  refuge 
in  a  monastery,  where  he  died. 

Alfonso  I.,  of  Portugal,  Dom  Alfonso 
Enrique  (b.  1110,  d.  1185) ;  he  succeeded  his 
father  as  Count  of  Portugal,  and  defeating 
the  Moors  at  Castro-Verde  and  Camp  d' 
Ourique,  was  proclaimed  king,  and  crowned 
in  1143.  He  established  his  seat  of  govern- 
ment at  Lisbon,  from  which  he  had  driven 
the  Moors,  but  was  afterwards  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  his  son-in-law,  Ferdi- 
nand II.,  of  Leon. 

Alfonso  II.,  of  Portugal  (6.  1185,  d.  1223), 
was  successful  in  wars  with  the  Moors, 
but  his  extortions  drew  upon  him  the  wrath 
of  the  Pope,  who  laid  his  kingdom  under 
an  interdict,  and  terrified  Alfonso  into  res- 
titution. 

Alfonso  III.,  of  Portugal  {b.  1210,  d. 
1279),  son  of  the  preceding,  deposed  his 
elder  brother,  Sancho,  and  seized  the  throne 
in  1248.  He  was  victorious  over  the  Moors 
and  imin-oved  the  condition  of  his  people, 
though,  like  his  father,  he  quarrelled  with 
the  Church,  and  was  worsted  in  a  struggle 
vrith  the  Pope. 

Alfonso  IV.,  of  Portugal  (6.  1290,  d. 
1357),  was  involved  in  wars,  first  with  his 
brother-in-law,  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Castile, 
and  later  against  the  Moors,  but  his  reign 
was  on  the  whole  prosperous.  The  cruel 
murder  of  his  daughter-in-law,  Inez,  re- 
sulted in  the  rebellion  and  hostility  of  his 
son. 

Alfonso  v.,  of  Portugal  (b.  1432,  d.  1481), 
on  the  death  of  his  uncle  Pedro,  who  had 
acted  as  regent,  took  the  government  into 
his  own  hands.  He  waged  war  with  the 
Moors,  and  invaded  Africa,  but  a  war  with 
Spain  proved  unsuccessful,  and  Alfonso  died 


at  Cintra,  whilst  in  the  act  of  retu'ing  to  a 
convent. 

Alfonso  VI.,  of  Portugal  (b.  1643,  d.  1683), 
a  weak  and  wicked  prince  ;  the  government 
was  at  iirst  administered  wisely  by  his 
mother,  but  in  1662  she  retired  to  a  convent, 
and  Alfonso's  conduct  was  then  such  as  to 
provoke  a  revolt,  and  he  was  deposed  in 
1668,  while  his  brother  Pedro  assumed  the 
regency. 

Alfonso  (I.)  d'Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  Mo- 
dena  and  Reggio  (6.  1476,  d.  1534) ;  he  was 
successful  iu  a  war  against  the  Venetians, 
but  was  afterwards  defeated  by  the  troops 
of  the  Pope,  and  temporarily  lost  Modena 
and  Reggio. 

Alfonso  (II.)  d'Este  {d.  1597)  succeeded 
his  father  iu  1599.  He  imprisoned  the  poet 
Tasso  iu  consequence  of  the  latter "s  passion 
for  his  sister. 

Alfonso  (III.)  d'Este  (d.  1644)  succeeded  his 
father  in  1628,  but  shortly  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  son  Francesco,  and  retired 
to  a  Capuchin  convent,  where  he  died. 

Alfonso  (IV.)  d'Este  (i.  1634,  d.  1662) 
succeeded  his  father  in  1658.  He  reigned 
only  four  years,  but  added  Correggio  to  his 
dominions. 

Alford,  The  Very  Rev.  Henry,  D.D. 
(/).  1810,  d.  1871),  educated  at  Charmouth 
and  Ilminster,  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
and  took  holy  orders  in  1832;  after  some 
years  spent  in  the  coiintry  he  came  to 
London  as  minister  of  Quebec  chapel 
(1853),  and  in  1857  was  made  Dean  of 
Canterbury.  He  left  several  works,  of 
which  the  chief  is  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament;  he  also  promoted  and 
assisted  in  the  revision  of  the  Authorised 
Version. 

Alfragan,  a  celebrated  Arabian  astro- 
nomer, who  flourished  in  the  ninth  century 
at  the  court  of  Al  Mamum,  and  was  the 
author  of  Elements  of  AsLronomy. 

Alfred,  a  Saxon  prince  (d.  1036),  son  of 
Ethelred  II.  and  Emma,  who  was  induced 
to  contest  the  English  throne  with  his 
brother  Harold  Harefoot,  but  was  seized 
and  cruelly  put  to  death  at  Ely. 

Alfred  the  Great  (6.  Wantage,  Berks, 
849).  the  youngest  sou  of  Ethel wuLf,  king  of 
the  West  Saxons,  succeeded  on  the  death 
of  his  brother  Ethelred  to  a  throne  threat- 
ened by  invasion  from  without  and  dissension 
within.  His  first  care  was  to  drive  off  the 
Danes,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  encountered 
in  fifty-six  battles  by  land  and  sea.  The 
great  victory  of  Edington  (878)  led  to  the 
peace  of  Wedmore,  and  Alfred  was  thus  for 
a  time  free  to  devote  himself  to  the  peaceful 
reforms  for  which  bis  name  is  renowned. 


Alf 


(25) 


Ali 


Prominent  amougst  these  are  the  establish- 
meut  of  social  order,  the  encouragement  of 
learning,  and  the  fomiding  of  a  national 
fleet.  Alfred  died  in  901,  esteemed  as  a 
rehgious  and  industrious  man,  and  a  wise 
and  learned  king. 

Alfric  Ablaas,  or  the  •'  Abhot."  A  volu- 
minous Saxon  writer,  who  was  Abbot  of  St. 
Alban's  in  'J69. 

Algardi,  Allessaudro  {d.  1654),  a  sculptor 
of  Bologna  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His 
most  famous  works  are  his  Altda  and  St. 
Leo,  and  his  monument  of  Leo  XI.  in  St. 
Peter's,  and  his  group  of  the  Beheading  of 
St.  Paul  at  Bologna.     He  died  in  1654. 

Algarotti,  Francesco,  Count  (d.  1764), 
son  of  au  Italian  merchant ;  he  was 
well  versed  in  literature,  and  studied 
at  Bologna,  and  afterwards  travelled 
in  Europe.  Amongst  his  friends  we 
find  many  celebrated  names,  including 
Voltaire  and  Pitt,  and  also  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  made  him  a  count,  and  on  his 
death  erected  a  monument  at  Pisa  to  his 
memory. 

Algazalli,  Abou  lb  Hamed  (6.  1058,  d. 
1111),  a  distinguished  Persian  philosopher, 
and  director  of  the  college  of  Bagdad.  He 
left  numerous  works,  many  of  which  are  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Imperiale  at  Paris. 

Al-ghalib  Billah  {b.  1195,  d.  1273),  Mo- 
hammed Ibn.  Yusuf,  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Naserites  of  Granada. 

Al-hakem  Ibn  Atta,  a  celebrated  impostor 
of  Khorassau  in  the  eighth  century,  and  the 
subject  of  Moore's  poem,  Tlte  Vetted 
Prophet  of  Khorassnn.  He  claimed  to  be 
the  Deity,  wore  a  golden  mask,  and  attracted 
a  considerable  following  ;  but  being  besieged 
by  the  Imperial  army,  poisoned  those  with 
him,  burnt  their  bodies,  and  himself  jmnped 
into  a  corrosive  fluid  which  consumed  him, 
leaving  no  trace. 

Al-hakem  BiamriUali  (h.  985,  d.  1046), 
sixthCaliph  ofEgypt  of  the  Fatimist  dynasty. 
He  assumed  the  government  while  still  a 
child,  and  after  a  reign  marked  by  several 
acts  of  oppression,  was  murdered  at  the 
instigation  of  his  sister. 

Al-hakem  I.  (6.  770,  d.  822),  third  Sultan 
of  Cordova.  His  conduct  was  such  as  to 
induce  repeated  revolts,  which  he  suppressed 
with  horrible  cruelty,  driving  some  30,000 
families  into  exile. 

Al-hakem  II.  (6.  913,  d.  976),  ninth  Sultan 
of  Cordova.  A  man  of  learning  and  virtue, 
his  reign  may  be  regarded  as  the  Golden  Age 
of  Arabian  literature.  He  also  erected  many 
public  buildings,  and  made  extensive  addi- 
tions to  the  great  Mosque. 


Al-bazen  {d.  1038),  an  Arabian  mathema- 
tician, who  first  discovered  the  effect  of 
refraction  in  astronomy. 

Ali  (6.  1084,  d.  1142),  second  Sultan  of 
Africa  and  Spain.  In  war  he  was  generally 
successful,  and  won  the  battle  of  Ucles 
in  1109. 

All,  sumamed  Abu  l-Hassan  {d.  1351),  was 
Sultan  of  Africa  in  the  14th  century.  He  in- 
vaded Spain,  but  was  totally  vanquished 
there,  and,  retm-ning  home,  was  defeated 
and  put  to  death  by  a  rebellious  son. 

Ali,  sumamed  Abu  'l-Hassan,  twentieth 
Sultan  of  Granada  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Naserites,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1466, 
and  carried  on  a  vigorous  war  with  the 
Christians.  The  loss  of  Alhama  filled  his 
subjects  with  consternation,  and  internal 
dissensions  breaking  out,  Ali,  shortly  before 
his  death,  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  brother. 

Ali  Abdul  Sbah  I.,  King  of  Beejapoor 
(d.  1580),  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1557.  He 
restored  the  Shea  in  place  of  the  Soonee  creed, 
and  at  first  aUied  himself  with  Ram  Raja  of 
Bejanugger,  whom  he  afterwards  attacked, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  three  other  kings 
totally  defeated  at  Talikote.  Ali  also 
attacked  the  Portuguese,  but  was  repulsed 
with  loss. 

Ali  Abdul  Shah  IL  (6. 1637,  d.  1672),  King 
of  Beejapoor,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1656.  His  reign  was  one  of  trouble  and 
warfare;  his  capital  was  besieged  by  Au- 
rimgzebe,  and  his  general,  Afzul  Khan, 
treacherously  murdered. 

Ali  Bey,  Pacha  of  Egypt  (6.  1728, 
d.  1772).  A  native  of  Circassia,  he 
was  sold  into  Egypt  as  a  child,  but  was 
adopted  by  Ibrahun,  lieutenant  of  the 
Janissaries,  and  soon  rose  to  be  a  member 
of  the  council.  He  avenged  the  assassina- 
tion of  Ibrahim  with  his  own  hand,  and 
though  forced  to  flee  for  a  time,  was  recalled 
aad  placed  at  the  head  of  the  government. 
He  died  of  wounds  received  whilst  crushing 
a  rebellion. 

Ali  Hekim  Zade  (6.  1688,  d.  1758),  a 
Turkish  minister-iu-chief  of  the  army  du- 
ring the  war  with  Persia  in  1732.  Three 
times  vizier,  he  was  deposed  and  exiled,  but 
afterwards  was  appointed  Pasha  of  Egypt, 
and  on  his  dismissal  retired  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  died. 

Ali  Ibn  Abi  Talib  {h.  602,  d.  661), 
a  cousin  and  faithful  adherent  of  Mo- 
hammed, whose  daughter  he  married. 
He  became  caliph  in  656,  and  succeeded  in 
repulsing  the  repeated  attacks  of  his  ene- 
mies. He  was  a  great  monarch,  and  a  good 
and  learned  man. 

Ali  Ibn  Hanimud  {d.lOll),  founder  of  the 


Ali 


(26) 


All 


dynasty  of  Hammudites.  He  wrested  the 
crowu  of  Cordova  from  Suleymau  in  1016, 
but  made  himself  unpopular,  and  was 
assassinated. 

Ali  Mustaplia  (6.  1542,  d.  1599),  an  his- 
torian and  poet,  and  member  of  the  corps 
of  the  Janissaries.  Selim  appointed  him 
Pasha  of  D Jidda. 

Ali  Pacha,  vizier  of  Jannina  (6.  1744,  d. 
1S22),  the  sou  of  an  Albanian  chief,  on  being 
deprived  of  his  territories  he  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  band  of  robbers,  which  he 
increased  to  the  number  of  2,000,  and  carried 
on  a  constant  and  cruel  warfare  for  50  years. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Turks,  and  his  head 
seut  to  Constantinople. 

Alibert,  Jean  Louis,  Baron  (b.  1776,  d. 
1837),  physician  to  Louis  XVIII.  and 
Charles  X.  of  France.  He  was  eminent  for 
his  general  learning,  as  well  as  his  profes- 
sional ability. 

Alibrandi,  Girolamo  (6.  Messina  1470,  d. 
1524),  a  Sicilian  painter,  called  the  "Ra- 
phael of  Messina."  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Leonardi  da  Vinci ;  his  masterpiece  is  in  the 
church  of  Candelora  in  Messina. 

Alice  Maud  Mary,  Princess  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  Grand  Duchess  of 
Hesse  Darmstadt  (6.  1843,  d.  1878),  was  the 
third  child  of  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Prince 
Consort.  In  1862  she  married  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Hesse,  and  died  of  diphtheria  in 
1878.  Her  private  letters  to  the  Queen 
have  been  published  and  widely  circulated  in 
England. 

Alison,  Rev.  Archibald  {b.  1757,  d.  1839), 
an  accomplished  scholar  and  divine,  and 
author  of  Essays  on  the  Nature  and  Prin- 
ciples of  Taste. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald  (p.  1826),  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  called  to  the 
Scottish  bar,  becoming  deputy  advocate  in 
1822.  But  he  is  best  known  as  an  historian, 
his  great  work  being  The  History  of  Europe 
from  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Eestoration 
of  the  Bowbons,  in  recognition  of  which  he 
was  made  a  baronet  in  1852. 

Alison,  WilUamPulteney  (6. 1790,  d.  1859), 
brother  of  the  historian.  He  was  a  physician 
and  physiologist,  did  much  to  bring  about 
the  improved  poor  law  of  Scotland,  and  was 
author  of  several  text-books  on  physiology 
and  medicine. 

Alkan^  Charles  Valentin  (b.  1813),  an 
accomiilished  pianist  and  composer,  who 
took  the  first  prize  at  the  Conservatoire  when 
only  seven-and-a-half  years  old. 

Alkemadi,  Kornelis  van  (b.  1654,  d.  1737). 
a   Dutch  antiquarian   and   historian,  who 


made     valuable      contributions     to     these 
sciences. 

AUam,  Andrew  (b.  1655,  d.  1685),  a  learned 
Englishman,  who  left  many  works,  and 
assisted  in  the  composition  of  the  Athence 
Oxo)iienses. 

Allamand,  Jean  Nicholas  Sebastian  (6. 
1713,  d.  1787),  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  universities  of  Franeker  and  Leyden, 
and  the  first  to  explain  the  properties  of  the 
Leyden  jar. 

Allan,  David  (b.  1744,  d.  1796),  Scottish 
painter,  studied  in  Glasgow  and  Italy,  and 
settling  in  Edinburgh  was  appointed  mas- 
ter of  the  Trustees'  Academy.  He  has 
been  called  the  "  Scottish  Hogarth." 

Allan,  Sir  WilUam,  R.A.  (6.  Edinburgh, 
1782,  d.  1830).  He  studied  painting  in 
Edinburgh  and  London,  and  then  went  to 
Russia  and  obtained  practice  as  a  portrait 
painter.  In  1838  he  was  chosen  president' 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Scotland,  and  in 
1846  Her  Majesty's  principal  limner  for 
Scotland.     His  best  pictures  are  historical. 

Alla-oo-deen  I.,  Emperor  of  Delhi  (d. 
1316),  the  first  Mohammedan  invader  of 
the  Deccan.  He  attacked  Ram  Deo, 
and  obtained  the  cession  of  Ellichpoor ; 
then  returning  to  Delhi,  he  put  his  luicle,  the 
emperor,  to  death,  and  ascended  the  throne. 
His  death  is  attributed  to  poison, 

Alla-oo-deen  II.  (d.  1457),  tenth  king  of  the 
Bahmuuy  dynasty  in  the  Deccan,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  1435.  He  was  a  wise  and 
hximane  monarch,  and  effected  many  im- 
provements in  his  kingdom. 

Allatius,  Leo  [d.  1669),  a  Greek  physician, 
professor  in  the  Greek  college  at  Rome, 
and  Ubrariau  of  the  Vatican. 

Alle^i,  Gregorio  (6.  1580,  d.  1652),  a 
great  musician,  composer  of  the  celebrated 
Miserere  ;  he  held  a  post  in  the  Pontifical 
chapel  of  Urban  VIII. 

Allen,  Ethan  {b.  1737,  d.  1789),  American 
revolutionary  general,  captured  Ticonderoga 
in  1775,  but  was  taken  prisoner  at  Montreal 
and  released  in  1778. 

Allen,  Harrison  {b.  1841).  Entering 
the  medical  profession,  he  served  with 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  after- 
wards in  the  Washington  hospital.  Since 
1865  he  has  filled  chairs  of  anatomy  and 
zoology  at  Pennsylvania  and  Philadelphia, 
and  has  published  Outlines  of  Comparative 
Anaiomij  and  Zoology,  and  other  works. 

Allen,  Joel  Asaph  {b.  Springfield,  Mass., 
1838),  naturalist.  He  was  a  pupil  and 
assistant  of  Agassiz,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Brazil  in  1865.     He  has  been  connected 


AU 


(27) 


Aim 


■with  other  exploring  parties,  and  various 
museums  and  scientific  societies,  and  has 
written  many  papers  on  zoological  subjects. 

Allen,  John  (b.  1771,  d.  1843),  Scottish 
author,  travelled  with  Lord  Holland  in 
1801,  and  was  long  a  resident  at  Holland 
House,  Loudon.  He  wrote  largely  for  the 
Edinburgh  Jieview,  and  was  author  of 
several  historical  works. 

Allen,  Oscar  Dama  (b.  1836),  an  American 
chemist.  He  studied,  and  afterwards  taught 
in  the  Sheffield  scientific  school,  and  in  1873 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  analytical 
chemistry  and  metallurgy.  Most  of  his  in- 
vestigations, which  have  been  principally 
directed  to  the  rare  metals,  caesium  and 
rubidium,  have  appeared  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Science. 

AUen,  Ralph  (b.  1694,  d.  1764),  philan- 
thropist, lived  chiefly  at  Bath.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Pope,  Pitt,  and  Fielding,  and  is 
the  original  of  the  latter's  "  Squire  All- 
worthy." 

Allen,  Thomas  (b.  1542,  d.  1632),  English 
mathematician,  antiquarian,  and  astrologer, 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  spent  his  life  in 
studious  retirement. 

Allen,  William  {b.  1532,  d.  1594),  cardinal, 
an  opposer  of  Protestantism  and  a  supporter 
of  Philip  II.  in  his  claim  to  the  English 
throne.  Founded  the  English  college  at 
Douay. 

AUen,  Wilham  (6.  Mass.,  1784,  d.  1868), 
an  American  writer,  for  some  years  president 
of  Bowdoin  College,  and  author  of  an 
American  biographical  dictionary,  and  other 
works. 

Allen,  "William  (b.  1770,  d.  1843),  chemical 
lecturer  at  Guy's  Hospital,  and  president  of 
the  Pharmaceutical  Society.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  origi- 
nator of  many  philanthropic  schemes. 

Allestre  or  Allestry,  Richard  (6.  1619, 
d.  1680),  a  Royalist  and  divine  who  took  part 
in  the  Civil  wars  of  the  17th  century,  and 
after  several  reverses  was  made  Regius  Pro- 
fessor of  Divinity  at  Oxford  in  1663.  He 
left  many  works. 

AUeyn,  Edward  (6.  1566,  d.  1626),  a 
celebrated  actor,  and  founder  of  Dulwich 
College.  His  charity  was  re-constituted  by 
Act  of  Parliament  in  1858,  and  the  new 
buildings  opened  in  1870 


AUier,    Achilla     (b.    1807,    d.     1S36), 
French  engraver,  and  author  of  L^Ancl 
Bourbonnais  and  VArt  en  Pr 


a 

ien 


fovince. 


Allingham,  Mrs.  Helen  {b.  1848),  the 
eldest  child  of  the  late  A.  H.  Paterson,  M.D. 
On  her  father's  death  she  came  to  Loadou 


and  studied  painting  in  the  schools  of  the 
Academy.  Her  sketches  in  black  and  white 
first  attracted  notice;  she  afterwards 
addressed  herself  to  watercolour  painting, 
and  has  taken  several  portraits  of  Thomas 
Carlyle. 

Allingham,  William  (b.  1828,  d.  1889),  a 
native  of  Ballyshaniion  in  the  north-west  of 
Ireland,  and  author  of  many  songs  and 
ballads.  While  editor  of  Fraser''s  he  con- 
tributed to  it  several  prose  articles. 

Allioni,  Cario  {b.  1725,  d.  1804),  an 
Italian  doctor  of  medicine  and  professor  of 
botany  in  the  university  of  Turin;  his 
great  work  Flora  Pedemontana,  was  pub- 
lished in  1785. 

Allman,  George  James  (6.  1812),  an  Irish 
zoologist,  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin ;  has  filled  the  chair  of  natural 
history  at  the  Edinburgh  University,  and 
been  president  of  several  scientific  associa- 
tions. His  writings  are  chiefly  on  zoophytes 
and  kindred  species,  and  include  a  History 
of  the  Fresh-  Water  Polyzoa,  and  Hijdroida 
of  the  "  Challenger  "  Expedition. 

Allman,  George  Johnston  (h.  1824),  a 
distinguished  mathematician,  and  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Queen's  College,  Galway. 
He  has  published  papers  on  Greek 
Geometry  and  on  Some  Properties  of 
Paraboloids. 

Allman,  William  (*.  1776,  d.  1846),  an  Irish 
botanist  and  mathematician,  he  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  the  Dublin  University 
from  1809  to  1844.  He  was  the  first  pro- 
fessor to  introduce  the  natural  method  of 
classification,  and  is  also  author  of  a  plan  for 
the  Arrangement  of  Plants. 

Allori,  Alessandro,  called  Bronzino  (b. 
1635,  d.  1607),  a  Florentine  painter  of 
history  and  portraits.  A  Last  Judgment 
by  him,  after  Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti,  is 
still  at  Rome. 

Allorl,  Cristofano,  called  Bronzino  {d. 
1621),  son  of  the  preceding,  distinguished 
as  a  painter  of  portraits  and  landscapes. 

Allston,  Washington  {b.    1779,    d.   1843), 
an  American  painter ;  he  studied  in  London, 
Paris,  and  Rome,   and  was  the  author  of 
Hints  to  Young  Painters  on   the  Study  of 
Landscape  Painting. 

Almada,  Alvaro  vas  d',  lived  in  the 
15th  century,  and  was  created  Count  of 
Avranches  by  Charles  VI.  of  France.  He 
was  devotedly  attached  to  Dom  Pedro, 
Regent  of  Portugal,  and  on  his  death  in  the 
battle  of  Alfarrobeira,  rushed  madly  into 
the  fight  and  was  slaiu. 

Almagro,   Diego  d'  (4.  1475,  d.  1538),  s 


Al-M 


(28) 


Alp 


Spanish  soldier,  the  companion  of  Francesco 
Pizarro  iu  the  conquest  of  Peru.  In  spite 
of  considerable  forbearance  ou  Almagro's 
side,  quarrels  between  himself  and  the 
Pizarro  brothers  were  frequent,  and  in 
1538  they  had  recourse  to  arms,  and  on 
the  plain  of  Las  Salinas  Almagro  was 
defeated  and  captured,  and  afterwards  put 
to  death. 

Al-Mahadi,  Abu  Mohammed  Obeydullah 
{b.  873,  (/.  934),  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 
the  Fatimites  in  Egypt  and  Africa.  He  was 
proclaimed  Sultan  in  908,  and  founded  the 
city  of  Mehidia. 

Alma-Tadema,  Laurence,  R.A.  {b.  1836), 
born  in  Friesland,  painter,  studied  at 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Antwerp,  and  was 
afterwards  pupil  and  assistant  of  Baron 
Henry  Leys.  He  settled  in  England, 
where  his  pictures  found  a  ready  wel- 
come. He  was  elected  A. R.A.  in  1876  and 
R.A.  iu  1879.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  Phidias  and  the  Elgin  Marbles  (1868),  A 
Boman  Emperor  (1871),  The  Sculpture  Gal- 
lery (1875),  Sappho  (1881),  and  The  Roses  of 
Heliogabalus  (1888). 

Almeida,  Francesco  d'  [d.  1510),  the  first 
Portuguese  viceroy  of  India.  He  captured 
several  towns  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  and 
after  a  victory  at  Calicut  fixed  his  seat  of 
government  at  Cochin.  Before  resigning 
the  command  to  Albuquerque,  who  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him,  he  contrived  to 
defeat  and  disperse  the  fleets  of  Calicut  and 
Egj-pt. 

Almeida,  Lorenzo  d',  called  "the  Macca- 
beus of  Portugal,''  was  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, in  whose  victories  he  took  part. 
He  was  slain  in  an  engagement  with  the 
Egyptian  fleet  in  1508. 

Almeida,  Manoel  (6.  1580,  d.  1646),  a 
learned  Portuguese  Jesuit,  who  worked  as 
missionary  in  India  and  Abyssinia. 

Almeras,  Louis,  Baron  (6.  1768,  d.  1828), 
a  French  general  who  served  with  gallantry 
iu  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  during  the  retreat  from  Russia. 

Almodavar,  Duke  of  {d.  1794),  a  Spanish 
diplomatist  and  author  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  was  ambassador  at  the  courts 
of  Russia,  Portugal,  and  England,  and 
made  a  translation  of  Raynal's  History  of 
the  East  and  West  Indies. 

Almon,  Johu(^».  1738,  d.  1805),  a  political 
writer  and  publisher,  contributed  many 
articles  to  the  Gazetteer^  and  was  prosecuted 
and  convicted  for  selling  a  reprint  of 
the  Letters  of  Junius. 

Almonde,  Philip  van  {b.  1646,  d.  1711),  a 
Dutch  admiral,  who  served  under  De 
Ruyter  in  the  war  against  England.     He 


afterwards  came  to  England  with  William 
of  Orange,  and  was  prominent  in  the  battles 
of  La  Hogue  and  Vigo. 

Almonte,  Juan  Nepomucenno  (6.  1804,  d. 
1869),  a  Mexican  general  who  served  under 
Santa  Anna  in  the  campaign  of  Texas  and  in 
the  war  with  America.  In  1862  he  was  elected 
president  in  the  place  of  Juarez,  but  was 
unable  to  form  a  government.  He  was 
afterwards  one  of  the  triumvirate  intrusted 
vrith  the  management  of  Mexican  affairs ; 
he  was  favourably  treated  by  Maximilian, 
but  on  the  execution  of  the  emperor  fled  to 
Europe,  where  he  died. 

Almqvist,  Karl  Jonas  Ludwig  (6.  1793, 
d.  1860),  a  Swedish  writer,  author  of  The 
Book  of  the  Thorn  Rose.  Guilty  of  forgery 
and  murder,  he  was  forced  to  fly,  and  took 
refuge  in  America,  where  he  became  secre- 
tary to  President  Lincoln,  but  afterwards 
returned  to  Europe,  where  he  died. 

Al-mutassan  Bmah  [h.  VIU,  d.  1258), 
Caliph  of  the  Abbasides,  a  weak  and  ostenta- 
tious king ;  he  was  betrayed  by  his  vizier, 
Ibn  Alkami,  imprisoned,  and  put  to  death. 

Al-muten  Abbi  (d.  965).  an  Arabian  poet 
of  great  celebrity  and  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Sultan  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  Some  of  his 
poems  have  been  translated. 

A.  L.  0.  E.,  the  nom  de  plume  of  Miss 
Charlotte  Tucker,  a  very  prolific  writer  of 
moral  and  religious  story-books  for  children. 

Aloisi,  Baldassare  (b.  1578,  d.  1638),  an 
eminent  portrait  and  historical  painter, 
sometimes  called  the  "Italian  Vandyke;" 
he  was  a  pupil  of  the  Carracci. 

Alompra  (6.  1710,  d.  1760),  founder  of  the 
present  dynasty  of  Burmah.  Upon  the 
conquest  of  Burmah  by  the  King  of  Pegu, 
Alompra,  then  a  petty  chieftain,  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion,  and  after  many 
battles  secm^ed  the  independence  of  his 
country.  He  died  while  preparing  to  quell 
an  insurrection  of  the  Peguans. 

Alopa,  Lorenzo  or  Laurentius,  a  learned 
Venetian,  who  became  celebrated  as  a  printer 
at  Florence,  his  classical  works  being 
especially  beautiful  and  correct. 

Alp-arslan,  "  the  strong  lion  "  (b.  1030, 
d.  1072),  Sultau  of  the  Seljuk  Turks;  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1063,  and  soon 
commenced  a  series  of  brilliant  conquests  in 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  the  province  of 
Gurgistan.  An  encounter  with  the  Greek 
emperor  resulted  in  a  defeat,  which,  how- 
ever, was  compensated  by  a  signal  victory 
in  1071. 

Alpedrinha,  Cardinal  (Jorge  da  Costa) 
(h.  1406,  d.  1508).  a  distinguished  theo- 
logian,  whose    influence  over   Alfonso  V. 


Alp 


(29) 


Alv 


was  very  great.     He  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Lisbon,  and  afterwards  cardinal. 

Alphen,  Hieronymus  van  [b.  1746,  d.  1803), 
a  German  Protestant  divine,  who  filled  the 
chair  of  theology  in  the  university  of 
Utrecht  from  1715  till  his  death  ;  he  left 
many  works  on  theological  subjects. 

Alphonsus,  Abulensis  or  Tostatus  {b. 
1400,  d.  1445),  theologian,  who  distinguished 
himself  by  his  eloquence  at  the  Council  of 
Basle  in  1440. 

Alphonsus,  Sancta  Maria  (AJphonse) 
(ii.  1396,  d.  1456),  Spanish  historian,  canon 
of  the  cathedral  of  Segovia,  and  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Burgos. 

Alpini,  Prospero  (6.  1553,  d.  1616), 
an  Italian  physician  and  botanist ;  he  tra- 
velled in  Europe  afid  other  countries,  and 
founded  the  botanical  garden  of  Padua. 

Alpteghin,  founder  of  the  Ghaznevide 
dynasty.  A  freed  slave,  he  entered  the 
army  and  was  made  governor  of  Kho- 
rassan,  but  refusing  to  recognise  Mansur 
as  emperor,  headed  a  revolt,  and  seized 
Ghuznee,  where  he  established  himself. 

Alquier,  Charles  Jean  Marie  (6.  1752, 
d.  Ii526),  a  French  diplomatist  and  revolu- 
tionist ;  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
various  countries  by  the  Directory  and 
Napoleon,  but  on  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons  was  banished  till  1818. 

Alsop,  Richard  (6.  1761,  d.  1815),  a 
learned  prebendary  of  Winchester  cathedLral, 
who  took  part  with  Boyle  ia  the  controversy 
with  Bentley. 

Alstrbmer,  Jonas  (J.  1685,  d.  1761),  a 
Swede,  remarkable  for  his  perseverance  and 
energy.  The  child  of  poor  parents,  he  made 
his  way  to  London,  where  he  acquired  a 
considerable  fortune.  This  he  devoted  to 
the  good  of  his  country,  and  succeeded  in 
introducing  many  new  industries,  and  es- 
tablishing factories  for  cotton-printing  and 
stocking- weaving.  He  also  founded  the 
Swedish  academy. 

Altdorfer,  Albrecht  (6.  1488,  d.  1538), 
a  Bavarian  painter  and  engraver  on  wood 
and  metal.  His  painting  of  the  Battle  of 
Arbela  is  in  the  gallery  of  Munich. 

Althen,  Ehan  (6.  1711,  d.  1744),  a  Per- 
sian of  great  energy  and  perseverance, 
who,  in  spite  of  many  difficulties,  succeeded 
in  introducing  the  cultivation  of  madder  into 
Avignon.  His  services,  however,  were  un- 
recognised, and  he  died  in  poverty.  In  1821 
a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

Alunno,  Niccolo  (6.  1508,  d.  1582),  an 
Italian  artist,  who  painted  the  altar-piece 
in  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  at  Foligni. 


Alva,  Ferdinand  Alvarez  de  Toledo,  Duke 
of  {h.  1508,  d.  1582),  Spanish  governor  of 
the  Netherlands  under  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
and  notorious  for  the  merciless  manner  in 
which  he  exercised  his  dictatorial  power. 
Under  his  rule  more  than  18,000  persons 
were  sent  to  the  scaffold,  and  a  revolt,  headed 
by  the  Prince  of  Orange,  broke  out,  which, 
after  nearly  forty  years  of  war,  resulted  in 
the  independence  of  the  provinces.  Alva 
was  recalled  in  1573,  but  he  was  soon  given 
the  command  of  Portugal,  which  he  quickly 
conquered.  Though  his  pride  and  cruelty 
were  excessive,  he  was  undoubtedly  the 
greatest  general  of  his  age. 

Alvarado,  Alonzo  (d.  1554),  one  of  the 
Spanish  couquerorsof  Mexico  and  Peru  under 
Pizarro  ;  he  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner 
by  Almagro.  He  afterwards  joined  De  Cas- 
tro (1542),  and  was  lieutenant-general  of 
the  army  which  suppressed  the  rebeUion  of 
Gonzalo  Pizarro  in  1548. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  d'  {d.  1541),  one  of  the 
Spanish  conquerors  of  Mexico  ;  he  took  part 
in  the  expedition  and  victories  of  Cortez,  and 
was  entrusted  vrith  the  command  of  the  city 
of  Mexico,  and  afterwards  made  governor  of 
Guatemala  and  Honduras.  He  explored 
California,  and  was  killed  soon  after  his 
return  in  an  expedition  against  XaUsco. 

Alvarez,  AfFonso,  a  popular  dramatic 
writer  of  Portugal,  supposed  to  have  hved 
in  the  15th  or  16th  century.  He  was  author 
of  many  "  autos  "  or  religious  plays. 

Alvarez,  Francisco,  a  Portuguese  tra- 
veller, who  went  on  an  embassy  to 
Abyssinia,  and  was  the  first  to  give  to 
Europe  an  account  of  the  customs  of  that 
country.     He  died  in  the  16th  century. 

Alvarez,  Jose  (6.  1768,  d.  1827),  a 
Spanish  sculptor  who  worked  at  Paris, 
though  many  of  his  best  works  are  at  Madrid. 
He  showed  himself  a  true  patriot,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  King  of 
Spain. 

Alvarez,  Juan,  leader  of  the  Mexican 
revolution  of  1855 ;  he  was  proclaimed 
president  by  the  assembly  at  Cuemavaca, 
but  resigned  within  a  few  weeks  in 
favour  of  his  minister  Comonf ort,  and  taking 
200,000  dollars,  and  such  arms  and  ammuni- 
tion as  he  could  seize,  returned  with  his 
Indians  to  South  Mexico. 

Alvarez,  Manoel  (6.  1727,  d.  1797),  a 
Spanish  sculptor,  sumamed  "the  Greek" 
from  the  purity  of  his  style.  He  was  director 
of  the  academy  of  San  Fernando,  and  was 
chosen  to  model  the  equestrian  statue  of 
Phihp  V. 


Alv 


(30) 


Ama 


Alvarez  do  Oriente,  Fernao  (6.  1540, 
d.  159o),  a  Portuguese  poet,  whose  style 
very  closely  resembles  that  of  Camoeus,  to 
whom  his  principal  work,  A  Lusitani 
Transformada,  is  sometimes  attributed. 

Alvensleben,  Philipp  Karl,  Count  of 
(6.  1745,  (/.  1802),  a  Prussian  diplomatist 
under  Frederick  the  Great,  was  employed 
as  ambassador  at  various  European  courts, 
and  being  ajipointed  in  1790  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  left  an  account  of  the  war 
from  the  peace  of  Munster  to  the  peace  of 
Hubertsburg. 

Alviano,  Bartolomeo  {b.  l45o,  d.  1515), 
a  Venetian  general,  celebrated  for  his  exploits 
against  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  especially 
at  the  siege  of  Padua,  and  in  the  battles  of 
Lamotte  and  Marignano. 

Alvinczy,  Joseph  {d.  1810),  an  Austrian 
general,  who  served  in  several  wars,  and 
was  distinguished  for  his  bravery.  He 
was  made  generalissimo  at  the  coronation 
of  the  Empress  Maria  Louisa  in  1808. 

Al-walid  I.  {d.  715),  succeeded  his  father 
as  caliph  in  705.  He  built  many  splendid 
mosques,  and  during  his  reign  Sardinia  and 
Minorca  were  added  to  his  dominions,  and 
Spain  was  conquered. 

Al-walid  II.  succeeded  as  caliph  in  743. 
His  dissolute  conduct  produced  a  revolt, 
headed  by  Yezid,  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
Al-walid  was  defeated  and  beheaded. 

Al-watmk  Billah  {b.  821,  d.  847),  Caliph 
of  Bagdad,  succeeded  in  842.  He  was  a 
patron  of  learning  and  science,  and  a  good 
sovereign,  though  somewhat  of  a  gourmand. 

Al-wathik  Blllali,  Sultan  of  Morocco  in 
1267.  He  eugaged  iu  war  with  Abu  Yusef, 
by  whose  assistance  he  had  secured  the 
throne,  which,  however,  resulted  in  the 
defeat  and  death  of  the  Sultan. 

Al-wathik  Billali,  Sultan  of  Murcia, 
succeeded  his  father  iu  1237.  He  success- 
fully contested  the  rival  claim  of  Abu  Bekr 
Aziz,  but  was  defeated  and  driven  from  his 
dominions  by  Jayme  I.  of  Aragon  in  1270. 

'Aly  Fehmy  Pasha,  one  of  Arabi  Pasha's 
supporters  in  the  Egyptian  insurrection  in 
1880.  After  Tel-el-Kebir  he  was  sentenced 
to  banishment,  but  was  subsequently  par- 
doned. 

Amadeo,  Giovanni  Antonio,  bom  in  Pavia 
in  the  loth  century ;  was  one  of  the  best 
sculptors  of  his  time,  and  has  left  some  fine 
bas-reliefs  in  the  Certosa  di  Pavia,  and  at 
Bergamo. 

Amadeus,  Prince  {b.  1845),  Duke  of  Aosta, 
second  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of 
Italy,  was  chosen  king  of  Spaiu  in  1870, 
abdicated  in  1873,  and  retired  to  Italy.    In 


1888  he  married  Princess  Le'titia,  daughter 
of  Prince  Napoleon. 

Amadeus  I.,  Count  of  Savoy,  the  son  of 
Humbert  "of  the  white  hands,"  and  a 
descendant  of  Berengarius  II.,  became  the 
ancestor  of  the  house  of  Savoy. 

Amadeus  II.,  Count  of  Savoy  (d.  1080), 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  son  of 
Oddo  and  Adelaide.  On  the  death  of  her 
husband  in  1060  Adelaide  acted  as  regent 
for  her  sons  Peter  and  Amadeus,  and  on 
the  death  of  Peter  in  1078,  Amadeus  and 
his  mother  ruled  jointly. 

Amadeus  III.,  Count  of  Savoy  {d.  1148), 
grandson  of  the  preceding ;  repelled  an 
attack  by  Guy,  Count  of  Venice,  and 
afterwards  joined  Louis  VII.  of  France  in 
the  crusade  of  1147. 

Amadeus  IV.,  Count  of  Savoy  (6.  1179, 
d.  1253),  son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded 
his  father  in  1233.  He  aided  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.  in  his  wars  with  Lombardy. 

Amadeus  V.,  Count  of  Savoy  (6.  1249, 
d.  1323),  sumamed  "the  Great,"  suc- 
ceeded as  Count  of  Savoy  in  1285, 
but  later  he  was  induced  to  divide  the 
duchy  with  his  nephew  Philip,  who  was  the 
lawful  heir. 

Amadeus  VI.,  Count  of  Savoy,  the 
"Green  Count"  (b.  1334,  d.  1383), 
succeeded  his  father  in  1343.  He  extended 
his  dominions,  defeating  the  French  at 
Arbrette,  and  compelling  the  submission 
of  James,  Prince  of  Achaia;  and  in  1360 
made  a  successful  expedition  to  the  East. 

Amadeus  VII.,  Count  of  Savoy  (b. 
1360,  d.  1391),  the  "Red  Count," 
succeeded  his  father  in  1383.  He  was 
successful  in  war  with  the  English  and 
Flemish,  and  during  his  rule  added  Nice  to 
his  dominions. 

Amadeus  VIII.  (6.  1383,  d.  1451),  "the 
Pacific,"  Coimt  and  first  Duke  of  Savoy, 
extended  his  dominions,  and  received  the 
title  of  "  Duke  "  from  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund,  but  in  1434  resigned  the  sovereignty 
and  retired  to  the  priory  of  Ripaille.  On 
the  deposition  of  Euganius  in  1439  Ama- 
deus was  elected  Pope,  and  took  the  name 
of  FeUx  v.,  till  he  again  retired  in  1449. 

Amadeus  IX.,  Duke  of  Savoy  {b.  1435,  d. 
1472),  succeeded  his  father  Louis  in  1465. 
His  delicate  health  compelled  the  formation 
of  a  regency,  composed  of  his  wife  Yolande 
and  his  brothers. 

Amalaric  {b.  502,  d.  531)  was  elected  king 
of  the  Visigoths  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Alaric  II.  He  married  Clotildis,  daughter 
of  Clovis  I.,  but  so  persecuted  her  on  ac- 
count of  her  faith  that  she  appealed  to  her 


Ama 


(31) 


Ama 


brother,  Childebert,  King  of  the  Franks, 
who  came  to  her  rescue,  and  defeated  and 
slew  Amalaric. 

Amalaswintli,  "  The  Maid  of  the  Amali " 
{d.  534),  daughter  of  Theodoric,  King  of  the 
East  Goths,  was  a  beautiful  and  learned 
woman.  She  acted  as  regent  duriug  the 
minority  of  her  son  AthaMc,  but  on  his 
death  associated  with  herself  in  the  re- 
gency her  husband's  nephew,  Theodat.  He, 
however,  soon  formed  designs  on  the  throne, 
and  caused  the  queen  to  be  put  to  death. 

Amalek  was  the  son  of  Eliphaz,  and 
grandsou  of  Esau,  and  one  of  the  chieftains 
of  Edom. 

Amalie  (b.  1739,  d.  1807),  the  widowed 
Duchess  of  Saxe-Weimar,  is  remembered  as 
the  patroness  of  literature,  and  her  court 
was  the  rendezvous  of  Goethe,  Schiller  and 
others.  She  resigned  the  government  to  her 
son  in  1775. 

Amalie,  Anna  {b.  1723,  d.  1787),  Princess 
of  Prussia,  and  sister  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
She  was  distinguished  for  her  musical  talent 
both  as  perf  onner  and  composer. 

Amalie,  Elizabeth  (6.  1602,  d.  1651), 
Landgravine  of  Hesse-Cassel,  was  en- 
dowed with  courage,  beauty  and  wisdom. 
On  the  death  of  her  husband  in  1637  she 
assumed  the  regency,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  obtaining  a 
peace  favourable  to  the  Protestants,  as  well 
as  an  increase  of  territory.  In  1648  she  re- 
signed the  government  to  her  son,  and  spent 
the  rest  of  her  life  in  retirement. 

Amalric,  Amaud  (d.  1225),  was  leader  of 
the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  in  the  1 3th 
century,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  services 
with  the  Archbishopric  of  Narbonne.  His 
violence  and  cruelty  were  particularly  pro- 
minent at  the  taking  of  Beziers,  and  brought 
him  a  severe  reproof  from  the  Pope.  He 
quarrelled  with  his  former  ally  Simon  de 
Montfort  respecting  his  claims  to  the  duchy 
©f  Narbonne. 

Amalteo,  Giambattista  lb.  1525,  d.  1573), 
secretary  to  Pius  VII.,  and  one  of  the  best 
poets  of  his  day.  His  compositions  in  Latin 
and  Italian  are  of  high  merit. 

Amalteo,  Pomponia  {b.  1505),  painted  in 
oil  and  fresco.  His  best  work,  the  Judg- 
ment of  Solomon,  is  in  the  church  of  San 
Francisco  at  Udine. 

Amar,  Andr^  (6.  1750,  d.  Paris  1816),  a 
French  advocate,  who  was  deputy  for  Isere 
in  the  National  Convention  in  1792,  and 
voted  for  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  He 
exercised  his  authority  in  the  department  of 
Aiu  with  great  zeal  and  cruelty,  but  duriug 
the  reign  of  Napoleon  lived  in  obscurity. 


Amara  Sinha,  a  famous  Hindoo  poet, 
flourished  in  the  1st  century  B.C.;  of  his 
numerous  works  only  one,  the  Amara- 
Kosha,  a  Sanscrit  vocabulary,  is  extant. 

Amaral,  Andreas  do  {d.  1521),  a  Portu- 
guese Knight  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and 
Grand  Prior  of  Castile.  During  the  siege 
of  Rhodes  he  was  convicted  of  carrying  on  a 
secret  correspondence  with  the  Sultan,  and 
was  put  to  death. 

Amaral,  Antonio  Castano  do  (6.  1747,  d. 
1819),  a  learned  Portuguese  historian  and 
author  of  the  valuable  Memoirs  on  the 
Forms  of  Government  and  Customs  of  the 
Nations  that  inhabited  Portugal. 

Amar-Dvirivier,  Jean  Augustin  {b.  1765,  d. 
Paris  1837),  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of 
education  in  Lyons,  and  contributed  largely 
to  the  educational  works  of  his  day.  In 
1809  he  was  appointed  conservator  of  the 
Mazarin  library  in  Paris. 

Amari,  Michele  (b.  1806),  was  borri  and 
I  educated  at  Palermo,  and  took  a  keen  in- 
j  terest  in  the  politics  of  his  country  during 
j  the  first  half  of  the  century.     Being  forced, 
!  for  political  reasons,  to  leave  his  country,  he 
spent  some  years  in  Paris,  where  he  studied 
Arabic,  and  in  1859  was  appointed  professor 
of  Arabic  in  the  imperial  institute  at  Flor- 
ence.   In  1862  he  was  minister  of  education. 
His  fame,  however,  rests  mainly  upon  his 
work    as    an    author;   the   Historr/  of  the 
\  Sicilian   Vespers  (1842)  has  been  translated 
I  into  English,  French,   and  German,  while 
his  greatest  work,  the  Storm  dei  Miissul- 
mdni  di  Sicilia,  was  not  completed  till  1872. 

Amaseo,  Romolo  [b.  1489,  d.  1552),  scholar 
and  orator,  filled  the  chairs  of  literae 
Humauiores  in  Padua,  Bologna  and  Rome, 
and  left  a  considerable  number  of  works. 

Amasis,  King  of  Egypt  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.C.  He  deposed  Apries,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  conqueror  of  Cyrus.  He 
erected  the  monolith  temple  at  Sais,  en- 
couraged commerce,  and  enjoyed  a  pros- 
perous reign. 

Amat,  Feliz  (6.  1750,  d.  1824),  a  man  of 
precocious  development  of  mind  and  body. 
He  was  professor,  and  afterwards  director, 
of  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Barcelona. 
In  1803  he  was  made  Abbot  of  San  Ilde- 
fonso  and  Archbishop  of  Palmyra,  and 
though  he  had  actively  resisted  the  Fi'ench 
in  1790,  his  conduct  towards  them  in  1808 
rendered  him  unpopular,  and  he  retired  to  a 
Franciscan  convent,  where  he  died.  He  left 
many  works,  amongst  them  being  an  eccle- 
siastical history  and  a  Spanish -Catalan  dic- 
tionary. 

Amati,  a  Cremonese  family,  several  mem- 
bers of  which  (notably  Niccolo)  in  the  16th 


Ama 


(32) 


Ame 


aDd  17th  centuries  were  famed  as  violiu- 
niakers. 

Amato,  Giovanni  Antonio  d',  surnamed 
II  ^'eechio  {b.  1475,  d.  1555),  a  distin- 
guished Italian  painter,  who  worked  both 
in  oil  and  fresco,  but  confuied  himself  to 
sacred  subjects.  His  best  work,  T/ie 
Dispute  on  the  Sacrament,  is  in  the  cathe- 
dral at  Naples. 

Amato,  Giovanni  Antonio  d'  (b.  1535,  </. 
1.598),  nephew  and  pupil  of  the  preceding. 
His  pictures  are  in  the  style  of  Titian  and 
are  distinguished  by  their  fine  colouring. 

Amaury,  Amalricus,  a  native  of  Chartres, 
whose  doctrines  brought  upon  him  the  con- 
demnation of  Innocent  III.  His  dogmas  were 
collected  in  a  book  called  Fhysion,  which 
is  now  lost. 

Amaury,  Aimfery,  or  Amalric  1.  (6.  1135, 
d.  1173),  King  of  Jerusalem;  succeeded  his 
brother  Baldwin  III.  iu  1162.  His  reign  is 
a  continual  record  of  wars,  in  which  Amaury 
met  with  varying  fortune,  and  his  last  years 
were  spent  iu  protecting  his  country  against 
the  incursions  of  Saladin. 

Amaury  II.,  or  Aimery  de  Lusignan  {d. 
1205),  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Cyprus  ou 
the  death  of  his  brother  Guy  in  1194,  and 
obtained  that  of  Jerusalem  iu  right  of  his 
wife,  the  daughter  of  Amaury  I.  He  cap- 
tured Beyrout  from  the  Saracens,  but  was 
compelled  to  make  a  truce  with  the  Turks. 

Amaziah,  son  of  Joash  and  eighth  king  of 
Judah.  He  was  victorious  over  the  Edom- 
ites,  but  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by 
Joash,  King  of  Israel. 

Amberger,  Christoph  {b.  1490,  d.  1569), 
a  pupil  of  the  elder  Holbein  ;  he  painted  in 
oil  and  fresco,  and  many  of  his  works  are 
at  Munich  and  Augsberg 

Ambiorix,  King  of  the  Eburones.  He 
headed  a  revolt  of  the  Belgians  against 
Julius  Csesar  and  was  at  first  successful.  In 
later  attacks  upon  Quintus  Cicero  and 
Labienus  he  was  repulsed,  but  gave  such 
trouble  to  the  Romans  that  Csesar  himself 
led  an  army  into  his  territories  and 
ravaged  them,  but  he  escaped  across  the 
Rhine. 

Amboise,  Charles  d'  (6.  1473,  d.  1511), 
marshal  of  France,  took  part  in  the  Italian 
wars  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Louis 
XI. 

Amboise,  George  d'  (&.  1460,  d.  1510),  a 
French  cardinal  and  minister  of  state.  He 
was  successively  Bishop  of  Moutaubau, 
Archbishop  of  Narbonue,  and  of  Rouen,  and 
after  acquiring  considerable  popularity  as 
prime  minister  under  Louis  XII.  was  made 
cardinal  and  appointed   legate  in   France, 


where  he  effected  great  reforms  among  the 
religious  orders. 

Ambra,  Francesco  d'  {d.  1558),  a  Flor- 
entine poet,  wrote  three  excellent  comedies, 
besides  other  works. 

Ambrogio  or  Ambrosio,  Teseo  (6.  1469, 
d.  1540),  a  celebrated  Italian  orientalist  who 
was  appointed  by  Leo  X.  professor  of  Syriao 
and  Chaldee  at  Bologna, 

Ambrosius,  Aurelianus  {d.  497),  a  Brffish 
prince,  who  succeeded  in  deposing  Vortigern 
and  being  himself  proclaimed  king  in  465. 
He  afterwards  fought  with  the  Saxons 
under  Hengist,  whom  he  finally  overcame 
and  put  to  death  Ln  489. 

Ambrosius  or  Ambrose,  Saint,  Bishop  of 
Milan  {h.  333  or  334,  d.  397),  was  remarkable 
for  his  calm  bravery  and  impartial  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  The  son  of  a  Praetorian 
prefect  and  himself  Governor  of  Liguria,  he 
was  called  iu  374,  whilst  still  unbaptised,  to 
the  bishopric  of  Milan,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  opposition  to  Arianism  and 
Paganism,  as  well  as  to  the  crimes  of  the 
Emperor.  He  was  also  the  first  great  re- 
former of  church  music,  and  left  numerous 
religious  works. 

Ambrosius,  Andre  Sertis  Kamenski  (6. 
1708,  d.  1771),  was  a  Russian,  who  assumed 
the  name  Ambrosius  when  he  became  a 
monk,  and  in  1761  was  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Moscow.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  piety,  learning,  and  active  benevo- 
lence, but  in  the  time  of  the  plague  in  Mos- 
cow was  seized  by  the  infuriated  populace 
and  cruelly  put  to  death. 

Ambrozy,  Wenzel  Bernard  (6.  1723,  d. 
1806),  a  BcAemian  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  who  was  patronised  by  Maria  Theresa 
and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II. 

Ambuehl,  Johann  Ludwig  (6.  1750,  d. 
1800),  a  Swiss  poet,  historian,  and  novelist. 

Ameilhon,  Hubert  Pascal  (6.  1730,  d. 
1811),  French  historian  and  philologist. 

Ameipsias,  a  Greek  comic  poet,  the  con- 
temporary of  Aristophanes,  in  competition 
with  whom  he  twice  gained  the  prize.  Only 
fragments  of  his  works  remain. 

Amelie,  Marie  (h.  1782,  d.  1866),  Queen  of 
the  French,  married  Louis  Philippe  in  1809, 
was  daughter  of  Ferdinand,  first  king  of 
the  Two  Sicilies. 

Amelius,  Martin  (6.  1526,  d.  1590),  a  dis- 
tinguished chancellor  of  Baden  and  an 
energetic  advocate  of  the  reformed  religion. 

Amelotde  la  Houssaye,  Abraham  Nicholas 
[h.  1634,  d.  1706),  a  French  writer,  who  was 
secretary  to  the  embassy  at  Venice  and 
wrote  a  history  of  the  government  of  that 


Ame 


(33) 


Amm 


place,  which  gave    such    offence    that   its 
author  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille. 

Amelotte,  Denys  (b.  1606,  d.  1678), 
Superior  of  the  Oratory  at  Paris,  translated 
the  New  Testament. 

Amelxinghi,  Girolamo,  an  Italian  poet  of 
the  sixteenth  centuiy,  called  //  Gobbo 
di  Pisa,  inventor  of  the  burlesque  style 
of  poetry.  His  principal  poem,  i«  Gigantea, 
was  published  iu  1547. 

AmenopMs  I.,  King  of  Egypt  in  1778  B.C., 
was  a  warlike  prince  who  reigned  twenty- 
one  years. 

AmenopMs  n.,  King  of  Egypt,  ascended 
the  throne  iu  1687  B.C.  After  many  years  of 
war  he  succeeded  in  expelling  the  "  Shepherd 
Kings." 

AmenopMs  IIL,  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, a  celebrated  Egyptian  king,  at 
first  shared  his  throne  with  a  brother,  on 
whose  death  he  reigned  alone,  and  erected 
the  temple-palace  of  Luxor  and  other  colossal 
works.  A  statue  of  this  king  stands  in  the 
British  Museum. 

AmenopMs  IV.  succeeded  Sesostris  on  the 
Egyptian  throne  in  1322  B.C. 

Amerbach,  Boniface  (6.  1495,  «?.  1562), 
the  youngest  son  of  Johann,  and  a  friend  of 
Erasmus ;  he  was  professor  of  civil  law  in 
the  university  of  Basle,  and  was  a  good 
Latin  and  Hebrew  scholar 

Amerbach,  Johann  {d.  1515),  a  learned 
and  wealthy  printer  of  Basle,  and  the  first 
to  use  Roman  in  the  place  of  Gothic  and 
Itahan  type.  He  published  excellent  edi- 
tions of  the  works  of  St.  Augustine  and  St. 
Ambrose,  and  was  preparing  to  print  those 
of  St.  Jerome  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Amerigo  Vespucci  (6.  Florence,  1451,  d. 
Seville,  1512),  was  an  Italian  navigator  who 
visited  Brazil  in  1503.  He  had  previously 
made  several  voyages  of  exploration,  and 
claimed  priority  over  Cabot  and  Columbus 
in  reaclung  the  mainland,  named  iu  his 
honour  America,  but  the  best  authorities 
consider  this  claim  to  be  unfounded. 

Amerpack,  Veit  or  Veitus  (6.  1506,  d. 
1557),  a  learned  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Ingoldstadt,  left  many  works  of  value. 

Ames,  Fisher  (6.  1758,  d.  1808),  American 
lawyer  and  politician  who  sat  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Convention,  and  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  Congress,  and  famed  for  his 
eloquence.  He  retired  from  public  life  with 
Washington,  and  devoting  himself  to  literary 
pursuits,  was  elected  president  of  Harvard 
College  iu  1804. 

Ames,  Joseph  {b.  1689,  d.  1759),  an  iron- 
monger of  London,  evinced  a  great  love  for 
antiquities,  and  wrote  an  historical  account 


of  printing  in  England  from  1471  to  1600. 
He  was  elected  fellow  of  the  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries and  member  of  the  Royal 
Society. 

Amherst,  Jeffrey,  Lord  {b.  1717,  d. 
1797),  British  general,  served  on  the  Con- 
tinent and  in  America,  where  he  succeeded 
Abercrombie  as  commander-in-chief.  Here 
he  was  remarkably  successful,  aud  after 
many  victories,  Montreal  surrendered  aud 
Newfoundland  was  recovered  from  the 
French.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1776,  and  was  appointed  field-marshal  in 
1796. 

Amici,  Giambattista  {b.  1784,  d.  1863), 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Modena  and 
director  of  the  observatory  at  Florence, 
made  several  important  discoveries  in  botany 
and  zoology. 

Amico,  Vito  Maria  (6.  1693,  d.  1762),  a 
Benedictine  monk,  who  was  prior  of  his  con- 
vent and  historiographer  of  Sicily ;  he  vsrote 
several  works  on  the  histories  of  his  country 
aud  monastic  order. 

Amicom  or  Amigom,  Jacopo  {b.  1675,  d. 
no2),  Italian  painter  who  travelled  in 
Europe,  and  visited  England  in  1729. 

Amiot  or  Amyot,  Joseph  (6.  1718,  d. 
Pekin,  1794),  a  Jesuit  missionary  who  went 
in  1750  to  Chhia,  and  after  studying  the 
language  and  literature,  wrote  an  important 
history  of  that  coimtry. 

Amleth,  Amlod,  or  Hamlet,  a  prince  of 
Jutland,  the  original  of  Shakespere's  tragedy 
of  Hamlet.  His  history,  which  is  largely 
fictitious,  represents  him  as  slaying  his 
uncle  and  the  courtiers,  and  after  travelliug 
in  England  and  Scotland,  returning  to  Jut- 
land, where  he  was  killed  by  Vigleth. 

Amman,  Jost  (6.  1539,  d.  1591),  an  ex- 
tremely prolific  and  popular  designer;  he 
also  painted  well  in  oils. 

Ammannati,  Bartolomeo  (6.  1511,  d. 
1589),  an  Itahan  sculptor,  architect,  and 
engineer,  a  pupil  of  Bandinelli  and  of 
Sansovino.  He  worked  in  Rome,  Flor- 
ence, Naples  and  elsewhere,  aud  planned 
the  Ponte  della  Trinita,  which  bridges  the 
Amo  at  Florence. 

Ammianus,  Marcellinus,  an  historian  of 
the  fourth  century,  who  served  in  Gaul, 
Persia,  Mesopotamia,  aud  iu  the  Persian 
wars  under  Julian.  His  history,  which  has 
been  praised  for  its  accuracy  aud  impar- 
tiality, is  a  continuation  of  that  of  Tacitus 
to  the  time  of  Ammianus. 

Ammirato,  Scipione  (6.  1531,  d.  1601),  a 
Neapolitan  historian  and  genealogist;  he  was 
called  the  modem  Livy,  and  wrote  an  erudite 
history  of  Florence,  as  well  as  several 
biographies. 


Amm 


(34) 


Amy 


Ammonio,  Andrea  (6.  1477,  d.  1517), 
scholar  and  poet,  became  secretary  for  Latin 
correspondence  to  Henry  VIII.,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Erasmus  and  Sir  Thomas  More. 

Ammonius,  a  surgeon  of  Alexandria  who 
flourished  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  the  in- 
ventor of  lithotrity. 

Ammonius,  the  son  of  Hermias,  was  a 
celebrated  teacher  of  philosophy  at  Alex- 
andria in  the  sixth  century.  He  was  a  Neo- 
Platonist,  but  wrote  several  commentaries 
on  Aristotle,  whom  he  greatly  admired. 

Amo,  Anton  Wilhelm  (6.  1703),  a  native 
of  Guinea,  was  adopted  by  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  and  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Halle  and  Wittenberg,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  talents  and  learning. 
He  rose  to  be  coimcillor  of  state  in  Berlin, 
but  on  the  death  of  his  adopted  father  he 
is  said  to  have  returned  to  the  Gold  Coast. 

Amontons,  Guillaume  (6.  1663,  d.  1705), 
a  Frenchman  learned  in  natural  philo- 
sophy, whose  inventions  did  much  for  the 
promotion  of  science.  He  constructed  a 
new  thermometer,  hygroscope,  and  other  in- 
struments, and  is  by  some  said  to  have  in- 
vented the  telegraph. 

Amoretti,  Carlo  (6.  1741,  d.  1816),  Italian 
naturalist  and  geographer,  wrote  at  Milan 
an  interesting  collection  of  literary  memoirs. 
His  best-known  work  is  A  Journey  from 
Milan  to  the  Three  Lakes. 

Amorosi,  Antonio,  an  Italian  paiater  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  who  especially  ex- 
celled in  humorous  pictures  of  low  life. 

Amory,  Thomas  (6.  1691,  d.  1788),  English 
tumorous  writer,  author  of  The  Life  and 
Opinions  of  John  Buncle,  Esq. 

Amos,  one  of  the  minor  prophets,  was 
a  native  of  Tekoa,  a  village  about  eleven 
miles  south  of  Jerusalem. 

Amour,  Guillaume  de  Saint  {d.  1272), 
canon  of  Beauvais,  and  professor  of  philo- 
sophy in  the  imiversity  of  Paris,  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  dispute  between  the 
professors  and  the  Dominicans,  and  was 
the  chief  associate  of  Robert  Sorbonne  in 
founding  the  establishment  of  the  Sorbonne. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie  (6.  1775,  d.  1836), 
a  distinguished  electrician,  who  may  be 
considered  the  father  of  electro-magnetics. 
He  first  attracted  attention  by  a  treatise  on 
the  Theory  of  Probability,  published  in  1802, 
and  obtained  a  post  as  teacher,  and  ulti- 
mately as  professor,  at  the  polytechnic 
school  in  Paris.  In  1820  Orsted's  discovery 
of  the  effect  of  voltaic  currents  upon  mag- 
netic needles  was  brought  to  his  notice, 
and  Ampere  verified  and  completed  this,  and 
showed  also  the  mutual  effect  of  currents 


upon  each  other,  from  which  he  deduced  a 
new  theory  of  magnetiem.  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  recognised  his  services, 
and  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  electro- 
magnetic units.  Ampere's  last  great  work 
was  the  classification  of  the  sciences,  but 
this  he  did  not  live  to  finish. 

Ampere,  Jean  Jacques  Antoine  (h.  1800, 
d.  1SG4),  son  of  the  preceding,  an  historian 
and  literary  critic  of  repute,  became  pro- 
fessor of  French  literary  history  at  the 
College  de  France. 

Amphilochus,  Saint  {d.  399),  Bishop  of 
Iconium,  and  the  contemporary  and  friend 
of  Basil  and  Gregory  Nazianzen.  He  took 
part  in  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  and 
was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Ariaus. 

Ampthill,  Right  Hon.  Odo  William  Leo- 
pold Russell,  Baron  (6.  1829,  d.  1884),  third 
sou  of  Major-General  Lord  George  William 
Russell.  He  was  educated  chiefiy  on  the 
Continent,  and  acquired  great  proficiency  in 
modem  languages,  and  entering  the  diplo- 
matic service,  was  employed  in  several 
countries  as  attache  to  the  English  embassy 
and  otherwise.  In  1857  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  Berlin,  and  with  Lords 
Beaconsfield  and  Salisbuiy  represented 
England  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  1878. 
He  was  created  Baron  Ampthill  of  Ampthill 
in  1881. 

Amru  rbn  Othman,  a  learned  Persian  of 
the  8th  century,  who  compiled  the  Arabic 
grammar  and  syntax  known  as  The  Book. 

Amru-Ibnu-l-Ass  (6.  600,  d.  663),  an 
opponent,  but  afterwards  a  supporter  and 
general  of  Mohammed,  on  whose  death  he 
fought  in  Palestine  and  Egypt,  capturing 
Jerusalem  and  Alexandria,  and  destroying 
the  library  at  the  latter  place. 

Amru-1-Kays,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet, 
who  wrote  one  of  the  Moallakat  or  poema 
suspended  in  the  temple  at  Mecca. 

Amsdorf,  Nicholas  von  (6.  1483,  d.  1565), 
a  disciple  and  supporter  of  Luther,  whom  he 
assisted  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  He 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Naumberg  in  1524. 

Amulius,  King  of  Alba  {d.  B.C.  714),  de- 
throned his  brother  Numitor,  and  forced  the 
latter's  daughter,  Rhea  Silvia,  to  become  a 
vestal  virgin ;  she  became,  however,  mother 
of  Romulus  and  Remus,  who  slew  the 
usurper. 

Amussat,  Jean  Zulema  (6.  1796,  d.  1856), 
a  French  surgeon,  eminent  for  his  researches 
and  writings,  especially  those  on  the  vas- 
cular system. 

Amynander,  a  king  of  Athamania,  who 
lived  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  centuries  B.C.,  acted 
as    mediator    between  Philip  of  Macedon 


Amy 


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Ana 


and  the  ^tolians,  and  also  took  part  in  the 
■wars  between  Rome  and  Macedon. 

Amyntas  I.,  King  of  Macedonia,  came  to 
the  throne  B.C.  610 ;  he  became  tributary 
for  his  domioions  to  the  Persians. 

Am3nitas  II.,  King  of  Macedonia  {d.  B.C. 
370)  B.C.  394.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Illy- 
rians,  but  with  the  help  of  Thessaly  and 
Sparta  recovered  his  throne. 

Amyntas  III.,  King  of  Macedonia,  was 
only  an  infant  ou  his  father's  death,  and  his 
xmcle  Philip  assumed  first  the  regency,  and 
then  the  throne.  He  was  put  to  death  for 
conspiring  against  his  cousin  Alexander  the 
Great. 

Amyot,  Jacques  (6.  1513,  d.  1593),  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  at  the  College 
of  Prance,  afterwards  preceptor  to  the  sous 
of  Henry  II.  Charles  IX.  appointed  him 
Bishop  of  Auxerre  and  Grand  Almoner  of 
France.  His  greatest  work  was  a  translation 
of  the  Lives  of  Fliitarch. 

Amyrant  (Amyraldus),  Moise,  (6.  1596,  r/. 
1664),  a  Protestant  theologian  and  professor 
of  the  university  of  Saumur,  who  excited  a 
violent  controversy  by  a  defence  of  Calvin's 
doctrine  of  predestination. 

Anacaona  {d.  1503),  Queen  of  Xaraguaia 
Hayti.  Her  husband,  the  chief  of  Ma^uana, 
beiug  captured  and  carried  off  by  Colum- 
bns,  she  went  to  her  brother  the  King  of 
Xaragua,  who  associated  her  with  him  in  the 
government.  She  treated  the  Spaniards 
kindly  and  honourably,  but  was  treacher- 
ously seized  and  put  to  death  by  Ovando, 
the  Spanish  governor. 

Anacletus  II.,  a  cardinal  of  wealth  and 
learning ;  he  was  elected  by  a  minority  as 
Pope,  and  maintamed  his  position  against 
Innocent  II.,  till  his  death  m  1138. 

Aoacreon  (6.  ctrca  560),  a  Greek  lyric  poet 
who  lived  at  Samos  under  the  patronage 
of  the  tyrant  Polycrates,  and  afterwards  at 
Athens.  His  poems  were  admirably  trans- 
lated by  Moore. 

Ananias,  High  Priest  of  the  Jews,  was 
appointed  in  a.d.  48,  but  was  deposed  before 
Felix  left  the  province.  He  was  a  violent 
and  lawless  man  and  was  assassinated  by 
the  sicarii  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  Jewish 
war. 

Ananias,  an  early  professor  of  Christianity 
who  with  his  wife  attempted  to  deceive  the 
apostles,  but  was  punished  with  instant 
death. 

Ananias,  a  Christian  of  Damascus  who  by 
Divine  du'ection  sought  out  Saul  in  his 
blindness  and  comforted  and  healed  him. 
He  IS  said  to  have  been  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Damascus,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom. 

D  2 


Ananus,  the  Elder,  or  Annas,  High  Priest 
under  the  governorship  of  Cyrenius,  be- 
fore whom  our  Lord  was  first  brought  by 
the  Jews.  He  is  frequently  mentioned  by 
Josephus. 

Ananus,  the  Younger  {d.  67),  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  made  High  Priest  by 
Agrippa,  but  after  three  months,  during 
which  he  had  put  James  the  Less  to  death, 
he  was  deposed.  He  courageously  opposed 
the  Zealots,  who  had  seized  the  temple  and 
succeeded  in  gaming  the  outer  court,  but 
was  attacked  and  slain  by  the  Idumeans. 

Anarawd  or  Anarod  {d.  913),  a  Welsh 
prince  who  in  867  succeeded  his  father 
Roderick  to  the  throne  of  North  Wales.  He 
received  the  Britons  who  were  driven  from 
Cumberland,  granted  them  land  and  assisted 
them  in  defeating  the  Saxons  at  the  battle 
of  Dial  Rodri,  near  Conway. 

Anarcliarsis,  a  celebrated  Scythian  philo- 
sopher, who  lived  in  the  16th  century  B.C., 
and  whose  remarks,  as  recorded  by  Lucian 
and  other  writers,  show  him  to  have  been  a 
shrewd  and  just  thinker.  He  spent  some 
time  in  Athens,  where  he  became  intimate 
with  Solon  ;  and  afterwards  visited  Croesus, 
King  of  Lydia  ;  but  on  his  return  home  was 
put  to  death  by  his  brother  the  king. 

Anasco,  Juan  de,  a  Spanish  adventurer, 
who  under  Hernando  de  Soto  assisted  in  the 
conquest  of  Florida. 

Anastatia,  Saint,  a  pious  and  charitable 
Christian  lady  who  suffered  martyrdom  in 
the  Diocletian  persecution  in  303. 

Anastatius,  anti-Pope,  Cardinal  of  St. 
Marcellus,  was  set  up  by  the  Emperors 
Lothaire  and  Louis  in  opposition  to  Benedict 
III.  in  855. 

Anastatius  Sinaita  {d.  593),  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  was  expelled  from  his  see  by  Justin 
II.  in  570,  but  was  afterwards  restored. 

Anastatius  Sinaita  {d.  G08),  the  Younger, 
Patriarch  of  Antioch  and  successor  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  zealous  in  his  efforts  to 
convert  the  Jews,  who  however  revolted, 
and  put  him  to  death  with  great  cruelty. 

Anastatius  I.  (6.  430,  «?.  518),  Emperor  of 
Constantmople,  called  Dicorus  on  account 
of  the  different  colours  of  his  eyes.  Of 
humble  origin,  he  entered  the  life-guards 
of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  on  whose  death  in 
491  he  was  raised  to  the  throne.  A  war 
with  Persia  and  an  invasion  of  the  Huns 
were  among  the  troubles  of  his  reign,  while 
in  514  Vitalianus  besieged  Constantinople 
and  defeated  Anastatius  by  land  and  sea. 

Anastatius  II.  (d.  719),  Emperor  of 
Constantinople.     On  the  deposition  of  the 


Ana 


(36) 


Anc 


Emperor  Pliilippicus,  his  miuister  Artemis 
was  elected  to  the  throue  aud  assumed  the 
name  of  Auastatius.  A  rival  claimant  arose 
iu  Theodosius,  who  besieged  and  took  Con- 
stautmople,  and  Auastatius  abdicated  aud 
retired  to  a  convent  in  716.  In  an.  attempt 
to  regain  the  throne  he  was  betrayed  aud 
beheaded. 

Anastatius  I.  (d.  401),  Pope,  a  contem- 
porary of  Chrysostom,  Augusttue,  and 
Jerome;  he  reconciled  the  Churches  of 
Rome  and  Antioch,  and  opposed  the  opinions 
of  Origen. 

Anastatius  II.  (d.  498),  Pope,  was  elected 
in  496,  aud  vainly  endeavoured  to  create 
harmony  between  the  Eastern  ajid  Western 
Churches. 

Anastatius  III.  (d.  913),  Pope,  a  man  of 
mild  dispositiou  and  moderate  views. 

Anastatius  IV.  (d.  1154),  Pope,  a  man 
of  wisdom  and  charity,  who  succeeded 
Eugenius  III.  in  1153. 

Anatolius  of  Alexandria,  Saint,  Bishop  of 
Laodicea  in  the  3rd  century,  aud  oue  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  tune.  He  was  the 
first  Christian  who  taught  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle,  and  is  said  to  have  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom. 

Anaxagoras  (b.  b.c.  500,  d.  b.o.  428),  a 
celebrated  Greek  philosopher  who  taught  at 
Athens,  aud  numbered  amongst  his  pupils 
many  distinguished  men,  including  Euripides 
and  Pericles,  and  prgbably  Thucydides  and 
Socrates,  toeing  bamshed  on  a  charge  of 
atheism,  he  retired  to  Lampsacus,  where  he 
remained  undisturbed  till  his  death.  He 
explained  his  views  in  a  treatise  on  iVa- 
iure. 

Anazandrides,  a  Greek  comic  poet  of  the 
4th  century  B.C.,  bom  at  Rhodes;  was 
accused  of  libelling  the  government,  and 
starved  to  death  at  Athens. 

Anaxarchus  of  Abdera  (d.  b.c.  323),  a 
Greek  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Leucippus 
and  Democritus,  and  a  friend  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  He  was  cruelly  put  to  death  by 
the  tyrant  of  Cyprus. 

Anaximander  (6.  610  b.c,  d.  547 b.c.)  was 
the  friend  and  disciple  of  Thales  of  Miletus, 
and  was  a  distinguished  astronomer.  He 
first  noticed  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic, 
taught  that  the  moou  shines  by  reflected 
hght,  and  that  the  earth  is  globular. 

Anaximenes  (b.  628  b.c),  the  pupil  and 
successor  of  the  preceding,  regarded  air  as 
the  primal  principle  of  all  things,  and  Pliny 
attributes  to  him  the  invention  of  the  sun- 
dial. 

Anaximenes    of    Lampsacus,   a   Greek 


historian  and  philosopher,  was  the  son  of 
Aristocles,  and  one  of  the  preceptors  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  wrote  a  history  of 
the  reigns  of  Philip  aud  Alexander. 

Anaya  y  Maldonado,  Diego  (6.  1360,  d. 
1440),  Archbishop  of  Salamanca,  represented 
Castile  at  the  Council  of  Constance  in  1414, 
and  was  afterwards  ambassador  to  France 
for  John  II.  He  founded  and  endowed  the 
college  of  Salamanca,  the  first  of  the  great 
colleges  of  Spain. 

Ancelot,  Jacques  Arsene  rran(,ois  Poly- 
carpe  {b.  1794,  af.  1854),  a  French  dramatist, 
originally  a  clerk  iu  the  marine  department, 
who  from  1819  to  1829  wi-ote  several  trage- 
dies. Was  iu  receipt  of  a  pension  from 
Louis  XIII.,  which  iu  1830  he  lost  aud  was 
prohibited  from  writing  tragedies,  but 
with  the  assistance  of  his  wife  produced 
a  number  of  comedies  and  operettas.  In 
1841  he  was  elected  member  of  the  French 
Academy. 

Ancelot,  Marguerite  Virginie  Chardon  {b. 
1792,  d.  1875),  wife  of  the  preceding,  whom 
she  considerably  assisted  in  his  work,  being 
herself  a  writer  of  novels  and  comedies. 

AncMeta,  Jose  de  (b.  1533,  d.  1597),  a 
Portuguese  missionary,  "the  Apostle  of 
Brazil,"  where  he  worked  indefatigably 
amongst  the  Indians.  He  was  also  author 
of  a  treatise  on  I'/te  Natural  Froductions  of 
Brazil. 

AnciUon,  Charies  {h.  1659,  d.  1715),  eldest 
eon  of  David  AnciUon.  He  was  judge 
of  the  French  refugees  at  Berlin,  and 
historiographer  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 
He  left  several  biographical  and  historical 
works. 

Ancillon,  David  (6. 1617,  d.  1692),  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  and  uative  of  Metz,  from 
whence  he  fled  to  Berlin  upon  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

AncUlon,  Johann  Peter  Frederick  (6. 
1766,  d.  1837),  German  preacher  and  author, 
and  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  iu 
Berlin,  was  an  advocate  of  constitutional 
freedom.  In  1831  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  foreign  affairs. 

Ancina,  Giovanni  Giovenale  {b.  1545,  d. 
1604),  was  professor  of  medicine  iu  the  uni- 
versity of  Turin,  but  determined  in  1572  to 
devote  himself  to  theology,  aud  in  1602  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Saluzzo. 

Anckwitz,  Nicholas  (b.  1750,  d.  1794), 
Polish  diplomatist,  a  talented  but  vicious 
man,  was  accused  by  the  populace  of 
accepting  bribes  from  Prussia,  aud  put  to 
death. 

Ancus  Martins  {d.  b.c.  616),  fourth  king 


And 


(37) 


And 


of  Rome,  and  grandson  of  Numa  Pompilius. 
He  did  much  in  the  interests  of  religion  and 
laws,  built  the  town  of  Ostia,  defeated  the 
Latins  in  a  sanguinary  battle,  and  had  a 
prosperous  reign  of  twenty-four  years. 

Andelo,  or  Andelau,  Herman  Peter  von, 
a  German  jurist  of  the  loth  century,  who 
studied  at  Padua,  and  was  the  first  to  com- 
pile a  system  of  German  law. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian  (6.  1805,  d. 
1875).  The  son  of  poor  parents,  was  bom 
at  Odensee  in  Funen ;  he  early  showed  a 
strong  inclination  for  the  stage,  and  at 
fourteen  went  to  Copenhagen,  where  he 
obtained  an  engagement  at  the  theatre 
royal.  His  voice  soon  broke  down,  but 
through  the  kindness  of  Conference  Coun- 
cillor Collia  he  was  admitted  to  the 
grammar  school  at  Slagelse.  His  first 
prose  work,  a  book  of  travels,  was  published 
in  1828,  and  was  followed  by  others,  as  well 
as  novels  and  poems.  He  is  best  known  for 
his  fairy  tales,  which  are  full  of  charm. 

Anderson,  Adam  (6.  1692,  d.  1765),  the 
historian  of  commerce.  His  great  work, 
published  in  1764,  gives  accounts  of  the 
commercial  progress  and  social  and  indus- 
trial development  of  all  civilised  countries 
from  the  earliest  times  to  1762. 

Anderson,  Sir  Edmund  (6.  1530,  d.  1605), 
an  English  lawyer.  Chief  Justice  ia  the  Court 
of  Common  Pleas  in  1582,  and  a  patient  and 
impartial  judge  in  civil  cases,  though  his 
adhesion  to  the  Established  Church  led  him 
into  too  great  severity  towards  sectarians. 

Anderson,  Elizabeth  Garrett,  M.D.  {b. 
1837).  A  well-known  lady  physician, 
studied  medicine  at  the  Middlesex,  St. 
Andrew's  (Ediaburgh),  and  London  hos- 
pitals, and  in  1865  received  the  diploma  of 
L.S.  A.,  and  was  appoiated medical  attendant 
to  St.  Mary's  dispensary.  Li  1870  she  was 
made  visitiag  physician  to  the  East  London 
hospital  for  children,  and  obtained  the 
degree  of  M.D.  at  the  university  of  Paris. 
The  following  year  she  was  married  to  Mr. 
J.  G.  S.  Anderson,  but  continued  to  practise 
in  London,  and  was  appoiated  senior  physi- 
cian to  the  new  hospital  for  women,  and 
dean  of  the  London  school  of  medicine  for 
women. 

Anderson,   Sir  George  William,  K.C.B. 

(6.  1791,  d.  1857),  son  of  a  London  merchant, 
entered  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  and  was 
employed  by  Elphiastone  in  drawing  up 
The  Bombay  Code  of  1827.  In  1841  he 
became  Governor  of  Bombay,  but  after 
holding  similar  posts  in  Mauritius  and 
Ceylon,  resigned  in  1855  ;  he  was  knighted 
in  1849. 

Anderson,  James    {b.   1662,   d.   1728),   a 
Scottish    genealogist  and  antiquary,    who 


was  educated  for  the  law,  but  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  antiquities.  In  spite  of 
great  poverty,  Anderson  contrived  to  finish 
his  collection  of  the  ancient  charters  and 
great  seals  of  Scotland,  but  it  was  not  pub- 
lished till  some  years  after  his  death. 

Anderson,  Johann  (6.  1674,  d.  1743),  a 
German  diplomatist  and  naturalist  who  was 
employed  in  matters  relating  to  commerce 
and  navigation. 

Anderson,  John  (6.  1726,  d.  1796),  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  and  afterwards 
of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  and  founder  of  the  Anderson 
University  in  that  city. 

Anderson,  John  {d.  1820),  a  Scottish  mer- 
chant of  htimble  birth  who  settled  in  Ireland, 
where  he  acquired  a  large  fortune,  much  of 
which  he  expended  upon  the  town  and 
neighbourhood  of  Fermoy.  He  declined  a 
baronetcy,  which  however  was  conferred 
upon  his  son. 

Anderson,  Martin  Brewer  (6.  1815),  an 
American  educator,  who  graduated  at 
Waterville  college,  where  he  was  subse- 
quently professor  of  rhetoric.  In  1853  he 
became  president  of  the  university  of 
Rochester;  he  obtained  repute  as  a  powerful 
pubUc  speaker,  and  used  his  eloquence  with 
effect  during  the  Civil  war. 

Anderson,  Mary  {b.  1859),  bom  at  Sacra- 
mento, California,  well  known  as  an  actress 
of  great  beauty  and  considerable  dramatic 
taste,  at  sixteen  years  of  age  made  her 
debut  at  Louisville  as  Juliet.  She  met  with 
great  success  both  in  the  United  States  and 
in  London. 

Anderson,  Nils  Johann  (6.  1821,  d.  1880), 
a  Swedish  botanist,  who  left  nimierous  tech- 
nical works. 

Anderson,  Robert,  M.D.  (6. 1750,  d.  1830), 
a  Scottish  surgeon  who  devoted  himself  to 
literature,  and  published  a  Complete  Edition 
of  the  Poets  of  Great  Britain  from  the  time 
of  Chaucer,  with  biographical  and  critical 
notes. 

Anderson,  Robert  (6.  1770,  d.  1833),  a 
ballad  writer  of  humble  birth,  whose  later 
productions  were  in  the  Cumberland  dialect. 
His  most  popular  ballad  was  Betiy  Brown 
(1801),  his  earhest  Lucy  Gray,  of  which  the 
name  and  metre  were  borrowed  by  Words- 
worth. 

Anderson,  Robert  {b.  1800,  d.  1871),  an 
American  general,  who  served  under  Lincoln 
in  the  Black  Hawk  war,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Mexican  war  (1846-7)  in  the 
battle  of  El  Molino  del  Rey.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  war  he  was  appointed  to 
the  defence  of  Charleston  harbour,  and 
held  Fort  Sumter  for  two  days  against  the 


And 


(38) 


And 


Confederates ;  failing  health  prevented  his 
taking  further  part  in  the  war. 

Anderson,  Eobert  Bum  (6.  1833,  d.  1860), 
a  British  officer,  who  distuiguished  himself 
during  the  Indian  Mutiny.  He  afterward 
served  in  China,  but  being  sent  with  other 
officers  to  negotiate  with  the  Chinese  com- 
missioners, was  treacherously  seized,  carried 
to  Pekui,  and  so  cruelly  tortured  that  death 
ensued  in  a  few  days. 

Anderson,  William  (6.  1757,  d.  1837),  a 
painter  of  marine  subjects, 

Anderton,  Henry,  a  painter  of  portraits 
and  landscapes  in  the  17th  century;  his 
painting  of  Mrs.  Stuart,  afterwards  Duchess 
of  Eichmond,  was  well  known. 

Anderton,  James,  author  of  several  con- 
troversial treatises,  flourished  in  the  early 
half  of  the  17th  century,  and  wrote  under 
ihQ  pseudonym  of  "John  Brereley." 

Andocides  (6.  467  b.c,  d.  397  B.C.), 
Athenian  orator,  one  of  the  ten  whose 
works  were  contained  in  the  Alexandrine 
Canon.  He  was  four  times  driven  from 
Athens,  and  finally  died  in  exile. 

Andrada,  Antonio  (6.  1580,  d.  1633),  a 
Portuguese  Jesuit  who  went  as  missionary 
to  India,  and  penetrated  to  Thibet,  where 
he  was  well  received  and  built  a  church. 
Died  at  Goa. 

Andrada,  Jacinto  Freire  d'  (6.  1597,  d. 
1657),  a  Portuguese  author  of  high  repute; 
he  was  offered,  but  declined,  the  bishopric 
of  Viseu.  His  greatest  work  is  the  Life  of 
Dom  Jodo  de  Castro. 

Andrada  E.  Silva,  Jose  Bonifacio  d'  (6. 
1765,  d.  1838),  a  Brazilian  statesman,  who 
travelled  and  studied  in  Europe,  and  became 
professor  of  metallurgy  and  geognosy  at 
Coimbra,  and  general  iutendant  of  the  Por- 
tuguese mines.  Eeturning  to  Brazil  in 
1819,  he  took  an  active  part  in  poUtics,  and 
was  for  a  time  minister  of  the  interior  to 
Dom  Pedro  I.,  and  afterwards  guardian  and 
tutor  to  his  successor,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  tiU 
1833,  when  he  was  displaced,  and  he  retired 
to  Paqueta,  where  he  died. 

Andral,  Gabriel  (6.  1797,  d.  1853),  a  dis- 
tinguished French  physician  and  author, 
who  in  1839  was  elected  to  the  chair  of 
pathology  and  therapeutics  in  the  Academy 
of  Medicine  at  Paris. 

Andrassy,  Julius,  Count  (6.  1823,  d.  1890), 
an  emiueut  Hungarian,  who  in  1847  entered 
the  Hungarian  Diet  as  member  for  his 
native  town  of  Zemplin.  In  politics  a 
Liberal,  he  supported  the  policy  of  Kossuth 
as  well  by  his  eloquence,  which  was  con- 
siderable, as  by  his  activity  in  organisation, 
and  in  the  field.    Upon  the  collapse  of  the 


Hungarian  insurrection  he  was  sentenced 
to  death,  but  escaping  to  France,  passed 
seven  years  (1849 — 1856)  in  that  country, 
and  in  England.  Appointed  premier  of  the 
first  separate  Hungarian  cabinet,  by  a  series 
of  wise  and  liberal  measures  he  transformed 
Hungary  from  a  turbulent  and  revolu- 
tionary province  to  the  most  trustworthy 
portion  of  the  empire.  Through  his 
influence  Austria  and  Hungary  refused 
to  take  part  with  France  in  the  Franco- 
German  war,  from  which  two  important 
results  followed :  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
were  annexed  to  the  empire,  and  Germany 
found  herself  compelled  to  effect  an  Austrian 
alliance.  Andrassy  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  Berlin  Conference  (1878),  but  in  the 
following  year  resigned  office  suddenly  and 
xrnexpectedly,  and  retired  into  private  life, 
from  which  he  was  never  recalled  to  power. 

Andre,  Christian  Karl  {b.  1763,  d.  1831), 
a  German  educational  writer,  who  worked 
at  Schnepfenthal  and  Briinn,  and  left  nu- 
merous and  valuable  works. 

Andre,  Johann  (6.  1741,  d.  1799),  an 
eminent  musical  composer  and  publisher, 
was  director  of  the  opera  at  Berlin,  and 
kapellmeister  to  the  Prince  of  Prussia  and 
the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg. 

Andre,  Johann  Anton  {b.  1775,  d.  1842), 
son  of  the  preceding,  also  a  composer  and 
pubUsher  of  music. 

Andr^,  John  {b.  1751,  d.  1780),  a  British 
soldier  who  served  in  the  war  with  America, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major.  He  con- 
ducted the  negotiations  with  Benedict  Ar- 
nold for  the  betrayal  of  West  Point, but  being 
discovered  in  disguise,  was  arrested  and  put 
to  death  as  a  spy.  His  remains  lie  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  where  a  cenotaph  was  erected 
to  his  memory. 

Andr6,  Yves-Marie  (6.  1675,  d.  1764),  a 
French  philosopher  and  man  of  letters,  who 
was  suspected  by  his  brother  Jesuits  of  Car- 
tesian tendencies,  and  narrowly  escaped  a 
prosecution.  His  works,  which  have  been 
republished,  include  a  treatise  of  great  merit, 
Siir  le  Beau. 

Andrea  Fisano  (6.  1270,  d.  1345),  an 
Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  who  pro- 
duced many  fine  works  in  Florence,  his 
greatest  being  the  bronze  figures  in  relief 
for  the  baptistery  of  St.  John's. 

Andrea  del  Sarto,  or  Vannucci,  an  Italian 
painter  of  humble  birth ;  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Peter  da  Cosimo.  He  worked  at  Florence 
and  in  France,  where  Francis  I.  loaded  him 
with  honours. 

Andrese,  Abraham  {d.  1607),  was  conse- 
crated Archbishop  of  Upsala  in  1594,  after 
which  he  crowned  Sigismund.    He  was  a 


And 


(39) 


And 


reformer,  and  under  the  regency  of  Duke 
Charles  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
died. 

Andreae,  Jacob  (6.  1528,  d.  1590),  a 
Lutheran  divine  who  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  religious  controversies  of  Germany. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer,  and  drew  up  the 
Formula  Concordia,  or  summary  of  faith  for 
the  Lutheran  Church. 

Andreas,  Johannes,  or  Giovanni  (6.  1272, 
d.  1348),  filled  the  chair  of  canon  law  at 
Bologna,  and  enjoyed  the  highest  reputa- 
tion as  a  teacher  and  author. 

Adreani,  Andrew  (6.  1540,  d.  1623),  an 
Italian  painter  and  engraver,  whose  prints 
are  numerous  and  valuable. 

Andreas,  Archbishop  of  Crayna  in  Carin- 
thia  {(i.  1484),  who  made  zealous  but  un- 
successful attempts  to  reform  the  Church 
in  the  15th  century.  For  his  boldness  in 
rebuking  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  and  the  cardinals 
he  was  imprisoned,  but  on  his  release  re- 
newed his  exertions,  was  excommunicated, 
and  imprisoned. 

Andreini,  Francesco,  an  actor  and  writer 
of  comedies  in  the  16th  century,  and  head 
of  the  company  known  as  "  De'  Gelosi." 

Andreini,  Giovanni  Battista  (6.  1568,  d. 
1652),  son  of  the  preceding,  di-amatic  author 
and  performer ;  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  is 
said  to  have  been  suggested  by  his  drama  of 
L''Adaino. 

Andreini,  Isabella  {b.  Padua,  1562,  d.  1604), 
a  distinguished  poetess  and  actress,  remark- 
able alike  for  her  beauty  and  blameless  life. 

Andrelini  (d.  1518),  Publio  Fausto,  an 
Italian  poet,  was  professor  of  classical 
literature  in  Paris,  and  patronised  by 
Charles  VIII. 

Andreossy,  Antoine  Fran9ois,  Comte  d' 
(6.  1761,  d.  1828),  a  French  ofiicer  of  en- 
gineers, and  a  learned  and  honourable  man. 
He  served  in  the  wars  under  Napoleon,  and 
was  afterwards  employed  diplomatically, 
and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed 
to  negotiate  an  armistice  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  and  took  office  imder  Louis 
XVIII. 

Addreozzi,  Gaetano  (6.  1763,  d.  1826),  a 
popular  Italian  composer,  who  wrote  many 
operas  and  several  oratorios. 

Andres,  Juan  (6.  1740,  d.  1817),  a  learned 
Spanish  Jesuit,  who  devoted  himself  to 
literature  and  literary  history. 

Andres  de  Uztarroz,  Juan  Francisco  (6. 
1606,  d.  1653),  a  learned  Spanish  historian, 
was  appointed  chronicler  of  Aragou  iu 
1647,  and  left  many  valuable  works. 


Andrew,  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
who  before  his  call  was  a  discijjle  of  John 
the  Baptist.  He  was  the  means  of  bringing 
his  brother,  Simon  Peter,  to  Christ,  and  is 
said  to  have  preached  the  Gospel  in  various 
countries,  and  to  have  been  at  last  crucified 
at  Patrae  in  Achaia. 

Andrew,  Yui-evich  (6.  1110,  d.  1174),  a 
brave  and  ambitious  Russian  prince,  who 
distinguished  himself  in  wars  against  Kiev, 
and  steadily  extended  the  boundaries  of  his 
kingdom. 

Andrew  I.  [d.  1061),  King  of  Hungary, 
ruled  at  first  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
Leventa,  whom  he  survived,  but  iu  1060 
was  defeated  and  dethroned  by  another 
brother,  Bela. 

Andrew  IL  (6.  1175,  d.  1235),  King  of 
Hungary,  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  infant  ward  and  nephew 
Ladislaus  in  1205.  At  the  command  of  the 
Pope  he  undertook  a  costly  crusade  to  the 
Holy  Land,  but  effected  nothing.  In  1222 
he  pubhshed  the  famous  "Golden  Bull," 
the  charter  of  Hungarian  freedom. 

Andrew  III.  {d.  1301),  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  ascended  the  throne  in  1290, 
and  defeated  the  rival  claimants  supported 
by  Germany  and  the  Pope,  but  died  whilst 
preparing  to  resist  another  attack. 

Andrewes,  Lancelot,  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter {b.  1555,  d.  1626),  an  eminently  learned 
and  pious  man,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
preachers  of  his  day.  He  assisted  m  the 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  besides  sermons 
and  lectures  left  a  popular  Manual  of 
Frivate  Devolions. 

Andrews,  James  Pettit  (6.  1737,  d.  1797\ 
an  historical  and  imscelianeous  writer, 
author  of  The  History  of  Great  Britam  and 
Anecdotes  Ancient  and  Modern. 

Andrews,  Stephen  Pearl  (6.  1812,  d. 
1886),  an  American  lawyer  and  linguist, 
who  introduced  phonography  into  America, 
and  devoted  many  years  of  his  life  to  an 
attempt  to  evolve  a  "scientific"  and 
"  universal  language,"  which  he  termed 
Alwato. 

Andrieu,  Bertraud  (t.  1761,  d.  1822),  an 
eminent  French  medallist,  who  did  much  to 
elevate  his  art,  and  was  made  Chevalier  of 
the  Order  of  St.  Michael. 

Andrieux,  Francois  Guillaume  Jean  Stan- 
islas (6.  1759,  d.  1833),  an  eminent  Freuch 
writer,  was  secretary  to  the  Freuch  Aca- 
demy, and  professor  of  literature  in  the 
College  of  France.  He  left  numerous 
works. 

Andronicus  Comnenus  (6.  1110,  d.  1185), 
Emperor  of  Constantinople,  after  quarrels 


And 


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Ang 


and  reconciliations  ■with  Manuel  Comnenus, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1183,  putting  to 
death  Alexis  II.  ;  was  killed  during  an 
insurrection  roused  by  his  cruelty. 

Andronicus  of  Rhodes,  a  peripatetic  phi- 
losopher of  the  1st  century  B.C. 

Andronicus,  Johannes  Callistus,  a  scholar 
of  Thessalouica  who  taught  at  Bologna  and 
Rome,  and  tiually  in  Paris,  whei-e  he  became 
professor  of  Greek.  He  followed  the  phi- 
losophy of  Aristotle. 

Andronicus,  Marcus  Livius,  a  native  of 
Tareutum,  who  wi'ote  Latin  dramas  in  the 
3rd  century  B.C. ;  he  translated  the  Udijs- 
sey  and  wrote  several  popular  poems. 

Andronicus  I.  {d.  1235),  Emperor  of  Tre- 
bizond,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1222. 
He  was  defeated  and  made  tributary  by 
Ala-ed-diu. 

Andronicus  II.  {d.  1267),  Emperor  of 
Trebizond,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1263. 

Andronicus  III.  (d.  1332),  Emperor  of 
Trebizond,  succeeded  his  father,  Alexis  II., 
in  1330,  and  during  his  short  reign  put  two 
uncles  to  death. 

Andronicus  II.  (Palaeologus)  (i^.  1260,  d. 
1332),  called  "the  Elder,"  Emperor  of 
Constantinople ;  ruled  jointly  with  his 
father  Michael  for  ten  years,  but  in  1283 
assumed  the  entire  power.  His  reign  was 
disturbed  by  the  dissensions  of  the  Greek 
and  LatLa  Churches,  the  inroads  of  the 
Turks  and  the  revolt  of  the  Emperor's 
grandson,  who  seized  the  crown  in  1328, 
when  he  took  refuge  in  a  monastery,  where 
he  died. 

Andronicus  III.  (Palasologus)  (b.  1295,  d. 
1341),  called  "  the  Younger,"  the  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  whom  he  deposed,  was  a 
brave  and  popular  prince,  though  his  early 
history  is  marred  with  crime  :  he  was  de- 
feated in  a  war  with  Servia  and  Turkey. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund  {b.  1637,  d.  IIIZ), 
an  English  oificer  who  served  in  the 
"wars  with  the  Dutch,  and  afterwards  went 
as  governor  to  various  provinces  of  North 
America.  He  was  recalled  in  1698  from 
Virginia,  but  was  afterwards  appointed 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Guernsey. 

Androuet-Ducerceau,  Jacques,  a  French 
architect  of  the  16th  century,  who  studied  in 
Italy,  aud  was  employed  by  Henry  III.  and 
Henry  IV.  to  erect  several  of  the  public 
buildings  of  Paris.  The  Pont  Neuf  and  the 
gallery  of  the  Louvre  were  begun  by 
him. 

Andry,  Charles  Louis  Francois  (6.  1741, 
d.  1829),  a  distinguished  and  benevolent 
French  physician,  who  held  an  appointment 


at  the  Foundling  hospital  of  Paris,  and  was 
consulting  physician  to  Napoleon. 

Andry,  Nicolas,  or  De  Boisregard  (6. 1658, 
d.  1742),  a  physician  of  reputation,  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  Jourmd  dc.s  Sqavants, 
and  dean  of  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  the 
Royal  College  at  Paris. 

Aneau,  Barthelemy,  a  native  of  Bourges, 
principal  of  the  College  of  the  Trinity  at 
Lyons,  in  the  16th  century,  but  was  sus- 
pected of  favouring  the  reformers,  and  was 
seized  and  put  to  death  by  the  mob.  He 
<ra  islated  Sir  Thomas  More's  Utopia. 

Anel,  Dominique  (6.  1679,  d.  1730),  a 
celebrated  surgeon,  who  performed  success- 
fully several  new  and  difficult  operations,  and 
tinally  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  had  a  large 
practice  as  an  oculist. 

Aneurin,  a  Welsh  poet  of  the  6th  century, 
known  as  the  author  of  Gododin,  Another 
poem.  Verses  on  the  Months,  is  also  attri- 
buted to  him. 

Anfossi,  Pasquale  (6.  1729  or  1736,  d. 
1795),  an  Italian  opera  writer  and  pupil  of 
Piccini,  travelled  in  Europe,  and  was  ap- 
pointed maestro  di  capella  to  St.  Giovanni 
Laterano.  His  most  popular  opera  was 
Vliicognita  Perseguitata  (1773),  his  great 
Olimpiade  meeting  with  but  a  poor  re- 
ception. 

Ange,  Joseph  de  Saint  (6.  1636,  d.  1697), 
a  French  Carmelite  friar,  who  spent  many 
years  in  missionary  labours  in  the  East,  and 
finally  returning  to  France  was  made  prior 
of  the  convent  of  Perpignan. 

Angela  of  Brescia  or  Merici  (6.  1511,  d. 
1540),  a  Franciscan  nun,  foundress  of  the 
order  of  Ursulines  at  Brescia. 

Angeli,  Filippo  d'  (b.  1000,  d.  1640), 
called  Napoletan,  a  painter  of  battles  and 
landscapes,  who  resided  at  Rome  and 
Florence  under  the  patronage  of  Cosimo 
II. 

Angelic,  or  Delli  Angeli,  Pietro  (b.  1517, 
d.  1596),  a  renowned  Italian  scholar,  known 
as  Petrus  Borgaeus,  who  in  1549  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  Pisa.  Being  pensioned 
by  Heniy  III.  of  France  he  was  enabled 
to  devote  the  end  of  his  life  to  literature, 
and  left  many  works  in  prose  and 
poetry. 

Angeloni,  Luigi  (6.  1758,  d.  1842).  an 
Italian  republican  and  political  writer, 
one  of  the  tribunes  under  the  Roman  re- 
public in  1798.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Paris,  but  was  expelled,  and  took  refuge  in 
London,  where  he  died. 

Angely,  Ludwig  (6.  circa  1775,  d.  1835), 
a  popular    German    dramatic  writer,  and 


Ang 


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Ani 


director  of    the   Konigstadter    theatre    at 
Berlin. 

Angerstein,  John  Julius  (6.  1735,  d. 
1822),  a  Russian  merchant  whose  fine 
collection  of  pictures  was  purchased  by  the 
English  Government,  and  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  National  Gallery. 

AngMera,  Pietro  Martire  {b.  1455,  d. 
1526),  historian  and  diplomatist,  resided 
chiefly  in  Spain. 

Angilbert  or  Engilbert,  Saint  {d.  814), 
Abbot  of  Centule,  near  Abbeville,  the  pupil 
of  Alcuiu,  and  the  friend  and  confidential 
adviser  of  the  Emperor  Charlemagne,  whose 
daughter  Bertha  he  is  said  to  have  married. 

Anglada,  Joseph  (&.  1775,  d.  1833),  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  the  university  of 
Montpellier,  and  remembered  for  his  inves- 
tigations respecting  "glairiue,"  and  the 
analysis  of  medical  springs ;  he  also  left  a 
valuable  work  on  Toxicology. 

Angouleme,  Charles  de  Valois,  Due  d' 
(6.  1573,  d.  1650),  natural  sou  of  Charles 
IX.,  was  grand  prior  of  the  order  of  the 
Knights  of  Malta  in  1589,  but  afterwards 
left  the  order,  and  distinguished  himself, 
as  Count  of  Auvergne,  at  the  battles 
of  Ivry  and  Pontaiue-Franrioise.  Being 
concerned  in  several  plots,  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  perpetual  imprisonment  in  the 
Bastils,  but  on  the  death  of  Henry  IV, 
was  released,  and  again  served  in  the  army, 
and  commanded  at  the  siege  of  iiochelle. 

AngoulSme,  Louis  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
Due  d'  {h.  Hid,  d.  1844),  dauphin  of  France 
and  son  of  Charles  X.  He  married  his  cousin, 
the  daughter  of  Louis  XVI.,  in  1799.  At 
the  restoration  he  was  made  Grand  Admiral 
of  France,  and  opposed  the  Bonapartists 
with  promptness  and  vigour.  He  showed 
great  coolness  and  gallantry  in  Spain  in 
1823,  whither  he  led  an  army  against  the 
Constitutionalists.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  exile  he  resigned  all  right  to  the 
succession  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  the  Duke 
of  Bordeaux. 

Angouleme,  Marie  Therfese  Charlotte, 
Duchesse  d'  (6.  1778,  d.  1851),  daughter  of 
Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette,  and 
wife  of  the  preceding ;  she  shared  the  im- 
prisonment of  her  parents,  and  kept  a  diary, 
from  which  the  details  of  that  time  are 
known.  After  some  months  of  solitary  con- 
finement she  was  released  in  exchange  for 
the  commissioners  of  the  convention,  mar- 
ried her  cousin,  and  accompanied  Louis 
XVIIL  on  his  public  entry  into  Paris  in 
1814. 

Angstrom,  Anders  Jonas  (6.  1814,  d. 
1874),  a  Swedish  astronomer,  and  professor 
of  physics  at  Upsala,  who  made  important 
discoveries  by  means  of  the  spectroscope. 


He  showed  that  the  fixed  lines  of  the  spec- 
tra depend  only  upon  the  nature  of  the 
luminous  substance,  and  was  the  first  to 
notice,  though  he  did  not  explain,  the 
"Frauenhofer  lines"  of  the  solar  spec- 
trum. 

Anguier,  Fran9ois  (6.  1604,  d.  1669), 
a  celebrated  French  sculptor,  who  visited 
England  and  Rome,  where  he  attained  a 
high  reputation  ;  Louis  XII.  appointed  him 
keeper  of  the  Cabinet  of  Antiquities. 

Anguier,  Michel  (6.  1612,  d.  1686) ,  brother 
of  the  praceding,  also  noted  as  a  sculptor, 
was  rector  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  Paris. 

Anguisciola,  Sofonisba  (6.  1535,  d.  1620), 
a  native  of  Cremona,  and  a  porti-ait  painter 
of  much  renown;  she  painted  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  and  many  of  his  court,  and  on  her 
marriage  she  received  a  munificent  dowry 
and  an  increased  pension. 

Anhalt-Bemburg,  Hiristian  I.,  Duke  of 
(6.  1568,  d.  1630),  to(ii  a  leading  part  in  the 
contests  which  led  to  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  and  as  commander-in-chief  of  Fre- 
derick V.  of  Bohemia,  fought  successfully 
against  the  imperial  forces  till  defeated  at 
Prague  in  1620. 

Anhalt-Bemtourg,  Christian  II.,  Duke  of 
(6.  1599,  d.  1656),  son  of  the  preceding, 
with  whom  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Prague,  and  was  made  prisoner,  but  par- 
doned by  the  emperor.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1630. 

Anlialt-Dessau,  Leopold  (6.  1676,  d. 
1747),  a  Prussian  field-marshal,  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession.  He  also  obtained  victories  in 
behalf  of  Frederick  II.  over  the  Austrians 
and  Saxons,  and  concluded  the  war  by  the 
peace  of  Dresden. 

Anhalt-Dessau,  Leopold  Frederick  Pranz 
d'  (6.  1740,  d.  1817),  served  under  Frederick 
II.  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  did  much 
to  reform  the  laws  and  promote  agriculture 
in  his  principality. 

Anhalt  Zerbst-Dessau,  George  IV.  (6. 
1507,  d.  1553),  took  holy  orders,  and  became 
one  of  the  eminent  divines  and  reformers 
of  his  day. 

Anilseus  and  Asinseus,  two  Babylonian 
Jews,  who  in  the  1st  century  a.d.  headed  a 
band  of  freebooters,  and  were  persuaded  by 
Artabauus,  King  of  Parthia,  to  enter  his 
service.  Asinaeus  met  his  death  by  poison 
at  the  hands  of  his  brother's  wife,  while 
Anilseus  with  many  of  his  followers  was 
slain  by  Mithridates,  whom  they  had  pre- 
viously attacked  and  imprisoned. 

Animuccia,  Giovanni  (6.  1500,  d.  1571), 
a  celebrated  Italian  composer,  maestro  di 


Ani 


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Ann 


capello  of  the  Vatican,  may  be  cousidered 
the  founder  of  the  oratorio. 

Anisson,  an  ancient  family  of  Lyons, 
renowned  as  tj'pographers,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished member  being  Etienne  Alexandre 
Jacques,  known  as  Auisson-Duperou  (1748- 
17t)i),  inventor  of  the  "presseaun  coup;"  he 
was  put  to  death  during  the  republic. 

Ankarkrona,  Theodor  {b.  1687,  d.  1750), 
distinguished  Swedish  naval  officer  and  man 
of  science. 

Ankerstrom,  Johann  Jakob  (6.  1761, 
d.  1792),  a  Swedish  noble,  remembered  as 
the  assassin  of  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden ;  he 
was  detected,  tortured  and  beheaded. 

Anna  Comnena  (&.  1083,  d.  1148),  daugh- 
ter of  the  Emperor  Alexis  Comnenus  I., 
conspired  on  her  father's  death  to  place 
her  husband,  Nicephorus  Bryeunius,  on  the 
throne.  She  failed  in  this,  however,  and 
devoting  herself  to  literature,  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  her  father's  reign,  entitled  the 
Alexias. 

Anna  Ivanovna,  Empress  of  Russia  (6. 
1693-4,  d.  1740),  daughter  of  Ivan  Alexo- 
witch,  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  Peter  II.  in  1730,  but  allowed  the  govern- 
ment to  be  really  in  the  hands  of  her 
favourite,  Bireu,  who  ruled  cruelly  and 
tyrannically. 

Anna  Petrovna  {h.  1708,  d.  1728),  the 
eldest  and  favourite  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great,  and  mother  of  Peter  III.  The  order 
of  St.  Anne  was  instituted  in  her  honour. 

Anna  of  Austria,  Queen  of  France  (6. 
1601,  d.  1666),  was  the  eldest  daughter  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain,  and  was  married  in 
1615  to  Louis  XIII.  of  France.  On  the 
death  of  Louis  in  1643,  Anna  acted  as 
regent,  with  Cardinal  Mazarin  as  her  chief 
mmister;  she  provoked  the  famous  wars 
of  the  "  Fronde,"  in  which  she  was  ulti- 
mately victorious.  In  1661  she  resigned 
the  government  to  her  son,  and  passed  the 
rest  of  her  life  in  retirement. 

An-nasir  Lidinillah  Mohammed  {d. 
1215),  fourth  Sultan  of  Africa  and  Spain,  of 
the  dynasty  Almohades,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1199.  He  was  continually  en- 
gaged in  war,  and  finally  beiug  defeated  at 
Las  Navas  by  the  united  forces  of  Castile, 
Navan-e  'and  Aragou,  fled  to  Africa,  where 
he  died. 

An-nasir,  Abdul  Abbas  Ahmed  (6.  1156, 
d.  1225),  Caliph  of  the  Abbasides,  began  to 
reign  in  1180  ;  he  was  a  pious,  learned,  and 
just  piince. 

Anne,  Queeu  of  Great  Britain  {h.  1664,  d. 
1714),  was  the  second  daughter  of  James  II. 
by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde.    She  married 


Prince  George  of  Denmark,  and  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  tlie  death  of  her  brother- 
in-law,  William  III.,  in  1702.  Her  reign  is 
distinguished  abroad  by  the  brilliant  ex- 
ploits of  the  British  army  in  the  Low 
Countries  tmder  Marlborough,  and  in  Spain 
under  Lord  Peterborough ;  the  victories  of 
Blenheim,  Oudenard,  and  Malplaquet  being 
won  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession ; 
while  at  home,  though  political  contentions 
ran  high,  the  legislative  union  of  England 
and  Scotland  was  effected,  and  many  emi- 
nent names  adorn  the  list  of  contemporary 
writers,  notably  Addison,  Pope,  and  Steele. 
The  queen,  who  was  weak  and  yielding, 
was  controlled  at  first  by  the  imperious 
Duchess  of  Marlborough,  and  afterwards 
by  Abigail  Hill  (Mrs.  Masham). 

Anne  of  Beaujeu  (6.  1461,  d.  1522),  eldest 
daughter  of  Louis  XI.,  acted  as  regent 
during  the  minority  of  Charles  VIII.,  and 
displayed  great  energy  and  decision  of 
character. 

Anne  of  Bohemia  (6.  1367,  d.  1394),  "the 
good  Queen  Anne,"  was  wife  of  Richard  II. 
of  England,  and  a  protector  of  Wiclif  and 
his  followers. 

Anne  of  Bretagne  (6.  1476,  d.  1514), 
daughter  and  lieiress  of  Francis  II.  of 
Bretague  ;  though  married  by  procuration 
to  Maximilian,  King  of  the  Romans,  she 
married  Charles  VIII.  (1491),  and  Louis  XII. 
of  France  (1499).  She  displayed  consider- 
able justice  and  ability  in  the  management 
of  her  own  dominions, 

Anne  of  Cleves  (6.  1516,  d.  1557),  daughter 
of  John  III.,  Duke  of  Cleves,  and  fourth 
wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  from  whom 
she  was  shortly  divorced,  but  lived  con- 
tentedly in  England,  where  she  died. 

Anne  of  Denmark  (6.  1574,  d.  1619), 
daughter  of  Frederick  II.  of  Denmark, 
and  wife  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  and  I. 
of  England. 

Anne  of  Warwick  (6.  1454,  d.  1485),  the 
widow  of  Edward  of  Lancaster,  son  of 
Henry  VI.,  was  first  married  to  Edward  of 
Lancaster,  son  of  Henry  VI.,  and  then 
against  her  will  to  Richard  III.,  with  whom 
she  was  crowned  with  great  ceremony  in 
1483.     Her  death  is  attributed  to  poison. 

Annese,  Gennaro,  a  Neapolitan  gun- 
smith, who  succeeded  Masauiello  as  leader 
of  the  populace  in  the  insurrection  of  1648. 
He  at  first  joined  the  Duke  of  Guise,  and 
afterwards  betrayed  him  to  the  Spaniards, 
and  was  himself  soon  after  seized  and 
beheaded. 

Annesley,  Arthur  (6.  1614,  d.  1686),  Earl 
of  Anglesey,  took  part  in  the  Civil  wars  of 
Charles  I.,  and  went  as  commissioner  for 


Ann 


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the  Parliamentary  party  to  Ireland.  He 
afterwards  supported  Monk  in  his  efforts 
for  the  Eestoratiou,  and  filled  high  offices 
under  Charles  II.,  by  whom  he  was  created 
Baron  Aunesley.  He  had  some  literary 
ability  and  wrote  a  Sistory  of  the  Wars 
in  Ireland. 

Anno  or  Hanno,  Saint,  Archbishop  of 
Cologne  in  the  11th  century;  he  had  great 
influence  over  the  Emperor  Henry  III.,  in 
whose  name  he  for  some  time  administered 
the  government. 

An-nuwajrri  (6.  1283,  d.  1332),  a  learned 
Arab  writer,  who  left  many  works,  amongst 
them  being  a  valuable  historical  cyclo- 
pedia. 

Anquetil,  Abraham  Hyacinthe  (6.  1731, 
d.  1805),  a  French  orientalist,  who  for 
purposes  of  study  went  to  India  as  a  private 
soldier,  and  took  part  in  the  capture  of 
Pondicherry.  On  his  return  to  France  he 
was  appointed  oriental  interpreter  in  the 
king's  library.  His  principal  work  was  a 
translation  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  published  in 
1771. 

Aasaldo,  Andrea  (b.  1584,  d.  1638),  an 
eminent  Genoese  painter ;  his  principal 
works  are  in  the  churches  and  palaces  of 
Genoa. 

Ansaloni,  Giordano  (d.  1634),  a  Sicilian 
missionary  of  the  order  of  preachers,  who 
went  to  Japan,  and  adopting  the  dress  and 
language  of  the  people,  passed  for  two 
jeais  for  a  Japanese  priest,  but  was  at 
length  discovered  and  put  to  death. 

Anscaxius,  Saint  (6.  801,  d.  864),  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  who  did  much  to  promulgate 
Christianity  in  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and 
has  been  called  "the  Apostle  of  the  North." 
He  was  afterwards  made  Bishop  of  Ham- 
burg. 

Anselm,  Saint  {b.  1034,  d.  1109),  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  during  the  reigns  of 
William  Kufus  and  Henry  I.,  to  which  post 
he  was  summoned  from  his  position  as 
Abbot  of  Bee  in  Normandy.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  piety  and  intellectual  power,  and 
firmly  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  king  to 
despoil  the  Church  of  her  dignity  or 
revenues.  He  died  at  Canterbury  and  was 
canonised  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Anselme  of  Laon  (d.  1117),  an  eminent 
teacher  of  theology  in  the  11th  century,  and 
said  to  have  studied  under  Auselni  at  Bee, 
taught  for  some  time  in  Paris,  and  then 
returning  to  his  native  town  of  Laon,  made 
the  school  of  theology  there  the  most  re- 
nowned in  Europe. 

Anselmi,  Michael- Angelo  (6. 1491,  d.  1554), 
an  Italian  painter  in  the  style  of  Correggio, 


several  of  whose  pictures  are  in  the  churches 
of  Parma. 

Anselmo,  Saint  (6.  1036,  d.  1086),  Bishop 
of  Lucca,  supported  Gregory  VII.  against 
the  autipope,  Guibert,  and  left  a  collection 
of  canons  in  thirteen  books. 

Ansiauz,  Jean  Joseph  Eleonor  Antoine 
(6.  1764,  d.  1840),  one  of  the  best 
portrait  and  historical  painters  of  the 
modern  Freneh  school ;  he  studied  at  Ant- 
werp, and  in  Paris  under  David.  In  1801 
his  Sappho  and  Leda  attracted  attention, 
and  he  afterwards  painted  an  Assumption 
and  other  fine  historical  works,  as  well  as 
portraits  of  many  prominent  men. 

Aaslo,  Reinier  (6.  1626,  d.  1669),  a  Dutch 
poet  of  reputation ;  he  was  patronised  by 
Christina  of  Sweden  and  Innocent  X.,  and 
spent  the  end  of  his  life  in  Rome,  where  he 
became  a  Roman  Catholic.  Among  his  early 
productions  were  a  Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen 
and  a  poem  on  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Day. 

Anson,  George,  Lord  (6. 1697,  d.  1762),  an 
eminent  naval  commander,  whose  popular 
Voyage  Round  the  World  has  undergone 
several  translations.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1711,  seeing  much  active  service,  and 
in  1739  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
squadron  despatched  to  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands. The  ships  were  badly  equipped,  and 
of  three  vessels  which  reached  Juan  Fer- 
nandez two  were  destroyed  as  unsea- 
worthy.  With  his  one  remaining  ship, 
The  Centurion,  he  eventually  reached 
Manilla,  succeeded  in  capturing  the  great 
Spanish  galleon  Acupulco,  and  returned  to 
England  with  £500,000  in  prize-money. 
Here  he  was  eagerly  welcomed,  at  once 
appointed  rear-admiral,  and  henceforth  had 
a  large  share  in  the  direction  of  naval  af- 
fairs. In  1746  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Chaimel  fleet,  and  the 
following  year  defeated  the  French  off 
Cape  Finisterre,  for  which  service  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  He  possessed  con- 
siderable administrative  ability,  and  waa 
made  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1761. 

Anson,  George  (6.  1797,  d.  1857),  an 
English  general,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Indian  army  at  the  time  of  the  mutiny.  Ho 
collected  a  force  at  Umballah  for  the  re- 
lief of  Delhi,  but  died  wliile  on  the  march. 

Anspach,  Elizabeth  Berkeley,  Margravine 
of  {b.  1750,  d.  1828),  was  married  first  to 
Lord  Craven  (1767),  and  secondly  to  the 
Margrave  of  j^spach  in  1791.  In  1821  she 
gave  shelter  to  Queen  Caroline  of  England; 
she  left  some  amusing  memoirs. 

Ansted,  David  Thomas  (6.  1814,  d.  1880), 
a  geologist  of  some  repute,  whose  writings 
did  much  to  popularise  geology. 


Ans 


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Ant 


Anster,  John,  LL.D.  {b.  circa  1806,  d. 
1867),  au  Irish  poet  who  contributed  largely 
to  periodical  literatui-e,  and  made  an  excel- 
lent translation  of  Goethe's  Faust.  He 
held  the  chair  of  civil  law  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Dublin. 

Anstey,  Christopher  (5.  1724,  d.  180.5), 
author  of  the  New  Bath  Guide,  a  very 
popular  poem. 

Antagoias,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  3rd 
century  B.C.  He  was  author  of  a  poem 
called  Thebais  and  other  works,  all  of 
which  are  lost  except  a  few  epigrams. 

Antalcidas,  a  Spartan  politician,  who 
effected  the  peace  between  Greece  and  Ar- 
taxerxes  II.  (b.o.  387)  which  is  known  by 
his  name. 

Antar,  or  Antarah  Ibn  Sheddad,  Arabian 
poet  and  warrior,  who  acquired  great  dis- 
tinction in  the  forty  years'  wars  against 
the  Beni  Dhobyan,  while  his  great  work, 
a  poem,  was  highly  esteemed  by  Mahomet, 
and  has  been  translated  into  Latin,  German, 
and  Enghsh. 

Antenor,  a  wise  Trojan  chief,  who  re- 
ceived the  ambassadors  Menelaus  and 
Ulysses,  and  is  charged  with  having  betrayed 
Troy  to  the  Greeks,  especially  as  his  own 
house  was  imtouched  by  the  enemy.  He 
is  said  to  have  afterwards  founded  some 
towns  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Adriatic. 

Anthemius,  Emperor  of  the  West  in  the 
5th  century,  a  distinguished  general,  quar- 
relled with  his  son-in-law,  Ricimer,  who 
led  an  army  against  Rome,  and  defeated 
and  slew  Anthemius. 

Anthemius,  a  native  of  Lydia,  and  an 
eminent  architect  and  sculptor.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  Justinian,  and  designed  the  famous 
church  of  Saint  Sophia  at  Constantinople. 

Antheric,  King  of  the  Lombards  {d.  590), 
surnamed  Flavius,  was  engaged  in  wars 
during  his  reign  of  six  years,  and  defeated 
an  invasion  of  the  Franks  under  Childebert 
in  588,  but  died  during  a  second,  having 
done  much  to  consolidate  his  dominions. 

Antbon,  Charles,  LL.D.  (6.  1797,  d. 
1867),  American  classical  scholar,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1819,  but  forsook  law  for  clas- 
sics, which  he  taught  in  New  York.  He 
was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  author  of  A 
Classical  Dictionary  and  numerous  other 
text-books,  as  well  as  of  an  edition  of 
Horace. 

Antigonus,  King  of  Judsea  {d.  b.c.  37), 
eon  of  Aristobulus  II.,  was  driven  from  his 
throne  by  Antipater,  and  regained  Jeru- 
salem only  to  be  besieged  by  Herod,  when 
he  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  was 
put  to  death. 


Antigonus  (Cyclops  or  "one-eyed  ")  (d. 
B.C.  301),  a  distinguished  general  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  on  whose  death  he  became 
Governor  of  Phrygia,  Lycia,  and  Pamphylia, 
and  after  defeating  and  slaying  Eumenes, 
and  waging  other  successful  wars,  assumed 
the  title  of  king.  His  ambitious  schemes 
united  his  rivals,  and  he  was  slain  in  battle 
at  Ipsus. 

Antigonus  Doson  {d.  b.o.  220),  King  of 
Macedonia,  and  grandson  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  was  appointed  regent  during 
the  minority  of  Philip,  son  of  Demetrius 
II.,  but  assumed  the  government,  married 
the  queen-dowager  Chrysses,  and  treated 
Philip  as  his  son  and  heir.  He  co-operated 
with  the  Achean  league  against  Sparta,  of 
which  the  victory  of  Sellasia  made  him 
master ;  and  he  also  repelled  an  invasion  of 
the  lUyrians. 

Antigonus  Gonatas,  King  of  Macedonia 
id.  B.C.  239),  and  sou  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes, ascended  the  throne  B.C.  277,  six 
years  after  his  father's  death.  He  was 
twice  driven  from  his  throne,  first  by 
Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  and  then  by 
Alexander,  son  of  Pyrrhus. 

AntiUon,  Isidore  d'  (6.  1760,  d.  1820),  a 
learned  Spaniard,  who  defended  Saragossa 
against  the  French,  but  was  afterwards 
forced  to  fly  before  them.  His  liberal 
opinions  drew  upon  him  the  displeasure  of 
Ferdinand  VII.,  and  he  was  arrested,  but 
died  before  his  trial.  He  left  several  works, 
the  most  valuable  being  a  geography  of 
Spain  and  Portugal, 

Antimachus,  an  epic  poet  of  Clares,  in 
Greece,  author  of  Thebais  and  the 
Lyde. 

Antimaco,  Marc  Anthony  (6.  1473, 
d.  1552),  a  learned  Italian,  who  taught 
Greek  at  Ferrara  and  Paris,  and  left  some 
Latin  poems  and  translations  from  the 
Greek. 

Antinous,  a  favourite  page  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  was  drowned  in  the  Nile. 

Antioclius  I.,  King  of  Commagene,  in 
Syria.  In  B.C.  64  Pompey  concluded  a 
peace  with  this  state,  and  increased  its 
territories. 

Antiochus  IV.,  of  Commagene,  suman/ed 
Epiphaues,  was  sometimes  king,  sometimes 
governor,  according  as  Commagene  was 
created  a  province  or  a  kingdom.  He  aided 
Nero  against  the  Parthians,  and  Titus 
against  the  Jews,  but  was  deposed  in  72. 

Antioclius  I.,  of  Syria  (Soter)  (d.  B.C. 
261),  was  constantly  engaged  in  wars,  and 
finally  killed  in  battle  with  the  Gauls.  The 
story  of  his  passion  for  his  stepmother,  whom 


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Ant 


his  father  gave  him  to  save  his  life,  is  well 
known. 

Antiochus  II.,  of  Syria  {d.  B.C.  246), 
brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded. He  engaged  in  a  war  with 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  which  was  ter- 
minated by  the  marriage  of  Antiochus  and 
Berenice.     He  died  of  poison. 

Antiochus  Hierax  (6.  260  e.g.,  d.  227 b.c), 
second  sou  of  the  preceding,  and  King  of 
Cilicia.  He  is  sometimes  called  Antio- 
chus III.,  though  he  never  succeeded  La 
driving  his  brother  Seleucus  CalUnicus  from 
the  throne. 

Antiochus  III.,  King  of  Syria  {d.  B.C.  187), 
sumamed  the  Great,  succeeded  his  brother 
in  223  B.C.  He  was  contiuually  engaged 
in  war,  and  though  at  tirst  defeated  by  the 
Egy]3tians  at  Raphia,  he  was  afterwards 
victorious,  and  gaiaed  the  provinces  of 
Coele-Syria  and  Palestine.  He  was  worsted 
in  his  wars  with  the  Romans;  and  was 
killed  by  the  citizens  of  Elymius  while  pil- 
laging the  temple  of  Jupiter. 

Antiochus  IV.,  Epiphanes,  King  of  Syria, 
son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded  his  brother 
B.C.  175.  A  cruel  and  vicious  prince,  he 
carried  on  a  war  with  Egypt,  and  his  con- 
duct to  the  Jews  provoked  the  Maccabsean 
revolt. 

Antiochus  V.,of  Syria,  sumamed  Eupator 
(6.  172  B.C.,  d.  162  B.C.),  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, whom  he  succeeded  when  only  eight 
years  old,  but  was  slain  two  years  after  his 
accession,  and  his  throne  seized  by  Deme- 
trius. 

Antiochus  VI.,  of  Syria,  was  the  son  of 
Alexander  Balas,  who  had  fled  with  him  to 
Arabia.  In  144  B.C.  Antiochus  was  brought 
back,  and  set  up  by  the  Syrians  and  Jews 
as  a  rival  to  Demetrius  Nicator.  He  reigned 
only  two  years,  being  assassinated  in  142  b.c. 

Antiochus  VII.,  of  Syria  {b.  164  B.C.,  d. 
129  B.C.),  was  sumamed  Sidetes.  Whilst 
his  brother  Demetrius  Nicator  was  a  pri- 
soner in  Parthia,  Antiochus  married  his 
wife  and  seized  his  throne,  but  after  several 
victories  over  the  Parthians,  was  beaten  and 
slain  by  Demetrius. 

Antiochus  VIII.  (fi.  141  b.c,  d.  96  b.c), 
sumamed  Grypus,  was  the  son  of  Demetrius 
Nicator  and  Cleopatra.  He  married  the 
daughter  of  his  ally,  Ptolemy  Physcon,  and 
was  successful  in  his  Syrian  wars.  His 
half-brother,  Cyziceuus,  laid  claim  to  his 
throne,  and  after  reigning  jointly  with  him 
for  five  years,  Antiochus  was  assassinated. 

Antiochus  IX.,  sumamed  Cyzicenus,  was 
defeated  by  his  rival  Seleucus  in  B.C.  9.5,  and 
slew  himself  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands 
of  his  enemy. 


Antiochus  X.  (6.  Ill  b.c,  d.  75  b.c),  sur- 
named  Eusebes,  son  of  the  preceding,  de- 
feated and  slew  Seleucus,  whose  brothers 
then  became  his  rivals,  till  Tigranes,  King 
of    Armenia,    assumed    the    crown    in    83 

B.C. 

Antiochus  XI.  (Epiphanes),  (6.  118  B.C., 

d.  93  B.C.),  a  son  of  Antiochus  Grypus, 
during  the  reign  of  the  preceding  gained 
possession  of  a  part  of  Syria,  and  assumed 
the  title  of  king.  He  was  defeated  by 
Antiochus  X.,  and  drowned  in  the  Orontes. 

Antiochus  XII.  (Dionysius)  (6.  112  b.c,  «?. 
85  B.C.),  youngest  sou  of  Antiochus  Grypus. 
He  reigned  in  Damascus,  and  was  slain  in 
battle  with  Aretas,  King  of  the  Ai-abians. 

Antiochus  XIII.  (Asiaticus),  son  of  Antio- 
chus Eusebes,  assumed  the  government  upon 
the  withdrawal  of  the  Armenian  troops  B.C. 
69,  but  his  kingdom  was  reduced  to  a  pro- 
vince B.C.  65,  and  he  died  in  49  B.C. 

Antipater  (6.  b.c  390,  d.  319  b.c),  the 
Macedonian,  the  friend  and  minister  of 
Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great,  duiing  the 
absence  of  the  latter  was  appointed  regent 
of  Macedonia  and  Greece,  and  in  that 
capacity  defeated  the  Greeks.  On  the 
death  of  Alexander  Antipater  received  the 
government  of  Macedonia. 

Antipater  {d.  b.c  4),  eldest  son  of  Herod 
the  Great.  His  life  is  a  series  of  conspiracies 
and  crimes;  he  compassed  the  death  of  his 
half  brothers,  but  being  detected  in  a  plot 
against  his  father's  life,  was  tried  before 
the  Roman  governor  of  Syria,  and  con- 
demned to  death. 

Antipater  of  Idumea  {d.  b.c  43),  father 
of  Herod  the  Great,  took  part  in  the  dis- 
putes between  Hyrcanus  II.  and  Aris- 
tobulus  II.  He  assisted  in  placing  Hyr- 
canus on  the  throne  of  Judaea  b.c  63,  and 
contrived  to  get  the  power  in  his  own  hands. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  Procurator  of 
all  Judaea. 

Antiphanes,  an  Athenian  poet  of  the 
4th  century  B.C.,  and  a  prolific  writer  of 
middle  comedy. 

Antiphilus,  a  native  of  Eg3rpt  of  the 
4th  century  B.C.,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  of  the  age,  visited  Greece,  and 
painted  portraits  of  Phihp  of  Macedou  and 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  on  his  return  to 
Egypt  painted  Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Lagos. 

Antiphon  {b.  b.c.  479,  d.  B.C.  411),  the 
Rhamuusian,  an  Athenian  orator,  who 
taught  at  Athens,  and  is  said  to  have  num- 
bered Thucydides  among  his  pupils.  He 
oijposed  the  tyranny  of  the  Four  Hundred, 
and  was  put  to  death  upon  the  restoration 
of  the  popular  government. 


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Antiquus,  Johannes  {h.  1702,  d.  1750),  a 
Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and  historical 
pieces.  He  studied  at  Amsterdam,  and 
after  travelling  in  Italy,  finally  settled  at 
Breda. 

Antisthenes,  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  pupil 
of  Socrates,  and  founder  of  the  Cynic  school. 
He  was  opposed  to  speculative  inquiries,  and 
taught  that  viiiue  was  the  one  thing  needful. 

Antoine  de  Bourbon,  King  of  Navarre 
(i.  1518,  d.  1562),  succeeded  his  father  to 
the  duchy  of  Vendome,  and  acquired  Na- 
varre in  right  of  his  wife,  Jeanne  d'  Alhret. 
Though  at  first  inclined  to  favour  the  Re- 
formers, political  considerations  induced 
him  to  banish  the  Lutheran  preachers,  and 
as  Lieutenant-General  of  France  to  oppose 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation.  In  1562, 
while  commanding  the  royal  army,  he  was 
fatally  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Rouen. 

Antommarclii,  Francesco  {d.  1838),  a 
Corsican  surgeon,  assistant  of  the  celebrated 
anatomist  Paolo  Mascagni  at  Florence,  was 
for  some  time  physician  to  Napoleon  at  St. 
Helena,  and  after  the  ex-emperor's  death, 
published  a  cast  of  his  head,  which  occa- 
sdoned  much  dispute  as  to  its  genuineness. 

Anton,  Karl  Gottlieb  von  (i.  1751,  <i,  1818), 
an  erudite  German  historian,  and  one  of  the 
best  critics  of  his  time. 

Anton,  Ulrich,  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
MeLningen  (b.  1687,  d.  1763),  ancestor  of 
the  house  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  a  brave 
soldier  and  accomplished  scholar,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  imperial  army,  and 
did  much  to  encourage  literature  and  art. 

Anton  I.,  Clemens  Theodor,  King  of 
Saxouy  {h.  1755,  d.  1836),  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1827,  was  of  a  retired  and  un- 
ambitious disposition,  and  being  childless 
associated  his  nephew,  Friedrich  Augustus, 
with  him  in  the  government.  Large  reforms 
were  carried  out  during  his  reign. 

Antonelli,  Giacomo  {b.  1806,  d.  1876),  a 
man  of  humble  birth,  who  attracted  the 
notice  of  Gregory  XVI.,  and  after  holding 
various  posts,  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1847 
by  Pius  IX. ,  over  whom  he  had  great  in- 
fluence. It  was  by  his  advice  that  the 
flight  to  Gaeta  was  undertaken,  and  on  the 
return  of  the  Pope  to  Rome  he  was  named 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  steadily 
opposing  Italian  unity  and  the  abandon- 
ment of  Rome  by  the  Pope. 

Antoni,  Alessaudro  Vittorio  Papacino  d' 
{b.  1714,  d.  1786),  an  artillery  officer  of  great 
skill  and  learning  ;  in  1755  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  royal  school  of  artillery, 
Turin,  and  in  experimenting  with  gun- 
powder made  important  discoveries. 


Antonia,  the  Younger  (b.  B.C.  36,  d.  A.D. 
37) ,  daughter  of  Mark  Antony  by  his  wife 
Octavia,  sister  of  Augustus,  was  the  wife  of 
Drusus,  mother  of  Claudius,  and  grand- 
mother of  Cahgula. 

Antoniano,  Silvio,  Cardinal   (b.  1540,   a 
1603),  a  precocious   genius,  who  at  seven 
teen  was  professor  of  classical  literature  at 
Ferrara,  and  afterwards  lectured  at  Rome. 

Antonilez,  Jose  {b.  1636,  d.  1676),  a 
Spanish  painter  of  landscapes,  portraits, 
and  historical  pieces. 

Antonilez  de  Sarabia,  Francesco  (d.  1700). 
nephew  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  fol- 
lowed the  style  of  Murillo,  and  acquired 
considerable  reputation  as  an  historical  and 
landscape  painter. 

Antonina  {b.  499,  d.  565),  wife  of  Belisa- 
rius,  her  second  husband,  over  whom  she 
possessed  great  influence,  and  after  whose 
death  she  founded  a  convent,  where  she  died. 

Antoninus,  Saint  (b.  1389,  d.  1459),  Arch- 
bishop  of  Florence,  belonged  to  the  order  of 
the  Dominicans ,  he  left  several  works. 

Antoninus  Pius,  Titus  (6.  86,  d.  161), 
Emperor  of  Rome,  succeeded  his  friend 
Hadrian  in  138,  and  enjoyed  a  prosperous 
and  uneventful  reign  of  twenty- three  years. 

Antonio,  Dom  (6.  1531,  d.  1595),  an 
illegitimate  son  of  Dom  Luis  of  Portugal, 
who  asserted  his  legitimacy  and  consequent 
right  to  the  throne  in  the  room  of  his  uncle 
Dom  Henrique,  on  whose  death  he  was  pro- 
claimed Mng  at  Lisbon.  He  was  defeated 
by  his  rival,  the  Duke  of  Alva,  at  Alcantara 
in  1580,  and  help  from  France  and  England 
proving  equally  imsuccessful,  Antonio  re- 
tired to  Paris. 

Antonio,  Nicholas  (6.  1617,  d.  1684), 
Spanish  bibliographer,  lived  for  many  years 
at  Rome,  and  afterwards  held  office  at 
Madrid. 

Antonio  of  Padua,  Saint  {b.  1195,  d. 
Padua,  1231),  a  Franciscan  monk,  and  a 
disciple  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi ;  numerous 
miracles  are  attributed  to  him,  and  he  is  the 
patron  saint  of  Padua. 

Antonio  Veneziano  (6.  1310,  d.  1384), 
Venetian  painter  in  fresco  who  takes  the 
foremost  place  amongst  his  coaternporaries, 
and  left  several  works  at  Venice,  Florence, 
and  Pisa. 

Antonius,  Caius,  sumamed  Hybrida  (d. 
ctrca  45  B.C.),  was  the  sou  of  Antonius  the 
orator,  and  colleague  of  Cicero  in  the 
consulship.  He  took  part  with  Sulla  in 
the  war  against  Mithridates,  but  oppressed 
and  plundered  the  people,  and  some  time 
afterward  was  banished  by  the  senate. 


Ant 


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Apo 


Antonius,  Marcus,  the  triumvir  (6.  83  B.C., 
d.  30  B.C.),  after  serving  as  a  soldier  in 
Syria,  joined  Julius  Caesar  in  Gaul,  became 
his  warm  partisan,  and  being  elected  consul 
with  him  in  B.C.  44,  offered  him  the  kingly- 
title,  which  however  he  declined.  After  the 
murder  of  Ceesar,  Antony  was  opposed  and 
defeated  by  Octavius  (Augustus),  but  the 
rivals  came  to  terms,  and  with  Lepidus 
formed  the  second  triumvirate.  Under 
their  government  Brutus  and  Cassius  were 
defeated  and  slain  at  Philippi,  and  Antony 
was  mainly  respousible  for  the  death  of 
Cicero.  The  civil  war  ended  in  his  defeat 
at  Actimn,  and  the  triumph  of  Octavius. 
Whilst  in  Egypt  Antony  met  and  was 
charmed  by  Cleopatra,  and  for  her  sake  he 
shamefully  divorced  his  second  wife,  the 
sister  of  Octavius,  and  he  died  in  Egypt  by 
his  own  hand. 

Antonius,  Marcus,  the  orator  (p.  143  B.C., 
d.  87  B.C.),  one  of  the  greatest  orators  of 
Kome;  he  served  as  quaestor  and  praetor, 
and  for  his  services  in  Cilicia  was  awarded  a 
triimiph.     He  was  beheaded  by  Marius. 

Antonius  or  Antony,  Saint,  an  Egyptian 
Christian,  and  the  reputed  founder  of  mon- 
asticism,  lived  for  many  years  in  seclusion, 
and  his  biographer  Athanasius  records  the 
popular  story  of  his  temptation  and  actual 
conflict  with  the  devil.  His  fame  drew 
crowds  to  hear  him  preach  and  reached  the 
Emperor  Constantine ;  he  died  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  105,  leaving  directions  for  a 
secret  burial. 

Antonius  Nebrissensis  {b.  1444,  d.  1522), 
an  emiueut  Spanish  ^vi-iter,  studied  in  Italy, 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  university 
of  Alcara  de  Henares. 

Antraigues,  Emmanuel  Loms  Henii  de 
Launy,  Count  d'  {b.  Hob,  d.  1812),  a  French 
political  adventurer,  who  was  exiled  as  a 
Royalist,  and  becoming  possessed  of  some 
information  respecting  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
entered  into  a  correspondence  vrith  Canning, 
but  was  betrayed  and  murdered  by  his  ser- 
vant. 

Anund  or  Amund  (d.  760),  King  of 
Sweden,  called  Braut-Anund  from  the  num- 
ber of  public  roads  he  constructed.  He 
made  other  peaceful  improvements,  and 
was  a  brave  and  valiant  prince. 

An\md  or  Amund,  King  of  Sweden,  as- 
cended the  throne  about  830,  and  as  a  viking 
invaded  the  neighbouring  states  and  is  said 
to  have  defeated  Ethelwulf  of  England. 
He  was  slain  in  battle  with  his  brother 
Sivard. 

Anville,  Jean  Baptiste  Bourguignon  d'  (6. 
1697,  d.  1782),  a  geographer  of  great  emi- 
nence ;  he  was  encouraged  in  his  studies  by 
the  A.hh6  de  Longuerue,  and  appointed  to 


superintend  the  geographical  studies  of  the 
Dukes  of  Chartres  and  Orleans. 

Anwari,  a  Persian  poet  of  the  12th  century, 
and  author  of  Team  of  Khorassan,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  poems  in  the  Persian  lan- 
guage. 

Aoust,  Jean  Marie,  Marquis  d'  (6.  1740,  d. 
1812),  a  republican  noble  who  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  xmder  the  Con- 
sulate was  appointed  mayor  of  Quincy. 

Apelles,  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  painters, 
flourished  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  forbade 
any  other  to  take  his  portrait.  The  pictures 
of  Alexander  and  Antigones  by  Apelles  were 
very  celebrated,  but  his  masterpiece  was  the 
Venus  Anadyomene,  which  was  taken  to 
Rome  by  Augustus. 

Apjohn,  James,  M.D.  (6.  1795),  an 
eminent  chemist,  professor  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  Ireland,  and  after- 
wards at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Apocaucus,  Alexis,  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Byzantine  armies  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury. He  was  the  rival  of  his  benefactor 
John  Cantacuzenus  in  the  struggle  for  the 
empire,  and  though  at  first  successful,  was 
eventually  defeated  and  assassinated  in 
1347. 

ApoUinaris,  Bishop  of  Laodicea  {d.  392), 
a  learned  man,  and  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Arians,  is  remembered  in  connection  with 
the  lieresy  that  bears  his  name. 

Apollodorus  of  Athens,  a  famous  gram- 
marian and  author  of  a  standard  work  on 
heathen  mythology. 

Apollodorus  of  Carystus,  a  distinguished 
comic  poet  of  the  school  of  middle  Attic 
comedy,  in  the  4th  century  B.C.,  and  author 
of  forty-seven  comedies,  of  which  only  frag- 
ments of  a  few  remain. 

Apollodorus  of  Damascus,  a  great  archi- 
tect of  the  2nd  centuiy,  worked  at  Rome 
for  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  built  the 
forum  and  column  which  bear  that  monarch's 
name,  but  his  greatestwork  wasa  huge  bridge 
over  the  Danube  at  its  confluence  with  the 
Alt.  He  was  banished  and  put  to  death  by 
Hadrian. 

Apollonius  Dyscolus(the  Morose),  a  native 
of  Alexandria  and  a  great  grammarian  of 
the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus,  whose 
most  valuable  work  is  On  the  Construction  of 
an  Oration. 

Apollonius  Pergaeus,  "the  great  geo- 
meter," was  a  native  of  Perga  in  Pam- 
phylia,  and  flourished  in  the  2nd  century 
B.  0.  He  was  author  of  a  treatise  on  conio 
sections  which  is  still  extant. 


Apo 


(48) 


Aqn 


ApoUonius  Rhodius,  a  Greek  epic  poet  of 
the  3rd  ceutury  B.C.,  author  of  the  Argo- 
tiautica,  was  iu  his  later  years  keeper  of 
the  library  at  Alexandria. 

ApoUonius  Tyanseus,  a  Pythagorean  phi- 
losopher of  the  1st  ceutury  who  professed 
miraculous  powers,  and  attracted  numerous 
disciples. 

Apollos  or  ApoUonius,  a  Jew  of  Alex- 
andria, who  was  converted  to  Christianity 
about  54,  and  acquired  great  reputation  as 
a  teacher.  He  is  twice  alluded  to  in  St. 
Paul's  Epistles. 

Apostool,  Samuel  (6.  1638),  a  Dutch  Men- 
nonite  divine  of  Amsterdam,  who  entered 
into  a  controversy  with  Galenus,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  rival  sects  of  Apostoolians 
and  Galenians. 

Appendlni,  Francesco  Maria  (6.  1768,  d. 
1837),  historian,  a  native  of  Piedmont,  de- 
voted himself  to  teaching,  and  settled  iu 
Dalmatia.  He  published  a  history  of  the 
Republic,  and  several  educational  works  in 
Slavonic. 

Apperley,  Charles  James  (6.  1777,  d. 
1843),  English  authority  on  horses,  who  con- 
tributed to  the  Sporting  Magazine  and  other 
papers,  and  wrote  imder  the  pseudonym  of 
"  Nimrod." 

Appert,  Benjamin  Nicholas  Marie  (6.  Paris 
1797),  a  philanthropic  educationalist,  who 
did  much  for  the  education  of  soldiers  and 
the  poor. 

Appiani,  Andrea  (6.  1754,  d.  1817),  a 
Milanese  painter,  pupil  of  Cavalier  Guidei, 
whose  style  almost  rivals  that  of  Correggio. 
He  excelled  in  oil  and  fresco,  and  several  of 
his  compositions  are  iu  the  churches  and 
palaces  of  Milan.    Died  in  poverty. 

Appiani,  Andrea  (6.  1812),  grandson  of 
the  preceding,  maintained  the  artistic  repu- 
tation of  his  family,  and  gained  several 
medals  both  at  Rome  and  Milan. 

Appiano,  Gherardo  (d.  1405),  Captain- 
General  of  Pisa  in  1398.  He  sold  the  re- 
public the  following  year  to  the  Visconti, 
and  retired  to  Piombino,  where  he  died. 

Appiano,  Vanni  d',  bom  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, of  humble  parents,  went  to  Pisa  and 
attached  himself  to  the  family  of  Giam- 
bacorti,  and  was  beheaded  by  Charles  IV.  of 
Germany.  His  descendants  were  princes  of 
Piombino  and  Elba. 

Appianus,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  lived 
in  the  2nd  century,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
history  of  Rome  in  the  Greek  language. 

Appius  Claudius.     [&«  Claudius.] 

Applegarth,  Augustus  {d.  1871),  inventor 


of  the  steam  press,  and  other  important 
improvements  in  the  art  of  printing ;  he 
also  designed  the  peculiarly  inimitable  bank 
note  used  by  the  Bank  of  England,  as  well 
as  methods  for  printing  silk  and  cotton 
simultaneously  in  several  colours. 

Apraxin,  Eeodor,  or  Theodor  (6.  1671,  d. 
1728),  a  Russian  noble,  the  favoui-ite  of 
Peter  the  Great,  to  whom  he  was  of  great 
service  in  naval  affairs.  He  was  brave, 
prudent,  and  victorious  in  battle,  and  at- 
tained to  the  highest  honours,  though  twice 
convicted  of  misappropriation  of  the  public 
funds. 

Apraxin,  Stepan  (6.  1702,  d.  1758;,  com- 
mander of  the  Russian  army  against  Fre- 
derick the  Great,  whose  troops  he  defeated 
in  1757,  but  purposely  failing  to  follow  up 
his  advantage  was  tried  and  put  to  death. 

Apres  de  ManneviUette,  Jean  Baptists 
Nicolas  Denis  d'  (6.  1707,  d.  1780),  distin- 
guished French  hydrographer,  served  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  and  published 
the  results  of  his  observations  in  the  Nep- 
tune  Orientale,  and  other  valuable  works. 

Apries,  King  of  Egypt  in  the  6th  century 
B.C.,  and  eighth  king  of  the  Saite  dynasty. 
The  Pharaoh-hophra  of  Scripture. 

Apsyrtus,  a  distinguished  veterinary  sur- 
geon of  the  4th  century.  He  was  a  native 
of  Bithynia,  and  served  under  Constantino 
the  Great  in  his  Danubian  campaign. 

Apthorp,  East,  D.D.  (h.  1733,  d.  1816), 
a  learned  theologian,  who  was  educated  in 
England,  where  he  held  several  livings  ;  he 
engaged  with  Gibbon  in  a  controversy 
respecting  Christianity. 

Apuleus,  or  Appuleius,  Lucius,  a  phi- 
losopher and  Platouist  of  the  2nd  century, 
whose  most  celebrated  work  is  the  Meta- 
morphoses, or  the  Golden  Ass,  which 
includes  the  beautiful  story  of  Psyche,  and 
seems  to  be  intended  as  a  satire  on  the 
crimes  and  follies  of  the  age.  He  was  bom 
in  Numidia,  studied  at  Carthage  and  Athens, 
and  finally  at  Rome. 

AquUa,  a  native  of  Sinope,  of  the  reign  of 
Hadrian,  who  was  converted  to  Christianity 
and  afterwards  to  Judaism.  He  studied 
Hebrew,  of  which  he  made  himself  master, 
and  translated  the  Old  Testament  into 
Greek. 

AquUa,  a  Christian  Jew  of  Pontus,  who 
took  refuge  iu  Corinth  when  Claudius  ex- 
pelled the  Jews  from  Rome,  and  meeting 
there  with  St.  Paul,  worked  with  him  at 
their  common  trade  of  tent-making.  With 
his  wife  Priscilla,  Aquila  was  instrumental 
in  converting  Apollos  to  Christianity,  and  is 
said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom. 


Aqn 


(49) 


Ara 


Aqvula,  Caspar  (6.  1488,  d.  1560),  the 
Latinised  name  of  Adler,  a  Reformer,  and 
friend  of  Luther,  whom  he  assisted  in  his 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  His 
opinions  exposed  him  to  much  persecu- 
tion, but  he  spent  the  end  of  his  life  in 
peace. 

AquUa,  Serafino  deU'  (6.  1466,  d.  1500), 
an  Italian  poet,  of  the  school  of  Dante  and 
Petrarch;  he  was  patronised  by  Ferdinand 
of  Naples,  and  was  the  friend  of  Cardinal 
Ascanio  Sforza. 

Aquin,  Louis  Claude  d'  (6. 1698,  d.  1772), 
a  precocious  musical  geuius,  who  at  eight 
years  old  had  learned  all  that  his  master 
could  teach  him.  Handel  went  to  Paris  to 
hear  him. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  Saint  (6.  circa  1227,  d. 
1274),  a  celebrated  scholastic  divine,  called 
the  "angelic  doctor,"  a  member  of  the  order 
of  Dominicans,  studied  at  Cologne  under 
Albertus  Magnus,  whom  he  afterwards  ac- 
companied to  Paris.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
four  he  lectured  in  that  city  on  philosophy 
and  theology,  endeavouring  to  show  the 
accord  of  religion  and  reason,  and  acquiring 
the  highest  reputation.  He  died  in  1274, 
while  on  his  way  to  the  Council  of  Lyons, 
and  was  canonised  in  1323  by  John  XXII. 
Of  his  works,  which  occupy  seventeen 
volumes  folio,  the  principal  is  his  Suinma 
Theolog'ice. 

Araby,  Ahmed  Pasha,  "  Araby  the  Egyp- 
tian" (6.  1839),  is  the  son  of  a  village 
sheykh,  and  claims  to  be  descended  from 
Mahommed.  After  studying  at  the  military 
school  at  Cairo,  he  served  vmder  Said  Pasha 
in  Abyssinia  and  the  Soudan,  being  the 
first  native  Egyptian  to  attain  the  raik  of 
lieutenant-colonel.  With  two  others  he  led 
the  first  military  demonstration  of  1881,  and 
became  the  acknowledged  spokesman  of  the 
National  party ;  and  as  head  of  the  second 
military  demonstration  he  secured  his  three 
demands,  the  fall  of  Eiaz,  an  increase  of  the 
army,  and  a  liberal  constitution.  He  was 
shortly  afterwards  appointed  minister  of 
war,  and  as  commander-in-chief  under  the 
provisional  government  of  Cairo  he  con- 
ducted the  defence  of  Egypt  from  July  to 
September.  He  was,  however,  defeated  by 
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  at  Tel-el-Kebir  (1882), 
and  surrendered  himself  to  the  British, 
who  persuaded  him  to  accept  perpetual 
exile,  and  he  left  Egj^pt  for  Ceylon  in  1883. 

Arago,  Dominique  Francjois  (6.  1786,  d. 
1853),  a  celebrated  French  astronomer  and 
politician,  who  accompanied  Biot  to  the 
Eastern  Pyrenees  in  1806,  and  on  his  return 
journey  met  with  a  series  of  dangerous  ad- 
ventures. In  1809  he  was  elected  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  distin- 
guished himself   by  his  researches  in  the 


undulatory  theory  of  light,  galvanism,  mag- 
netism, astronomy,  etc.  As  a  poUtician  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  July  revolu- 
tion of  1830,  and  in  1848  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  war  and  marine.  Aiter  the 
coup  d'etat  of  Louis  Napoleon  he  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  though  still 
retaining  the  personal  friendship  of  the 
emperor. 

Arago,  Etienne  (6.  1802),  brother  of  the 
preceding,  a  dramatist  and  politician,  was 
editor  of  the  Figaro,  and  director  oJE  the 
theatre  du  Vaudeville,  and  in  1848,  as  head 
of  the  post-office,  introduced  the  cheap 
postal  system.  His  opposition  to  Napoleon 
drove  hun  into  exile,  but  he  returned,  and 
was  for  a  short  time  mayor  of  Paris  (1870), 
and  in  1878  was  appointed  archivist  to  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Aits. 

Aragona,  TuUia  d',  an  accomplished  and 
learned  poetess  of  the  16th  century,  a  native 
of  Ferrara,  who,  besides  some  elegant  son- 
nets, wrote  several  poems  and  a  romance. 

Arakclieev,  Alexay  Andrewich  (6.  1769, 
d.  1833),  a  Russian  count,  who  rose  from 
the  ranks  to  the  position  of  major-general, 
and  to  whom  Alexander  entrusted  the  ad- 
ministration of  mihtary  affairs.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  effecting  great  reforms  in  the 
army,  -and  showed  both  zeal  and  cruelty  in 
his  scheme  for  the  development  of  military 
colonies. 

Aram,  Eugene  (6. 1704,  d.  1759),  notorious 
for  his  learning  and  his  tragical  end,  was 
the  son  of  a  Yorkshire  gardener,  and  became 
proficient  in  ancient  languages,  studying 
also  literature  and  mathematics.  For  many 
years  he  was  a  schoolmaster  in  London  aud 
elsewhere,  but  in  1759  he  was  arrested  for 
the  murder  of  Daniel  Clark,  a  shoemaker  of 
Knaresborough,  about  thirteen  years  pre- 
viously, and  in  spite  of  an  able  defence, 
was  condemned  and  executed. 

Aranda,  Pedro  de  Bolea,  Count  of  (6. 
1718,  d.  1799),  prime  minister  of  Sjiain  under 
Charles  III.,  showed  firmness  and  vigour  in 
effecting  reforms  and  improvements.  He 
was  finally  displaced  by  Godoy,  and  retired 
to  Aragon,  where  he  died. 

Arantius,  Giulio  Cesare  Aranzio  (6.  1530, 
d.  1589),  professor  of  anatomy  and  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Bologna,  was  known 
for  his  investigations  respecting  the  human 
foetus,  on  which  he  published  a  valuable 
work. 

Arany,  Janos  (6.  1819,  d.  1882),  Hun- 
garian poet  of  humble  birth.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  popular  satire  on  the  Lnst 
Constitution,  aud  of  a  trilogy  called 
Toldi ;  and  became  a  professor  of  liter- 
ature, and  member  of  the  Hungarian 
Academy. 


Ara 


(50) 


Arc 


Aratus  of  Sicyon  (6.  271  B.C.,  d.  213), 
one  of  the  auiliors  of  the  Achaean  con- 
federation, drove  Nicholas,  tyrant  of  Sicyon, 
from  the  city,  but  was  liimself  defeated  by 
Cleomenes  III.  qf  Sparta.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  poisoned  by  order  of  Philip  II,  of 
Macedonia. 

Aratus  of  Soli,  a  Greek  poet  and  as- 
tronomer of  the  3rd  century,  author  of 
two  poems  on  astronomical  subjects  entitled 
J'lucHomena  and  Diosenieia, 

Araujo  d'  Azevedo,  Antonio,  Count  of 
Barca  (6.  1754,  d.  1817),  a  learned  Potuguese 
diplomatist,  who  became  head  of  the  admin- 
istration iu  1806,  but  mismanaged  affairs, 
and  upon  the  invasion  of  the  French  fled 
with  the  royal  family  to  Brazil,  where  he 
did  much  to  promote  art  and  commerce. 

Arbaces,  a  Median  general,  who  in  the 
9th  ceutiuy  B.C.  joined  Belesis,  a  Chaldean 
priest,  in  a  revolt  against  Sardanapalus,  and 
on  the  defeat  and  suicide  of  that  monarch 
assumed  the  sovereignty,  and  reigned  with 
justice  and  moderation  for  twenty-eight 
years.  He  is  generally  considered  the 
founder  of  the  Median  kingdom. 

Arbasia,  Cesare  {d.  1601),  an  Italian 
painter  in  fresco  and  oils,  worked  at  Malaga 
and  Cordova. 

Arbetio,  a  Eoman  general  of  low  birth, 
who  rose  to  be  consul  and  magister 
equitimi.  He  defeated  the  Alemanni,  and 
in  his  old  age  led  an  army  against  Pro- 
copius,  the  usurper  of  the  throne  of  Valens. 

Arborio,  Mercui-iano,  Coimt  di  Gattinara 
(6.  1 10.5,  d.  1530),  an  eminent  statesman  and 
diplomatist,  was  employed  by  the  Emperor 
Maximilian,  and  afterwards  by  Charles  V., 
who  reposed  unlimited  confidence  in  him, 
and  raised  him  to  the  post  of  chancellor  of 
the  empire.  Towards  the  Reformers  Ar- 
borio advised  conciliation ;  he  was  made  a 
cardinal  in  1529. 

Arborio  di  Gattinara,  Luigi  (6.  1781,  d. 
1820),  an  accomplished  man  and  elegant 
scholar ;  he  early  entered  the  Church,  and 
is  known  as  the  Abb^  di  Br^me,  and  a  con- 
tributor to  the  Milan  journal  II  Concili- 
atore. 

Abrissel,  Robert  (6.  1047,  d.  1117),  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese  of  Rennes;  his  at- 
tempts to  reform  the  morals  of  both  clergy 
and  laity  were  so  badly  received  that  he  re- 
tired into  seclusion,  but  his  well-known  piety 
and  eloquence  induced  Urban  II.  to  com- 
mission him  to  preach  before  the  world.  In 
1101  he  founded  the  celebrated  Abbey  and 
Order  of  Fontevrault. 

Arbuthnot,  Alexander  (6.  1538,  d.  1583), 
a  Scottish  divine  and  poet;  he  was  originally 
educated  for  the  law,  aud  took  an  active 


paat  in  the  reUgious  controversies  of  his 
time. 

Arbutlinot,  Sir  Alexander  (h.  1796),  a  gal- 
lant naval  officer,  who  served  at  Trafalgar 
and  elsewhere,  and  accompanied  the  British 
Legion  to  Spain. 

Arbuthnot,  General  Sir  Hugh,  K.C.B. 
[h.  1781),  a  distinguished  soldier,  who  was 
present  at  the  siege  of  Copenhagen,  and 
served  in  the  Peninsula  under  Moore  and 
Wellington.  For  his  services  at  Busaco  he 
received  a  gold  medal. 

Arbuthnot,  John  (6.  1673,  d.  1735),  a 
Scottish  physician  and  miscellaneous  writer ; 
appointed  in  1709  physician  to  Queen  Anne, 
was  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Pope 
and  Swift,  and  author  of  a  witty  political 
pamphlet,  'The  History  of  John  Bull,  and 
other  works. 

Arbuthnot,  Mariot  (6.  1711,  d.  1794),  a 
British  admu-al  who  served  with  distinction 
under  Hawke  in  the  war  with  the  French. 
The  taking  of  Charleston  and  capture  of 
several  French  vessels,  earned  him  the 
thanks  of  Parliament ;  he  was  made  full 
admiral  in  1793. 

Arcadius  (6.  383,  d.  408),  Emperor  of  the 
East,  aud  elder  son  of  Theodosius  I.,  a  weak 
prince,  was  ruled  by  his  successive  favour- 
ites, Rufinus  and  Eutropius,  and  after  their 
deaths  gave  liimself  up  to  the  influence  of 
his  wife  Eudoxia,  who  is  notorious  as  a 
persecutor  of  St.  Chrysostom. 

Arcesilaus  (6.  316  b.c.,  d.  241  e.g.),  a 
Greek  philosopher,  who  founded  the  second 
or  middle  academy,  and  taught  in  Athens, 
He  maintained  the  delusiveness  of  the 
senses  and  the  impossibility  of  attaining 
to  truth. 

Arcesilaus,  a  sculptor  of  Rome  during  the 
last  days  of  the  republic ;  he  was  patronised 
by  LucuUus,  and  his  works  were  eagerly 
sought  after,  but  none  have  survived. 

Arcesilaus  I.  {d.  583),  King  of  Cyrene,  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Battyadse,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  b.c.  599,  and  reigned  peacefully 
for  sixteen  years. 

Arcesilaus  II.,  King  of  Cyrene,  sumamed 
Chalepus,  succeeded  to  the  throne  about 
560  B.C.  He  failed  to  quell  a  revolt  of  the 
Libyans,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Learchus 
about  550  B.C. 

Arcesilaus  III.,  King  of  Cyrene  (d.  614 
B.C.),  a  cruel  monarch,  whose  submission  to 
Cambyses  provoked  an  insurrection.  The 
king  took  refuge  in  Barca,  where  he  was 
slain. 

Arcesilaus  IV.,  King  of  Cyrene  {d.  431 
B.C.),  last  of  the  dynasty  of  Battyadse,  aud 


Arc 


(61) 


Arc 


a  contemporary  of  Pindar.     His   severity 
resulted  in  his  assassination. 

Arch,  Joseph  (6.  1826),  leader  of  the 
English  agricultural  labourers'  movement 
in  1872,  and  president  of  their  union.  In 
1885  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  as 
member  for  the  north-west  division  of 
Norfolk,  but  was  not  re-elected  the  follow- 
ing year. 

Archadelt,  Jacques,  a  Flemish  musician 
of  the  16th  century,  whose  madrigals  were 
the  most  popular  of  his  time. 

Archagathus,  a  Greek  physician  and  sur- 
geon, who  practised  at  liome  in  the  3rd 
century  B.C.,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce 
there  the  systematic  practice  of  medicine. 

Archdale,  George  (6.  1848),  a  Scottish 
chemist,  who  went  to  the  United  States  in 
1881,  and  made  important  investigations 
respectiag  the  manufacture  of  starch. 

Archdale,  J'ohn,  was  appointed  English 
governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1695.  He 
introduced  the  culture  of  rice,  and  during 
the  two  years  he  held  of&ce  did  much  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  colonists.  He 
left  an  historical  and  descriptive  account  of 
Garohna. 

ArcMaU,  Mervyn  (6.  1723,  d.  1791),  a 
learned  Irish  divine  and  antiquary,  author 
of  a  history  of  the  abbeys,  priories,  etc., 
of    Ireland,    entitled    Monasticum    Hiber- 


Axchelaus  {d.  a.d.  7),  son  of  Herod  the 
Great,  succeeded  to  the  government  of 
Judaea,  Idumea,  and  Samaria,  and  was  re- 
cognised as  ethnarch  of  those  countries  by 
the  Eoman  emperor,  B.C.  3.  Numerous 
complaints  of  his  tyrannical  rule  induced 
Augustus  to  deprive  him  of  his  office,  and 
bauish  him  to  France,  where  he  died.  He 
rebuilt  Jericho,  and  founded  the  town  of 
Archelais. 

Archelaus  {d.  399),  Eling  of  Macedonia, 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Perdiccas  II., 
to  whose  thi-one  he  succeeded  in  413  B.C. 
He  then  married  Cleopatra,  his  father's 
widow,  having  previously  murdered  the 
legitimate  son  of  Perdiccas,  as  well  as  his 
uncle  and  cousin.  He  ruled  successfully, 
and  was  killed  while  hunting,  whether  by 
accident  or  design  is  unknown. 

Archelaus,  a  Cappadocian,  the  distin- 
guished general  of  Mithridates  VT.,  flou- 
rished in  the  1st  century  B.  c.  After  defeating 
Nic miedes  III.  at  Amnias,  B.C.  88,  he  sailed 
to  Greece,  captured  Delos  and  other  towns, 
and  induced  Achaia,  Lacedemou,  and  Boeo- 
ti;i  to  form  an  alliance  with  Mithridates 
against  Rome.  Sulla  besieged  liira  in  the 
Piraeus,  and  compelled  him  to  withdraw  his 


forces.  Returning  to  the  contest  with  a 
still  larger  army,  Archelaus  was  again  de- 
feated and  forced  to  retire,  when,  acting 
upon  iastructions  received  from  Mithri- 
dates, he  concluded  peaoe  with  SuUa,  but 
upon  terms  unsatisfactory  to  the  king,  and 
he  finally  deserted  to  the  Romans,  after 
which  little  is  known  of  him. 

Archelaus  I.,  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
high  priest  of  the  goddess  Enyo  at  Comana 
in  Pontus,  who  in  right  of  his  wife  Berenice, 
Queen  of  Egj^t,  assumed  the  sovereignty  of 
that  country  also.  He  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Aulus  Gabioius,  pro-consul  of 
Syria,  about  B.C.  56. 

Archelaus  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
higli  priest  of  Comana,  was  defeated  by 
Cicero  in  a  war  with  Cappadocia,  and  in 
B.C.  47  was  deposed  by  Julius  Caesar. 

Archelaus,  King  of  Cappadocia  {d.  a.d. 
17),  son  of  the  preceding,  supported  Antony 
against  Octavius,  and  on  the  accession  of 
Tiberius  was  induced  to  come  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  detained  till  his  death. 

Archelaus  of  Miletus  first  introduced 
physical  philosophy  into  Athens.  He  was 
the  pupil  of  Anaxagoras,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  preceptor  of  Socrates. 

Archenholz,  Johann  Wilhelm  (6.  1741,  d. 
1812J,  a  German  soldier,  traveller,  and 
voluminous  writer,  was  author  of  a  History 
of  the  Seven  Tears''  War,  and  of  the  popular 
England  und  Italien. 

Archer,  JohnWykeham  (6. 1808,  d.  1864), 
an  English  engraver  and  painter,  who 
adopted  the  pseudonym  of  "Mr.  Zigzag  the 

Elder." 

Archer,  Sir  Symon  (6.  1581,  d.  circa 
1688),  an  English  antiquary  who  assisted 
Dugdaleinhis  Antiquities  of  Warwickshire, 
and  was  knighted  by  James  I. 

Archer,  Thomas,  English  architect,  de- 
signed, amongst  other  works,  the  churches 
of  St.  Philip  at  Birmingham  and  St.  John 
at  Westminster,  and  died  ia  1743. 

Archiac,  Etienne  Jules  Adolphe,  Desmier 
de  St.  Simon,  Viscount  d'  (6.  1802),  an 
eminent  French  geologist,  author  of  a 
History  of  Geology  from  1834  to  1851. 

Archibald,  Hon.  Sir  Adams  George  [h. 
1814),  Canadian  jurist,  was  for  sotne  years 
member  of  the  executive  council  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  several  times  employed  as 
delegate.  He  held  many  pohtical  posts, 
and  was  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway  (1873).  He  was  also 
governor  of  Manitoba,  and  afterwards  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  was  knighted  in  1885. 

Archidamus  I.,  King  of  Sparta,  ascended 


Arc 


(52) 


Ard 


the  throne  about  b.o.  630,  and  enjoyed  a 
peaceful  and  uneventful  reign. 

ArcMdamus  II.,  King  of  Sparta  {d.  b.o. 
427),  ascended  the  throne  B.C.  469,  took  an 
important  part  in  the  Peloponnesiau  war, 
and  three  times  invaded  Attica. 

ArcMdamus  III.,  King  of  Sparta  {d.  b.c. 
338),  a  warlike  prince,  who  took  part  in 
many  wais,  and  defeated  the  Thebans 
under  Epaminondas.  He  was  slain  in 
battle  with  the  Lucanians. 

ArcMdamus  IV.,  Iving  of  Sparta,  and 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  defeated 
near  Mautinea  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes, 
B.C.  296. 

Archidamus  V.,  King  of  Sparta,  succeeded 
his  brother  Agis  IV.  B.C.  240,  but  was  soon 
after  assassinated. 

ArcMgenes,  a  Greek  physician  of  the  1st 
century  a.d.  He  came  to  Rome  during  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  and  enjoyed  a  consider- 
able reputation. 

ArcMlocus  of  Paros,  a  lyric  poet  of  the 
7th  century  B.C.,  and  one  of  the  earliest 
writers  of  elegiac  poetry.  He  was  killed  in 
war  with  the  people  of  Naxos. 

ArcMmedes  (6.  b.c.  287,  d.  b.c.  212),  was 
educated  under  Conon  at  Alexandria, 
and  early  devoted  himself  to  the  mathe- 
matical investigations  for  which  he  is 
famed.  He  was  the  friend,  and  perhaps  the 
relative,  of  Hieron  II.,  King  of  Syracuse,  in 
whose  service  he  constantly  exercised  his 
ingenuity.  He  was  amongst  those  slain  in 
the  general  massacre  which  followed  the 
taking  of  Syracuse,  having  been,  says  the 
story,  too  intent  on  some  geometiical  prob- 
lem to  give  that  explanation  of  his  identity 
which  would  have  secured  Ms  safety.  His 
tomb,  marked  as  he  had  directed  by  a  cy- 
linder with  inscribed  sphere,  was  discovered 
by  Cicero  (75  B.C.) .  Of  Ms  numerous  works, 
nine  of  the  most  important  are  extant,  in- 
cluding treatises  on  hydrostatics,  the  mea- 
sure of  the  circle  and  the  quadrature  of  the 
parabola,  and  show  their  author  to  have 
been  undoubtedly  the  greatest  mathema- 
tician of  antiquity. 

Archytas,  an  accomplished  and  learned 
Pythagorean  philosopher,  and  a  skilled 
military  commander  who  is  said  never  to 
have  lost  a  battle.  He  vsrote  many 
treatises,  and  according  to  Horace  was 
drowned  off  the  coast  of  Apulia. 

Arciszewsld,  Krzysztof  (r/.  1656),  a  Pohsh 
general,  who  joined  the  French  army,  and 
took  part  in  the  siege  of  Rochelle,  in  1G28. 
He  afterwards  went  to  Brazil  in  the  service  of 
the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  and  was 
distinguished  for  Ms  bravery  and  judgment. 


He  finally  returned  to  Poland,  where  he  was 
appointed  master  of  the  ordnance. 

Arckenlioltz,  Johann  (6.  1695,  d.  1777),  a 
Swedish  Finlander,  whose  Considerations 
on  France  and  its  Relations  to  Sweden  led 
to  his  dismissal  from  Ms  post  in  the  chan- 
cery at  Stockholm.  He  was  ultimately 
appointed  royal  Mstoriographer  at  Stock- 
holm. 

Arco,  Giambattista  Gherardo  d'  (6.  Arco, 
1739,  d.  1791),  one  of  the  greatest  political 
economists  of  Ms  time;  he  left  numerous 
and  valuable  worl<s,  and  was  governor  of 
the  Duchy  of  Mantua. 

Arcon,  Jean  Claude  Eleanore  Lemichaud 
d'  (6.  1733,  d.  180U),  a  distinguished  FT-ench 
military  engineer,  who  conceived  the  idea 
of  employing  floating  batteries  for  the 
attack  on  Gibraltar  in  1782.  He  also  served 
in  the  Republican  army  wMch  invaded 
Holland,  and  captured  Breda  and  other 
places. 

Arcos,  Rodrigo  Ponz  de  Leon,  Duke  of,  a 
Spanish  nobleman  who  so  mismanaged  the 
government  of  Najjles  under  Philip  IV. 
as  to  provoke  two  rebelhons,  wMch  were 
vrith  difficulty  suppressed,  and  he  was  re- 
called in  dii^grace. 

Arctinus  of  Miletus,  an  epic  poet  of 
Greece,  who  Uved  in  the  8th  century  B.C., 
and  wrote  a  conlinuation  of  the  Iliad,  and 
the  Destruction  of  the  Ilion. 

Ardemans,  Teodoro  (6.  Madrid,  1664,  d. 
1726),  a  painter  and  architect  of  considerable 
merit,  many  of  whose  architectural  works 
are  to  be  found  in  Madrid. 

Arden,  Richard  Pepper,  Lord  Alvanley, 
{h.  1745,  d.  1804),  an  eminent  English 
lawyer,  and  an  able  judge ;  in  1801  he 
succeeded  Lord  Eldon  as  chief  justice  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  vdth  the  title  of 
Baron  Alvanley. 

Ardem,  John,  a  London  surgeon  of  the 
14th  century,  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
introduce  a  rational  practice.  He  was  a 
skilful  operator,  and  made  many  improve- 
ments in  surgery. 

Arditi,  Luigi  (6.  1822),  Italian  com- 
poser, studied  at  Milan.  After  visiting 
America  he  came  to  England,  and  was 
conductor  of  the  splendid  orchestra  of  Her 
Majesty's  theatre  (1857—1878).  His  waltzes 
are  extremely  popular. 

ArdsMr  Babegan,  a  descendant  of  Darius, 
and  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  valiant  of  the 
Persian  kings.  He  defeated  and  slew  Ms 
predecessor,  Ardavan,  seized  his  throne,  and 
after  thirty  years  of  victorious  warfare 
established  his  sway  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Oxus.    In  the  internal  admimstration 


Ard 


(63) 


Arf 


of  his  kingdora  he  proved  vigilant  and  just ; 
he  died  or  abdicated  about  '260. 

Arduin  or  Ardoin,  Marquis  of  Ivrea  (d. 
1015),  was  elected  King  of  Italy  in  1002, 
and  for  thirteen  years  maiatained  his  claim 
in  opposition  to  Henry  II.  of  Germany  and 
others.  Worn  out  at  length  by  repeated 
reverses,  and  the  desertion  of  his  friends, 
he  retired  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Benigno, 
where  he  died. 

Areinberg,  Johann  von  Ligne  {d.  1568), 
served  in  the  Spanish  army  during  the  war 
of  Independence  in  the  Netherlands.  He 
was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Groningen, 
where,  after  exhibitiug  the  greatest  personal 
valour,  he  fell  covered  with  wounds. 

Aremberg,  Leopold  Philip  Karl  Joseph 
von  Ligne,  Duke  of  (6.  1690,  d.  1754),  dis- 
tinguished himself  under  Prince  Eugene  at 
the  battle  of  Belgrade.  After  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  he  devoted  himself  for  a  time  to 
literature,  but  afterwards  commanded  the 
forces  of  Maria  Theresa,  in  Flanders,  in  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  succession. 

Arena,  Bartolomeo  (6.  1760,  d.  1829),  a 
Corsicau  advocate,  a  violent  repubUcau,  and 
the  enemy  of  Paoli.  He  was  one  of  the  Five 
Hundred  in  1798,  and  being  charged  with 
an  attempt  to  stab  Bonaparte,  retired  to 
Leghorn,  where  he  died. 

Arena,  Giuseppe  (rf.  1801),  brother  of  the 
preceding,  served  in  the  French  army,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Toulon. 
He  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiring 
against  the  life  of  the  First  Consul,  and 
beheaded. 

Arends,  Jan  (6.  1738,  d.  1805),  a  Dutch 
painter,  pupil  of  Ponse,  painted  marine 
and  other  subjects. 

Arents,  Albert  (6.  1840),  an  eminent 
metallurgist ;  he  was  educated  in  Germany, 
but  in  1882  was  elected  member  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers. 
He  is  the  inventor  of  the  siphon  tap  for 
lead  f  irmaces,  the  Eureka  lead  furnace,  and 
the  well-known  roasting  furnace  which  bears 
his  name. 

Areschong,  Johan  Erhard  (6.  1811,  d. 
1887),  an  emnient  Swedish  botanist,  for  some 
time  professor  of  botany  at  Upsala.  He  is 
especially  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
marine  algae,  and  is  author  of  Symbolce 
Algarum  HcandinavicB,  and  other  works. 

Areskin,  Eobert  (d.  1718),  Scottish  physi- 
cian, went  to  Russia,  and  under  the  patron- 
age of  Peter  the  Great  did  much  for  the 
advancement  of  medicine  in  that  country. 

Areson,  Jon  (6.  1484,  d.  1550),  a  violent 
opponent  of  the  reformed  rehgion,  was 
aiter   much   opposition   consecrated  bishop 


of  Holum.  He  led  an  armed  expedition 
into  the  diocese  of  Skalholt,  and  captured 
and  ill-treated  its  Protestant  bishop,  Einars- 
son,  and  continued  his  depredations  till  he 
himself  was  made  prisoner,  and  beheaded. 
He  ii\troduced  the  printing  press  into  Ice- 
land, and  was  the  best  Icelandic  poet  of  his 
time. 

Aretseus  of  Cappadocia,  an  eminent 
physician  of  the  1st  or  2nd  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  whose  one  extant  work  is 
very  valuable,  and  has  gone  through  various 

editions. 

Aretas  II.,  King  of  Aiabia  Petraea  in  the 
1st  century  B.C.,  was  victorious  in  an  ex- 
pedition against  Judaea,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Romans  under  the  legate  Scaurus. 

Aretas  III.,  King  of  Arabia  Petraea  and 
father-in-law  of  Herod  Antipas,  against 
whom  he  waged  a  successful  war. 

Aretino,  Leonardo  (Bruni)  (6.  1369,  d. 
1444)  a  scholar  and  author,  whose  reputa- 
tion was  such  that  in  1405  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  correspondence  to  Innocent 
VII.,  and  remained  for  many  years  in  his 
service  and  that  of  the  three  succeeding 
popes.  The  end  of  his  Ufe  was  spent  in 
Florence,  of  which  city  he  was  appointed 
chancellor. 

Aretino,  Pietro  (Bacci)  (6.  1492,  d. 
1556),  an  adventurer  who  in  his  time  ac- 
quired an  imdeserved  reputation  as  a  writer 
and  politician.  He  was  a  self-educated  but 
audacious  man,  and  contrived  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  several  princes  and  noblemen, 
fLnaliy  settling  at  Venice,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  acquisition  of  wealth. 

Aretius,  Benedict  (6.  1505,  d.  1574),  a 
Swiss  theologian  and  botanist ;  he  embraced 
the  opinions  of  Calvin,  and  devoted  his 
leisure  to  botany,  on  which  he  wrote  many 
works.  He  was  the  first  to  describe  the 
plant  Aretia  Helvetica,  which  was  named  in 
his  honoiir. 

Arezzo,  Guittone  d"  {d.  1294),  an  Italian 
noble,  known  as  Fra  Guittone,  who  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of  Italian 
poetry  and  perf  ecter  of  the  sonnet. 

Arezzo,  Tommasi  (,6.  1756,  d.  1832),  a 
distinguished  Italian  ecclesiastic,  who  was 
employed  by  Paul  I.  on  an  important 
mission  to  Russia ;  he  was  also  employed 
by  Napoleon,  who  imprisoned  him  for  re- 
vealing his  plans ;  he  was  made  a  cardinal 
in  1816,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  Church 
in  1830. 

Arfe,  Henrique  de,  with  his  son  Antonio, 
was  a  celebrated  worker  in  silver  in  the 
16th  century.  He  settled  in  Spain,  and 
wrought  silver  tabernacles  for  the  cathedrals 
of  Leon,  Cordova  and  Toledo. 


Arf 


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Arg 


Arfe,  Juau  de  (b.  1535,  d.  1595),  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  surpassed  his  father  and 
grandfather  in  the  beauty  and  elegance  of 
his  work.  The  beautiful  silver  tabernacles 
in  the  cathedrals  of  Avila  and  Seville  are  his 
work. 

Arfian,  Antonio  de,  a  Spanish  artist  in 
the  sixteenth  centuiy,  who  esi^ecially  ex- 
celled in  fresco. 

ArgaU,  Sir  Samuel  (6.  1572,  d.  1639), 
English  deputy  governor  of  Virginia 
(1617—1619),  whose  tyranny  and  rapacity 
resulted  ia  his  recall  two  years  after  his 
appointment.  He  afterwards  took  part  in 
an  expedition  against  the  Algerines,  and 
was  knighted  in  1623. 

Argand,  Aim^  {b.  1755,  d.  1803),  a  chemist 
of  Geneva,  inventor  of  the  Argand  lamp, 
which  he  brought  out  in  England  in  1782. 
The  patent  was  also  claimed  by  a  French- 
man, Ambroise  Lange,  and  finally  taken 
out  in  France  in  their  joint  names,  the 
priority  of  invention  being  conceded  to 
Argand.  The  French  Eevolution,  how- 
ever, deprived  him  of  all  profit  from  his 
patent. 

Argelander,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Auguste 
(6.  1799,  d.  1875),  German  astronomer  of 
repute,  published  iu  1843  an  atlas  of  those 
stars  which  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye 
(Uranometria  Nova).  He  also  continued 
Bessel's  work,  fixing  the  position  of  some 
22,000  stars  in  the  zone  45°  to  SO''. 

_ArgeUati,  Filippo  (6.  1685,  d.  Milan, 
1755),  a  learned  and  eminent  printer  and 
author,  whose  name  was  especially  asso- 
ciated with  the  printiug  of  Muratori's 
Rerum  Italicarum  Seriptores. 

Argens,  Jean-Bapfiste  de  Boyer,  Marquis 
de  (6.  1704,  d.  1771),  a  witty  French  writer, 
who  attracted  the  attention  of  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia,  and  spent  some  years  at  Berlin, 
but  having  incurred  that  monarch's  dis- 
pleasure, and  forfeited  his  pension,  he  re- 
turned to  Provence,  where  he  died.  Among 
his  best  known  writings  are  the  Lettres 
Juives,  and  the  Lettres  Cabalistiques. 

Argensola,  Bartolome  Leonardo  y  (6. 
1564,  d.  1631),  a  Spanish  poet  and  man  of 
letters,  whose  Runas  obtained  for  him 
the  title  of  "The  Phoenix  of  Castilian 
poetry." 

Argensola,  Lupercio  Leonardo  y  (6.  1563, 
d.  1613),  brother  of  the  preceding;  he  was 
patronised  by.Philip  III.  His  tragedies  are 
highly  spoken  of  by  Cervantes,  and  he  also 
wrote  lyrical  and  historical  works. 

Argeutelle,  Louis  Marc  Antoine  {h.  1777, 
d.  1828),  a  celebrated  French  modeller,  who 
made  a  valuable  collection  of  wax  models  of 


the  India  flora.     His  secret  unfortunately 
perished  with  him. 

Argenterio,  Giovanni  (6.  1513,  d.  1572), 
"  The  Great  Physician,"  practised  at  Lyons 
and  Antwerp,  acquiiing  so  great  a  reputa- 
tion that  he  was  invited  to  Italy,  and  tilled 
the  chair  of  medicine  at  Naples,  Pisa,  Rome, 
and  TurLu. 

Argentre,  Bertrand  d'  (6. 1519,  d.  1590),  a 
learned  jurist  and  historian  of  Brittany, 
author  of  a  History  of  Brittany,  and  other 
works. 

Argote  de  Molina,  Gonzalo  (h.  1549,  d. 
1590),  a  Spanish  historian,  and  author  of 
some  valuable  works  on  the  geography  of 
the  East.  In  early  hfe  he  served  in  thu 
army,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself  to> 
literature,  and  died  in  poverty. 

Arguelles,  Augustin  (6.  1775,  d.  1844),  a 
distinguished  Spanish  statesman  whosb 
speeches  and  writings  against  the  French 
obtained  for  him  the  title  of  "Divino." 
In  1814  he  was  amongst  the  proscribed, 
and  condemned  to  the  galleys,  but  some 
six  years  later  was  made  Minister  of  the 
Interior.  His  royalist  principles  induced 
him  to  retire  to  London,  till  the  amnesty  of 
1832,  after  which  he  became  a  member  of 
Cortes,  and  tutor  to  the  young  queen  and 
her  sister. 

Argyll,  Archibald  Campbell  (6.  1598,  d. 
1661),  eighth  Earl  of;  a  popular  Highland 
leader,  who  took  part  in  the  Civil  wars  of 
the  17th  century.  At  first  he  sided  with  the 
Covenanters,  whose  forces  he  commanded 
for  a  short  time,  but  on  the  execution  of 
Charles  I.  he  broke  with  the  English 
parliament,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to  pro- 
mote the  Restoration.  In  spite  of  this 
he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  by  Charles 
II.  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  and  exe- 
cuted. 

Argyll,  Archibald  (d.  1685),  ninth  Earl  of, 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  staunch  royalist. 
He  refused,  however,  to  give  complete 
compliance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Test 
Acts,  and  at  the  instigation  of  the  Duke  of 
York  was  tried  for  high  treason,  and  sen- 
tenced to  death  in  1681,  but  succeeded  in 
escaping  to  Holland.  Returniag  to  Scotland 
at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force,  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  executed  on  his  former 
sentence. 

Argyll,  John,  second  Duke  of  (6.  1678,  d. 
1743),  a  distinguished  statesman  and  soldier, 
who  served  with  distinction  under  Marl- 
borough in  the  Low  Countries.  As  a  poli- 
tician he  assisted  in  effecting  the  union 
between  England  and  Scotland,  and  also 
promoted  the  accession  of  George  I.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  commander-in-chief 


Arg 


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Ari 


in  Scotland,  and  defeated  the  Earl  of  Mar 
at  Sherift'muir  in  1715. 

Argyll,  George  Douglas  Campbell,  eighth 
Diike  of  (b.  1823),  author  and  politician,  was 
bom  at  Ardenlaple  Castle,  Dumbartonshire. 
As  Marquis  of  Lome  he  took  a  strong 
interest  in  the  question  of  ecclesiastical  pa- 
tronage then  agitated  in  the  Scottish  Church, 
and  which  occasioned  the  secession  of  the 
Free  Kirk,  being  a  supporter  of  Dr. 
Chalmers  and  the  evangelical  party.  He 
became  duke  in  1847,  and  in  1851  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's.  In  the 
followiag  year  he  was  appointed  Lord  Privy 
Seal  in  the  Cabinet  of  Lord  Aberdeen,  ia 
1856  Postmaster-General,  and  agaiu  in  1859 
Lord  Privy  Seal  in  the  Administration  of 
Lord  Palmerston.  From  1868  to  1874  he 
was  a  member  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  Govern- 
ment as  Secretary  of  State  for  India,  and 
for  the  third  time  accepted  the  office  of  Lord 
Privy  Seal  in  1880,  but  resigned  on  certain 
clauses  of  the  Irish  Land  BUI  which  he 
considered  destructive  of  ownership.  Be- 
sides much  he  has  \vritten  of  the  laud  ques- 
tion, a  subject  with  which  he  is  intimately 
acquaiuted,  his  principal  works  are  a  history 
of  the  Scottish  Church,  and,  in  religious  and 
scientific  inquiry,  the  Reign  of  Law  (1866), 
and  the  Unity  of  Nature  (1844). 

Ari,  or  Ara  (&.  1068,  d.  1148),  surnanied 
*'  the  Learned/'  an  Icelandic  historian,  and 
pupU  of  Hall  Thorariusson,  whose  history 
and  chronology  are  very  valuable. 

Ariadne,  Empress  of  the  East  in  the 
filth  and  sixth  centuries,  was  the  daughter 
of  Leo  I.,  and  on  his  death,  and  that 
of  her  infant  son,  vigorously  maintained 
the  claims  of  her  husband,  Zeno,  to  the 
throne,  who  died  in  491,  and  she  then 
married  his  successor,  Anastatius  I.,  over 
whom  she  had  great  influence. 

Arialdus  {d.  1066),  a  deacon  of  Milan  in  the 
11th  century,  who,  in  company  with  Landul- 
f  us,  determinedly  opposed  the  marriage  and 
simony  of  the  clergy.  Though  excommu- 
nicated, their  sentence  was  annulled  on 
appeal,  but  a  violent  agitation  at  Milan 
induced  the  archbishop  to  lay  that  city  under 
an  interdict,  when  the  terrified  people  turned 
against  Arialdus,  who  was  arrested,  and 
murdered. 

Ariamnes  I.,  King  or  Satrap  of  Cappa- 
docia,  was  the  father  of  Ariarathes  I.,  and 
reigned  fifty  years. 

Ariamnes  II.,  King  of  Cappadocia,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ariarathes  II. ,  and  asso- 
ciated in  the  government  his  son,  Aria- 
rathes III. 

Ariarathes  I.,  King  of  Cappadocia  (6.  b.o. 
404,  d.  B.C.  322),  succeeded  his  father,  Ari- 
amnes L  ;  he  was  unmolested  by  Alexander 


the  Great,  though  afterwards  attacked  and 
defeated  by  Perdiccas,  who  caused  him  to 
be  crucified. 

Ariarathes  II.,  King  of  Cappadocia, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  upon  whose  death 
he  fled  to  Ardoates,  King  of  Armenia,  who 
supplied  him  with  the  means  of  expelling 
the  Macedonians  and  regaining  his  kingdom. 

Ariarathes  III.,  King  of  Cappadocia  {d. 
B.C.  22U),  son  of  Ariamnes  II. ;  he  married 
Stratonice,  daughter    of    Antiochus  II.   of 

Syria. 

Ariarathes  IV.,  King  of  Cappadocia  (d. 
B.C.  163),  son  of  the  preceding,  aided 
Antiochus  III.  against  the  Romans,  but 
afterwards  formed  an  alliance  with  them. 

Ariarathes  V.,  King  of  Cappadocia  (d.  b.o. 
130),  called  at  first  Mithridates,  and  sur- 
uamed  Philopater,  was  driven  from  his 
throne  by  Holofernes  and  fled  to  Home, 
but  was  afterwards  restored  in  conjunction 
with  his  rival,  but  soon  regained  entire 
possession. 

Ariarathes  VI.,  King  of  Cappadocia  (d. 
B.C.  96),  sou  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded, was  assassinated  at  the  instigation 
of  his  father-in-law,  Mithridates. 

Ariarathes  VII.,  King  of  Cappadocia,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  placed  on  the  throne 
by  Mithridates,  as  a  means  of  securing  it 
for  himself.  He,  however,  resisted,  and 
raised  an  army,  but  was  assassinated  by 
Mithridates. 

Ariarathes  VIII.,  King  of  Cappadocia, 
sou  of  Ariarathes  VI.,  was  attacked  by 
JNIithridates  and  driven  from  the  throne. 

Ariarathes  XI.,  King  of  Cappadocia  (d. 
B.C.  36),  son  of  Aiiobarzanes  II.,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  B.C.  42,  but  was  deposed  and 
put  to  death  by  Antony. 

Arias  Montanus  Benedictus,  Benito  Arias 
Moutano  (6.  1527,  d.  1598),  a  learned  biblical 
scholar,  who  in  1568  superintended  the 
printing  of  the  great  polyglot  Bible. 

Aribert,  Duke  of  Aquitaine  (d.  630),  and 
son  of  Clotaire  II.  of  France,  obtained  pos- 
session of  Aquitaine  on  his  father's  death, 
and  held  it  till  his  death. 

Aribert  I.,  King  of  the  Longobards  (d. 
661),  elected  in  653,  devoted  himself  to  the 
conversion  of  his  Arian  subjects  to  the  or- 
thodox faith. 

Aribert  II.,  King  of  the  Longobards,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  701,  and  the  following 
year  was  attacked  by  Linitpert,  whom  he 
defeated  and  put  to  death.  In712, however, 
he  was  defeated  by  Ansprand,  and  drowned 
in  the  Ticino. 


Ari 


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Ari 


Arigisius  I.,  Duke  of  Beneventum,  a  war- 
like and  able  prince,  who  ruled  from  591 
to  641. 

Arigisius  II.,  Duke  of  Beneventum,  a  man 
of  learning  and  ability,  assumed  the  title 
of  priuce  iu  774,  but  two  years  afterwards 
submitted  to  Charlemagne. 

Ariobarzanes  I.,  King  of  Cappadocia, 
sumamed  Philoromaeus,  was  elected  in  B.C. 
93,  and  after  being  four  times  driven  from 
his  throne,  and  as  often  restored  by  the 
Romans,  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son, 
B.C.  63. 

Ariobarzanes  II.,  King  of  Cappadocia, 
son  of  the  preceding,  died  by  violence  before 
B.C.  51. 

Ariobarzanes  III.,  King  of  Cappadocia 
(a'.  B.C.  42),  sou  of  the  preceding,  was  favour- 
ably treatet  by  Ccesar,  who  increased  his 
dominions,  though  he  had  previously  assisted 
Pompey.     He  was  put  to  death  by  Cassius. 

Ariobarzanes  I.,  King  or  Satrap  of  Pontus, 
who  may  be  confounded  by  Xenophon  with 
another  of  the  same  name,  was  betrayed  by 
his  son,  Mithridates  I.,  to  the  King  of 
Persia. 

Ariobarzanes  II.,  King  of  Pontus,  and 
Bon  of  Mithridates  I.,  in  362  B.C.  revolted 
from  Artaxerxes  II.  of  Persia,  and  estab- 
lished his  independence. 

Ariobarzanes  III.,  King  of  Pontus  {d. 
B.C.  240),  succeeded  his  father,  Mithridates 
III.,  B.C.  266.  With  assistance  from  the 
Gauls  he  defeated  an  invasion  of  the 
Egyptians. 

Ariosti,  Attilio  (6.  Bologna,  1660,  d.  1740), 
a  musical  composer,  the  friend  and  rival  of 
Handel.  He  was  for  some  years  in  the 
service  of  the  Electress  of  Brandenburg,  and 
twice  visited  England,  on  one  occasion  being 
employed  mth  Handel  at  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy of  Music.  Of  the  fifteen  operas  he 
composed,  the  most  popular  was  his  Corio- 
lanus. 

Ariosto.Lodovico  (S.Reggio,  1474,  rf.  1533), 
one  of  the  foremost  poets  of  Italy,  and  author 
of  the  great  epic  poem  Orlando  Furioso, 
which  was  written  in  his  intervals  of  leisure 
whilst  employed  by  Cardinal  Ippolyto  of 
Este  in  various  political  negotiations.  The 
Orlando  celebrates  the  achievements  of  the 
Paladins  of  Charlemagne  in  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Christians  and  Moors;  besides 
this  work  he  produced  two  comedies  and 
some  sonnets  and  other  small  pieces. 

Ariovistus  [Ehrenvist],  a  chief  of  the 
Suevi  in  the  first  century  B.C.,  who  gained 
many  victories  over  the  Sequani  and  .^dui, 
till  forced  by  Julius  Caesar  across  the 
Bhine. 


Arista,  Mariano  (6. 1802,  d.  1855),  a  Mexi- 
can general  who  distinguished  himself  in 
tlie  Mexican  wars  of  Independence.  In 
the  war  with  the  United  States  he  com- 
manded at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la 
Pahna,  and  in  1850  was  elected  President 
of  Mexico,  but  resigned  his  office  in  1853, 
and  was  banished  shortly  afterwards. 

Aristagoras  of  Miletus,  governor  of  Mi- 
letus during  the  absence  of  Histiseus.  An 
expedition  against  Naxos  having  failed,  he 
instigated  a  revolt  against  Persia,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  Athenians  attacked 
Sardis,  which  he  captured  and  burnt,  but 
was  shortly  afterwards  killed  at  the  siege 
of  AmphipoUs. 

Aristarchus  tlie  Grammarian,  a  native 
of  Saniothrace,  and  a  renowned  grammarian 
and  critic  of  the  2ud  and  3rd  centuries  B.C., 
was  tutor  to  the  son  of  Ptolemy  IV.,  but 
his  great  work  was  a  critical  examination  of 
the  'ireek  classics,  the  present  form  of  the 
Odyssey  and  Iliad  being  attributed  to  him. 

Aristides,  a  Greek  orator  of  the  2nd 
century  B.C.,  was  a  native  of  Bithynia,  but 
settled  in  Smyrna,  where  he  taught  oratory. 

Aristides,  sumamed  The  Just,  the  son  ot 
Lysimachus,  of  a  noble  Athenian  family,  was 
one  of  the  ten  Athenian  generals  at  Mara- 
thon, and  the  next  year  was  chief  Archon. 
Though  banished  through  the  influence  and 
jealousy  of  Themistocles,  was  recalled  three 
years  later,  upon  the  invasion  of  Greece 
by  the  Persians,  and  was  present  at  the 
battles  of  Salamis(B.o.  480) and Platsea  (B.C. 
479),  the  victory  of  his  countrymen  being 
largely  due  to  him.  It  was  principally  ow- 
ing to  his  high  reputation  for  integrity  that 
the  Confederate  States  with  two  exceptions 
appealed  to  the  Athenians  to  lead  them. 
He  died  about  468  B.C.,  in  such  poverty 
that  he  was  buried  at  the  public  expense. 

Aristides  of  Thebes,  a  Greek  painter  of 
the  4th  century  B.C.,  whose  pictures  fetched 
immense  prices. 

Aristion,  a  native  of  Athens,  and  teacher 
of  philosophy  in  the  1st  century  B.C.  He 
headed  a  revolt  of  the  Athenians  against 
Rome,  and  being  appointed  general,  used  his 
power  for  purposes  of  tyranny  and  plunder. 
On  the  arrival  of  Siilla,  B.C.  87,  Aristion 
was  besieged  at  Athens  and  put  to  death. 

Aristippus,  a  Greek  philosopher,  native 
of  Cyrene,  and  pupil  of  Socrates.  He  dif- 
fered materially  from  his  great  master, 
and  founded  the  school  of  the  Cyrenaics, 
teaching  by  precept  and  example  that 
pleasure  is  the  only  end  of  action. 

Aristobulus  I.,  sumamed  Philhellene, 
high  priest  of  the  Jews,  B.C.  107;  assumed 
the  title  of  king,  and  defeated  Antiochua 


Ari 


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Arl 


CyziccDUS  at  the  siege  of  Samaria.  He 
also  caused  the  death  of  his  mother,  and 
afterwards  of  his  brother  Autigonus,  who 
had  been  associated  with  him  in  the 
govermnent. 

Aristobulus  11.  {d.  b.c.  49),  high  priest 
and  kiug  of  the  Jews,  son  of  Alexander 
Januaeus,  usurped  his  brother's  throne,  but 
was  attac*ked  by  Pompey,  who  took  Jeru- 
salem, and  carried  hin  to  Rome.  After 
various  attempts  to  regain  the  throne,  he 
died  of  poison. 

Aristobulus  of  Cassandrea,  a  Greek  his- 
torian of  the  4th  century  B.C. ;  one  of  the 
generals  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Aristocles,  bom  at  Messene,  a  peripatetic 
philosopher  of  the  2nd  century,  and  author 
of  several  philosophical  works. 

Aristodemus,  a  contemporary  of  Tar- 
quinius  Superbus,  tyrant  of  Cuma  in  Cam- 
pania, and  a  brave  and  victorious  general. 
He  proclaimed  a  democratic  government, 
but  assumed  absolute  power  and  ruled  with 
great  sevei'ity. 

Aristogeiton,  an  Athenian  patriot,  famed 
ia  Greek  song  as  one  of  the  assassins  of  the 
tyrannical  Hipparchus ;  he  was  captured 
and  put  to  death,  but  a  statue  was  erected 
to  his  memory  by  the  Athenians. 

Aristoplianes  (6.  circa  e.g.  448),  the  cele- 
brated Greek  comic  poet,  the  contemporary 
of  Socrates,  Demosthenes,  and  Euripides, 
and  a  prolific  and  brilHant  writer  of  satirical 
plays.  For  purity  and  elegance  of  style  he  is 
unsurpassed,  and  his  works  present  a  vivid 
picture  of  Athenian  Life  and  maimers,  ridi- 
culing the  evils  of  the  time,  and  many  of 
the  leading  men,  especially  Socrates  in  The 
Clouds,  and  Cleon,  the  popular  favourite, 
in  The  Knights.  Of  his  fifty-four  plays 
only  eleven  remain.  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  personal  Hf  e. 

Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  a  great  gram- 
marian and  critic  of  the  third  century  B.C., 
and  author  of  the  Greek  system  of  punc- 
tuation and  accentuation ;  he  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  library  at  Alexandria. 

AristotUe,  Bastiano  da  San  Gallo  {h. 
1481,  d.  1551),  an  Italian  painter  and  archi- 
tect; he  was  a  pupil  of  Perugino  and 
Michael  Angelo,  and  was  remarkable  for 
his  skill  ia  perspective. 

Aristotle  (6.  b.c.  384,  d.  b.c.  322),  bom  at 
Stagira,  in  Macedonia,  one  of  the  greatest 
intellects  that  the  world  has  known,  and 
founder  of  the  peripatetic  school  of  phi- 
losophy, possibly  so  called  from  its  great 
master's  habit  of  walking  up  and  down 
while  lecturing.  A  pupil  of  Plato,  who 
called  him  the  "mind"  of  his  school, 
Aristotle  became  exceedingly  proficient  in 


physics,  metaphysics,  rhetoric,  poUtics, 
ethics,  and  natural  history,  while  of  logic 
he  justly  claims  to  be  the  founder.  His 
fame  reached  Phihp  of  Macedon,  who 
appointed  him  tutor  to  his  son,  Alexander 
the  Great,  aud  when  no  longer  required  in 
that  capacity,  Aristotle  returned  to  Athens 
and  estabHshed  a  school  in  the  Lycetmi. 
An  accusation  of  impiety,  and  perhaps  poU- 
tical  sympathy  with  Macedonia,  induced 
him  to  retire  to  Chalcis,  where  he  died  in  the 
sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  The  philosophy 
of  Aristotle  has  exercised  an  inunense  influ- 
ence over  the  world,  and  till  the  advent  of 
the  revival  of  learning  and  the  Reformation, 
its  power  in  Europe  was  supreme. 

Aristoxemus,  a  native  of  Tarentum  in 
the  4th  century  B.C.,  and  the  earliest  Greek 
writer  on  music  whose  works  are  extant. 
As  a  peripatetic  philosopher  he  had  a  great 
reputation. 

Arius  {d.  336),  theologian  and  heresiarch, 
was  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury, whose  teaching  denied  the  divinity  of 
Christ.  This  doctrine  was  pronounced  here- 
tical, and  Arius  and  his  followers  excom- 
municated, and  at  the  great  CouncU  of 
Nicsea  (325),  at  which  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine  was  present,  and  Athanasius,  after- 
wards bishop  of  Alexandria,  took  a  leading 
part ;  these  decisions  were  confirmed,  and 
the  Nicene  Creed  dra-wn  up  for  the  future 
guidance  of  the  Church.  Arius  several 
times  applied  for  readmission  to  the  Church, 
which  was  about  to  be  granted  when  he 
died  suddenly. 

Arktiarov,  Nikolai  Petrovich  (6.  1742,  d. 
1814),  a  general  in  the  Russian  army,  who, 
vmder  the  Emperor  Paul,  was  governor- 
general  of  St.  Petersburg. 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard  (6.  1732,  d. 
1792),  a  Lancashire  barber,  renowned  as 
the  inventor  of  the  spinning-frame.  Of 
humble  birth,  he  exhibited  considerable 
mechanical  skill,  joined  with  the  greatest 
industry.  In  1767  he  attempted  to  solve 
the  problem  of  perpetual  motion,  and  soon 
after,  with  the  help  of  a  clockmaker  named 
Kay,  his  spinning  inventions  began  to  take 
shape.  He  then  entered  into  partnership 
with  a  firm  of  stocking-manufacturers,  and 
his  invention  was  patented  in  1769,  and 
though  many  difficulties  arose,from  infringe- 
ments of  the  patent,  the  hostihty  of  the 
work-people,  and  disputes  to  his  claim  as 
the  inventor  of  his  machines,  Arkwright  was 
enabled  to  rise  from  poverty,  and  was 
chosen  to  present  a  congratulatory  address 
to  George  ill.  in  1786,  on  wiiich  occasion  he 
was  knighted. 

_Arlaud,  Jacques  Antoine  (6.  1688,  d. 
1746),  a  Swiss  miniature  and  portrait 
painter,  who  was  patronised  by  the  Duke  of 


Arl 


(58) 


Arm 


Orleaus.  In  1721  he  visited  England,  where 
he  was  warmly  received,  and  employed  to 
paiut  the  portrait  of  Cai'oliue,  Princess  of 
Wales.  His  niastei'piece  was  a  Leda, 
copied  by  liiin  in  Paris,  with  which  he 
refused  t  >  part,  and  tiually  destroyed  by 
cutting  it  to  pieces.  Some  fragments  are 
still  preserved  in  the  public  library  at 
Geneva. 

Arlincourt,  Charles  Victor  Prevot,  Vicomte 
d'  {h.  17S;i,  d.  1856),  poet,  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  Napoleon  by  a  poem  entitled  Une 
Matinee  de  Charlemagne,  which  secured  for 
him  several  appointments.  On  the  restora- 
tion he  devoted  himself  to  Utei-ature,  and 
published  many  poems  and  romances,  of 
which  Le  Solitaire  was  the  most  popular. 

ArlottO,  Mainardi  (6.  1395,  d.  1483), 
" Arlotto  il  Piovano,"  or,  "the  Curate,"  a 
witty  Italian  priest  of  humble  birth,  who 
travelled  largely  in  Europe ;  his  bon-mots 
have  been  collected  under  the  title  of 
Facetice  Piacevole. 

Armagnac,  Bernard,  Count  d',  a  man  of 
noble  family,  and  of  almost  absolute 
power  over  his  own  territories  in  G-ascony. 
Bold  and  ambitious,  he  largely  increased 
his  possessions,  and  after  the  mirrder 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  in  1407,  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  party  rivalries  of  the 
country,  and  having  gained  possession  of 
Paris,  caused  himself  to  be  appointed  con- 
stable of  France.  His  crueltj'  and  violence, 
however,  made  him  hated  by  the  people, 
who  betrayed  the  city  to  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, 1417,  and  Armagnac  was  imprisoned 
and  afterwards  masbacred  by  the  mob. 

Armagnac,  George  d'  (6.  1501,  d.  1585), 
Cardinal  d' Armagnac ;  an  able  and  learned 
man,  who  was  employed  diplomatically 
by  Francis  I.  and  Charles  IX.,  and  was 
ultimately  made  archbishop  of  Avignon. 

Armagnac,  Jean  I.,  Count  of,  a  distin- 
guished French  soldier  of  the  14th  century; 
he  served  against  the  English,  and  also 
under  the  Black  Prince  in  Spain. 

Armand,  Pierre  Damian  (6. 1778,  d.  1855), 
an  Italian  soldier,  who  distinguished  himself 
in  the  wars  of  the  French  Republic,  serving 
under  Massena  in  1799  ;  he  was  afterwards 
engaged  in  the  Italian  struggles  for  liberty, 
and  on  his  return  to  France  was  appointed 
librarian  to  St.  Cloud. 

Armansperg,  Joseph  Lud wig  (6.  1787,  d. 
1853),  a  Bavarian  statesman,  who  as  min- 
ister of  finance  (1826 — 1831)  succeeded  in 
establishing  the  financial  credit  of  his  coun- 
try. Upon  the  accession  of  Ludwig's  second 
son,  Oth>,  to  the  throne  of  Greece,  Ar- 
mansperg accompanied  him  as  President  of 
the  Regency  (1833),  but  was  dismissed  in 
1837,  and  retired  to  Bavaria,  where  he  died. 


Armati,  Salvino  [d.  1317),  a  native  of 
Florence,  said  to  have  invented  spectacles 
in  the  13th  century. 

Armellini,  Carlo  (6.  circa  1780,  d.  1863), 
an  Italian  patriot,  who  with  Mazziui  and 
Saffi  formed  the  Triumvirate  in  Rome, 
1849.  Upon  the  restoration  of  the  Pope's 
authority  he  was  driven  into  exile. 

Armfelt,  Carl  (6.  1666,  d.  1736),  a  skilful 
and  determined  Swedish  general,  who  op- 
posed the  Russian  invasions  under  Peter  the 
Great. 

Armfelt,  Gustave  Mauritz  (6.  1757,  d. 
1814),  a  distinguished  Swedish  general  and 
politician,  who  experienced  several  reverses 
of  fortune,  and  was  twice  compelled  on 
account  of  his  intrigues  to  take  refuge  ia 
Russia,  where  he  died. 

Arminius  or  Hermann  (6.  b.c.  16,  d.  a.d. 
20),  "the  deliverer  of  Germany,"  son  of  a 
chief  of  the  Cherusci,  was  sent  to  Rome  as 
a  hostage,  and  entered  the  Roman  army, 
where  he  attained  high  rank.  He,  however, 
revolted  from  Rome,  and  becoming  one  of  the 
most  powerful  leaders  of  the  German  tribes, 
defeated  and  slew  Varus,  and  for  some  time 
baiiled  Germanicus,  but  was  twice  defeated 
by  the  Romans.  He  was  assassiuated  by  one 
of  his  own  coimtrymen. 

Arminius,  Jacobus,  Jakob  Harmensen 
(6.  1560,  (/.  1609),  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Arminians.  He  studied  at  Geneva 
under  Beza,  but  his  adoption  of  the  philo- 
sophical views  of  Peter  Ramus  brought  him 
into  disrepute,  and  he  retired  to  Bale,  and 
was  ordaiued  minister  at  Amsterdam  (1588). 
He  was  chosen  to  defend  Beza's  doctrine  of 
predestination,  but  the  study  of  the  subject 
resulted  in  his  own  conversion.  In  spite 
of  fierce  opposition  to  his  doctrine,  in  1603 
he  was  professor  of  theology,  and  in  1606 
rector  magnificus  at  Leyden. 

Armitage,  Edward  (6.  1817),  an  historical 
and  mural  painter,  and  a  pupU  of  Paul 
Delaroche,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  famous 
Heinicycle.  His  first  exhibit  was  Pro- 
metheus Pound  (1842),  and  he  has  since 
won  many  prizes,  and  has  been  a  con- 
stant exhibitor  in  the  Royal  Academy  and 
elsewhere.  He  executed  two  frescoes.  The 
Thames  with  its  Tributaries,  and  the 
Death  of  Marmion,  in  the  upper  wait- 
ing hall  of  the  Palace  of  Westminster,  as 
well  as  mural  paintings  elsewhere.  R.A. 
1872. 

Armstead,  Henry  Hugh  (6.  1828),  de- 
signer, modeller,  and  chaser  in  gold, 
silver,  and  jewellery,  but  best  known 
as  a  sculptor.  Besides  the  marble  work  of 
the  south  and  east  sides  of  the  podium  of 
the  Albert  Memorial  in  Hyde  Park,  and 
the  four  large  bronze  figures  of  Chemistry, 


Arm 


(5^) 


Am 


Astronomy,  Medicine,  and  Ehetoric,  he  has 
designed  and  executed  many  statues  and 
decorative  work  of  various  kinds.  R.A. 
1879. 

Armstrong,  Sir  Alexander  (6.  1822), 
K.C.B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  honorary  phy- 
sician to  the  Queen  and  Prince  of  Wales. 
He  was  knighted  in  1871,  and  has  written 
on  subjects  connected  with  the  polar  regions, 
vfhere  he  spent  five  consecutive  years,  having 
been  surgeon  of  H.M.S.  Investigator,  during 
the  discovery  of  the  north-west  passage  by 
Sir  Robert  McClure  in  1853-54. 

Armstrong,  John  (6.  1784,  d.  1829),  an 
eminent  physician  and  lecturer  on  medicine ; 
his  works  on  brain  fever  and  puerperal  fever 
are  especially  valuable. 

Armstrong,  Johnnie,  famous  Scottish 
freebooter,  celebrated  in  minstrelsy,  was 
put  to  death  by  James  V. 

Armstrong,  William  (Kinmount  Willie), 
a  famous  border  freebooter  of  the  16th 
centuiy,  was  captured  by  the  English  dur- 
ing a  truce,  but  was  rescued  by  the  Scots 
under  Lord  Buccleuch,  in  the  daring  exploit 
knovra  as  the  "  Raid  of  Carlisle." 

Armstrong,  William  George,  Baron  (6. 
ISIO),  inventor  of  the  weU-known  breech- 
loading  gun  adopted  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment, was  educated  for  the  law,  and  entered 
a  firm  of  solicitors,  which  he  left  in  184(5,  and 
established  the  Els  wick  Eugiueering  Works 
on  the  Tyne.  In  18.)y  he  was  knighted,  and 
appointed  chief  engineer  of  ordnance,  but 
in  1863  he  resigned  that  post,  and  retired 
to  Elswick,  where  he  has  since  devoted 
himself  to  the  manxifacture  of  ordnance. 
Created  a  peer  1887. 

Amaldo  of  Brescia,  a  monk  of 
the  12th  century,  was  banished  by  In- 
nocent II.  for  his  bold  attempts  to  reform 
^ne  lives  of  the  clergy,  and  took  refuge 
with  Abelard  and  then  at  Zurich.  On  the 
death  of  the  Pope  he  went  to  R  )me,  and 
encouraged  a  revolt  against  the  temporal 
rule  of  the  Church  (1143-1154),  but  was 
made  prisoner  and  then  cruelly  put  to 
death. 

Amaldus,  Villanovanus  (Amauld)(6. 1240, 
d.  1313),  a  celebrated  physician  and  chemist, 
who,  in  spite  of  his  reputed  heresy,  was 
summoned  to  the  deathbed  of  Pope  Clement 
v.,  but  died  on  his  way. 

Amason,  Jon  (6.  Hof,  Iceland,  1819),  an 
eminent  historian  and  author  of  many  tales 
and  Icelandic  legends. 

Amaud,  Franc^ois  {h.  1721,  d.  1784),  a 
French  writer  and  critic,  and  a  great 
authority  on  music,  wjis  one  of  the  con- 
ductors of  the  Journal  Etranger  and  Gazette 
Litter  aire. 


Amaud,  Fran9ois  Thomas  Marie  de  Bacu- 
lard  d'  (6.  Paris,  1718,rf.  1805),  aman  of  pre- 
cocious intellect,  and  of  considerable  celebrity 
as  a  miscellaneous  writer.  He  was  impri- 
soned during  the  Reign  of  Terror,  but  after- 
wards released. 

Amaud,  Henri  (&.  1641,  d.  1721),  pastor 
and  leader  of  the  Vaudois  Protestants, 
whom  after  incredible  hardships  he  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  back  to  their  native  Pied- 
moutese  valleys,  just  at  the  time  when  Victor 
Amadeus  II.,  having  broken  with  France, 
was  glad  not  only  to  cease  his  persecutions, 
but  even  to  engage  their  services.  But 
though  he  led  a  detachment  against  the 
French,  on  the  renewal  of  peace  the  Vaudois 
were  again  diiven  from  their  homes  and 
forced  to  take  shelter  with  the  Duke  of 
Wurtemburg,  where  he  spent  the  rest 
of  his  days  in  the  compilation  of  his  His- 
tory of  the  Glorious  Return. 

Arnauld,  Angelique  (6.  1624,  d.  1684), 
Abbess  of  Port  Royal,  and  niece  of  the  cele- 
brated Mere  Angelique,  was  a  woman 
of  great  piety,  learning,  and  fortitude,  and 
nobly  sustained  the  courage  of  her  nuns  un- 
der the  persecutions  to  which  they  were 
subjected. 

Amauld,  Antoine  (6.  1612,  d.  1694),  sur- 
named  "le  Grand,"  a  doctor  of  theology, 
and  member  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  a  power- 
ful advocate  of  the  Jansenists.  During 
twelve  years  of  comparative  seclusion  he 
alone,  or  with  Nicole,  Pascal,  or  Lancelot, 
composed  those  works  on  logic,  metaphysics, 
and  theology,  whichmade  Port  Royal  famous, 
and  when  "  the  Peace  of  the  Church  "  was 
obtained  he  attacked  the  Calviuists,  against 
whom  he  and  Nicole  directed  their  great 
work,  Perpetuite  de  la  Foi.  In  1679  he  was 
forced  to  flee,  and  took  refuge,  at  Brussels, 
where  he  died. 

Amauld,  Jacqueline  Marie  (Mere  Angel- 
ique) (6. 1591,  d.  1661),  sister  of  theprecediug; 
she  was  made  abbess  of  Port  Royal  in  her 
eleventh  year,  and  was  distinguished  as  well 
for  her  kindness  and  benevolence  as  for  her 
piety,  and  the  strict  discipline  she  main- 
tained. 

Arnauld,  Jeanne  Catherine  Agnes  (La  Mere 
Agnes)  (6.  1593,  d.  1671),  sister  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  at  five  years  old  she  was  made  abbess 
of  St.  Cyr,  which  post  she  resigned  and  joined 
her  sister  at  Port  Royal,  where  she  was 
several  times  elected  abbess. 

Arnault,  Vincent  Antoine  (6.  1766,  d. 
1834),  a  French  dramatic  writer,  author  of 
the  tragedies  of  Marius  and  Lucrece  and 
other  works.  He  escaped  from  France 
duiiug  the  revolution,  was  afterwards  em- 
ployed by  Bonaparte,  and  in  1883  became 
secretary  to  the  Academic  Fraaijaise. 


Am 


(60) 


Arn 


Amd  or  Amdt.  Johann  (6.  1555,  d.  1621), 
Gerinau  theologian  and  distinguished  re- 
former, was  author  of  an  admirable  trea- 
tise Uii  True  C/iristianitt/,  and  was  finally 
appointed  superintendent-general  of  the 
Lutheran  Chvu'ch  at  Zelle. 

Ame,  Cecilia  (d.  1776),  wife  of  the  follow- 
ing, whom  she  married  in  1740.  She  was  one 
of  the  best  vocalists  of  her  day,  and  as  Miss 
Young  appeared  at  Drury  Lane  in  1730. 

Ame,  Thomas  Augustine  {b.  London, 
1710,  d.  1778),  a  distinguished  musical 
composer,  who  relinquished  the  study 
of  law  for  that  of  music.  His  genius  first 
showed  itself  in  the  music  of  Co)nus, 
1788,  and  among  other  popular  productions 
of  this  writer  is  the  well-known  Utile 
Britannia  from  The  Masque  of  Alfred,  Ar- 
taxerxes,  and  Love  in  a  Village. 

Amgrim,  Jonasen,  an  Icelandic  historian 
of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries ;  a  pupil  of 
Tycho  Brahe. 

Amgrimsson,  Eystein  (d.  1361),  an  Ice- 
landic poet,  author  of  a  poem  in  honour  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  The  Lily,  said  to  be 
the  finest  in  the  language. 

Arnlieiin  or  Arnim,  George,  Baron  von 
(h.  1581,  d.  1641),  a  distinguished  general  and 
politician,  who  took  part  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  serving  successively  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  Wallenstein,  and  the  Elector  of 
Saxony.  After  gaining  the  decisive  victory 
of  Liegnitz  (1634)  he  retired  to  his  estates, 
but  was  seized  and  imprisoned  by  the  King 
of  Sweden ;  he  escaped,  however,  but  died 
soon  after. 

Arnim,  Anna  Elizabeth  von  (Bettina) 
{b.  1785,  d.  1859),  the  friend  of  Goethe,  a 
clever  but  eccentric  German  poetess  and 
writer,  who  published  in  1837  her  corre- 
spondence with  Goethe,  Correspondence  with 
a  Child. 

Arnim,  Harry  Karl  Edouard,  Count  von 
(6.  1824,  d.  1881),  a  Prussian  diplomatist, 
ambassador  at  Rome  1864,  whose  support  of 
Dr.  D61  linger,  and  resolute  opposition  to  the 
doctrine  of  Infallibility  whilst  at  Rome,  in- 
duced tlie  government  to  bestow  upon  him 
the  title  of  count.  He  was  afterwards  sent 
as  ambassador  of  the  German  Empii-e  to 
Paris,  but  on  his  recall  various  charges  in 
connection  with  his  discharge  of  the  duties 
of  that  office  were  brought  against  him,  and 
80  aggravated  by  a  violent  attack  upon  the 
govemmf  nt  made  by  an  anonymous  writer, 
presumably  the  count  himself,  that  he 
was  tried  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  and 
insolent  libel,  and  sentenced  in  absence  to 
five  years'  penal  servitude.  He  was  at  the 
time  Uving  in  Lausanne,  and  prudently  re- 
mained in  exile  till  his  death,  aU  attempts 
at  reconciliation  proving  futile. 


Arnim,  Lud\vig  Joachim  von  {b.  1781,  d. 
1831),  an  eminent  German  poet  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  who  in  conjunction  with 
Clemens  Brentano  produced  the  famous 
collection  of  songs  entitled  Des  Knaben 
Wunderhorn. 

Arnold,  Arthur  {b.  1833),  politician,  author, 
and  social  reformer,  first  became  prominent 
during  the  cotton  famine.  He  was  the  first 
editor  of  the  Echo,  which  under  his  manage- 
ment had  a  wide  circulation;  he  has  also 
written  several  articles  and  books,  and  was 
elected  member  for  SaKord  in  1880. 

Arnold,  Benedict  {b.  1740,  d.  1801), 
American  general,  a  brave  but  unprincipled 
man.  At  fifteen  he  enlisted  in  the  English 
army,  but  soon  deserted,  and  adopted  a 
mercantile  life.  In  the  Anglo-American 
war  Arnold  took  an  extremely  active  part, 
his  skill  and  gallantry  being  especially 
exhibited  in  the  siege  of  Quebec  and  the 
victories  of  Ridgefield  and  Benis.  Mean- 
while a  party  hostile  to  him  had  been 
growing  up ;  his  due  promotion  was  de- 
ferred, several  serious  charges  were  brought 
against  him,  the  fortunes  of  the  Americans 
grew  worse  and  worse,  and  he  became 
affected  with  the  prevalent  spirit  of  de- 
sertion. Accordingly  he  entered  into 
negotiation  with  the  Biitish  commander, 
and  treacherously  asked  and  obtained  the 
command  of  West  Point,  with  the  intention 
of  surrendering  it  to  the  enemy ;  the  capture 
of  Andre  betrayed  his  dupUcity,  and  the 
traitor  fled  in  disgrace  to  the  English  army 
at  New  York.  Here  he  was  appointed 
brigadier- general,  and  after  serving  against 
his  countrymen,  retired  to  London. 

Arnold,  Christoph  {b.  1646,  d.  1695),  a 
German  farmer  who  devoted  his  leisure  to 
astronomy,  and  made  some  remarkably  exact 
calculations ;  he  discovered  the  comet  of 
1683. 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  K.C.LE.,  {b.  1832), 
journalist  and  poet,  educated  at  King's 
College,  London,  and  Oxford,  where 
he  won  the  Newdigate  prize  in  1852. 
He  was  for  several  years  principal 
of  the  Government  Sanscrit  college  at 
Poonah,  Bombay  Presidency,  but  resigned 
his  post  in  1861,  when  he  first  became  con- 
nected with  the  Daily  Telegraph,  for  which 
he  has  continued  to  vsrrite  ever  since, 
being  appointed  editor.  His  Light  of  Asia 
'(1879)  achieved  extraordinary  popularity, 
and  obtained  him  a  high  place  amongst  the 
poets  of  the  day. 

Arnold,  Duke  of  Gueldres  {b.  1410,  d. 
1473),  was  engaged  in  continual  warfare 
with  Duke  Adolphus  of  Berg,  and  his  suc- 
cessor Gerhard  V.,  who  inflicted  a  crushing 
defeat  on  him  upon  St.  Hubert's  Day,  1444. 
He  afterwards  had  much  trouble  with  hia 


Am 


(61) 


Aro 


rebellious  son,  Adolphus,  and  finally  sold  hifl 
duchy  to  Charles  the  Bold  in  1472. 

Arnold,  Joliann  Gottfried  {b.  Hohenlohe, 
1773,  d.  LSOl),  musician  and  composer,  es- 
pecially skilled  on  the  violoncello. 

Arnold,  John  {b.  1744,  d.  1799),  an  English 
chronometrician,  inventor  of  the  detached 
escapement,  the  compensation  balance,  and 
the  cylindrical  balance-spring. 

Arnold,  Matthew  {b.  1822,  d.  1888),  eldest 
son  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  was  educated 
at  Winchester,  Rugby,  and  Balliol  CoUege, 
Oxford,  and  was  a  distinguished  critic,  poet, 
scholar,  and  theologian.  He  was  elected 
Fellow  of  Oriel  CoUege  1845,  and  iu  1851, 
after  having  been  for  some  time  private 
secretary  to  Lord  Lansdowne,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Lay  Inspector  of  Schools  under  the 
Committee  of  Coimcil  on  Education,  in 
which  capacity  he  twice  visited  the  Con- 
tinent for  the  purpose  of  collecting  informa- 
tion, and  which  appointment  he  resigned  in 
1886.  His  poetic  activity  was  manifested  in 
early  life;  for  ten  years  (1857-1867)  he  held 
the  chair  of  poetry  at  Oxford,  and  amongst 
his  productions  may  be  noted  his  Newdigate 
prize  poem  Cromwell  (1843),  The  Strayed 
Keveller,  and  a  volume  of  New  Foems  pub- 
lished in  1869.  As  a  critic  he  holds  a  very 
high  place.  His  later  works  were  chiefly 
theological,  being  attempts  to  grapple  with 
the  supernatural  aspects  of  Christianity 
from  a  rationalistic  standpoiut.  St.  Paul 
and  Protentantism  (1871),  Literature  and 
Dogma  (1873),  and  God  and  the  Bible  (1875) 
are  among  his  writings. 

Arnold,  Samuel  {b.  1740,  d.  1802),  a 
prolific  musical  composer,  who,  after  hold- 
ing various  appointments,  in  1793  became 
organist  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Both  his 
operas  and  his  oratorios  were  well  received, 
and  he  produced  numerous  glees,  songs,  and 
other  minor  pieces. 

Arnold  (Strutthan  von  Winckekied),  an 
heroic  native  of  Unterwalden,  who  sacri- 
ficed his  life  for  his  country  at  the  battle 
of  Sempach,  1386,  by  throwing  himself  on 
the  Austrian  spears  and  thus  breaking  the 
ranks  of  the  enemy. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Jb.  1795,  d.  1842), 
was  educated  at  Winchester,  and  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford.  In  1815  he  became 
Fellow  of  Oriel,  obtaining  in  that  year  the 
Chancellor's  prize  for  the  Latin  and  in  1817 
for  the  English  essay.  After  taking  holy 
orders,  he  passed  nine  years  at  Laleham, 
near  Staines,  in  literary  occupations,  and  in 
preparing  young  men  for  the  universities. 
Appointed  head  master  of  Rugby  school  in 
1828,  ho  raised  that  institution  beyond  all 
precedent,  both  by  the  remarkable  success 
of  his  pupils  and  by  the  iatroductiou  of  new 


branches  of  study  into  the  Rugby  course. 
He  was  of  the  Broad  Chui-ch  school  of 
thought,  and  a  vigorous  opposer  of  the  then 
new  Tractarian  movement.  In  1841  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  modem  history  at 
Oxford.  The  best  known  of  Dr.  Arnold's 
works  are  his  edition  of  Thucydides,  his 
History  of  Rome  (unfinished),  and  his  ser- 
mons delivered  in  the  chapel  of  Rugby 
schooL 

Amolfo  di  Lapo  {b.  1232,  d.  1300), 
architect  and  sculptor,  a  pupil  of  Nicolo 
Pisano,  erected  many  fine  works  in  Florence, 
especially  the  Santa  Croce  church  and  the 
duomo. 

Arnot,  Hugo  (PoUock)  {b.  1749,  d.  1786),  a 
Scottish  advocate,  author  of  a  History  of 
Edbiburgh,  1779 ;  he  made  also  a  valuable 
collection  of  the  celebrated  criminal  trials 
of  Scotland. 

Amott,Neil,Dr.  (*.  1788,  d.  1874),  Scottish 
surgeon,  inventor  of  the  stove  which  bears 
his  name,  and  author  of  the  Elements  of 
Physics  and  other  kindred  works. 

Amoul  or  Amulf  (6.  1040,  d.  1124),  Bene- 
dictine monk  of  Beauvais,  came  to  England 
with  Lanfranc  in  1072,  and  was  afterwards 
made  bishop  of  Rochester,  1114. 

Amould,  Ambroise  Marie  (6.  1750,  d. 
1812),  French  writer  on  political  economy, 
opposed  the  National  Convention  of  the 
Five  Hundred.  In  1798  was  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Ancients  and  afterwards  sup- 
ported Bonaparte,  who  made  him  chan- 
cellor of  state. 

Amould,  Jean  Fran9ois  Mussot  (6.  1743, 
d.  1795),  French  actor,  brought  out  numer- 
ous dramatic  pieces,  and  a  greatly  improved 
combination  of  ballet  and  pantomime. 

Amould,  Madelaine  Sophie  (6.  Paris,  1740, 
d.  1803),  singer  and  actress,  made  her  debut 
in  1757.     Her  salo?is  were  celebrated. 

Amulf  or  Amoul  (d.  899),  Duke  of  Carin- 
thia,  King  (887)  and  finally  Emperor  of 
Germany,  was  the  natural  son  of  Carloman, 
King  of  Bavaria.  He  displayed  the  highest 
military  abilities,  overran  Lombardy,  and 
afterward  sacked  Rome  (896). 

Aromatari,  Giuseppe  (6.  1586,  d.  1660), 
Italian  physician  and  naturalist. 

Aroudj  (6.  1473,  d.  1518),  the  first  Turk- 
ish sovereign  of  Algiers,  for  some  years  a 
private,  afterward  entered  the  service  of 
the  Bey  of  Tunis,  and  was  invited  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Algerines.  Entering  the 
town,  Aroudj  caused  the  governor  to  be 
killed  and  himself  proclaimed  king,  but 
was  soon  afterwards  "slain  in  an  encounter 
with  the  Spaniaxda. 


Arp 


(62) 


Ars 


Arpad  (6.  8G9,  d.  907),  son  and  successor 
of  tlio  Magyar  chief,  Salmutz  or  Almus, 
who  invaded  Hungary.  Arpad  extended 
his  conquests,  and  was  recognised  as  king 
of  Hungary,  and  thus  became  founder  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Arpades. 

Arpino.  Giuseppe  Cesare,  Cavaliere  de  (6. 
15G0.  d.  1640),  studied  under  Eoncalli  and 
Muziano,  and  became  the  first  painter  at 
Rome,  and  was  patronised  by  Henry  IV.  of 
France  and  Clement  VIII.  Among  his  pic- 
tures are  The  Ascension  at  San  Giovanni  in 
Laterano,  The  Rape  of  ike  Sabines,  and  The 
Combat  of  the  Horatii. 

Ar-radhi  BiUaJi  (6.  909,  d.  940),  twentieth 
cahph  of  the  Abbasides,  succeeded  in  934, 
but  the  administration  was  usurped  by 
Bahkam,  under  the  title  of  Chief  of  the 
Amirs. 

Ar-rashid,  Abu  Mohammed  Abd-1-Wahed 
II.  {d  1242),  an  African  sultan  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Almohades  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury, attacked  and  defeated  Yahya  Annasir, 
and  took  Morocco ;  for  his  cruelty  he  was 
driven  from  his  throne,  while  Yahya  was 
proclaimed  sultan,  but  shortly  afterward 
the  latter  was  defeated  and  slain,  and  Ar- 
rashid  regaining  his  throne,  enjoyed  a  peace- 
ful reign. 

Arrhenuis,  Clas  (6. 1627,  d.  1695),  Swedish 
historian  and  professor  of  logic  and  meta- 
physics at  the  university  of  Upsala. 

Arrhidseus  (d.  b.c.  317),  natural  son  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  on  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  was  proclaimed  King  of 
Macedon.  Eoxana  claimed  the  throne  for 
her  son  Alexander  IV. ;  Arrhidasus  and  his 
wife  Eurydice  were  made  prisoners,  and  put 
to  death  by  Olympias. 

Arriaga,  Juan  Chrisostome  (&.  1808,  d. 
1825),  Spanish  composer  and  violinist;  his 
career  was  terminated  by  a  premature 
death. 

Arrianus,  Flavius,  Governor  of  Cappa- 
docia  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  but  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  his  numerous  works  of 
history,  philosophy,  and  travels. 

Arribas,  Pablo  Antonio  (6.  1771,  d.  1828), 
Spanish  lawyer,  procurator-general  of  the 
Alcades  del  Corte  imder  Charles  IV.,  took 
office  imder  Joseph  Bonaparte,  but  on  the 
accession  of  Ferdinand  VII.  retired  to 
France,  where  he  died. 

ArrigM  de  Casanova,  Giovanni,  Duke  of 
Padua  {b.  1778,  d.  1853),  a  general  of 
Napoleon,  served  in  Egypt  and  Italy,  and 
almost  all  Napoleon's  wars,  and  was  made 
Governor  of  Corsica.  After  the  final  abdi- 
cation of  Napoleon  he  was  banished  from 
France,  but  aUowed  to  return  in  1820. 


AiTigoni,  Carolo  {d.  circa  1743),  Floren- 
tine nmsician  and  composer,  and  one  of  the 
most  skilful  lutists  of  his  age. 

Arrowsmitll,  John  (6.  1790,  d.  1873),  geo- 
grapher and  chartologist,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society, 
whose  gold  medal  he  received  in  1863. 

Arsaces  I.,  founder  of  the  Parthian  Em- 
pire and  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidae. 
Varying  accounts  are  given  of  his  invasion 
of  Parthia,  and  he  is  said  to  have  founded 
the  city  of  Dora. 

Arsaces  II.  (Tiridates),  brother  of  the 
preceding,  twice  defeated  Seleucus  Calli- 
nicus,  and  extended  his  authority  over  the 
whole  of  Hyrcania. 

Arsaces  III.  (Artabanus  I.),  son  and  suc- 
cessor (B.C.  217)  of  the  preceding,  invaded 
Media,  but  was  repulsed,  and  peace  con- 
cluded B.C.  210. 

Arsaces  IV.  (Priapatius),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, reigned,  according  to  Justin,  for 
fifteen  years  early  in  the  2nd  century  b.c. 

Arsaces  V.  (Phraates  I.),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, conquered  the  Mardi,  and  left  Jus 
throne  to  his  brother. 

Arsaces  VI.  (Mithridates  I.),  a  brave 
and  able  prince,  who  extended  his  domi- 
nions from  the  Caucasus  to  the  Euphrates. 

Arsaces  VII.  (Phraates  11.),  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  victorious  over  Antiochus 
VII.,  but  was  himself  defeated  and  slain  by 
some  Scythian  rebels. 

Arsaces  VIII.  (Artabanus  II.),  son  of 
Arsaces  IV.  and  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
whom  he  succeeded,  was  mortally  wounded 
whilst  repelling  a  Scythian  invasion. 

Arsaces  IX.  (Mithridates  II.),  siu^amed 
"the  Great,"  son  of  the  preceding,  first 
established  political  relations  with  Rome. 

Arsaces  X.,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
son  of  Arsaces  V.,  and  the  same  as 
Mnascires. 

Arsaces  XI.  (Sanatroeces),  after  many 
years  of  exile,  was  restored  to  his  throne  by 
the  Scythians  when  eighty  years  old  (circa 
B.C.  77). 

Arsaces  XII.  (Phraates  III.)  (rf.  B.C.  60), 
son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded 
B.C.  70.  He  refused  to  take  part  in  Arme- 
nian wars  against  Rome,  and  after  ten  years 
was  murdered  by  his  sons,  Mithridates  and 
Orodes. 

Arsaces  XIII.  (Mithridates  III.)  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  but  was  expelled  and  put 
to  death  by  his  brother  Orodes. 

Arsaces  XIV.    (Orodes   I.)    (d.   b.c.  37), 


Ars 


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Ars 


brother  of  the  preceding,  defeated  the 
Romans  under  Crassus,  and  sent  a  large 
army  across  the  Euphrates  and  overran 
Syria.  He  was  murdered  by  liis  son 
Phraates,  whom  he  had  associated  with 
himself  in  the  government. 

Arsaces  XV.  (Phraates  IV.)  {d.  a.d.  4), 
son  of  the  preceding,  began  his  reign  by 
murdering  his  father,  his  thirty  brothers, 
and  his  own  grown-up  son.  He  was  success- 
ful in  repulsing  Antony  and  in  crushiag  a 
rebeUion,  but  was  at  last  poisoned  by  his 
wife  Thermusa  and  her  son. 

Arsaces  XVL  (Phraataces)  emulated  the 
crimes  of  his  father,  and  with  his  mother 
was  put  to  death  by  the  people,  though 
Josephus  says  he  was  only  expelled. 

Arsaces  XVII.  (Orodes  II.)  was  elected 
by  the  people  as  successor  to  the  preceding, 
but  met  a  violent  death  a  few  months  after 
his  accession. 

Arsaces  XVIII.  (Vonones)  (rf.  a.d.  19),  a 
son  of  Phraates  IV.,  who  had  spent  some 
time  ia  Rome  as  a  hostage,  and  there  con- 
tracted Roman  habits  and  customs,  which 
made  him  hated  by  the  people.  These 
offered  the  throne  to  Artabanus,  whUe 
Vonones  was  elected  to  the  vacant  throne 
of  Armenia  (a.d.  16),  but  was  soon  after 
removed  and  slaia  by  order  of  Germanicus. 

Arsaces  XIX.  (Artabanus  III.)  succeeded 
to  the  throne  a.d.  16,  and  on  the  death  of 
Germanicus  seized  also  the  government  of 
Armenia  for  his  son  ;  he  was  twice  expelled 
from  the  throne  and  as  often  restored. 

Arsaces  XX.  (Gotarzes),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, put  to  death  his  brother  Artabanus 
and  his  family,  and  other  cruelties  provoked 
a  revolt  iu  favour  of  Bardanes,  and  Gotarzes 
was  forced  to  retire  to  Hyrcania.  On  the 
death  of  Bardanes  he  again  contested  the 
throne,  this  time  with  Meherdates,  whom  he 
defeated. 

Arsaces  XXI.  (Bardanes)  {d.  a.d.  47), 
brother  of  the  preceding.  His  cruelty  pro- 
voked his  assassination. 

Arsaces  XXIL  (Vonones  II.),  Satrap  of 
Media  and  successor  to  the  preceding. 

Arsaces  XXIII.  (VologesesT.)  {d.  a.d.  90), 
placed  his  brothers,  Pacorus  and  Tiridates, 
on  the  thrones  of  Media  and  AiTaeuia,  and 
defeated  Paetus,  the  Roman  general,  but 
was  afterward  on  terms  of  friendship  with 
Vespasian  and  Titus. 

Arsaces  XXrV.  (Pacorus),  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  preceding,  ruled  for  about 
twenty  years. 

Arsaces  XXV.  (Chosroes)  {d.  circa  B.C. 
122),   brother    of    the    preceding,  invaded 


Armenia,  but  was  defeated  by  the  Emperor 
Trajan  and  driven  from  his  throne,  which, 
however,  he  regained  on  the  death  of  that 
monarch. 

Arsaces  XXVI.  (Vologeses  11.)  (rf.  e.g. 
189),  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded, in  161  made  war  with  Rome,  but 
having  been  defeated  by  Cassius  a  peace 
was  arranged  which  lasted  till  his  death. 

Arsaces  XXVII.  (Vologeses  III.),  suc- 
ceeded his  father  a,d.  189,  and  engaged  in 
wars  with  Rome. 

Arsaces  XXVIII.  (Artabanus  IV. )  was  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  Rome,  and  afterward 
with  Persia,  and  was  captured  and  put  to 
death  by  Artaxerxes. 

Arsaces  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  son  of  Ar- 
saces XIX.,  by  whom  he  was  placed  on  the 
throne  a.d.  35,  but  was  soon  after  murdered 
through  the  instrimientality  of  Mitlmdates. 

Arsaces  II.  was  placed  on  the  throne  by 
his  brother,  Arsaces  XXVIII.,  in  a.d.  222, 
and  reigned  nearly  forty  years. 

Arsaces  III.  {d.  a.d.  370),  the  son  and 
successor  of  Tiridates  III. ,  was  defeated  in 
a  war  with  Sapor,  King  of  Persia,  who  im- 
prisoned him.  He  was  slain  by  a  faithful 
servant  at  his  own  request. 

Arsaces  IV.  {d.  a.d.  389)  lost  much  of 
his  territory  to  Theodosius  the  Great,  and 
Sapor  III. ,  but  retained  the  western  part. 

Arsemus,  Greek  scholar  and  philologist 
of  the  17th  century,  attempted  church 
reforms  in  Russia,  which  caused  his  banish- 
ment iu  1649  as  a  heretic,  but  was  after- 
ward recalled. 

Arsenius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
born  iu  early  part  of  13th  century  {d.  1273), 
in  1259  was  appointed  by  the  emperor, 
Theodore  Lascaris  II.,  joint  guardian  with 
George  Muzalon  of  his  son,  John  Lascaris. 
On  the  death  of  Muzalon  Arsenius  was  in- 
duced to  admit  Michael  Palseologus  to  co- 
guardianship,  and  that  craftj-  man  soon 
assumed  the  puiple,  and  put  out  the  eyes 
of  the  young  prince.  Arsenius  then  ex- 
communicated him,  when  Michael  retaliated 
by  deposing  the  prelate  and  banishing  Viini 
to  the  island  of  Marmora. 

Arsenius,  Saint  (6.  Rome,  354,  d.  449),  a 
pious  ascetic,  who  spent  forty  years  in  se- 
clusion and  abstinence  in  the  desert  of 
Scethis,  in  Libya,  and  at  Troy  in  Egypt 
where  he  died. 

Arsenne,  Louis  Charles  (6.  Paris,  1790,  d. 
1855),  a  French  reHgious  painter,  author  of 
a  manual  on  painting  and  sculpture.  His 
best  known  pictures  are  the  Holy  Women  at 
the  Tomb  of  Christ,  and  Jesus  in  the  Garden, 


Ars 


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Art 


Ar^.Tan  (Abu-l-ModhafFer  Zein-ed-din) 
(d.  1172),  Sultau  of  Persia  and  nephew  and 
successor  of  Soliman. 

Arslan  Shall,  fifth  sultan  of  the  Seljuk 
dynasty  of  Korman,  an  able  prince,  enjoyed 
a  long  and  prosperous  reign. 

Artabanus,  a  Hyrcanian,  a  captain  of  the 
body-guard  of  Xerxes,  endeavoured  to 
secure  the  throne  for  himself,  and  slew- 
Xerxes  and  Darius,  but  was  himself  slain 
while  attempting  the  life  of  Artaxerxes. 

Artabazus,  a  Persian  general,  Satrap  of 
Western  Asia,  who  served  with  distinction 
under  Artaxerxes  II.,  but  obstinately  re- 
volted from  Artaxerxes  III.  However,  after 
having  been  twice  defeated  and  pardoned, 
he  became  a  loyal  partisan  of  the  throne, 
and  was  rewarded  by  Alexander  with  the 
satrapy  of  Bactria. 

Artaphemes,  Satrap  of  Sardis,  son  of 
Hystaspes  and  brother  of  Darius,  several 
times  assisted  the  Athenians,  and  in  the 
government  of  the  troublesome  province  of 
Ionia  showed  himself  both  wise  and 
prudent. 

Artasires,  King  of  Armenia ;  his  cruel  and 
vicious  government  provoked  a  revolt,  and 
he  was  deposed  a.d.  428. 

Artaud  (Artaldus)  {d.  961),  a  Benedictine 
mouk  of  the  10th  century,  who  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Remis.  He  was  compelled 
to  abdicate  by  Heribert,  Count  of  Vermaji- 
dois,  but  afterwards  restored. 

Artavasdes  (Ardawazt)  (d.  b.c.  31),  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Tigranes,  to  the  throne  of 
Greater  Armenia  B.C.  36.  He  deserted  his 
ally,  Antony,  when  invading  Parthia,  who 
retaliated  by  enticing  him  into  his  camp, 
and  carrying  him  to  Alexandiia,  where  he 
was  put  to  death. 

Artavasdes  (Curopalates),  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  son-in-law  of  Constantine 
v.,  headed  the  revolt  of  the  orthodox 
Christians,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  at 
Constantinople.  He  was,  however,  besieged 
by  Constantine,  who  took  the  city  and  put 
Ajtavasdes  to  death. 

Artavasdes,  King  of  Media  {d.  b.o.  21), 
was  continually  at  war  with  Armenia,  and 
was  afterward  made  prisoner  by  Artaxias, 
but  recovered  his  liberty. 

Artavasdes  II.,  King  of  Armenia,  was 
placed  on  the  throne  by  Augustus  B.C.  6, 
but  expelled  by  his  own  people. 

Artavasdes  III.,  King  of  Armenia,  joined 
Sapor  I.  in  his  war  with  the  Romans 
A.D.  260. 

Artazerxea    L    {d.  b.o.  425),   somamed 


Makiokeir,  King  of  Persia  B.C.  465,  quelled 
an  Egyptian  revolt  in  456,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Athenians  449. 

Artaxerxes  II.  (6.  455,  d.  362  b.c.)  (Mne- 
mon),  King  of  Persia,  succeeded  his  father, 
Darius  II.,  B.C.  405.  At  the  battle  of 
Cunaxa  he  crushed  a  revolt  of  his  brother 
Cyrus,  assisted  by  ten  thousand  Greeks.  He 
also  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Greeks,  with 
Cyprus,  and  with  Egjrpt,  while  his  last  days 
were  disturbed  by  the  misconduct  of  his 
son  Darius. 

Artaxerxes  III.,  or  Ochus  {d.  b.o.  339), 
son  and  successor  of  the  preceding,  to  secure 
his  position  put  the  rest  of  his  family  to 
death,  and  after  a  troubled  reign  was 
poisoned  by  his  eunuch  Bagoas. 

Artaxias  I.,  or  Artaxes,  a  general  oi 
Antiochus  the  Great,  on  whose  defeat  (b.c. 
190)  he  set  up  an  independent  kingdom  in 
Armenia,  and  buUt  its  capital,  Artaxias. 
He  was  conquered  by  Antiochus  IV.  (b.c. 
165)  and  died  shortly  afterwards. 

Artaxias  II.,  King  of  Armenia  (d.  B.o.  20), 
was  driven  from  his  throne  by  Antony,  but 
with  the  aid  of  the  Parthians  regained  it, 
and  afterwards  defeated  the  Medes. 

Artaxias  III.,  King  of  Armenia  {d.  circa 
A.D.  35),  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  Ger- 
manicus  (a.b.  18). 

Arteaga  y  Alfaro,  Matias  (d.  1704), 
Spanish  painter  and  engraver,  pupil  of 
Valdez,  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Seville. 

Artedl,  Peter  (6.  1705,  d.  1735),  Swedish 
naturalist,  a  fellow  student  of  Linnaeus. 
His  works  were  edited  and  pubUshed  by 
Linnaeus. 

Artemidorus,  Daldianus,  a  learned  Ephe- 
sian  of  the  '2nd  century,  author  of  acelebrated 
book  on  dreams  entitled  Oneirocritica. 

Artemidorus  of  Ephesus,  a  geographer 
of  the  1st  century  B.C.,  of  whose  work 
Periphis  only  fragments  are  extant. 

Artemisia,  Queen  of  Halicamassus  in 
Caria,  was  one  of  the  allies  of  Xerxes  at  the 
battle  of  Salamis  B.C.  480,  where  she  fought 
with  courage  and  dexterity. 

Artemisia,  Queen  of  Halicamassus,  wife 
and  successor  of  Mausolus,  to  whose  mem- 
ory she  erected  a  splendid  monument,  which 
has  given  to  similar  erections  the  name  of 
"mausoleum." 

Artemius  {d.  362),  a  Roman  commander 
in  Egypt  under  Constantine  and  Julian, 
who  is  named  both  as  a  Christian  martyr 
and  a   tyrant.     He   was  put  to  death   by 

Juli:Ml. 

Artemon,  a  hereaiarch  of  the  3rd  centuiy 


Art 


(65) 


Ary 


who  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ ;  his  fol- 
lowers were  called  Artemonites. 

Arteveld,  Jacob  van  (d.  1345),  popular 
Flemish  leader  in  the  14th  century,  assisted 
Edward  III.  in  his  French  wars,  and  for 
nine  j'ears  was  practically  ruler  of  Flanders. 
He  determined  to  convert  his  country  into 
a  kingdom,  and  offered  the  crown  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  which  led  to  a  tumult  in 
which  he  was  slain. 

Arteveld,  Philip  van  (d.  1382),  son  of  the 
preceding,  headed  a  revolt  of  the  people  of 
Ghent  against  Count  Louis  II.  of  Flanders, 
and  though  victorious  at  Bruges  was  de- 
feated and  slain  at  the  decisive  victory  of 
Eooseheck. 

Arthur,  the  real  or  fabulous  King  of  Bri- 
tain and  favourite  hero  of  romance,  probably 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century 
and  ruled  over  the  south-western  portion  of 
the  island.  He  is  said  to  have  gained  twelve 
great  victories  over  the  Anglian  invaders; 
but  success  abroad  was  accompanied  by 
treachery  at  home,  where  his  nephew 
Modred  seduced  Queen  Guinevere  and 
raised  the  standard  of  rebellion.  At  Cam- 
Ian  was  fought  that  battle  round  which  ro- 
mance has  so  thickly  gathered,  and  in  which 
Arthur  was  slain. 

Arthur,  Chester  Allan  {b.  1830,  d.  1886), 
twenty-first  president  of  the  United  States, 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  Civil  war,  and 
from  1871-1878  was  collector  of  the  port  of 
New  York  city.  When  Garfield  was 
elected  president  he  was  vice-president, 
and  on  the  former's  assassination  succeeded 
to  the  presidency. 

Arthur,  Timothy  Shay  {b.  1809,  d.  1885), 
an  American  writer  who  first  became  known 
in  the  literary  world  as  the  editor  of  the 
Athenian.  He  wrote  many  tales,  chiefly 
in  support  of  temperance  or  some  other 
moral  trait;  of  his  two  hundred  volumes 
more  than  half  have  been  republished  in 
England. 

Arthur  I.,  Duke  of  Brittany  (6.  1187,  d. 
1 203) ,  son  of  Geoffrey,  the  third  son  of  Henry 
II.  of  England,  and  on  the  death  of  Richard 
I.  next  heir  to  the  English  crown,  which 
however  was  seized  by  Henry's  fifth  son 
John,  who  imprisoned  and  put  him  to 
death. 

Arthur  II.,  Duke  of  Brittany  (6.  1262,  d. 
1312),  son  of  John  II.  and  Beatrice  of 
England. 

Arthur  ni,  Duke  of  Brittany  (fi.  1393,  d. 
1456),  constable  of  France  and  one  of  the 
ablest  captains  of  his  age,  was  made  prisoner 
at  Agincourt,  and  carried  to  London.  In 
1456  he  succeeded  his  nephew  Pierre  to  the 
Duchy  of  Brittany. 


Artiga,  Don  Francisco  d',  a  Spanish 
painter  of  the  17th  century,  was  a  native 
of  Huesca. 

Artigas,  Fernando  Jose  (b.  1760,  d.  1826), 
first  a  smuggler  in  Monte  Video,  afterward 
a  prominent  figure  in  the  revolution,  in 
which  he  was  for  a  time  paramount,  but 
in  1820  his  fortune  turned  and  he  fled 
to  Paraguay,  where  he  remained  till  hia 
death. 

Artois,  Jacques  Jan  van  (6.  1613,  d.  1665), 
a  Belgian  landscape  painter  of  great  merit. 

Artot,  Joseph  (6.  1815,  d.  1845),  Belgian 
viohnist,  who  at  seven  years  old  astonished 
Europe  by  his  proficiency;  he  also  visited 
America. 

Arundel,  Bichard,  Lord,  a  partisan  of  the 
Stuarts  in  the  Civil  war,  took  part  in  many 
battles,  and  shared  with  his  father  the 
governorship  of  Pendennis  Castle  ;  after  the 
Restoration  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Arundel,  Thomas,  first  Lord  Arundel  of 
Wardour,  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
with  Hungary  and  was  made  a  count  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  by  Rudolf  II. ;  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1605. 

Arundel,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury (6.  1353,  d.  1413),  second  son  of  Robert 
Fitzalan,  Earl  of  Arundel;  in  1388  was 
translated  from  Ely  to  York,  and  in  1396 
to  Canterbury ;  in  1397  he  was  charged 
with  high  treason  and  banished  by  Richard 
II.,  but  adopted  the  cause  of  Henry  IV.,  and 
thus  on  the  accession  of  that  monarch 
secured  his  own  restoration.  He  was  a 
determined  opponent  of  the  Lollards,  and 
was  mainly  instrumental  in  procuring  the 
statute  De  heretico  comburendo. 

ArvldsEon,  Truls  (6. 1680,  d.  1705),  copper- 
plate engraver  of  Sweden,  who  was  con- 
versant with  many  European  and  Oriental 
languages.  He  proposed  to  pubhsh  what  he 
considered  the  original  music  of  the  Psalms 
of  David,  but  died  after  completing  the  first 
seven. 

Arvleux,  Laurent  d'  (6.  1635,  d.  1702), 
French  Oriental  traveller  and  linguist, 
whose  researches  threw  much  light  on  the 
customs  and  literature  of  the  East. 

Aryabhatta  or  Arjabahr,  Hindoo  mathe- 
matician of  the  1st  century,  the  earliest 
writer  among  his  countrymen  on  algebra 
and  on  astronomy,  in  which  subject  his  ideas 
were  far  in  advance  of  his  age. 

Arysdaghes  or  Aristakes,  Saint  (d.  389), 
Patriarch  of  Armenia  in  the  3rd  century, 
and  son  of  St.  Gregory.  After  many  years 
spent  in  ascetic  seclusion  he  was  called  to 
Uie  goTemmeut  of  the  Ghuxch.     He  was 


Arz 


(66) 


Ash 


murdered   by  a  chief    whom  he  had  ad- 
monished. 

Arzachel,  Abraham,  astronomer,  a  native 
of  Toledo,  lived  in  the  11th  century,  and 
attained  great  renown. 

Asa,  son  of  Abijah,  and  third  King  of 
Judah,  restored  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
and  with  it  the  prosperity  of  his  country. 
He  defeated  the  invader  Zerah,  with  great 
loss,  and  compelled  Baasha,  King  of  Israel, 
to  withdraw  from  Eamah. 

Asadi  of  Tus,  chief  poet  of  Mahmud  of 
Ghizni  in  the  10th  century,  and  author  of 
Crushtasp  Nama,  and  other  poems. 

Asam,  Cosmos  Damian  {d.  1739),  a  distin- 
guished fresco-painter,  a  native  of  Bavaria, 
studied  at  Rome. 

Asam,  Egid,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
eminent  as  a  sculptor  and  worker  in  stucco, 
■wrought  in  conjunction  with  Cosmos ; 
many  of  their  works  are  at  Munich. 

Asan  L,  King  of  Bulgaria,  a  powerful 
chieftain  of  the  12th  century,  who  with 
his  brother  Peter  secured  the  independence 
of  their  country ;  he  was  poisoned  after  a 
reign  of  nine  years. 

Asan  II.  (d,  1241),  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
engaged  for  seven  years  in  a  struggle  with 
the  usurper  Vorylas,  was  at  length  suc- 
cessful, and  also  conquered  a  great  part  of 
Macedonia  and  Thrace. 

Asan  IIL,  last  King  of  Bulgaria  of  the 
Asanian  dynasty,  after  a  reign  of  two 
years  was  dethroned  by  Tesher,  and  fled  to 
Constantiaople,  where  he  died. 

Asbury,  Francis  (6.  1745,  d.  1816),  the 
"Pioneer  Bishop,"  an  English  Methodist 
preacher  who  imdertook  an  evangelistic 
mission  to  America  in  1771  by  the  wish  of 
John  Wesley.  In  1784  he  was  ordained 
Bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
of  America.  Thenceforth  his  life  was 
devoted  with  untiring  energy  to  the  organ- 
isation and  extension  of  that  church. 

Ascanius,  the  son  of  ^neas,  the  foimder 
of  Alba  Longa,  and  reputed  ancestor  of  the 
Julian  family  in  Rome. 

Ascliam,  Robert  (6.  1515,  d.  1568),  who 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  was  among  the 
first  to  introduce  the  study  of  Greek,  and 
was  also  eminent  as  a  Latin  writer.  He 
directed  the  studies  of  Prince  Edward  and 
of  Princess  Elizabeth,  and  became  Latin 
secretary  to  King  Edward.  Although  a 
Protestant,  he  held  the  same  ofi&ce  to  Queen 
Marjr.  He  wrote  upon  archery,  his  favourite 
pastmie,  upon  the  affairs  of  Germany,  and 
a  treatise  on  education  of  remarkable  vigour 
and  accuracy. 


Aschback,  Joseph  (6.  Nassau  1801,  d. 
1882),  German  historian,  held  the  chairs  of 
history  at  Frankfort  and  at  Bonn,  and  was 
author  of  histories  of  the  West  Goths,  the 
Emperor  Sigismund,  and  the  Iberian  Penin- 
sula under  the  dominion  of  the  Almoravides, 
and  the  Almohades. 

Asclepiades,  Bithynus,  an  eminent  Greek 
physician  of  the  1st  century  B.C.,  lived  in 
Rome,  where  he  enjoyed  an  extraordinary 
reputation.  Fragments  of  his  works  still 
exist. 

Asclepiodorus,  one  of  the  great  painters 
of  Greece,  was  a  native  of  Athens,  and  a 
contemporary  of  Apelles. 

Asdrubal.     [See  Hasdrubal.] 

Asellio,  Gasparo  (b.  1581,  d.  1626),  a 
noted  physician  of  Cremona,  and  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Pavia. 

Asellio,  Publius  Sempronius,  a  military 
tribune,  who  served  under  Scipio  Africanus 
at  the  siege  of  Numantia,  b.c.  133,  and  wrote 
a  history  of  the  war. 

Asfandiyar,  or  Asfundiyar,  a  Persian 
hero  of  the  5th  century  B.C.,  whose  history 
is  largely  mythical.  The  son  of  Darius 
Hystaspes,  he  is  said  to  have  introduced  the 
religion  of  Zoroaster,  and  by  his  prowess  to 
have  kept  in  check  the  hostile  Tartar  king 
Arjasp.  Jealous  of  his  influence,  Darius 
imijrisoned  him,  but  the  inroads  of  Arjasp 
compelled  his  release,  and  Asfandiyar  then 
commenced  a  series  of  brilliant  victories, 
only  terminated  by  his  death  in  battle. 

Asfeld,  Claude  Fran9ois  Bidal,  Marquis  d' 
(6.  1G67,  d.  1743),  a  distinguished  French 
soldier,  defended  Namur  against  William 
III.  of  England,  and  served  in  Spain,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  but  after  the  peace  of  Vienna, 
1735,  retired  to  Strasburg,  of  which  city  he 
was  appointed  governor. 

AsgiU,  John  (6.  circa  1658,  d.  1738),  a 
barrister  and  religious  writer  whose  eccentric 
views  made  considerable  stir,  and  caused 
him  to  be  expelled  from  the  House  of  Com- 
mons.    He  died  in  the  Fleet  prison. 

Ash,  John,  M.D.  (6.  1723,  d.  1798),  ac 
eininent  physician  who  practised  in  Bir- 
mingham and  London.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  "EumeUan"  ("well-ashed")  Club, 
of  which  his  friends  Johnson  and  Reynolds 
were  members. 

Ashary  {d.  940),  a  celebrated  Mussulman, 
founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Asharites,  who 
affirm  the  actions  of  the  Almighty  to  be 
circimiscribed  by  immutable  laws.  He  died 
at  Bagdad. 

Aflbbumham,  John  (6.  1604,  d.  1671),  an 
adherent  of  the  Stuarts  in  the  Civil  wars. 


Ash 


(67) 


Asp 


He  was  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament, 
and  in  1647  only  escaped  arrest  by  fleeing  to 
France,  where  he  jouied  the  queen.  He 
was  afterwards  suspected  of  iafidelity  in 
connection  with  the  suiTender  of  the  king  to 
Colonel  Hammond,  and  his  principles  were 
the  cause  of  his  being  twice  imprisoned.  On 
the  Restoration  he  was  appointed  groom  of 
the  bed-chamber  to  Charles  II. 

Ashtourton,  Alexander  Baring,  Baron  (b. 
1774,  d.  1848),  son  of  Sir  F.  Baring,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  headship  of  the  great 
financial  firm  in  1810,  was  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  in  Peel's  ministry  in  1834, 
and  in  1842  negotiated  the  Ashburton  treaty 
with  the  United  States. 

Ashbury,  Joseph  (6.  1638,  d.  1720),  a 
celebrated  actor,  was  originally  in  the 
army,  and  began  his  stage  career  as  an 
amateur,  but  encouraged  by  his  success, 
engaged  a  company,  and  opened  the  theatre 
in  Smock  Alley,  Dublin,  which  he  conducted 
with  success  till  his  death. 

Ashe,  Andrew  (b.  1758,  d.  1838),  a  cele- 
brated flute-player  and  an  excellent  per- 
former on  the  violin.  He  studied  in  Hol- 
land, and  performed  both  in  Dublin  and 
London. 

Ashe,  St.  George  (6.  1658,  d.  1717),  vice- 
chancellor  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
tutor  to  Dean  Swift,  in  whose  Tripos  he 
is  represented  by  '*  Sainty  Ashe."  During 
the  disturbances  of  the  reign  of  James  II. 
he  escaped  abroad,  but  returned  to  Ireland 
after  the  Act  of  Settlement,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  bishoprics  of  Cloyne, 
Clogher,  and  Derry. 

Ashik  (6.1518,  d.  1571),  a  Turkish  poet, 
patronised  by  Soliman  II.  and  SeUm  II. ; 
he  wrote  more  than  four  hundred  biogra- 
phies of  other  poets  of  his  own  race. 

Ashmole,  Elias  (6.  1617,  d.  1692),  astrolo- 
ger and  antiquary,  held  the  appointment  of 
Windsor  Herald,  and  published  the  Histoiy 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter.  He  left  many 
works,  and  presented  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  his  valuable  collection  of  coins, 
specimens,  and  manuscripts. 

Ashmun,  Jehudi  (6.  1794,  d.  1828),  Ameri- 
can philanthropist,  founder  of  the  colony  of 
Liberia. 

Asliraf,  the  second  Afghan  King  of 
Persia,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1725,  but 
was  defeated  and  slain  by  Nadir  Shah. 

Ashworth,  Caleb,  D.D.  {b.  1722,  d.  1775), 
a  dissenting  minister  of  great  learning  and 
piety,  and  master  of  the  Academy  at 
Daventry.  He  was  author  of  a  Hebrew 
grammar,  and  a  treatise  on  trigonometry. 


Asioll,    Bonifazio     (6. 
f2 


1769,    d.    1832), 


musical  composer,  worked  at  Correggio, 
Venice,  and  MUan,  where  he  was  maestro 
di  capella, 

Asjadi,  Persian  poet  of  the  11th  century, 
famed  for  the  brightness  and  purity  of  ms 
verses. 

Askew  or  Ascue,  Anne  (5.  1529,  d.  1546), 
daughter  of  Sir  William  Askew,  was  a  con- 
vert to  the  reformed  faith  during  the  per- 
secutions of  Bishop  Bouner,  who  caused  her 
to  be  burnt  at  Smithfield. 

Asoka,  Behar,  or  Magadhain,  a  cele- 
brated Buddhist  King  of  ludia,  ascended 
the  throne  B.C.  264,  being  then  of  the 
Brahminical  faith,  but  he  was  shortly 
afterwards  converted  to  Buddhism,  of  which 
he  became  a  most  zealous  propagator, 
sending  missionaries  to  China,  Burmah, 
Ceylon,  and  even,  it  is  affirmed,  to  Europe 
and  Egypt.  His  kingdom  extended  from 
the  Cabul  river  to  Bengal,  and  from 
Nepal  on  the  north  to  the  Deccan  on  the 
south.  Prom  the  celebrated  edicts,  graven 
upon  rocks  and  sandstone  pillars  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  it  is  clear  that  this,  the 
first  Indian  monarch  of  whom  we  have 
satisfactory  records,  was  both  wise  and 
benevolent. 

Aspasia,  an  Ionian  woman  of  remarkable 
talents  and  beauty,  resided  at  Athens, 
where  all  foreign  women  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  protection  of  the  marriage 
laws,  and  hence  she  occupied  the  posi- 
tion of  a  courtesan.  Her  house  was  the 
constant  resort  of  the  best  and  most  dis- 
tinguished men  of  Greece,  including  So- 
crates, Alcibiades,  and  Anaxagoras,  whilst 
with  Pericles  she  formed  a  close  and  lasting 
intimacy,  and  it  was  through  his  eloquence 
she  obtained  her  acquittal  from  the  charges 
of  impiety  and  immorality  brought  against 
her.  After  the  death  of  Pericles,  429  B.C., 
Aspasia  attached  herself  to  Lysicles,  whom 
she  raised  from  obscurity  to  prominence. 

Aspasia,  a  native  of  Phocsea,  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Cyrus,  but  after  the  battle  of 
Cunaxa  fell  into  the  hands  of  Artaxerxes  II. , 
who  appointed  her  priestess  of  Anaitia  in 
Ecbatana,  where  she  died. 

Aspegren,  Gustav  Casten  (6.  1791,  d. 
1828),  a  Swedish  naturalist  of  humble  birth, 
and  a  well-known  contributor  to  the  fauna 
of  Sweden. 

Asper,  Hans  (6.  1499,  d.  1571),  a  Swiss 
portrait  and  animal  painter  of  great  excel- 
lence, being  esteemed  but  little  inferior  to 
his  master  Holbein. 

Aspertini,  Amico  (6.  1417,  «?.  1552),  Italian 
painter,  known  as  "Amico  of  the  Two 
Brushes,"  from  his  dexterity  in  painting 
with  both  hands  together. 


Asp 


(68) 


Ast 


Aspinwall,  William  (6.  1743,  d.  1823),  an 
emiueut  Americau  physician,  one  of  the  first 
to  introduce  vaccination  iu  the  place  of  in- 
oculation. He  served  as  army  surgeon 
during  the  revolutionary  war. 

Asquini,  Fabio,  Count  (6.  1726,  d. 
1818),  an  Italian  agriculturist,  and  author 
of  several  treatises,  introduced  the  mul- 
berry, silkwoi-m,  and  potato  into  the  pro- 
vince of  Friuli,  and  also  drew  attention  to 
the  advantages  of  turf  as  fuel. 

Assad-ed-doulah  {d.  1029),  a  valiant  Arab 
chief,  the  conqueror  of  Aleppo  and  Balbec. 

AssaM,  George  (6.  1788),  a  Roumanian 
poet  and  statesman,  who,  as  "  Alviro," 
was  elected  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Rome  in  1811.  He  also  took  part 
in  politics,  and  held  office  as  chief 
minister  of  public  instruction  in  1856.  He 
was  author  of  a  volume  of  poems,  and  a 
Mistori/  of  Russia. 

Assamli  Ibn  Malek,  a  brave  and  able 
Moorish  governor  of  Spain,  who  pushed  his 
conquests  across  the  Pyrenees,  and  was 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Toulouse  in  721. 

Assarotti,  Ottavio  Giovanni  (6.  1753, 
d.  1829),  an  Italian  philanthropist,  who  de- 
voted himself  to  the  education  of  children, 
and  opened  the  first  school  in  Italy  for 
deaf  mutes. 

Asselyn,  Jan  (6.  1610,  d.  1660),  Flemish 
painter,  many  of  whose  pictures  are  in 
the  Louvre,  was  a  pupil  of  Vander- 
velde,  and  especially  skilled  in  painting 
animals. 

Assemani,  Giuseppe  Simone  (6.  1687, 
d-  1768),  a  learned  Syrian  Maronite,  was 
archbishop  of  Tyre,  and  librarian  of  the 
Vatican.  He  was  author  of  a  valuable 
account  of  the  Syrian  writers,  and  other 
voluminous  works. 

Assemani,  Giuseppe  Luigi,  or  Aloysio 
(6.  1710,  d.  1782),  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, learned  in  oriental  languages  ;  his 
great  work  was  the  Codex  Liturgieus,  which 
was  left  imfinished  at  his  death. 

Asseola  (6.  1800,  d.  1838),  an  Indian  chief 
of  the  Seminoles,  who  successfully  resisted 
an  attempt  of  the  United  States  to  remove 
his  tribe  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
ia  1835,  till  treacherously  captured  by 
General  Jesup,  while  protected  by  a  flag  of 
truce. 

Asser  (6.  Babylon,  333,  d.  437),  a  cele- 
brated Jewish  rabbi,  author  of  the  Tabmcd 
of  Babylon. 

Asser,  John  {d.  910),  a  learned  monk  of  St. 
David's,  Wales,  bishop  of  Sherborne,  was 
the  author  of  a  History  of  Kitig  Alfred. 


Assheton,  William  (6.  1641,  d.  1711),  a 
learned  EngHsh  divine,  remembered  for  his 
efforts  to  establish  a  plan  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  widows  of  the  clergy. 

Asshod  I.,  surnamed  Medz,  or  the  "  Great 
King  of  Armenia,"  established  the  kingdom 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Ai-sacidae. 

Asshod  II.  {d.  928),  surnamed  Ergathi, 
King  of  Armenia,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
ascended  the  throne  in  914,  but  was  for  many 
years  engaged  in  struggles  with  the  Arabs. 

Asshod  III.  {d.  QTt),  King  of  Armenia, 
sm-uamed  Oghormaz,  succeeded  his  uncle, 
the  preceding,  in  952.  He  was  of  a  peace- 
ful nature,  but  gained  honour  as  an  ally  of 
Greece  against  the  Mohammedans. 

Asshod  IV.  {d.  1039),  King  of  Armenia, 
usurjied  his  brother  John's  kingdom,  but 
was  afterwards  compelled  to  become  the 
vassal  of  the  Emperor  Basil  II, 

Assolant,  Jean  Baptiste  Alfred  (6.  1827, 
d.  1886),  French  romance,  social  and  politi- 
cal writer. 

Assoucy,  Charles  Coypeau  (6.  1604,  d. 
1679),  a  name  rendered  unenviably  no- 
torious by  a  distich  of  Boileau.  He  was  for 
some  time  in  the  service  of  the  royal  family, 
whom  he  amused  with  his  music  and  buf- 
foonery, but  while  he  called  himself  the 
"  Emperor  of  Burlesque,"  the  world  knows 
him  only  as  the  "Ape  of  Scarron." 

Asso  y  delRio,  Ignacio  Jordan  de,  aSpanish 
jurist  of  the  18th  century,  author  of  a 
valuable  work  on  the  Institutes  of  the 
Civil  Law  of  Spain,  and  other  treatises  on 
law  and  botany. 

Ast,  George  Anton  Frederick  (6.  1778, 
d.  1841),  distinguished  German  scholar, 
professor  of  classical  literature  at  Landshut 
in  1815,  and  at  Munich  in  1826. 

Asta,  Andrea  dell'  (6.  1673,  d.  1721),  a 
Neapolitan  painter  of  historical  subj  ects ; 
his  pictures  of  The  Nativity  and  The  Wise 
Men's  Offerings  are  in  the  church  of 
St.  Augustine,  at  Naples. 

Astbury,  John  (6.  1678,  d.  1743),  an  En- 
glishman, who  made  great  exertions  for 
the  improvement  of  pottery.  By  feigning 
weakness  of  intellect  for  two  years  he  at- 
tained menial  employment  in  the  potteries 
of  the  German  brothers  Elers,  and  dis- 
covered their  secret  methods. 

Astell,  Mary  {h.  1668,  d.  1731),  a  well- 
read  English  authoress,  who  attained  con- 
siderable celebrity,  due  in  great  part  to  her 
strenuous  advocacy  of  High  Church  princi- 
ples. Besides  several  essays,  she  published 
a  book  entitled  The  Christian  Religion  at 
professed  by  a  Daughter  of  England. 


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Astley,  Sir  Jacob,  first  Lord  Astley  of 
Reading,  a  brave  Royalist  soldier,  took  part 
in  the  engagement  at  Edgehill  (1642),  and 
at  the  fatal  battle  of  Naseby  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  one  successful  wing  of  the 
army. 

Astley,  PhiUp  (6.  1742,  d.  1814),  a  re- 
nowned equestrian,  who  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and 
opened  in  1763  his  celebrated  amphitheatre, 
which  was  twice  burnt  down  ;  he  left  some 
excellent  manuals  on  horsemanship. 

Astor,  John  Jacob  (6. 1763,  d.  1848),  bom  at 
Wallendorf ,  an  American  merchant  prince  of 
German  descent,  who  traded  in  New  York, 
and  realised  an  immense  fortune.  He  left 
large  bequests  in  charity  and  to  the  famous 
Astor  Library,  founded  by  him  in  New 
York. 

Astorga,  Antonio  Pedro  Alvarez  Osorio, 
Marquis  of,  an  eminent  Spanish  statesman, 
who  as  viceroy  of  Naples  (1672-1675)  did 
much  to  check  the  disorder  of  the  country. 
After  the  revolt  of  Messina  he  was  recalled 
to  Madrid,  but  received  an  appointment 
at  court. 

Astros,  Paul  Therese  David  (b.  1772,  d. 
1851),  a  French  prelate,  who  firmly  sup- 
ported the  Church,  and  after  the  restoration 
was  made  an  archbishop  and  cardinal. 

Astruc,  Jean  (6.  1684,  d.  1766),  an  emi- 
nent French  physician  and  Biblical  critic, 
author  of  a  celebrated  treatise,  De  Morbis 
Venereis,  and  other  works.  He  settled  in 
Paris,  and  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
king. 

Astyages,  last  king  of  the  Medes,  and 
eon  of  Cyaxares.  He  reigned  from  594  B.C. 
to  559  B.C. 

Asula,  or  Asola,  Giovanni  Matteo,  a 
native  of  Verona,  and  a  popular  musical 
composer  of  the  16th  century. 

Atahuallpa  {d.  1533),  the  last  of  the  Incas 
of  Peru,  succeeded  his  father,  Huayna  Capac, 
in  1525,  on  the  throne  of  Quito,  whilst  his 
half-brother,  Huascar,  although  the  right- 
ful heir,  obtained  only  the  kingdom  of 
Peru.  The  two  brothers  engaged  in  a 
struggle  for  supremacy,  in  which  Huascar 
was  defeated.  The  Spaniards  under  Pizan-o, 
taking  advantage  of  these  internal  dissen- 
sions, invaded  Peru,  and  by  an  act  of 
deliberate  perfidy  obtained  possession  of 
the  person  of  Atahuallpa,  and  attempted  to 
compel  him  to  acknowledge  the  king  of 
Spain  as  master,  and  to  embrace  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  His  refusal  was  made  a  pre- 
text for  a  massacre,  and  the  imprisonment 
of  their  king,  whom  the  Spaniards  induced 
to  raise  an  enormoiis  treasure  in  the  hopes 
of  regaining    his  throne.       After  a  mock 


trial,    however,    he    was    condemned  and 
strangled  at  the  stake. 

Ataide,  or  Atayde,  Dom  Louis  de  (6. 1520, 
d.  1580),  a  Portuguese  nobleman,  who  was 
knighted  for  his  gallantry  against  the  Turks. 
He  also  distinguished  himself  as  ambassador 
to  Charles  V.  and  as  viceroy  of  India. 

Ataiilf,  or  Adaiilf  {d.  415),  king  of  the 
Visigoths,  succeeded  his  brother-in-law, 
Alaric,  in  410.  He  conquered  Aquitania, 
and  accomplished  his  purpose  of  marrying 
Placida,  daughter  of  Theodosius,  but  died 
a  year  after  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin. 

Atlialiah,  wife  of  Jehoram,  King  of 
Judah,  was  an  unscrupulous  and  ambitious 
woman,  who,  on  the  death  of  her  son, 
Ahaziah,  secured  the  throne  to  herself  by 
the  murder  of  all  the  royal  princes  except 
Joash  ;  but  after  reigning  six  years  she  was 
deposed  and  put  to  death. 

Atha  MeUc  (6.  1226,  d.  1283),  a  Persian 
statesman,  governor  of  Bagdad,  is  re- 
membered chiefly  as  author  of  a  great 
History  of  the  Conquest  of  the  World. 

Athanasius,  Saint  (6.  296,  d.  373),  the 
great  bishop  of  Alexandria,  first  came  into 
prominence  at  the  Council  of  Nice  325. 
On  the  death  of  Alexander  in  the  following 
year,  Athanasius  succeeded  to  the  see  of 
Alexandria,  but  of  the  forty-six  remaining 
years  of  his  life,  twenty  were  spent  in 
banishment.  In  spite  of  repeated  refuta- 
tions of  the  iniquitous  charges  brought 
against  him,  his  enemies  were  perpetually 
conspiring  for  his  overthrow,  and  he  was  five 
times  driven  from  his  bishopric.  His  leisure 
was  devoted  to  the  valuable  writings  which 
have  helped  to  make  his  name  famous, 
especially  the  Apology,  addressed  to  the 
Emperor  Constantine. 

Athelstan,  or  .ffithelstan  (6.  896,  d.  940), 
King  of  the  West  Saxons  and  Mercians, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Edward  the  Elder, 
proved  a  vigorous  and  able  monarch, 
whose  authority  was  recognised  by  tlie  other 
kings  of  Britain,  while  the  great  victory  of 
Brunanburh  in  937  practically  established 
the  supremacy  of  the  "West  Saxon  throne. 

Athenseus,  a  learned  Egyptian  of  the  3rd 
century,  author  of  the  J)eipnosophists,  in 
which,  under  the  fiction  of  describing  a 
banquet,  he  discusses  the  chief  personages, 
arts  and  sciences  of  the  age,  and  quotes 
some  seven  hundred  writers  and  fifteen 
hundred  works. 

Athenais,  or  Eudoxia  (d.  460  a.d.), 
daughter  of  Leontius,  an  Athenian  physi- 
cist, left  in  penury,  went  to  Constantinople 
to  appeal  to  Theodosius  II.,  whom  she 
married.  Being  divorced,  she  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  where  she  died.     She  translated 


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the  first  eight  of  the  Old  Testament  books 
into  Greek. 

Athenas,  Piene  Louis  (6.  1752,  d.  1829), 
French  chemist,  devoted  himself  to  the 
improvement  of  the  agriculture  and  the 
commerce  of  his  country.  He  introduced 
the  method  of  obtaining  soda  from  sea-salt, 
and  established  the  manufacture  of  sul- 
phuric acid  from  sulphur  and  potassium 
nitrate. 

Athenion  (d.  b.c.  101),  a  Cilician  leader 
m  the  second  Servile  war  of  SicUy,  in  the 
2nd  century  B.C. 

Athenodorus  Cananites,  a  Stoic  philo- 
sopher, and  a  pupil  of  Posidonius,  was 
the  friend  and  adviser  of  Octavianus,  who 
finally  conferred  on  him  the  government  of 
Tarsus. 

Atherstone,  Edwin  (&.  1778,  d.  1872), 
novelist  and  poet,  was  author  of  the  Last 
Bays  of  Herndaneum  (1821),  Israel  in 
Egypt  (1861),  and  other  poems,  as  well  as 
two  romances.  The  Sea-Kings  in  England, 
and  The  Handwriting  on  the  Wall. 

Athias,  Joseph  {d.  1700),  a  Jewish  printer 
of  Amsterdam,  who  pubUshed  the  Bible  in 
Hebrew,  English,  Spanish,  and  German. 

Atkins,  John,  an  English  naval  surgeon 
of  the  ISth  century.  Besides  works  on 
surgery,  he  left  an  account  of  his  travels  to 
Brazd  and  the  West  Indies. 

Atkiiis,  Eobert  (6.  1626,  d.  1685),  an 
English  divine  and  eminent  preacher,  was 
chaplain  to  OUver  Cromwell,  but  withdrew 
from  the  Church  on  the  passing  of  the  Act 
of  Uniformity. 

Atkinson,  James  (6.  1780,  d.  1852),  an 
English  surgeon  in  the  Indian  army,  who  de- 
voted his  leisure  to  the  acquisition  of  Eastern 
languages,  and  in  1818  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Persian  at  Fort  William.  He 
translated  several  Persian  works,  and  left 
valuable  records  of  the  campaign  of  1839-40. 

Atkinson,  Thomas  Witlam  (6.  1799,  d. 
1861),  an  English  author  and  artist, 
travelled  in  Siberia  and  China,  and  pub- 
lished richly  illustrated  narratives  of  his 
adventures. 

Atkyns,  Sir  Robert  (6.  1621,  d.  1709),  an 
Enghsh  judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas;  he  was  made  chief  baron  of  the 
Exchequer  in  1689. 

Atondo  y  Antillon,  Isidoro,  a  Spanish 
admiral  who  sailed  to  California  in  1688, 
and  founded  a  colony  in  the  Bay  of  St. 
Bruno. 

Atreus,  legendary  King  of  Mycenae,  suc- 
ceeded his   father  Pelops,   was    father    of 


Agamemnon  and  Menelaus,  and  was  slain 
by  iEgisthus,  son  of  Thyestes,  whom  he 
had  put  to  death. 

Atrocianus,    Johannes,   a  German  poet, 
philologist,  and  botanist  of  the  loth  cen 
tury. 

Atsiz  {d.  1156),  founder  of  the  Khwarizm 
monarchy,  and  originally  cupbearer  to  the 
Sultan  Sandjar,  by  whom  he  was  appointed 
governor.  He,  however,  obstinately  re- 
volted, attempted  the  life  of  the  Sultan,  and 
in  1 138  established  his  own  independence. 

Attala,  Saint,  a  disciple  of  St.  Colum- 
banus,  whom  he  succeeded  as  abbot  of  the 
monastery  of  Bobbio  in  Italy.  He  died  in 
the  7th  century. 

Attains,  son  of  Andromenes,  one  ol 
the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  the  expedition  to 
India.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  Attalua 
at  first  joined  the  revolt  against  Perdiccas, 
but  later  became  his  ally.  He  maintained  a 
warlike  career  to  his  death,  about  B.o.  300. 

Attains,  Flavius  Priscus,  an  Ionian,  who 
was  created  Emperor  of  the  West  by  Alaric 
in  409,  but  in  a  few  months  he  was  deposed, 
and  died  in  banishment  at  Lipari. 

Attains  I.,  King  of  Pergamus  (d.  197 
B.C.),  assisted  the  .ffitolians,  and  afterwards 
tlie  Romans  in  their  wars  with  Philip  of 
Macedon.  He  was  a  patron  of  literature 
and  formed  a  library  at  Pergamus, 

Attains  II.  (d.  138  b.c),  King  of  Per- 
gamus, sumamed  Philadelphus,  son  and 
successor  of  the  preceding,  was  driven  from 
his  throne  by  Prusias  of  Bithynia,  but 
recovered  it  with  some  help  from  the 
Romans. 

Attains  ni.  {d.  B.C.  133),  sumamed 
Philometer,  King  of  Pergamus,  nephew  and 
successor  of  the  preceding.  His  first  act  of 
royalty  was  to  put  to  death  his  nearest 
relatives  and  friends,  and  from  his  other 
acts  he  appears  to  have  been  insane.  He 
bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans. 

Attar,  or  Khojah  Attar  {d.  1513),  a  native 
of  Bengal,  who  as  vizier  to  the  young  Shah 
of  Ormuz  was  virtual  ruler  of  the  kingdom. 
He  was  compelled  by  Albuquerque  in  1507  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Portugal. 

Attar  ferid  Ud-din  (6.  1120,  d.  1221),  a 
Persian  poet,  who  devoted  his  life  to  works 
of  piety  and  the  composition  of  moral  and 
mystical  poems,  was  slain  in  extreme  old 
age  by  the  Moguls  who  invaded  Khorasan. 

Atterbury,  Francis  (6.  1662,  d.  1732),  a 
celebrated  EngUsh  prelate  ;  he  was  educated 
at  Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, and  distinguished  as  a  scholar  and 


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controversialist.  In  1691  he  came  to  Lon- 
don as  chaplain  to  William  and  Mary, 
and  Queen  Anne  ;  he  was  promoted  to  the 
bishopric  of  Eochester  and  deanery  of  West- 
minster. On  the  death  of  the  queen  he 
became  compromised  by  his  advocacy  of 
the  cause  of  the  Pretender,  refusing  to  sign 
the  loyal  declaration  of  the  bishops 
(1715).  In  1722  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  charge  of  secretly  corre- 
sponding vdth  the  Pretender,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  deprived  of  his  dignities 
and  outlawed,  when  he  retired  to  Paris,  but 
stiU  continued  his  intrigues.  He  died  a  broad, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Atthalin,  Louis  Marie  Jean  Baptists, 
Baron  (6.  1784,  d.  1856),  a  French  general, 
who  served  under  Napoleon,  and  in  1830 
went  as  ambassador  to  BerUn. 

Atticus  {d.  425),  a  celebrated  patriarch  of 
Constantinople. 

Atticus,  Titus  Pomponius  (6.  B.C.  109,  d. 
B.C.  32),  an  eminent  Roman,  of  patrician 
birth,  great  wealth,  and  high  intellectual 
ability,  and  remembered  as  the  friend  of 
Cicero,  who  wrote  to  him  the  celebrated 
series  of  letters.  He  spent  many  years  in 
Athens,  but  returned  to  Eome  before  his 
death. 

Attila  (Etzel)  (*.  406,  d.  453),  the 
celebrated  King  of  the  Huns,  and  one 
of  the  most  famous  conquerors  of  the 
5th  century,  whose  terrible  victories  won 
him  the  surname  of  "the  Scourge  of 
God."  After  ravaging  the  East,  and 
laying  Theodosius  the  Yoimger  under 
tribute,  he  entered  Gaul  at  the  head  of 
600,000  men,  but  was  defeated  with  loss  by 
Aetius  and  Theodoric  at  the  battle  of 
Meri.  Thence,  passiug  into  Italy,  he  de- 
stroyed Aquileia,  and  was  only  deterred 
from  advancing  on  Rome  by  the  entreaties 
amd  persuasions  of  St.  Leo. 

Attiret,  Jean  Denis  (6.  1702,  d.  1768),  a 
French  Jesuit  and  painter,  who  was  sent  as 
missionary  to  China,  and  stood  high  in  the 
favour  of  the  Emperor  Kien  Long. 

Attwood,  George  (6.  1745,  d.  1807),  an 
eminent  Enghsh  mathematician,  Fellow 
and  Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  inventor  of  the  widely-known  machine 
which  illustrates  the  uniform  force  of  gravity 
at  the  earth's  surface. 

Attwood,  Thomas  (6.  1767,  d.  1838), 
organist  and  composer,  studied  in  Italy 
under  Mozart,  and  was  afterwards  organist 
at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and  the  Chapels 
Royal. 

Auber,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit  (6.  1782,  d. 
1871),  French  composer,  was  intended  for  a 
biisiness  career,  and  it  was  not  until  he  met 


with  Scribe,  in  1823,  that  his  long  course  of 
successful  composition  commenced.  La  3fu' 
ette  de  Portici,  or  Masaniello,  as  it  is  called  in 
England,  was  brought  out  in  1828.  He  pro- 
duced many  other  works  which  enjoy  a 
European  reputation,  his  last  being  Le 
Reve  d' Amour  (1870),  composed  shortly 
before  his  death. 

Auberlen,  Samuel  Gottlob  (6.  1758),  com- 
poser, was  musical  director  and  organist  to 
the  cathedral  of  Ulm,  to  which  post  he 
attained  in  his  sixtieth  year,  after  many 
years  of  privation  and  hardship. 

Aubert,  Jacques  {d.  1586),  a  French 
physician  of  Lausanne  in  the  16th  century, 
and  author  of  numerous  professional 
treatises. 

Aubert,  Jean  Ernest  (&.  1824),  a  French 
engraver  and  lithographer,  and  pupil 
of  Delaroche  and  Achille  Martinet,  has 
produced  many  works,  and  gained  medals 
for  engraving,  lithography,  and  painting. 

Aubert,  Jean  Louis  (6.  1731,  d.  1814), 
known  as  "  the  Abbe  Aubert,"  professor  of 
French  Uterature  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Paris,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  fabu- 
lists of  France.  He  was  author  of  the  popu- 
lar Fables  Nouvelles  (1756),  and  also  of 
some  poems,  of  which  the  best  is  Fsyche. 

Aubert,  Saint  (Aulbertus),  a  missionair 
bishop  of  Cambrai  and  Arras  in  the  7tb 
century.  He  was  greatly  assisted  by  his 
patron  Dagobert. 

Aubert  du  Bayet,  Jean  Baptists  Annibal 
(6.  1759  d.  1797),  an  American  soldier,  who, 
after  serving  in  the  war  of  Independence, 
came  to  France  as  a  violent  revolutionist, 
and  commanded  the  army  of  the  Moselle. 
He  was  also  minister  of  war  1796,  and  am- 
bassador to  the  Porte. 

Aubespine,  Charles  del'.  Marquis  of  Ch^- 
teauneuf  (6. 1580,  d.  1653),  French  statesman, 
was  employed  on  several  occasions  as  am- 
bassador by  Henry  IV. ,  and  became  Oarde 

des  Sceaux  in  1630. 

Aubeterre,  David  Bouchard,  Vicomte  d' 
{d.  1593),  governor  of  Perigord  under 
Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.,  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  L'Isle. 

Aubignac,  Fran(;ois  Hedelin,  Abbe  d'  (6. 
1714,  d.  1788),  a  learned  and  voluminous 
writer,  was  tutor  to  the  Due  de  Fronsac, 
nephew  of  Richelieu,  who  obtained  for  him 
the  abbacy  of  Aubignac. 

Aubign^,  Jean  Henri  Merle  d'  (b.  1794,  d. 
1872),  Swiss  theologian  and  writer,  studied 
at  Leipsic  and  Berlin,  and  became  professor 
of  church  history  at  Geneva  in  1830.  He 
was  author  of  The  History  of  the  Reformation 
of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  and  other  works. 


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And 


Aubign6,  Theodore  Agrippa  d'  (b.  1550, 
d.  ItJoO),  a  man  of  extraordiuary  talents  and 
learning,  and  a  brave  and  dashing  soldier, 
sided  with  the  Huguenots  in  the  religious 
•wars  of  France,  and  after  the  capitulation 
of  Rochelle  entered  the  service  of  Henry  of 
Navarre.  He  spent  the  end  of  his  life  in 
Switzerland,  where  he  continued  an  active 
supporter  of  the  Protestant  cause,  and  left 
many  works,  including  an  Universal  History. 

Aublet,  Jean  Baptiste  Christophe  Fusee 
(6.  1720,  d.  1778),  a  French  botanist,  whose 
collections  of  plants  are  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, established  a  botanic  garden  in  the 
Isle  of  France,  and  wrote  The  History  of 
the  Plants  of  French  Guiana. 

Aubrey,  John  (6.  1626,  d.  1697),  English 
antiquarian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  one 
of  the  iirst  members  of  the  Royal  Society, 
•wrote  the  Ferambulation  of  Surrey,  and 
other  curious  works,  and  contributed  to 
Anthony  Wood's  Athence  Oxonienses. 

Aubriet,  Claude  (6.  1651,  d.  1743),  a 
French  miniature  and  natural  history 
painter,  made  the  dra'wings  for  Tourne- 
fort's  Elements  of  Botany,  and  succeeded 
Joubert  as  royal  painter  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes  in  Paris. 

Aubriot,  Hughes  {d.  1382),  Provost  of 
Paris  under  Charles  V.,  designed  the  famous 
prison  of  the  Bastille,  in  which,  in  1381,  he 
was  confined  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  but 
was  released  by  a  popular  insurrection  of 
the"Maillotins." 

Aubusson,  Pierre  d'  (6.  1423,  d.  1481),  one 
©f  the  most  famous  of  the  Grand  Masters 
of  Rhodes,  and  especially  reno-wned  for  his 
exploits  against  the  Turks,  who  attacked 
Rhodes,  but  were  repulsed  •svith  great  loss. 

Aucher-Eloy,  Peter  Remi  (6. 1793,  d.  1838), 
a  French  botanist  and  traveller,  who  spent 
some  time  in  Spain,  and  made  a  valuable 
collection  of  the  plants  of  that  country. 
He  afterwards  travelled  in  Russia,  Turkey, 
and  Persia. 

Auchmuty,  Sir  Samuel  (6.  1756,  d.  1822), 
son  of  a  New  York  clergyman,  entered 
the  EngUsh  army,  and  during  the  American 
revolution  served  under  Sir  William  Howe. 
He  also  saw  active  ser^vice  in  India,  and  in 
South  America,  whither  he  sailed  in  1806, 
"with  the  reinforcements  despatched  to 
Buenos  Ayres.  He  afterwards  held  the  ap- 
pointment of  commander-in-chief  in  Madras 
and  in  Ireland. 

Auckland,  George  Eden,  Earl  of  (6.  1784, 
d.  1849),  was  governor- general  of  India 
during  the  disastrous  Afghan  war  (1839-42), 
•was  recalled  on  the  change  of  ministry 
in  1841,  and  in  1846  was  appointed  first  lord 
of  the  Admiralty. 


Auckland,  William  Eden,  Baron  {h.  1744, 
d.  1814),  iu  1784  represented  England  at 
the  French  court,  and  afterward  in  Spain, 
and  was  postmaster-general  from  1798- 
1801. 

Audseus,  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Au- 
dseans  in  the  4th  century,  a  native  of  Meso- 
potamia, was  distinguished  for  his  holy  life 
and  his  zeal  in  opposing  the  corrupt  and 
licentious  lives  of  the  clergy. 

Aude,  le  Chevalier  Jean  (6.  1755,  d.  1841), 
a  dramatic  author  of  repute,  some  tima 
private  secretary  to  Buffon. 

Audebert,  Jean  Baptiste  (6.  1759,  d.  1800), 
a  distinguished  French  miniature  and 
natural  history  painter, 

Audififret,  Hercule  (6.  1603,  d.  1659),  an 
eloquent  French  ecclesiastic  and  author, 
general  of  the  congregation  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Doctrine. 

Audififret  Pasquier.Edme  Armand  Gaston, 

Due  d'  {b.  1823),  a  French  politician,  who, 
as  president  of  the  right  centre,  was  one  of 
the  chief  agents  in  effecting  the  downfall  of 
M.  Thiers.  He  was  a  supporter  of  Marshal 
MacMahon,  president  of  the  senate  1876-9, 
and  in  1878  was  elected  member  of  the 
French  Academy. 

Audin,  J.  M.  V.  (h.  1793,  d.  1851),  a 
French  historian  and  biographer,  of  •the 
period  of  the  Reformation. 

Audley,  Thomas,  Baron  Audley  of  Wal- 
den  [b.  1488,  d.  1554),  Lord  Chancellor  of 
England,  and  a  Knight  of  the  Garter ; 
an  unscrupulous  and  dexterous  tool  of 
Henry  VIII. 

Audoin,  or  Alduin,  King  of  the  Lombards 
in  the  6th  century,  assisted  Justinian  in  a 
war  with  the  Gepidse. 

Audoin,  Jean  Victor  (6.  1797,  d,  1841),  a 
distinguished  French  entomologist,  author 
of  the  Histoire  des  Insectes  Nuisibles  d  la 
Vigne. 

Audoin,  Pierre  (6.  1768,  d.  1822),  French 
engraver  to  Louis  XVIII.,  executed  over 
100  works. 

Audovere  {d.  580),  the  first  wife  of 
Chilperic  I.,  King  of  France,  who  repu- 
diated her  and  put  her  to  death. 

Audran,  Girard  (6.  1640,  d.  1703),  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  family  of  artists  of 
that  name,  and  one  of  the  greatest  historical 
engravers,  was  a  pupU  of  Le  Brun  at 
Paris,  and  afterwards  studied  at  Rome. 

Audrein,  Yves  Marie,  a  French  theologiaii 
and  revolutionist,  who  voted  for  the  king's 
death,  but  in  1800  was  waylaid  and  mur- 
dered by  Chouans  as  a  regicide. 


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Aug 


Audubon,  John  James  {b.  1780,  d.  1851),  a 
celebrated  American  naturalist  of  French 
descent,  a  pupil  of  the  great  painter 
David  ;  from  his  childhood  he  was  devoted 
to  natural  history,  but  it  was  not  until  1830 
that  the  first  of  the  four  volumes  of  his 
great  work,  2'he  Birds  o/Amey-ica,  appeared. 
This  magnificent  collection  of  plates,  which 
was  sold  for  1,000  dollars  a  copy,  was  quickly 
followed  by  explanatory  letterpress  under 
the  title  of  Amerua7i  Ornithological  Bio- 
graphij.  Audubon  also  projected  a  simi- 
lar work  on  the  Quadrupeds  of  America, 
but  much  of  this  work  was  done  by  his 
eons,  John  and  Victor. 

Aue,  Hartmann  von  der  (6.  1170,  d.  1235), 
a  celebrated  German  Minnesinger,  who 
accompanied  Frederick  Barbarossa  on  his 
crusade  in  1189.  His  great  work  Irain,  ou 
le  Chevalier  Bu  Lion,  is  taken  from  the 
time  of  King  Arthiir. 

Auenbrugger,  Von  Auenbrug  Leopold  (6. 
1722,  d.  18i»9),  physician  to  the  imperial 
hospital  of  Vieima,  and  celebrated  as  the 
inventor  of  the  method  of  percussion  in 
investigating  diseases  of  the  chest,  on  which 
he  published  a  treatise  in  1761. 

Auerbach,  Berthold  (6.  1812,  d.  1882), 
German  novelist,  was  a  native  of  the  Black 
Forest ;  his  reputation  was  established  by 
the  publication  in  1843  of  his  Village 
Tales  from  the  Black  Forest,  and  this  was 
followed  by  a  nimiber  of  other  popular 
novels.  Among  his  earlier  works  were  a 
translation  of  Spinoza's  writings,  and  an 
essay  on  modem  Jewish  literature.  He 
died  at  Cannes  shortly  after  the  publication 
of  Brigitta. 

Auersperg,  Adolph  WOhelm,  Prince  (b. 
1821,  d.  1886),  Austrian  statesman,  in  1871 
was  Austrian  prime  miniater,  resigning  in 
1879. 

Auersperg,  Anton  Alexander,  Count  {b. 
1806,  d.  1876),  Austrian  poet  and  politician, 
author  of  several  ballads  and  romances  in 
verse,  and  an  advocate  of  progress  and 
representation. 

Aufrecht,  Theodor  (6. 1822),  a  native  of 
Leschnitz  in  Silesia,  an  eminent  Sanscrit 
scholar,  who  held  the  chairs  of  Sanscrit  at 
Edinburgh  (1862-75)  and  Bonn,  and  is 
author  of  many  valuable  works  on  that  lan- 
guage and  literature. 

Aufresne,  Jean  Rival  {h.  1720,  d.  1806),  an 
eminent  actor,  who  performed  in  France 
and  Prussia,  and  spent  the  end  of  his  life  in 
Russia  under  the  patronage  of  Catherine  II. 

Augereau,  Pierre  Francois  Charles,  Due 
de  Castigliono  and  Marshal  of  Franco  {b. 
1757,  d.  1816),  a  soldier  of  obscure  birth  who 
joined  the  republican  army  of  France,  served 


in  Italy  under  Napoleon,  and  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Holland  and 
the  Lower  Rhine.  In  1804  he  was  made 
marshal  and  duke,  was  present  at  the  battles 
of  Linden,  Jena,  and  Eylau,  and  after  an 
unsuccessful  campaign  in  Spain  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  In  1814  he  was 
compelled  to  evacuate  Lyons,  and  a  coolness 
arose  between  him  and  Napoleon,  and  on 
the  abdication  of  the  Emperor  Augereau 
gave  his  adhesion  to  the  Boui'bons. 

Augier,  Guillaume  Victor  Emile  (6.  1820, 
d.  1889),  a  French  dramatic  author,  wrote 
several  excellent  comedies,  including  Ga- 
brielle  (1849)  and  Les  Fourchambatdt  (1878), 
and  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1858. 

Augusta,  Jan  (6.  1500,  d.  1575),  father  of 
the  modem  sect  of  Moravians,  and  a  friend 
of  Luther  and  Melancthon,  was  chosen 
bishop  of  the  churches  of  Bohemia,  and  on 
the  banishment  of  his  sect  by  Ferdmand  I., 
was  captured  and  cruelly  tortured,  but  was 
released  on  the  death  of  that  monarch,  1564. 

Augustenburg,  Christian  August,  Duke 
of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg  (o.  1798, 
d.  1869),  succeeded  to  the  dukedom  in  1814, 
and  during  the  war  of  1848-1851  was  a 
leader  in  the  rebellion  against  the  Danish 
crown,  to  which  in  1852  he  sold  his  property 
in  the  duchies.  He  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  son. 

Augustenburg,  Frederick  Karl,  Duke  of 
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg  {b.  1829,  d. 
1880),  in  1863  claimed  the  right  to  the 
duchies  which  his  father  had  renounced, 
and  was  supported  by  Prussia  and  Austria ; 
but  the  Prussian  crown  lawyers  decided 
that  after  the  treaty  of  1852  the  Augusten- 
burg family  had  no  claim  to  a  right  of 
succession  to  the  duchies. 

Augusti,  Christian  Johann  Wilhelm  (6. 
1771,  d.  1841),  a  German  theologian  and 
author,  professor  of  Oriental  literature,  and 
afterwards  of  theology,  at  the  University  of 
Jena,  and  later  (1811)  at  Breslau,  of  which 
vmiversity  he  became  rector.  He  went  in 
1819  to  Bonn,  and  finally  to  Coblentz. 

Augusti,  Friedrich  Albert  (6.  1686,  d. 
1792)  (Joshua  Ben- Abraham  Herschel),  a 
German  Jew,  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures, 
was  converted  to  Christianity  in  1722,  and 
remained  steadfast  in  spite  of  persecutions. 

Augustin,  Jean  Baptiste  Jacques  {h. 
1759,  d.  1832),  miniature  painter  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  for  his  truth  to  nature  was  highly 
esteemed,  and  effected  a  revolution  in  his 
art. 

Augustine,  Saint  Aurelius  Augustinus  (6. 
354,  d.  430),  the  most  distingmshed  of  the 
Laliu  fathers  of  the  Christian  Church,  was 
born    at    Tagaste    in    Numidia.     While  a 


Aug 


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Aug 


student  at  Carthage  he  fell  into  habits  of  dis- 
sipation, to  the  great  distress  of  his  wadowed 
mother  Monica,  whose  prayerful  anxiety  for 
her  son  is  one  of  the  most  touching  records 
of  Christian  biography.  After  an  interval 
in  which  his  mind  sought  relief  in  philo- 
sophy, and  later  in  the  peculiar  doctrines  of 
the  Manichseans,  he  left  Africa  for  Italy,  383. 
At  Milan  he  obtained  the  professorship  of 
rhetoric,  but  resigned  it  on  his  conversion 
to  Christianity,  receiving  baptism  together 
with  his  son  at  the  hands  of  Bishop  Am- 
brose, 387.  Returning  to  Africa  he  sold  his 
patrimony  to  benefit  the  poor,  and  after  some 
years  of  religious  seclusion  became  Bishop 
of  Hippo,  391.  His  life  thenceforth  is  an 
unceasing  record  of  labour  and  controversy 
with  the  schismatics  of  his  time.  In  429 
the  incursions  and  ravages  of  the  Vandals 
under  Genseric  reached  the  gates  of  Hippo, 
and  Augustine  died  in  the  third  month  of 
the  siege,  worn  out  vnth  hardships  endured 
in  the  cause  of  his  people.  His  two  greatest 
works  are  the  Confessions,  an  account  of  his 
own  reUgious  struggles,  and  The  City  of  God. 

Augustine  or  Austin,  Saint  (d.  circa  607), 
first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  sent 
from  Rome  by  Pope  Gregory  I.,  in  596,  to 
convert  the  English  to  Christianity.  He 
was  well  received  by  Ethelbert,  Iving  of 
Kent,  and  established  himself  at  Canter- 
bury, where  he  founded  a  monastery  on  the 
site  of  the  present  cathedral,  and  vigorously 
pushed  his  missionary  labours. 

Augustus,  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus 
(6.  B.C.  63,  d.  A.D.  14),  the  first  Roman  em- 
peror, was  the  son  of  Octavius  by  Alia,  a 
daughter  of  Julia,  the  sister  of  C.  Julius 
Caesar.  At  the  age  of  nineteen,  upon  re- 
ceiving the  news  of  his  great-uncle's  mur- 
der, he  set  out  for  Italy,  and  joining  the 
repubhcan  party  defeated  Antony,  and 
returning  to  Rome  compelled  the  Senate  to 
elect  him  consul.  Subsequently  an  arrange- 
ment was  eifected  between  Augustus,  An- 
tony, and  Lepidus  to  divide  the  Roman 
world  between  them.  The  battle  of 
Phihppi  left  Augustus  and  Antony  with 
no  opponent  but  Pompey,  and  a  rupture 
which  again  broke  out  between  them  was 
healed  by  the  marriage  of  Antony  with 
Octavia,  sister  to  Augustus,  when  a  new 
division  of  the  provinces  was  made,  the 
west  falling  to  Augustus  and  the  east  to 
Antony,  while  Lepidus  obtained  Africa. 
Pompey  and  Lepidus  fell  next  before  the 
power  of  Augustus,  and  Antony,  who  had 
repudiated  his  wife  to  marry  Cleopatra,  was 
completely  defeated  in  a  fight  near  Actium, 
B.C.  31.  Upon  the  death  of  Antony,  Augus- 
tus became  undisputed  master  of  the  world 
at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  and  remained 
such  till  his  death. 

Augrustus,  Duke  of  Saxony  (6.  1614,  d. 


1680),  was  elected  archbishop  of  Magdeburg 
in  1 628,  and  the  following  year  was  driven 
from  his  see  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II., 
but  regained  his  dominions  in  1638,  and  in 
1648  was  acknowledged  sovereign  Prince  of 
Magdeburg.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1656,  he  succeeded  to  large  possessions  in 
Thuriugia. 

Augustus,  Frederick,  Duke  of  Sussex  {b. 
1773,  d.  1843),  sixth  son  of  George  III., 
married  Lady  Augusta  Murray  in  1793,  was 
a  liberal  in  politics  and  addicted  to  liter- 
ature. 

Augustus,  Friedrich  "Wilhelm  Heinrich, 
Prince  of  Prussia  (6.  1790,  d.  1843),  nephew 
of  Frederick  II.,  distinguished  himself  as 
an  officer  in  the  Prussian  army,  especially 
during  the  campaigns  of  1813-1815. 

Augustus,  "WUhelm,  Prince  of  Prussia  (6. 

1722,  d.  1758),  distinguished  himself  greatly 
in  the  first  Silesian  war,  and  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  especially  at  the  battle  of 
Lowositz  1756,  but  withdrew  from  the  army 
after  the  defeat  at  Kollin. 

Augustus  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony  (6.  1526, 
d.  1586),  succeeded  his  brother  Moritz  in 
1553,  and  proved  severe  and  intolerant, 
though  possessed  of  considerable  legislative 
ability.  He  defeated  and  imprisoned  his 
rival,  John  Frederick,  largely  extended  his 
dominions,  and  drew  up  the  code  of  laws 
known  by  his  name,  and  though  a  zealous 
supporter  of  Lutheranism,  persecuted  the 
followers  of  Melancthon. 

Augustus  II.,  Frederick,  Elector  of 
Saxony  (Augustus  I.  of  Poland)  (6.  1670, 
d.  1733),  a  prince  remarkable  for  personal 
strength  and  beauty,  and  for  the  luxury 
and  corruption  of  his  court,  succeeded  his 
brother  John  George  IV.  in  1694,  and  three 
years  later,  with  the  aid  of  Austria  and 
much  bribery,  procured  his  own  election  to 
the  throne  of  Poland.  He  then  joined  him- 
self with  Russia  and  Denmark  against 
Sweden,  but  was  defeated  at  Clissow  and 
again  at  Pultusk,  and  driven  from  his 
throne  in  1706.  On  the  downfall  of  Charles 
XII.  Augustus  was  recalled  to  Poland, 
which  he  filled  with  Saxon  troops,  till  a, 
revolt  of  the  Poles  imder  LedekusM  com- 
pelled the  withdrawal  of  these  in  1716. 

Augustus  ni.,  Frederick,  Elector  of 
Saxony  (Augustus  II.  of  Poland)  (6.  1696, 
d.  1763),  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  ha 
succeeded  in  1733,  being  supported  by  the 
Russians  against* his  rival  Stanislaus;  his 
reign  proved  disastrous  for  Poland.  He 
was  embroiled  with  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia, 
from  whom  he  had  to  purchase  peace. 

Augustus  I.,  Frederick  (Jb.  1750,  d.  1827), 
first  king  of    Saxony,   joined    the    league 


Aug 


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formed  by  Fredeiiek  the  Great  in  1778. 
After  Jena  he  followed  Napoleon,  and  lost 
portion  of  his  kingdom  by  the  battle  of 
Leipsic. 

Augustus  II.,  Frederick  {b.  1797,  d.  1854), 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  an  able  soldier, 
succeeded  in  1836,  and  in  1848  made  con- 
siderable concessions  to  popular  demands. 

Aulaf  or  Aulaf  (d.  circa  925),  a  Danish 
invader  of  the  British  Islands  in  the  10th 
centuiy ;  aided  by  the  Scots  and  Welsh  he 
attacked  Athelstan  of  England,  but  was  re- 
pulsed, and  forced  to  retire  to  Ireland. 
After  the  death  of  Athelstan,  Aulaf  several 
times  invaded  England  with  varying  suc- 
cess. 

AuIOQ,  Jean,  maitre  d'hotel  to  Jeanne 
d'Arc,  whom  he  served  faithfully,  distin- 
guishing himself  at  the  siege  of  Orleans, 
and  afterward  sharing  the  "Maid's"  im- 
prisonment, 

Aulus  Gellius,  Roman  critic  and  gram- 
marian, bom  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  author 
of  the  Attic  Nights. 

Amnale,  Charles,  Duke  d'  {d.  1631), 
one  of  the  supporters  of  the  league,  was 
governor  of  Paris  in  1588,  which  he  held, 
but  lost  the  battles  of  Senlis,  Argues,  and 
Ivry.     He  died  in  exile  at  Brussels. 

Aumale,  Henri  Eugene  Philippe  Louis 
d'Orleans,  Due  d'  (6.  1822),  fourth  son  of 
Louis  PhiUppe,  and  heir  of  the  house  of 
Conde,  entered  the  French  army  at  seven- 
teen, and  was  appointed  governor  of  Algeria 
in  1847.  On  hearing  of  the  revolution  of 
the  following  year  he  withdrew  to  England, 
but  in  1871  returned  to  France  as  a  member 
of  the  National  Assembly,  and  won  great 
popularity.  Declining  to  present  himself 
for  re-election  in  1876,  he  devoted  himself 
to  military  duties  till  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand and  finally  expelled  from  France  in 
1886.  The  duke  has  written  several  im- 
portant political  pamphlets,  as  well  as  a 
Ristory  of  the  Frinces  of  the  House  of  Conde. 

Amnont,  Jacques,  Due  d'  {d.  1799),  com- 
mandant of  the  battalion  of  the  National 
Guard  placed  over  Louis  XVI.  in  1791. 
Though  suspected  of  assisting  in  the  king's 
escape,  he  was  afterwards  appointed  to  the 
command  of  Lille. 

Aungerville,  Richard.  [See  Bury,  Rich- 
ard de.] 

Avinoy,  Marie  Catherine,  Countess  d'  {b. 
1650,  d.  1705),  a  popular  French  novelist, 
and  authoress  of  several  volumes  of  fairy 
tales. 

Anrellanus,  Claudius  or  Lucius  Domitius, 
Emperor  of  Rome  (6.  212,  d.  275),  the  sou 


of  a  peasant,  entered  the  Roman  army,  his 
exploits  in  which  attracted  the  notice  of  thd 
Emperors  Valerian  and  Claudius,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  latter  in  270  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor.  His  short  reign  was  a  series  of 
brilliant  victories :  the  Goths  and  Vandals 
were  subdued,  the  Alemanni,  who  threatened 
Rome  itself,  were  exterminated,  Palmyi-a 
was  sacked,  and  in  the  splendid  triumph  of 
Aurelian  were  led  captive  Tetricus,  the  ex- 
Emperor  of  Gaul,  Britain  and  Spain,  and 
Zeuobia,  the  renowned  Queen  of  the  East. 
A  formidable  rebelUon  at  home  was  crushed 
with  terrible  sternness,  and  the  emperor's 
severity  made  him  feared  even  by  his  friends, 
who,  as  they  deemed  in  pure  self-defence, 
conspired  against  him  and  put  him  to  death. 

Aurelius,  Antoninus  Marcus  (6.  121  a.d., 
d.  180),  Emperor  of  Rome,  was  the  adopted 
son  of  Antoninus  Pius,  to  whose  throne  he 
succeeded  in  161,  and  took  as  associate 
Lucius  Verus.  Most  of  his  reign  was  dis- 
turbed by  wars  with  the  Gei-mans.  Aurelius 
was  distinguished  for  his  love  of  truth  and 
his  adhesion  to  the  Stoic  school  of  philo- 
sophy, and  his  Meditations  still  exist,  and 
give  a  trustworthy  record  of  his  private 
opinions. 

Aurelius,  Victor  Sextus,  a  Roman  his- 
torian of  the  4th  century,  and  the  reputed 
author  of  Origo  Gentis  Romance,  and  other 
works. 

AureUes  de  Paladine,  Louis  Jean  Bap- 
tiste  d'  {b.  1804,  d.  1877),  French  general, 
served  in  Africa,  Rome,  at  the  Crimea. 
Commanded  the  army  of  the  Loire  in  the 
Franco -German  war  with  some  success  at 
Orleans,  but  was  compelled  to  retire.  In 
1871  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly, 
and  took  part  in  the  peace  negotiations  with 
Germany.     Was  chosen  life  senator  in  1875. 

Aureolus,  Caius,  a  Dacian  of  himible 
birth,  became  one  of  the  most  able  generals 
of  Valerian,  and  during  the  reign  of  Gal- 
lienus  the  army  of  the  Upper  Danube  re- 
volted, and  proclaimed  Aureolus  emperor, 
and  though  defeated  and  wounded,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  compassing  the  death  of  Gallienus. 
This,  however,  only  resulted  in  the  appear- 
ance of  a  still  more  formidable  opponent  in 
Claudius,  who  defeated  and  linally  put  him 
to  death. 

Auria,  Vincenzo  (6.  1625,  d.  1710),  an 
Italian  antiquary  and  poet ;  author  of  his- 
tories of  the  Eminent  Men  of  Sicily  (1704), 
the  Viceroys  of  Sicily  (1697),  and  other 
works. 

Auriac,  Bernard  d',  a  troubadour  of  the 
13th  century,  author  of  a  Hymn  to  the 
Virgin,  and  other  poems,  to  be  found  in 
M.  Rayuouard's  collection. 

Aurifaber,  Johann  (6.  1519,  d,   1575),  a 


Anr 


(76) 


Anv 


Lutheran   divine,   and    friend  and  private 
secretary  of  Luther. 

Auriferi,  Bernardino  (b.  1739.  d.  1706).  a 
Franciscan  monk  of  Palermo,  who  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  botany,  and  wrote 
the  Hortus  Panormitanus. 

Aurivillius,  Magnus  (6.  1673,  d.  1740), 
a  learned  Swedish  divine,  who  accompanied 
Charles  XII.  on  his  expeditions. 

Aurogallus,  Matthaeus  (6.  1480,  d.  1543), 
an  accomplished  German  linguist,  who 
assisted  Luther  in  his  translation  of  the 
Bible,  and  wrote  a  history  of  Bohemia. 

Aurungzebe,  or  Aurangzeb  (6.  1618,  d. 
1707),  the  famous  Mogul  Emperor  of  Hin- 
dostan,  son  of  Shah  Jehan,  early  professed 
great  piety,  but  his  ambition  led  him  to 
secure  for  himself  his  father's  throne,  by 
fostering  family  dissensions,  and  murder- 
ing those  of  his  relatives  who  stood  in  his 
way.  He  extended  his  dominions  by  con- 
quests in  Thibet,  Golconda,  and  the  Mah- 
ratta  territory.  He  died  at  Aunmgbad, 
rendered  miserable  by  remorse  and  mistrust 
of  all  about  him. 

Ausonius,  Decimus  Magnus  (6.  309,  d. 
394),  a  Latin  poet,  professor  of  gram- 
mar and  rhetoric,  and  tutor  to  the  two 
sons  of  Valentinian  I.,  and  subsequently 
prefect  of  Latium,  Libya,  and  Gaul,  and 
proconsul  of  Asia. 

Austen,  Sir  Francis  William  (6.  1774,  d. 
1865),  a  distiuguished  naval  officer,  in  1799 
commanded  the  Petrel,  afterwards  served 
imder  Nelson  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in 
1809  brought  to  a  successful  termination  a 
dispute  with  the  Chinese.  He  was  created 
admiral  in  1848,  and  a  K.C.B.  in  1860. 

Austen,  Jane  (6.  1775,  d.  1817),  novelist, 
bom  at  Steventon,  Hants,  of  which  parish 
her  father  was  rector.  Her  principal  pro- 
ductions are  Pride  and  Prejudice  (composed 
1796,  published  1813),  Sense  and  Sensibility, 
(1811),  and  Emma  (1816).  They  are  dis- 
tinguished for  originality,  naturalness  and 
fidelity  of  delineation,  qualities  in  whicli 
the  literature  of  her  time  was  most  defi- 
cient. Her  family  moved  successively  to 
Bath  and  Chawton,  and  she  died  at  Win- 
chester and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral. 

Austin,  Alfred  (6.  1835),  critic,  journalist, 
and  satirical  poet,  was  educated  for  the 
bar,  but  resigned  that  profession  for  litera- 
ture. As  a  strong  Conservative,  is  one  of  the 
editors  ot  the  National  Review,  and  has 
acted  as  correspondent  to  the  Standard. 

Austin,  Coe  Finch  (6.  1831,  d.  1880),  an 
American  botanist,  a  recognised  authority 
on  mosses,  on  which  he  has  left  a  valuable 
work,  entitled  Mucin  Appalachani  (1870). 


Austin,  Horatio  Thomas,  a  British  naval 
officer,  who  took  part  in  the  Arctic  expe- 
ditions of  the  nineteenth  century.  He 
was  lieutenant  of  the  Pury  on  Captain 
Parry's  voyage  in  1824,  and  in  1850  com- 
mauded  the  party  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin. 

Austin,  John  (&.  1790,  d.  1859),  eminent 
EngUsh  jurist,  served  first  in  the  army  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1818.  From  1828 
to  1835  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Uni- 
versity College,  and  his  chief  work  is  The 
Province  of  Jurisprudence  determined. 

Austin,  Mrs.  Sarah  Taylor  (6.  1793,  d. 
1867),  an  English  writer,  and  translator 
from  the  German  and  French ;  her  version 
of  Ranke's  History  of  the  Popes  is  especially 
excellent. 

Austin,  Stephen  T.  {d.  1836),  was  the 
founder  of  the  State  of  Texas.  He  drove 
the  Mexicans  out  of  Texas,  and  obtained  its 
independence. 

Austin,  William  (b.  1778,  d.  1841),  an 
American  writer,  author  of  Letters  from 
London  ;  Peter  Pugg,  the  Missing  Man,  and 
other  works. 

Austin,  William,  M.D,  (6, 1753,  cf.l793),  an 
eminent  physician  and  chemist,  who  made 
several  important  contributions  to  medical 
science,  and  published  the  Analysis  of  Gases 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 

Autenrieth,  Johann  Friedrich  Ferdinand 
von  (1772-1835),  a  German  physician,  who 
graduated  at  Stuttgard,  and  after  travelling 
in  Europe  and  America  settled  at  Tiibingen, 
where  he  filled  the  chair  of  anatomy,  phy- 
siology, and  surgery. 

Autichamp,  Charles  de  Beaumont,  Count 
d'  {h.  1770,  d.  1852),  a  French  royali§t  and 
a  leader  of  the  Vendeans  in  1793.  He  also 
took  part  under  La  Rochejaquelein  in  the 
disastrous  insurrection  of  1815,  and  after 
the  restoration  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Auton,  or  Anton,  Jehan  d'  (6.  1466,  d. 
1527),  a  French  Benedictine  monk;  his 
verses  secured  him  the  favour  of  Anne  of 
Brittany,  and  he  was  appointed  historio- 
grapher to  Louis  XII.,  whose  life  he 
wrote. 

Autophradates,  a  Persian  general  under 
Artaxerxes  III.  and  Darius  II.  ;  imder  the 
former  he  took  prisoner  Artabazus,  satrap  of 
Lydia,  and  as  commander  of  the  fleet  of  the 
latter  compelled  the  submission  of  Mitylene 
and  Tenedos. 

Autreau,  Jacques  (6.  1656,  d.  1745),  a 
French  painter  and  dramatist. 

Auvergne,  Antoine  d'  (6.  1713,  d.  1797), 
musical  director  of  the  opera  of  Paris  in 


Auv 


(  77) 


Ave 


1770,  and  composer  of    several  successful 
operas. 

Auvergne,  Bernard  II.,  Count  d'  (d.  886), 
a  distinguished  French  soldier  of  the  9th 
century,  guardian  and  supporter  of  Louis 

in. 

Auvergne,  Edward  d' ,  an  English  historian 
of  the  17th  century,  accompanied  William 
III.  to  the  Netherlands,  and  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  campaigns. 

Auvergne,  Gui  II.,  Count  d'  (d.  1224),  a 
turbulent  French  noble,  who  took  the  part 
ot  Eichard  I.  of  England,  and  was  engaged 
in  continual  struggles  with  his  brother 
Robert  and  with  Philip  Augustus  of  France. 

Auvergne,  Guillaimie  d'  (d.  1249),  a 
learned  bishop  of  Paris  and  professor  of 
theology  in  the  Sorbonne. 

Auvergne,  Martial  d'  (b.  Paris,  144Q,  d. 
1508),  a  lawyer,  wit,  and  poet  of  consider- 
able celebiity,  author  of  Xes  Arrets 
d' Amour. 

Auvergne,  Theophile  Malocorret,  De  la 
Tourd'  (6.  1743,  d.  1800),  a  brave  soldier 
and  accomplished  scholar  of  singularmodesty 
and  benevolence,  served  under  the  Due  de 
Crillon  in  the  campaign  of  Minorca,  and 
afterwards  joined  the  revolutionary  army, 
and  became  captain  of  the  "  Imperial 
Column."  After  bestowing  his  pension  in 
charity,  he  went  as  substitute  for  a  young 
conscript,  but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Oberhausen.  Auvergne  was  an  excellent 
linguist,  and  left  a  Glossaire  Folyglotte  of 
forty-five  languages. 

Auvlgny,  Jean  du  Castre  d'  (6.  1712,  d. 
1743),  a  French  author,  who  worked  with 
Desfontaines  and  Hazier ;  he  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Dettingen. 

Auvray, Felix  (5.  1800,  d.  1833),  a  French 
historical  painter,  was  a  pupil  of  Baron 
Gros. 

Auwera,  Johan  Georg  Wolfgang  von  {d. 
1756),  a  court  sculjitor  at  Wurzburg,  ex- 
celled in  colossal  ligures. 

Auxentius  (6.  310,  d.  374),  a  supporter 
of  Ariauisra,  and  zealous  opponent  of 
Athanasius.  He  succeeded  Dionysius  as 
bishop  of  Milan,  and  though  condemned  for 
heresy  retained  the  see  till  his  death. 

Auzanet,  Barthelemi  (6.  1591,  d.  1673),  an 
eminent  French  lawyer,  who  was  employed 
in  connection  with  a  scheme  for  establislung 
a  uniform  system  of  jurisprudence  through- 
out the  kingdom. 

Auzou,  Louis  Napoleon  (6. 1806),  a  French 
ecclesiastic  and  refoi-mer,  founder  of  the 
"French  Catholic  Church."    He  renounced 


his  opinions  in  1839,  and  retired  to  a  re- 
ligious house. 

Auzout,  Adrien,  a  native  of  Rouen,  flour- 
ished in  the  17th  century,  was  a  skilful  tele- 
scope-maker, and  invented  the  movable  wire 
micrometer. 

Auzoux,  Theodore  Louis  (6.  circa  1797, 
dt  1880),  a  French  physician  and  anatomist, 
who  greatly  f  acihtated  the  study  of  tmatomy 
by  his  exact  and  delicate  models  of  the 
humaji  body. 

AvalOS,  Alfonse  d',  Marquis  del  Vasto  {d. 
1546),  a  Spanish  soldier  of  the  16th  century, 
who  served  under  Charles  V.,  and  contri- 
buted much  to  the  victory  of  Pavia.  He 
had  also  estates  in  Italy,  and  after  fighting 
against  the  French  and  Turks  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Milan  in  1537,  in  which 
capacity  he  was  defeated  by  the  French  at 
Ceresole  in  1544. 

AvalOS,  Ferdinando  d'.  Marquis  of  Pes- 
cara  (6.  1490,  d.  1525),  cousin  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  the  virtual  commander  of  the 
Spanish  forces  at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  at 
which  he  received  wounds  from  the  effects 
of  which  he  ultimately  died. 

Avalos,  Ruy  Lopez  d'.  Count  of  Ribadeo, 
was  Great  Constable  of  Castile  in  the  reign 
of  Juan  II.,  but  in  1420  joined  Enrique, 
Infante  of  Aragon,  against  that  monarch, 
and  was  forced  to  flee  to  Valencia. 

Avanzi,  Jacopo  di  Paolo  d'  (Jacopo  da 
Bologna),  an  Italian  painter  of  the  14th 
century ;  most  of  his  works,  which  were 
highly  esteemed,  are  now  lost. 

Avanzi  Til,  Guiseppe  (6.  1753,  d.  1827),  an 
eminent  Italian  mathematician. 

Avaray,  Autoine  Louis,  Due  d'  (6.  1759, 
d.  1811),  a  faithful  servant  and  friend 
of  Louis  XVIII.,  planned  and  successfully 
carried  out  the  escape  of  that  prince. 

Avaux,  Claude  de  Mesmes,  Cormt  d'  (6. 
1595,  d.  1650),  a  French  diplomatist  em- 
ployed by  cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazaiin ; 
through  his  negotiations  the  peace  of  West- 
phaha  was  concluded  in  1648. 

Aved,  Jacques  Andre  Joseph  (6.  1702,  d. 
1766),  one  of  the  best  portrait  painters  of 
his  time,  was  portrait  painter  to  Louis  XV. 

Aveiro,  Jose  de  Mascarenhas,  Duke  of 
(6.  1708,  d.  1759),  an  unscrupulous  and 
ambitious  Portuguese,  who  became  the 
favourite  of  Joam  V.  Disappointed  at 
losing  his  influence  on  the  accession  of  Jose 
I. ,  he  formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  life 
of  the  new  king,  but  was  discovered  and  put 
to  death. 

Aveis  L,  Sultan  of  Persia  (rf.  1347),  wac 


Ave 


(78) 


Avi 


an  able  and  just  prince;   he  considerably 
increased  liis  dominions. 

Aveis  II.,  Sultan  of  Persia  (d.  circa  1410), 
and  son  of  the  preceding,  on  whose  death 
he  murdered  an  elder  brother  and  seized  the 
throne.  His  cruelty  raised  him  many  ene- 
mies, who,  with  the  assistance  of  Tamer- 
lane, drove  him  from  the  country ;  he  fled 
to  Egj-pt,  where  he  died. 

Avellar,  Francisco  Gomez  (6.  1739,  d. 
1816),  bishop  of  Algarve,  an  able  and  learned 
divine,  who  iu  addition  to  the  bishopric  held 
the  post  of  governor  and  captain -general 
of  Algarve,  and  discharged  his  multifarious 
duties  with  prudence  and  vigour. 

Avellino,  Onofrio  (6.  1674,  d.  1741), 
Itahan  portrait  painter  of  note  ;  his  principal 
work  was  the  frescoes  on  the  ceiling  of 
the  church  of  St.  Francesco  di  Paolo  in 
Kome. 

Avelloni,  Francesco  (6.  1756,  d.  1837),  a 
prolific  Italian  dramatist  who  wrote  many 
successful  plays,  both  in  prose  and  verse. 

Avempace  or  Aven  Pace,  a  corruption  of 
Ibn  Bajeh,  a  Spanish  Mahometan,  renowned 
for  his  learning  in  medicine,  poetry,  mathe- 
matics, and  music. 

Aventinus,  Johannes  Thurmayer  (6.  1476, 
d.  1534),  "  the  father  of  Bavarian  historio- 
graphy," was  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Albert 
the  Wise,  and  left  an  erudite  history  of  his 
country. 

Avenzoar,  a  corruption  of  Ibn  Zohr,  a 
distinguished  Moorish  family  of  Seville.  Of 
its  members  two  especially  are  renowned, 
Abu  Merwan  Abdul-Malek,  an  eminent 
physician  who  flourished  ia  the  12th  cen- 
tury, and  who  left  the  Teisir  and  other 
valuable  medical  works ;  and  Abu  Bekr,  his 
son,  who  excelled  in  medicine,  theology,  and 
poetry. 

Averdy,  Clement  Charles  Fran9ois  de  1' 
(6.  1720,  d.  1793),  comptroller- general  of 
the  French  finances  in  1759,  and  author  of 
Bome  wise  refoims  in  that  department. 
He  was  accused  of  monopoly  during  the 
Eeign  of  Terror,  and  guillotined. 

Averrhbes  (6.  circa  1120,  d.  1198  or 
1206)  (Ibn-Roshd),  the  great  Arabian  philo- 
sopher, of  good  birth,  and  a  pupil  of 
Avenpace  and  Avenzoar.  He  devoted  his 
life  to  the  study  of  Aristotle.  He  was  ban- 
ished for  awhile  from  Cordova,  and  his 
views  were  condemned  by  the  University 
of  Paris  in  1240. 

Aversa,  Tommaso  {d.  1663),  a  Sicilian 
poet  and  dramatist  of  the  17th  century, 
whose  first  work,  Pyramo  e  Thisbe,  at- 
tracted considerable  attention,  entered  the 
Church,  and  devoted  himself  to  hterature. 


Avesne,  Fran^jois  {d.  1662),  a  French 
writer,  and  disciple  of  Simon  Morin.  His 
outspoken  opinions  concerning  the  rights  of 
the  people  displeased  the  queen-regent,  and 
he  was  imprisoned  tUl  1652. 

Avezac,  Pierre  Valentin  d',  de  Castera  (6. 
1719,  d.  1781),  a  West  Indian  of  French  ex- 
traction, who  amassed  a  considerable  fortune 
in  San  Domingo,  and  successfully  attempted 
the  fertilisation  of  the  Plain  of  the  Fond,  at 
a  cost  of  £30,000. 

Avezac-Macaya,  Marie  Armand  Pascal  d' 

(h.  1799,  d.  1875),  a  French  geographer  and 
ethnologist.  Was  secretary  of  the  Geo- 
graphical Society  and  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Marine.  Besides  other  works  he 
has  published  an  account  of  his  African  ex- 
plorations. 

Avianus,  Flavins,  a  Latin  poet  and  fabulist, 
whose  fables  are  often  printed  with  those  of 
^sop.  He  probably  lived  prior  to  the  reign 
of  Theodosius. 

Aviau  duBois  de  Sanzay  (6. 1736,  d.  1826), 
Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  who  devoted  him- 
self to  deeds  of  benevolence  and  piety,  and 
fixmly  maintained  the  rights  of  the  Church 
against  Napoleon. 

Avicebron  (Solomon  Ibn  Gebirol),  a 
Spanish  Jew  of  the  11th  century,  and  author 
of  the  Fons  Vitce  referred  to  by  Albertus 
Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas. 

Avlceima  (Ibn  Sina),  (6.  980,  d.  1037),  the 
celebrated  Arab  physician,  a  native  of  Bok- 
hara, was  author  of  the. world-famed  Book 
of  the  Canon  of  Medicine. 

Avidius  Cassius,  a  Roman  general  under 

Antoninus  Pius  and  AureUus,  and  after- 
wards governor  of  Syria.  He  aspired  to 
the  imperial  throne,  and  was  proclaimed 
by  the  army,  but  was  assassinated  before 
any  action  took  place. 

Avienus,  Rufus  Festus,  Roman  versifier 
and  geographer,  and  twice  proconsul  under 
Theodosius. 

AvUa,  Alonso,  a  Spanish  hidalgo,  who  ac- 
companied Cortes  to  Mexico,  and  took  part 
in  the  great  battle  of  Ceutla  (1519).  Re- 
turning to  Spain  in  1525,  he  was  captured 
by  a  French  privateer, 

Avila,  Don  Sancho  de  (6.  1523,  d.  1583), 
a  Spanish  soldier,  who  served  in  various 
countries,  and  ably  seconded  the  Duke  of 
Alva  in  the  Netherlands.  He  accomplished 
the  arrest  of  Count  Egmont  in  1567,  and 
marred  his  otherwise  splendid  victory  at 
Mook  by  the  horrible  butchery  which  fol- 
lowed. He  afterwards  headed  the  mutiny 
of  the  army,  and  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Alcantara. 


Avi 


(79) 


Aym 


Avila  y  Zuniga,  Luis  d'  (b.  1500),  a  Span- 
ish historian,  and  a  f avoiirite  of  Charles  V. , 
who  employed  him  as  ambassador  to  the 
popes  Paul  IV.  and  Pius  IV. 

Aviler,  Augustin  Charles  d'  (6.  1653,  d. 
1700),  a  French  architect. 

Avison,  Charles  (6.  1710,  d.  1770),  an 
English  musical  composer,  was  a  pupil  of 
Geminiani,  and  in  1752  published  an  £ssay 
on  Musical  Expression. 

Avitus,  Alcimus  Ecdicius  (<f.  525),  bishop 
of  Vienne,  known  as  Saint  Avitus,  was  an 
able  and  vigorous  opponent  of  Ajrianism, 
and  an  author  of  some  note. 

Avitus,  Marcus  Mascilius,  Emperor  of  the 
West  {d.  457)  in  the  5th  century,  was  de- 
scended from  an  honourable  family  of 
Auverge,  distinguished  as  a  soldier  and 
diplomatist,  and  on  the  death  of  Ma.ximus 
was  raised  to  the  throne.  In  456  he  was 
deposed  by  the  Senate. 

Avogadro  di  Quaregna,  Amadeo  (6.  1776, 
d.  1856),  an  Italian  physicist,  remembered 
in  connection  with  the  important  chemical 
hypothesis  enunciated  by  him  in  1811,  and 
still  known  by  his  name. 

Avrigny,  Charles  Joseph  Loeillard  (6. 1760, 
d.  1823),  a  French  dramatist,  historian,  and 
poet. 

Avrigny,  Hyacinthe  Eobillard  d'  (6.  1675, 
d.  1719),  a  French  Jesuit  and  historian, 
author  of  an  ecclesiastical  and  a  general 
history  of  Europe  from  1600  to  1716. 

Avril,  Jean  Jacques  [b.  Paris,  1744,  d. 
1832),  an  eminent  French  engraver,  and 
member  of  the  French  academy  of  painting. 

Avril,  Jean  Jacques,  the  Yoimger  (6.  1771, 
d.  1831),  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding, 
also  was  an  engraver  of  repute. 

Awadi  of  Maragha,  a  Persian  poet  of  the 
13th  century,  and  author  of  the  celebrated 
Jam-i-Jam,  in  which  he  expounded  the 
doctrines  of  the  Suffites. 

Awdeley,  Awdly,  or  Audley,  John,  an 
English  poet  of  the  loth  century,  known  as 
"  the  blind  Awdeley" ;  after  a  youth  wasted 
in  excesses  he  entered  a  convent,  and  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  reformation  of  church 
discipline. 

Axayacatl  (d.  1477),  seventh  king  of 
Mexico,  of  the  Aztec  race,  and  second  son 
of  Montezuma  I. 

Axel,  or  Absaion  (b.  Iceland,  1128,  d. 
1201),  Archbishop  of  Lund,  and  Primate  of 
Denmark,  known  for  his  valiant  defence  of 
the  rights  of  Denmark  af^'ainst  Germany, 
and  also  as  a  naval  commauder. 


Azen,  Petrus  {h.  1635,  d.  1707),  a  native 
of  Holstein,  eminent  as  a  jurist,  historian, 
and  philologist. 

Axular,  Pierre,  a  Gascon  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  author  of  Guerko  Guero,  the 
most  remarkable  work  in  the  Basque  lan- 
guage. 

Ayala,  Pedro  Lopez  d'  (6.  1332,  d.  1407), 
a  Spanish  statesman,  soldier,  and  poet,  and 
author  of  a  history  of  Castile. 

Ayala,  Sebastiano  (6.  1744,  d.  1817),  a 
learned  SicUian  Jesuit,  known  both  as  an 
author,  scientist,  and  politician. 

Ayeshah  (6.  610,  d.  677),  the  "Mother 
of  the  Faithful,"  was  the  favourite  wife  of 
Mohammed,  who  married  her  in  her  ninth 
year.  Her  influence  after  the  prophet's 
death  was  immense.  She  caused  the  assass- 
ination of  Caliph  Othman,  but  was  defeated 
by  Ali  at  the  battle  of  Basrah. 

Aylmer,  John  (6.  1521,  d.  1594),  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  divines  of  the  Re- 
formed Church,  and  bishop  of  London  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Originally  tutor  to 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  on  the  accession  of  Mary 
he  was  deprived  of  his  preferment,  and 
driven  into  exile,  but  on  her  death  was  re- 
ceived into  the  royal  favour. 

Aylmer,  Matthew,  Lord  (6. 1643,  d.  1720), 
a  British  admiral,  who  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  service  of  Charles  II.,  and  after 
the  battle  of  La  Hogue  was  made  rear- 
admiral  of  the  Red,  and  was  raised  to  the 
Irish  peerage  in  1718. 

AylofFe,  Sir  Joseph  (6.  1708,  d.  1781),  an 
eminent  English  antiquary  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, and  one  of  the  keepers  of  the  state 
papers.  He  was  author  of  the  Calendars  of 
Ancient  Charters  and  other  works. 

Ajnnar  or  Aimar-Vemai,  Jacques  (6. 
1662),  a  French  peasant  who  claimed  to  dis- 
cover criminals,  lost  property,  etc. ,  by  means 
of  a  divining  rod,  and  created  much  excite- 
ment till  discovered  in  1693  to  be  an  im- 
postor. 

A3anard,  Antoine,  Baron  (6. 1773,  d.  1861), 
a  French  general  who  served  in  Italy,  Ger- 
many, and  Spain,  and  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  by  Napoleon.  He  commanded  at 
Lyons  in  1834,  and  suppressed  the  insur- 
rection of  that  city  with  terrible  severity. 

Ayme,  Jean  Jacques  (Job  Ayme)  (6.  1752, 
d.  1818),  an  active  but  moderate  revolu- 
tionist, experienced  several  vicissitudes  of 
fortune,  but  in  1804  was  appointed  director 
of  the  de[)artment  of  Bourg  en  Bresse. 

Aymon  or  Haimon,  Prince  of  the  Ardennes 
in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  whose  four  BonB 
are  renowned  in  chivalrous  legend. 


Ayo 


(80) 


Azi 


Ayolas,  Juan  d',  a  Spanish  explorer  of  La 
Plata  and  Paraguay  in  the  16th  century, 
who  pushed  as  far  aa  Candelaria,  in  Para- 
guay, but  was  treacherously  slain. 

Ayrault,  Pierre  (b.  1536,  d.  1601),  a  French 
advocate,  and  president  of  Angers  during 
the  war  of  the  League  ;  besides  several  pro- 
fessional treatises,  he  wrote  one  on  parental 
rights,  addressed  to  his  son  Rene,  who,  to 
his  father's  intense  grief,  became  a  Jesuit. 

Ayrer,  Jacob  {d.  1605),  an  early  German 
dramatist  of  considerable  talent. 

Ayrton,  Edmund  (6.  1734,  d.  1808),  an 
English  musician,  the  friend  and  pupil  of 
Dr.  Nares,  whom  he  succeeded  as  ' '  master 
of  the  children  of  his  majesty's  chapels." 

Ayscough,  Samuel  (b.  1745,  d.  1804),  as- 
sistant librarian  at  the  British  Museum,  and 
a  diligent  bibUographer  and  compiler  of 
catalogues. 

Ayscue,  Ayscough,  or  Askew,  Sir  George, 
a  British  admiral  of  the  17th  century,  sided 
with  the  Parliament  during  the  Civil  war, 
and  did  good  service  in  their  behalf,  but 
on  the  Restoration  transferred  his  allegiance 
to  the  Stuarts,  and  was  made  prisoner  by 
the  Dutch  in  1666. 

Asrton  or  Aytoun,  Sir  Robert  (6.  1570,  d. 
1638),  a  Scottish  poet  and  courtier,  who 
attracted  the  notice  of  James  I.  by  a  poem 
on  his  accession  to  the  English  throne. 

Aytoun,  William  Edmonstoone  (6.  1813, 
d.  I860),  a  Scottish  poet  and  professor  of 
literature  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
Amongst  his  works  are  the  La>/s  of  the 
Scottish  Cavaliers  (1848),  an  edition  of  the 
Scottish  Ballads  (1858),  and  Bon  Gaul- 
tier's  Book  of  Ballads,  which  he  brought 
out  in  conjunction  vsdth  his  friend.  Sir 
Theodore  Martin.  He  was  also  a  most 
brilliant  contributor  to  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine. 

Ayub  Khan  (6.  circa  1849),  Ameer  of 
Afghanistan,  on  the  abdication  of  his 
brother  Yakub  Khan  (1880)  advanced  upon 
Candahar,  and  totally  defeated  General 
Burrows  at  Maiwand,  but  on  the  arrival  of 
General  Roberts  by  a  forced  march  from 
Cabul  his  own  forces  were  routed  and 
himself  compelled  to  flee.  The  following 
year  another  brilliant  victory  preceded  a 
second  defeat  near  Candahar,  and  Ayub 
withdrew  to  Persia,  where,  on  the  Russian 
advance  on  Penj-deh  (1885),  he  was  re- 
tained as  prisoner  of  state  at  the  request  of 
the  English  minister,  escaped  in  1887,  and 
was  recaptured. 

Ayynb-ibn-habib,  distinguished  Mahome- 
tan general  of  the  eighth  century,  who 
served  with  success  in   Africa  and  Spain, 


and  became  governor  of  the  latter  country 
till  deposed  by  Omar  LI.  in  715. 

A3ryub-ibn-Sliadlii  {d.  1173),  a  Moslem 
chief,  father  of  Saladiii  (Salahuddin),  and 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ayj'ubites. 

Azais,  Pierre  Hyacinthe  (6.  1766,  d.  1845), 
a  distinguished  French  moralist,  who  during 
the  revolution  was  compelled  to  flee  to  the 
Pyrenees,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  study, 
and  wrote  his  great  work,  Bes  Gompensa- 
tions  dans  les  Destinees  Humaines.  In  1806 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  his  lectures  were 
very  popular.  He  spent  the  end  of  his  life 
in  retirement,  on  a  pension  procured  through 
the  interest  of  Madame  de  Stael  and  others. 

Azambusa,  Diego  d',  a  Portuguese  travel- 
ler, who  was  entrusted  in  1481  by  King  Joam 
II.  with  the  establishment  of  a  colony  on 
the  coast  of  Guinea. 

Azanza,  Don  Miguel  Jose  d'  (6.  1746,  d. 
1826),  a  Spanish  politician,  who  filled  several 
important  posts  both  in  Spain  and  Mexico, 
and,  though  loyal  to  Fernando  VII.,  ac- 
cepted office  under  Joseph  Bonaparte. 

Azara,  Don  Felix  d'  (&.  1746,  d.  1811),  a 
Spanish  naturalist  and  traveller,  author  of 
a  Natural  Sistory  of  Paraguay  and  other 
works. 

Azara,  Don  Josef  Nicolas  d'  (6.  1731,  d. 
1804),  a  Spanish  diplomatist  and  author. 

Azari,  Shaikh  (6.  1388,  d.  1460),  a  Persian 
poet,  known  as  the  "king  of  the  poets." 

Azariah  de  Rossi,  an  Italian  Jew  of  the 
16th  century,  and  one  of  the  most  learned 
rabbis  of  lus  time.  His  great  work  Meor 
Enajim  {The  Light  of  the  Eyes)  deals 
with  historical  events. 

Azeglio,  Cesare  TaparelU,  Marchese  d'  (6. 
Turin,  1763,  d.  1830),  the  friend  and  adviser 
of  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia, 
entered  the  army,  and  served  in  the  war  vdth 
France  in  1792;  he  received  in  1814  an 
appointment  in  the  court  at  Turin.  He 
edited  a  Conservative  journal,  L'Amico 
d'ltalia. 

Azeglio,  Massimo  Taparelli,  Marchese  d' 
(&.  1798,  d.  1866),  an  Italian  novelist  and 
patriot,  and  painter  of  historical  pictures. 
In  1848  he  joined  the  patriot  army,  was 
seriously  wounded  at  Vicenza,  and  was  ap- 
pointed President  of  the  Council  by  Victor 
Enmianuel  (1849-1852). 

Azevedo,  Ignazio  de  (6.  1527,  d.  1570),  a 
Portuguese  Jesuit,  who  went  as  missionary 
to  Brazil,  but  on  his  second  journey  there 
was  captured  by  a  vessel  of  the  Queen  of 
Navaues,  and  put  to  death . 

Azizi,    Kara  -  Chelebizade     (Abdul    A2U 


Azo 


(81) 


Bab 


Effendi)  (6.  1591,  d.  1657),  Turkish  historian 
and  poet,  conspired  against  Ibraham  I.,  and 
was  patronised  by  Mohammed  IV. 

Azo,  Fortius  {d.  1200),  a  distinguished 
professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Bologna. 

Azor,  Juan  (6.  1533,  d.  1603),  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  professor  of  theology  at  Alcala 
and  Rome.  One  of  his  works,  The  Tnstitu- 
ciones  Morales,  attracted  considerable  notice 
from  its  questionable  morality,  but  was 
authorised  by  Clement  VIII. 

Azpilcueta,  Martin  (6.  1493,  d.  1586),  a 
native  of  Navarre,  renowned  reviver  of  the 
study  of  canon  law. 

Azuni,  Domenico  Alberto  (6.  1749,  d. 
1827),  an  Italian  jurist  and  antiquary,  in 
1807  was  judge  at  Genoa,  and  later  judge 
and  director  of  the  university  library  at 
CagUaii. 

Azurara  or  Zurara  (Gomez  Eannes),  a 


Portuguese  historian  of  the  loth  century, 
who  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Portuguese 
archives. 

Azz-ed-din,  Kilij-Arslan  (d.  1192),  fifth 
sultan  of  the  Seljukian  dynasty,  succeeded 
his  father  on  the  Turkish  throne  in  1156,  and 
proved  a  wise  and  energetic  ruler. 

Azzo  I.,  Alberto,  Marquis  of  Este  {d. 
1029),  a  turbulent  prince,  who  was  deposed 
and  imprisoned  in  1014  for  supporting  the 
attempt  of  Ardonius  on  the  throne  of  Italy. 
On  the  accession  of  Conrad  II.  he  made 
strenuous  efEorts  to  secure  the  independence 
of  Italy. 

Azzo  II.,  Marquis  d'Este  {d.  1097),  son  of 
the  preceding,  one  of  the  greatest  princes 
of  his  house. 

Azzoni-Avogarl,  Eambaldo  degli  (6.  1719, 
d.  1790),  an  Italian  antiquary,  founded  a 
public  library  in  his  native  town  of  Treviso. 


Baader,  Francis  Xavier  (S. 
German  theologian. 


1765,  d.  1841), 


Baan,  Jacob,  son  of  Joannes  van  Baan 
(b.  1673,  d.  1700),  also  a  good  artist. 

Baan,  Joannes  van  {b.  1633,  d.  1702),  a 
Dutch  painter  of  note,  was  invited  to 
England  by  Charles  II.,  whose  portrait  he 
painted.  He  refused  a  commission  from 
Louis  XrV.  from  patriotic  motives.  His 
life  was  twice  attempted  by  jealous 
rivals. 

Baasha,  the  son  of  Ahijah,  held  a  high 
command  in  the  army  of  Israel,  and  after 
mui-dering  Nadab,  the  king,  seized  upon 
the  throne,  reigning  for  24  years.  To 
secure  his  title  he  murdered  every  member 
of  the  house  of  Jeroboam. 

Bab  a,  Ali  {d.  1718),  was  elected  Dey 
of  Algiers  in  1710,  after  the  revolution  in 
which  Ibrahim  Dey  was  killed.  At  great 
sacrifice  of  life  Baba  liberated  Algiers  from 
the  dominion  of  Turkey,  and  its  indepen- 
dence was  maintained  imtil  the  French  in- 
vasion in  1830. 

Babbage,  Charles  [b.  1792,  d.  1871), 
English  mathematician,  a  prolific  author, 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  and  was  afterwards 
Lucasian  professor  there  for  11  years.  He 
conducted  much  valuable  research,  his  chief 
efforts  being  devoted  to  the  construcrion  of 
a  calculating  machine,  in  which,  however, 


he  was  not  wholly  successful.    In  1832  he 
stood  for  Finsbury,  but  was  defeated. 

Baber,  Zuheir-Ed-Din  Mohammed  (b. 
1483,  d.  1530),  conqueror  of  India,  and 
founder  of  the  great  Mogul  dynasty.  Sixth 
in  descent  from  Tamerlane,  he  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  government  of  Ferghana 
in  his  twelfth  year.  His  early  life  was  one 
of  strange  vicissitude  ;  his  frequent  expe- 
ditions against  Samarcand  being  followed  by 
insurrections  at  home  which  drove  him  into 
exile.  Flying  at  last  to  Cabul,  he  was  pro- 
claimed ruler  there,  and  after  20  years  of 
troubled  government  he  marched  into  India, 
and  gained  a  splendid  victory  over  Ibra- 
him Lodi.  A  subsequent  victory  over  the 
federated  Rajput  princes  placed  all  India 
practically  in  his  hands.  He  left  a  memoir 
of  his  Hfe. 

Babeuf,  Fran?ois  Noel  (b.  1764,  d.  1797), 
a  violent  French  revolutionist,  known  as 
"  Caius  Gracchus,"  from  the  pseudonym 
used  by  him  in  his  writings  in  the  Tribun  du 
Peuple.  He  organised  the  "  Societe  du  Pan- 
theon,'''' which,  by  promoting  armed  in- 
surrection, was  to  proclaim  the  constitution 
of  1793.  The  conspiracy  having  been  be- 
trayed, he  was  guillotined. 

Babi,  Jean  Francois  [b.  1759,  d.  1796), 
French  revolutionary  ofiicer,  who  com- 
mitted the  most  violent  excesses  at  Toulouse 
duiing    the    Reign    of   Terror.     He    was 


Bab 


(82; 


Eac 


executed  for  participating  in  Babeiif's  con- 
Bpiracy. 

Babinet,  Jacques  (b.  1794,  d.  1872), 
French  physicist  and  astronomer,  after 
occupj'ing  professorial  chairs  at  Fontenoy 
and  Poitiers,  became  professor  of  phy- 
sics at  the  college  of  St.  Louis,  Paris,  a 
position  which  he  held  for  49  years.  He 
made  many  inventions  in  machinery,  and 
was  a  very  popular  lecturer.  His  Caries 
Homolograjjhujues,  drawn  on  a  new  system 
of  projection,  and  his  predictions  of  the 
failure  of  the  Atlantic  Cable,  excited  much 
attention. 

Babington,  Anthony  (^.  1586),  an  English 
Roman  Catholic  gentleman,  of  good  familj^, 
known  to  history  by  the  plots  which  he 
formed  to  liberate  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
and  to  assassinate  Elizabeth.  These  were 
discovered  by  Walsingham's  spies,  and 
Babington,  escaping  for  a  time,  was  finally 
executed  at  Tyburn. 

Babington,  William  {b.  1756,  d.  1833), 
mineralogist,  chemist,  and  geologist,  prac- 
tised as  a  physician  in  Loudon,  and  was 
largely  instrumental  in  foimding  the  Him- 
terian  Society  and  the  Geological  Society 
of  London. 

Babini,  Matteo  {b.  1754,  d.  1816),  an 
Italian  singer,  who  obtained  a  great  reputa- 
tion aU  over  Europe,  being  received  with 
distinction  at  many  courts. 

Babois,  Marguerite  Victoire  {b.  1760,  d. 
1839),  a  French  poetess  of  some  note,  and 
niece  of  the  poet  Ducis. 

Babrius,  a  Greek  poet,  who  lived  about 
the  2nd  or  3rd  century,  known  for  his 
rhythmical  versions  of  ^sop^s  Fables. 

Babylas,  Saint,  a  Bishop  of  Antioch,  who 
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  Decian  perse- 
cution of  251.  He  refused  the  Roman 
emperor  PhiUp  entrance  to  the  church 
after  he  had  ordered  the  death  of  Gallus. 
His  remains  were  first  laid  outside  Rome, 
and  afterwards,  by  the  order  of  the  Emperor 
Julian,  conveyed  to  Antioch. 

BaccMni,  Benedetto  (b.  1651,  d.  1721),  a 
learned  Benedictine  monk,  and  a  preacher 
celebrated  throughout  Italy.  He  was  a 
great  Greek  and  Hebrew  scholar,  a  good 
Unguist,  and  a  musician.  In  1685  he  be- 
came counsellor  of  the  Inquisition  at  Parma; 
in  1688  theologian  to  the  Duke  of  Parma ; 
and  subsequently  librarian  and  historian  to 
the  Duke  of  Modena.  He  filled  the  chair 
of  sacred  Uteratuxe  in  the  university  of 
Bologna,  and  was  the  author  of  numerous 
Works. 

Bacchylides,  a  celebrated  Greek  lyrical 
poet,  who  lived  in  the  5th  century  b.o.     He 


wrote  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  was  the 
great  rival  of  Pindar.  His  poems  have 
nearly  all  been  lost. 

Baccio  della  Porta  {b.  1469,  d.  1617),  a 
Florentine  painter  of  great  repute,  better 
knovsm  as  Fra  Bartolommeo.  From  study- 
ing the  works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  in  his 
house  near  the  Porta  San  Pietro  he  obtained 
the  sobriquet,  ' '  della  Porta. ' '  He  there  exe- 
cuted the  frescoes  of  the  Last  Judgment, 
which  were  afterwards  finished  by  his  friend 
Albertinelli.  Coming  under  the  influence 
of  Savonarola,  he  was  so  affected  by  the 
cruel  death  of  the  great  preacher  that  he 
entered  the  convent  of  Prato  in  1500  as  a 
Dominican  monk.  For  four  years  he  aban- 
doned painting,  and  when  he  resumed,  in 
obedience  to  the  superiors  of  his  Order,  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  religious  sub- 
jects. His  fame  spread  rapidly,  and  drew 
to  him  young  Raphael,  the  two  painters 
exercising  a  great  influence  over  each  other. 
Baccio  visited  Rome,  and  returning  to  the 
convent,  produced  his  chef  d^ceuvre,  St. 
Mark.  His  artistic  power  was  increasing 
when  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  48.  His 
St.  Feter  and  his  St.  Faul  were  finished  by 
RaphaeL 

Bacli,  Alexander,  Baron  {b.  1813), 
Austrian  statesman,  a  member  of  the 
Vienna  bar,  figured  in  the  revolutionary 
movement  of  1848,  and  became  minister  of 
justice  in  the  first  liberal  cabinet,  in  which 
position  he  occupied  himself  with  judicial 
reforms.  By  supporting  the  veto  of  the 
Crown  he  lost  his  popularity,  and  was 
driven  to  flight  by  insurrection.  Later  he 
occupied  other  ministerial  posts,  and  from 
1859  to  1865  he  was  plenipotentiary  to  the 
Vatican. 

Bach,  Johann  Christian  (fi.  1735,  d. 
1782),  eleventh  and  youngest  son  of  Sebas- 
tian; when  19  years  of  age  went  to 
Milan,  where  he  was  appointed  organist  in 
the  cathedral.  In  1762  he  came  to  London, 
made  a  considerable  reputation  as  a  com- 
poser and  player,  and  was  appointed  organist 
and  composer  to  the  queen.  Intemperate 
habits  finally  undermined  his  constitution, 
and  he  died  in  London. 

Bach,  Johann  Christoph  {b.  1732,  d. 
1795),  ninth  son  of  Sebastian;  like  his 
brother,  abandoned  law  for  music,  and 
obtained  the  post  of  kapellmeister  to  the 
Duke  of  Schaumberg-Lippe. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian  (b.  1685,  d. 
1750),  the  greatest  of  a  large  family  of  dis- 
tinguished musicians.  When  he  was  ten 
years  of  age  his  father  died,  and  he  went  to 
live  at  Ordruff  with  his  brother,  who  placed 
great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  his  musical 
studies.  On  the  death  of  this  brother  young 
Bach  earned  a  livelihood  at  Liineberg  by 


Bac 


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Bac 


singing.  He  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
music,  and  when  18  years  old  appeared 
at  Weimar  as  a  vioUnist.  Next  year  he 
obtained  a  post  as  organist  at  Amstadt, 
where  his  powers  of  execution  began  to 
attract  attention,  and  ia  1708  he  returned  to 
Weimar  as  an  organist.  Here  he  first  be- 
came known  as  a  composer,  and  his  fame 
spread  so  rapidly  that  he  was  appointed 
kapeUmeister  and  director  of  Court  con- 
certs by  the  Prince  of  Anhalt-Cothen. 
Soon  afterwards  he  was  induced  to  chal- 
lenge Marchand,  a  French  organist  of  great 
repute,  to  a  public  contest  of  skill  on  the 
organ.  Marchand  disappeared  quietly  be- 
fore the  appointed  day,  but  Bach's  per- 
formance gained  for  him  the  highest  place 
as  a  musician.  In  1723  he  went  to 
Leipzig  as  director  of  the  school  of  music 
of  St.  Thomas's,  a  post  which  he  occupied 
to  the  end.  The  Duke  of  Weissenfels  and 
Augustus  III.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King 
of  Poland,  both  appointed  Bach  honorary 
kapellmeister  to  their  Courts,  and  iu  1747 
he  was  invited  by  Frederick  the  Great  to 
Potsdam,  where  he  performed  with  great 
eclat.  Eetitming  to  Leipzig,  he  devoted 
himself  to  composition,  but  too  close  work 
brought  on  cataract  of  the  eyes.  Two  un- 
successful operations  were  performed,  and 
his  health  rapidly  declined. 

Bach,  Karl  PhiHpp  Emanuel  {b.  1714, 
d.  1788),  second  son  of  the  above,  aban- 
doned law  for  the  study  of  music,  in  which 
he  succeeded  so  well  that  he  was  called  to 
Berlin,  where  Frederick,  the  Prince  Eoyal, 
made  him  kapellmeister.  After  residing  in 
Berlin  for  29  years,  he  succeeded,  in  1767, 
Telemann  at  Hamburg. 

Bach,  Victor  [b.  1770,  d.  1799),  a  French 
revolutionist  and  physician,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Convention.  FaUing  to  realise 
his  pohtical  aspirations,  he  committed 
suicide. 

Bach,  Wilhelm  Friedemann  (J.  1717, 
d.  1784),  eldest  son  of  Sebastian;  aban- 
doned the  law  for  music,  and  in  1747 
became  organist  in  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Halle,  a  post  which  he  held  for 
20  years.  After  an  unsettled  life,  he  went 
to  Berlin,  where  he  died  in  penury,  brought 
on  by  intemperance  and  indolence. 

Bachaumont,  Franqois  le  Coigneux  de 
(*.  1624,  d.  1702),  French  wit  and  satirist, 
famous  for  his  inveterate  hostility  to  Car- 
dinal Mazarin.  A  notorious  ban  vivant,  he 
was  converted  in  later  Ufe  to  serious  and 
religious  habits. 

Bachaumont,  Louis  {d.  1771),  a  French 
writer  known  to  the  world  as  the  author 
of  Les  Memoires  Secrets  pour  servir  de 
VHistoire  de  la  Republique  des  Lettres,  a 
record  of  scandal  and  gossip  connected  with 
o2 


Paris  celebrities  of  the  day.    The  work  was 
continued  by  others. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas  {b.  1806,  d.  1867), 
distinguished  American  scientist,  and  a 
great-grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin, 
graduated  at  West  Point,  and  became  a 
lieutenant  of  engineers.  From  1827  to  1836 
he  was  mathematical  professor  at  Pennsyl- 
vania University,  and  then,  being  appointed 
president  of  the  projected  Girard  College, 
he  went  to  Europe  to  examine  and  report 
upon  the  educational  systems  of  various 
countries.  In  1843  he  was  appointed  super- 
intendent of  the  U.S.  coast  survey,  and 
his  work  in  this  capacity  earned  for  him  a 
great  reputation.  He  occupied  several  dis- 
tinguished positions  under  government,  and 
did  much  to  encourage  scientific  research. 
On  his  death  he  left  $42,000  to  the  National 
Academy  of  Science. 

Bache,  Franklin  Q).  1792,  d.  1864),  cousin 
of  above,  served  as  a  surgeon  in  the  U.S. 
army  until  1814.  He  filled  the  chairs  of 
chemistry  in  the  Franklin  Institute  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Jefferson  Medical 
College  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  1853  was 
chosen  president  of  the  American  Philoso- 
phical Society. 

Bachelier,  Jean  Jaques  {b.  1724,  d.  1805), 
French  painter,  who,  having  obtained 
wealth  by  his  art,  endowed  a  free  school  of 
design,  which  was  opened  in  1766,  and 
proved  very  successful.  He  introduced  the 
celebrated  Sfevres  china  designs,  and  was 
director  of  the  manufactory  for  over  40  years. 

Bachelot  de  la  Pylair,  Auguste  Jean 
Marie  (b.  1786,  d.  1856),  French  naturalist 
and  conchologist,  travelled  through  Asia 
and  America  in  the  pursuit  of  his  favourite 
studies,  and  returned  with  a  splendid  collec- 
tion of  plants  and  shells,  which  he  presented 
to  the  Paris  natural  history  museum. 

Bachelu,  Gilbert  Desir^  Joseph  {b.  Ylll, 
d.  1849),  a  French  soldier,  and  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  many  of  the  Napoleonic  campaigns, 
rising  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in 
1813.  He  joined  Napoleon  on  his  escape 
from  Elba,  and  fought  at  Quatre  Bras  and 
Waterloo.  After  the  second  restoration  he 
was  banished,  but  in  1817  he  was  recalled, 
and  later  in  Mf  e  became  a  deputy. 

Bachman,  John  (b.  1790,  d.  1874), 
American  clergyman,  author,  find  man  of 
science,  in  1815  became  pastor  of  the  German 
Lutheran  church  at  Charlestown,  a  post 
which  he  filled  till  his  death.  He  colla- 
borated with  Audubon  in  the  production 
of  The  Birds  of  America,  and  was  chiefiy 
responsible  for  The  Quadrupeds  of  America. 

Bachmann,  Jaques  Joseph  Antoine  Leger, 
Baron  de  {b.  1733,  d.  1792),  a  Swiss  of  high 


Bac 


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Bac 


lineage,  who  entered  the  French  service  and 
became  commander  of  the  famous  Swiss 
guards  in  Paris.  He  defended  the  king 
with  great  gallantry  against  the  revolution- 
ary mob  in  1 792 ;  but  being  taken  prisoner, 
he  was  guillotined. 

Baciccio  {b.  1639,  d.  1709),  more  pro- 
perly, Giovanni  Battista  Gauli :  an  Italian 
painter,  bom  in  Genoa,  went  to  Rome  when 
still  a  boy,  and  was  fortunate  in  attracting 
the  interest  of  influential  persons.  His  first 
picture  gave  him  a  reputation,  and  after 
executing  commissions  for  Prince  Pamfili, 
he  was  permitted  by  Alexander  VII.  to 
luidertake  the  decoration  of  the  Chiesa  di 
Gesu.  On  this  work,  which  occupied  five 
years,  the  reputation  of  the  painter  mainly 
rests,  although  it  by  no  means  exhausted 
his  genius  and  industry. 

Baciocclii,  Maria  Anna  Eliza  (b.  1777,  d. 
1820),  eldest  sister  of  Napoleon  the  Great, 
secretly  married  Felix  Pascal  Baciocchi, 
a  captain  of  infantry  of  good  birth.  While 
he  served  with  the  army,  securing  rapid 
promotion,  she  resided  in  Paris,  where  her 
salons  were  celebrated  for  their  brilliance. 
When  Napoleon  became  Emperor,  he  created 
for  her  the  principality  of  Piombino  and 
Lucca  ;  and  in  1809  made  her  Grand  Duchess 
of  Tuscany.  On  the  fall  of  the  Empire  she 
and  her  husband  left  Italy,  and  she  died  at 
Trieste. 

Back,  Sir  George  (b.  1796,  d.  1878),  an 
English  Arctic  explorer,  entered  the  royal 
navy  in  1808;  was  taken  prisoner  in 
the  French  war,  and  did  not  recover  his 
freedom  for  five  years.  In  1818  he  volun- 
teered to  accompany  Franklin  in  the  Trent, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  took  part  in 
Franklin's  land  expedition  from  Hudson's 
Bay  to  the  Coppermine  river.  He  rendered 
distinguished  services,  in  the  face  of  the 
greatest  hardships,  and  in  182o  he  again 
accompanied  Franklin  on  an  Arctic  expedi- 
tion, and  again  with  distinction  to  himself. 
In  1833  he  took  command  of  an  expedition 
to  relieve  Sir  John  Boss,  and,  although 
unsuccessful,  he  made  several  valuable  dis- 
coveries. On  his  return,  in  1835,  he  was 
made  post-captain,  and  in  1836  he  set  out 
on  yet  another  Arctic  expedition,  returning 
in  the  following  year.  In  1837  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  1859  he  was  made  a  rear- 
admiral.  He  left  a  legacy  for  the  advance- 
ment of  Ai'ctic  exploration. 

Backhusen  (or  Backhuysen),  Ludolph  (b.   ' 
1631,   d.   1709),   a    famous    Butch    marine 
painter.     Among  many  celebrated  visitors  to 
his  studio  were  Prince  Frederick  of  Prussia 
and  Peter  the  Great. 

Bacon,  Anne  (6.  1528,  d.  1600),  the  daugh- 
ter of  Sii'  Anthony  Cooke,  an  eminent 
scholar,  the  wife  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  and 


the  mother  of  Francis  Bacon.  Her  corre- 
spondence with  her  son  possesses  much 
interest. 

Bacon,  Anthony  {b.  1558,  d.  1601),  elder 
brother  of  Francis  Bacon ;  went  to  France, 
acting  as  a  semi-official  agent  for  Bur- 
leigh, and  his  wit  and  learning  gained  for 
him  the  intimacy  of  men  of  influence  and 
note.  On  his  recall  he  became  secretary  to 
the  Earl  of  Essex,  and  entered  the  House  of 
Commons. 

Bacon,  Delia  (b.  1811,  d.  1859),  known  as 
a  supporter  of  the  theory  of  the  Baconian 
authorship  of  Shakespeare's  plays. 

Bacon,  Francis  {b.  1561,  d.  1626),  Baron 
Verulam,    and    Viscount    St.    Albans,   was 
the  eighth  child  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  the 
Lord  Keeper,  his  mother,  Anne  Cooke,  being 
Sir  Nicholas's  second  wife.     At  13  he  was 
sent  to    Cambridge,   but    though   he  read 
widely  he  did   not   take    a   degree;    and 
after  three    years'  residence    at  the  Uni- 
versity he  went  to  Paris  in  the  suite  of 
Sir   Amyas    Paulet,   Elizabeth's    ambassa- 
dor.    His  experiences  in  Paris  formed  the 
basis  of  his  treatise,  afterwards  published, 
Of  the  State  of  Europe.     His  father  dying, 
he  returned  to  England  in  1580,  and  applied 
to  Lord  Burleigh,  his  uncle  on  his  mother's 
side,    for    public    employment.      Burleigh, 
however,  for  his  son's  sake,  was  jealous  of 
Bacon,   and  the  disappointed  young    man 
turned  to  the  study  of  law.    He  next  sought 
and    obtained    the    favour    of    the    Earl 
of  Essex,  who  unsuccessfully  endeavoured 
to  obtain  the  post  of  attorney-general  for 
him,  and  who  befriended  him  in  many  ways. 
In  1590  he  became  counsel  extraordinary  to 
the  queen,  and  having  entered  Parliament 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  its  debates,  and 
greatly  offended  the  queen  by  opposing  the 
Court  on  the  question  of  subsidies.     When 
Essex    was    tried    for    treason    in     1600, 
Bacon  took  an  active  part  in  the  prose- 
cution of  his  friend  and  patron.     On   the 
accession     of     James     I.     his     promotion 
became  more   rapid.       He    was    knighted 
in   1603,   and  secured  the  hand  of  a  rich 
alderman's  daughter;   he  became  Solicitor 
General  in  1607,  Eegistrar  of  the  Court  of 
Star  Chamber  in  1608,  and  Attorney  General 
in  1613.   Three  boroughs  now  simultaneously 
returned  him  to  Parliament,  and  although 
custom  forbade  an  attorney-general  to  sit  in 
the  House,  a  special  exception  was  made  in 
his  behalf.  He  strongly  supported  the  king's 
schemes  for  the  union  of  En.'^land  and  Scot- 
land, and,  indeed,  showed  great  subserviency 
both  to  the  Crown  and  Buckingham,   his 
conduct  in  several  notorious  cases  not  re- 
dounding to  his  credit.     In  1617  he  became 
Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  and  in  1619, 
Lord  Chancellor,   with  the  title   of  Baron 
Verulam,  being  created  Viscount  St.  Albana 


Bac 


(85) 


Bad 


in  the  following  year.  In  1621  Parliament 
instituted  an  inquiry  into  the  state  of  the 
Bench,  with  the  result  that  Eacon  was  im- 
peached for  taking  bribes.  He  confessed, 
with  qualifications,  to  23  acts  of  corruption 
charged  against  him,  and  was  sentenced  to 
a  hoavy  fine,  imprisonment  during  the  king's 

Eleasure,  and  deprivation  of  all  rights  to 
old  oifice  or  sit  in  Parliament.  The  fine 
was  remitted,  the  imprisonment  lasted  but 
two  days,  he  was  summoned  to  the  next 
Parliament,  though  he  did  not  appear,  he 
was  allowed  to  return  to  Court,  and  his 
titles  were  not  taken  from  him.  He  retired 
from  public  life,  drawing  a  pension  of  £1,200, 
and,  still  visited  by  men  of  leading,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  Uterature  and  science.  He 
died,  from  the  effects  of  a  chill,  in  1626,  at 
the  Earl  of  ArundeFs  house  at  Highgate. 
Controversy  has  never  ceased  to  rage  on 
Bacon's  conduct  in  public  life,  and  he  has 
not  lacked  many  able  apologists.  Among  his 
many  great  works  mention  must  be  made 
of  the  Essays  Q.b^l),  Advancement  of  Learn- 
ing (1605),  Novum  Organum  (1620),  History 
of  the  JReign  of  Henry  VII.  (1622),  and  De 
Augmentis  Scientiarum  (1623). 

Bacon,  John  (d.  1346),  an  English  monk 
(generally  known  as  Baconthorp)  of  great 
erudition,  became  principal  of  the  Car- 
mehtes,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  followers 
of  Averrhoes. 

Bacon,  John,  E.A.  {b.  1740,  d.  1799),  an 
English  sculptor,  gained  a  prize  from  the 
Society  of  Arts  when  only  18,  and  secured 
niue  other  first  prizes  afterwards.  A  student 
at  the  Eoyal  Academy,  he  took  the  first  gold 
medal  for  sculpture  in  1769,  and  ia  1770  he 
obtained  publicity  and  the  patronage  of  the 
king  by  his  statue  of  Mars. 

Bacon,  Sir  Nicolas  (*.  1510,  d.  1579),  Lord 
Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal  to  Elizabeth,  studied 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  began  his  friend- 
ship with  Lord  Burleigh,  and  after  visiting 
France,  took  up  the  profession  of  the  law. 
He  obtained  the  favour  of  Henry  VIII. ,  and 
was  appointed  Attorney  of  the  Court  of 
Wards,  a  post  which  he  held  until  the  ac- 
cession of  Mary.  Elizabeth  made  him  a 
member  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  Lord 
Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal  in  1558,  and 
showed  many  other  marks  of  her  favour  and 
confidence.  He  offended  the  queen  by  his 
attitude  on  the  question  of  the  succession, 
but  by  Burleigh's  influence  was  soon  re- 
stored to  favour,  and  in  1568  presided  over 
the  Commission  for  investigating  the  charge 
against  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  of  murdering 
her  husband.  In  1577  Elizabeth  visited  him 
at  his  residence  in  Hertfordshire. 

Bacon,  Phanuel  (A.  1700,  d.  1783),  an 
English  clergyman  and  dramatist,  who  ob- 
tained some  celebrity  in  his  day. 


Bacon,  Roger  {b.  1214,  d.  1292),  an 
English  monk  and  scientific  investigator, 
studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  where  he 
graduated  in  theology,  and  in  1240  entered 
the  order  of  Franciscans,  settling  at  Oxford. 
A  man  of  wide  erudition,  he  devoted  hinaseLf 
to  physical  science,  in  which  he  made  many 
remarkable  discoveries.  He  created  enmity 
by  his  demands  for  reform  among  the 
clergy,  and  was  accused  of  sorcery,  with 
the  result  that  he  was  forbidden  to  teach 
in  the  university  and  was  practically  out- 
lawed. The  Papal  Legate  in  England 
became  interested  in  Bacon,  and  on  his 
elevation  to  the  Papal  chair  as  Clement 
IV.,  sent  for  his  works,  notwithstanding 
the  prohibition  against  them  which  the 
superiors  of  the  Franciscan  Order  had  is- 
sued. Bacon  sent  the  Upus  Majus,  the 
Opus  Minus,  and  the  Opus  Tertiuin,  and 
some  scientific  instruments;  but  Clement 
soon  after  died,  and  again  Bacon  was  ac- 
cused of  sorcery,  this  time  at  Paris  before 
Jerome  d'Esculo,  General  of  the  Franciscan 
Order.  He  went  to  Paris  to  answer  the 
charge :  but  his  works  were  condemned,  and 
he  was  imprisoned  for  10  years.  When 
liberated,  through  the  intercession  of  in- 
fluential English  nobles,  his  health  was 
shattered,  and  he  died  in  England  in  the 
following  year.  His  works  are  very  numer- 
ous, displaying  both  the  greatest  eriidition 
and  sagacity  and  strange  credulity  and 
superstition. 

Bacsanyl,  John  Q>.  1763,  d.  1845),  Hun- 
garian patriot  and  poet,  helped  to  found 
the  first  literary  review  in  Hungary,  but 
the  venture  was  suppressed  and  he  was 
imprisoned  for  conspiracy.  During  Napo- 
leon's occupation  of  Vienna  he  had  to  fly 
from  France  for  his  advocacy  of  the  national 
cause. 

Badajos,  Juan  de,  a  Spanish  architect, 
bom  in  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century, 
who,  among  other  works,  helped  in  the  pre- 
paration of  plans  for  Salamanca  cathedral. 

BadaloccMo,  Sisto  {b.  1581,  d.  1647),  an 
Italian  paiater  and  engraver  of  merit. 

Badby,  John  {d.  1410),  an  English  martyr 
and  artisan,  was  burned  at  the  stake  as  a 
Lollard. 

Badcock,  Samuel  (5.  1747,  <?.  1788),  a  man 
of  letters,  at  first  a  dissenting  minister, 
joined  the  Church  of  England  in  1787. 
He  gained  a  great  reputation  by  a  brilliant 
criticism  of  a  work  by  Dr.  Priestly,  and  he 
also  joined  in  the  "  Rowley  "  controversy. 
He  was  the  author  of  Memoirs  of  the 
Wesley  Family. 

Baden,  Frederick  William  Louis,  Grand 
Duke  of  (A.  1826),  in  1852  became  re- 
gent, his  elder  brother  being  insane,  and  in 


Bad 


(86) 


Bag 


1856  he  succeeded  to  the  Duchy,  and  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  William  I.  of  Prussia. 
He  took  part  in  the  Franco- German  war. 
In  1855  he  banished  the  Jesuits. 

Baden,  Jacob  {b.  1735,  d.  1804),  a  Danish 
philologist,  filled  several  high  educational 
posts,  wrote  much,  and  founded  the  Danish 
Critical  Journal. 

Badens,  Frans  (6.  1571,  d.  1603),  Dutch 
painter,  celebrated  for  his  portraits  and 
historical  pieces. 

Badger,  George  Percy  {b.  1815,  d.  1888),  a 
clergyman  and  orientalist,  took  orders  in 
1842,  and  was  sent  to  the  East;  was  ap- 
pointed government  chaplain  at  Bombay 
and  Aden,  and  acted  as  interpreter  to 
diplomatic  missions  in  Arabia,  Persia,  East 
Africa  and  Egypt.  He  wrote  many  works 
on  the  East.  He  was  made  a  D.C.L.  by  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Badia  y  Lablich  {b.  1766,  d.  1818),  a 
Spanish  traveller,  who,  under  the  name  of 
Ali  Bey,  and  as  a  true  believer,  travelled 
all  through  the  Mohammedan  East  with- 
out ever  arousing  suspicions  of  his  actual 
identity.  He  even  went  to  Mecca  as  a 
pilgrim,  and  was  received  with  honour  at 
Constantinople.  Returning  to  Spain,  he 
took  service  under  the  French  invader,  and 
in  1814  went  to  Paris,  where  he  published 
the  account  of  his  travels.  Proceeding 
again  to  the  East  under  another  name,  he 
died  at  Aleppo  of  dysentery  or  poison. 

Badie,  Louis  Augustin  de  la  {b.  1696,  d. 
1765),  a  French  soldier  who  fought  with 
distinction  in  the  War  of  Succession.  He 
served  last  in  Germany  in  1761,  and  was 
then  created  field  marshal. 

Badius,  Conrad,  son  of  Jodocus  Badius, 
and  also  a  printer.  Religious  persecution 
drove  him  from  Paris  to  Geneva. 

Badius,  Jodocus  {b.  1462,  d.  1535),  one 
of  the  first  of  French  printers,  learnt  the 
process  of  printing  in  Italy,  and  set  up  in 
Lyons  in  1491  as  a  printer  and  teacher  of 
Greek  and  Latin.  Later  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  printed  many  of  the  classics. 

Baeck,  Abraham  {b.  1713,  d.  1795),  a 
Swedish  physician  and  naturalist,  tra- 
velled in  Germany,  England  and  France, 
acquired  considerable  reputation,  and  finally 
was  appointed  Royal  physician.  He  wrote 
many  valuable  treatises  on  natural  history. 

Baehr,  Johann  Christian  Felix  {b.  1789, 
d.  1872),  a  German  philologist,  occupied 
several  high  educational  posts,  edited  many 
Greek  classics,  and  wrote  much  on  historical 
and  philological  questions. 

Baer,  Karl  Ernst  von  (b.  1792,  d. 
1876),  a  Russian  scientist,  took  a  medical 


degree,  and  practised  in  Vienna,  but  soon 
abandoned  medicine  for  natural  science. 
He  held  professorial  chairs  at  Konigs- 
berg,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  embryology,  on  which  he  became  a 
great  authority.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
librarian  of  the  St.  Petei-sburg  academy 
of  science,  and  in  1851  he  undertook  an 
investigation  of  Russian  fisheries  on  behalf 
of  the  government.  He  has  made  many 
valuable  contributions  to  scientific  litera- 
ture. 

Baert,  Alexander  Balthasar  Francois  de 
Paule,  Baron  de  {b.  1750,  d.  1825),  a  French 
geographer  who  spent  many  years  in  Eng- 
land, Russia  and  Spain,  was  a  member  of 
the  legislative  assembly,  and  fled  to  the 
United  States  during  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
He  wrote  several  books  on  geography  and 
history. 

Baffin,  WilHam  {b.  1584,  d.  1622), 
an  English  Arctic  explorer,  accompanied 
Captain  James  Hall  on  his  fom-th  Arctic 
voyage  in  1612 ;  in  1614  he  joined  an  ex- 
pedition to  Spitsbergen,  and  in  1615  he  set 
out  in  the  Discovery  to  fijid  the  north-west 
passage,  the  attempt  being  renewed  the  next 
year.  Though  unsuccessful,  Baffin  pene- 
trated farther  north  than  any  navigator 
before  him,  and  published  charts  and  jour- 
nals of  the  voyages.  He  was  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Ormuz. 

Baffo,  a  Venetian  lady  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, who,  taken  prisoner  by  pirates,  came 
under  the  notice  of  Sultan  Amurath  III., 
and  became  his  favourite  wife,  bearing  him 
Mohammed  III.  She  exercised  a  great 
influence  over  both  her  husband  and  her 
son,  and  earned  for  herself  the  surname 
Sajie,  or  "  the  Pure." 

Bagard,  Caesar  {b.  1639, d.  1709),  aFrench 
sculptor,  known  as  "le  grand  Csesar."  A 
large  part  of  his  work  is  to  be  found  in  the 
churches  of  Nancy,  his  native  tovm. 

Bage,  Robert  (fi.  1728,  <;.  1801),  an  Eng- 
lish novelist ;  originally  a  paper  maker,  his 
want  of  success  induced  him  to  turn  to 
fiction,  in  which  he  exhibited  such  talent 
that  Sir  Walter  Scott  wrote  his  biography. 

Bageliot,  Walter  {b.  1826,  d.  1877), 
economist  and  writer  ;  educated  at  London, 
took  a  distinguished  London  degree,  and 
having  been  called  to  the  bar,  undertook  the 
management  of  his  father's  bank  at  Lang- 
port.  While  thus  engaged  he  contributed 
brilliant  essays  to  periodicals,  and  wrote 
several  works  on  politics  and  economics,  of 
which  the  chief  are  Lombard  Street  and  The 
English  Constitution.  For  the  last  seven- 
teen years  of  his  life  he  edited  the  Economist. 

j      Bagettl,    Giuseppe   Pietro    (*.    1764,  d. 


Bag 


(87) 


Bah 


1831),  a  landscape  painter,  who,  in  1807, 
was  commissioned  at  Paris  to  execute  a 
series  of  water-colour  di-awings  of  French 
victories. 

Bagford,  John  {b.  1650,  d.  1716),  a  shoe- 
maker of  slender  education,  who  devoted 
himself  to  collecting  literary  curiosities,  old 
prints,  etc. ,  in  which  he  became  a  couuois- 
seur.  His  large  collection  was  bought  by 
Lord  Oxford,  and  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Bagge,  Jakob  {b.  1499),  a  Swedish  ad- 
miral, after  serving  on  laud  under  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa,  entered  the  navy,  and  in 
1555  commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Russians  with  entire  success.  He  defeated 
the  Danes  at  Bamholme,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  in  1564,  and  died  in  confinement. 

Bagger,  Johann  {b.  1646,  d.  1693),  a 
Danish  scholar  and  divine,  after  being  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  at  the  Lund 
university,  was  created  Bishop  of  Zea- 
land when  only  29  years  old.  He  revised 
the  rites  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  wrote 
much  in  Danish  and  Latin. 

Baggessen,  Zeus  (6.  1764,  d.  1826),  a 
Danish  man  of  letters  whose  lyric  verse 
gained  him  a  reputation  in  Copenhagen, 
which  he  left  in  1788  for  Germany,  after- 
wards travelling  much  in  Switzerland  and 
France.  While  abroad  he  wrote  in  the 
German  language  with  great  success. 

Baggowoth  (d.  1812),  a  Russian  general 
who  held  high  command  in  the  army  duiing 
the  war  with  France,  under  the  Empire. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  several  battles, 
and  was  killed  in  action. 

Baglioni,  Giovanni  (b.  1594,  d.  1664), 
an  Italian  painter  of  note,  was  decorated 
by  Paul  v.,  and  wrote  the  Lives  of  the 
Roman  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects, 
from  1572  to  1642. 

Baglioni,  Giovanni  Paolo  (d.  1520),  an 
Italian  condottiere,  who  served  under  Caesar 
Borgia,  and  afterwards  ■n'ith  the  Venetians, 
being  taken  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards  at  the 
battle  of  Vicenza.  He  met  his  death  through 
the  treachery  of  Leo  X. 

Baglivl,  Giorgio  {b.  1669,  d.  1707),  an 
eminent  Italian  physician,  who  initiated  a 
great  advance  in  medical  science  by  aban- 
doning the  old  idea  that  the  seat  of  disease 
was  invariably  to  be  found  in  the  fluids  of 
the  system. 

Bagnacavallo,  Bartolomeo  {h.  1484,  d. 
1542),  a  Bolognese  painter,  who  studied 
under  Raphael,  and  assisted  that  master  in 
painting  the  Loggie  at  the  Vatican. 

Bagoas,    one  of  the  eunuchs  of  Herod 


the  Great,  who  was  put  to  death  for  com- 
plicity ia  the  conspiracy  of  the  Pharisees. 

Bagot,  Lewis  {b.  1740,  d.  1802),  an 
English  divine  and  theological  writer,  was 
successively  Dean  of  Christchurch  and 
Bishop  of  Bristol,  Norwich,  and  St.  Asaph. 

Bagratlon,  Peter,  Prince  {b.  1765,  d. 
1812),  a  Russian  general  of  great  distinc- 
tion, who  entered  the  army  as  a  common 
sergeant  in  1782.  He  held  high  command 
imder  Suwarrow  in  Poland,  Italy,  and 
Switzerland,  and  fought  with  distinction  in 
the  campaign  of  1805,  against  the  French. 
After  occupying  Finland  in  1808,  he  con- 
ducted a  successful  campaign  against  the 
Turks.  He  died  from  a  wound  received  at 
Borodino. 

Bagshaw,  Edward  {d.  1662),  an  English 
lawyer,  political  writer,  and  member  of  the 
Long  Parliament.  At  first  an  active  op- 
ponent of  Charles,  he  afterwards  went  over 
to  the  king,  and  suffered  imprisonment  for 
his  defection. 

Bahadur  Khan  Farookhy,  the  last  of  the 
Farookhy  dynasty,  succeeded  his  father,  in 
1596,  in  the  government  of  Khandlish.  In 
1599  he  was  besieged  by  the  Emperor 
Akbar  in  the  fortress  of  Aseergurh,  and 
being  taken  prisoner,  Khandlish  was  ab- 
sorbed in  the  Mogul  empire. 

Bahadur  Khan  Geelany  (d.  1494),  a 
viceroy  of  the  Bahmuny  dominions  in  the 
Deccan,  endeavoured  to  throw  off  his 
allegiance  to  Mahmood  Shah  Bahmimy  II., 
and  was  killed  in  battle  while  fighting 
against  that  ruler. 

Bahadur  Nizam  Shah  {b.  1593),  King 
of  Ahmednugger,  in  the  Deccan,  and  last 
of  his  fine,  was  an  infant  when  he 
came  to  the  throne,  and  when  the  state 
was  absorbed  into  the  Mogul  empire, 
five  years  later,  by  the  Emperor  Akbar, 
Bahadur  was  taken  prisoner,  and  lost  to 
history. 

Bahadur  Shah  {b.  1505,  d.  1537),  King 
of  Guzerat,  succeeded  Muzuffu  Khan  in 
1526,  and  was  at  once  met  by  a  revolt  of 
Madool  Moolk,  the  grand  vizier,  whom  he 
defeated  and  executed.  For  some  year  she 
was  continually  and  successfully  at  war 
with  neighbouring  potentates,  and  repulsed 
a  formidable  Portuguese  expedition  sent  to 
capture  the  island  of  Diu.  Being  defeated 
in  a  war  against  the  Emperor  of  Delhi,  he 
was  driven  from  his  kingdom,  which,  how- 
ever, he  shortly  recovered.  In  1536  the 
Portuguese  sent  a  second  expedition  against 
Diu,  and  Bahadur,  while  visiting  the  Portu- 
guese admiral  on  board  ship,  was  treacher- 
ously killed. 

Bahadur  Shah  {b.  1641,  d.  1712),  Emperor 


Bah 


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Bai 


of  Delhi;  on  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Aurimgzeeb,  Bahadur  and  his  two  brothers 
all  strove  for  the  succession.  The  latter 
were  defeated  and  killed,  but  their  ad- 
herents were  treated  with  great  leniency. 
After  driving  back  the  Sikh  invasion  of 
1712,  Bahadur  died  at  Lahore. 

Balilole  Khan,  a  Mahometan  general  of 
the  sixteenth  centur}',  who  commanded  the 
armies  first  of  the  King  of  Ahmeduugger, 
and  afterwards  of  the  King  of  Beejapoor. 
When  Aurungzeeb  conquered  the  latter 
kingdom,  he  was  one  of  the  regents. 

Baliram,  a  Persian  general  who,  in  the 
reign  of  Hormus  IV.,  defeated  400,000 
Turks,  who  had  crossed  the  Oxus  under  the 
Great  Khan,  with  only  12,000  men.  Pro- 
voked by  the  ingi'atitude  of  Hormus,  Bah- 
rain revolted,  put  out  the  king's  eyes,  and 
drove  his  son  to  exile.  He  was,  in  turn, 
driven  to  flight  by  the  Romans,  and  soon 
after  poisoned. 

Bahrain  I.,  King  of  Persia  {d.  277)  ;  fourth 
of  the  dynasty  of  Sassau ;  and  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Hormus  a.d.  274. 

Bahram  II.  (d.  294),  son  of  preceding, 
but  xinlike  his  father,  a  bad  and  hated  ruler, 
was  at  war  with  Rome,  under  the  Emperor 
Cams,  whose  death  alone  prevented  the  loss 
of  his  dominions. 

Bahram  V.  {d.  442)  succeeded  to  the 
Persian  throne  in  421 ;  repulsed  an  invasion 
of  the  Turks,  and  extracted  favourable 
terms  of  peace  from  Brome,  with  whom  he 
had  been  at  war. 

Bahrdt,  Karl  Friedrich  (5.  1741,  d.  1792), 
a  German  professor  and  free-thinker,  held 
several  professorial  chairs,  but  he  had  to 
abandon  them  on  account  of  his  extreme 
opinions  and  nrregular  life.  His  works  being 
condemned  in  Germany,  he  went  to  Prussia, 
where  he  suffered  a  year's  imprisonment. 

Baiardi,  Ottavio  Antoine  {b.  1690,  d. 
1765),  an  Italian  priest,  who,  by  command 
of  Charles  III.  of  Naples,  undertook  in 
1714  the  record  of  the  Herculaneum  dis- 
coveries. 

Baladur,  Abulghazi  {b.  1605,  d.  1663),  a 
Tartar  Khan,  and  the  compiler  of  a  genea- 
logical history  of  the  Tartars. 

Baier,  .Tohann  Jakob  (b.  1677,  d.  1735),  a 
German  physician  and  naturalist,  was 
professor  of  surgery  and  physiology  at 
Altdorf,  and  president  of  the  imperial 
academy  of  natural  history. 

Baif,  Jean  Antoine  (jb.  1532,  d.  1589), 
French  scholar  and  musician,  and  founder 
of  the  academy  of  poetry  and  music. 

BaiMe,    William    Balfour    {J>.    1825,    d. 


1864),  doctor  and  explorer;  after  serving  in 
the  navy,  he  was  appointed  surgeon  and 
naturalist  to  the  Niger  expedition  of  1854. 
The  command  devolved  upon  him,  by 
death,  and  he  led  the  expedition  250  miles 
higher  than  had  ever  before  been  reached. 
In  1857  he  led  another  expedition,  when 
he  was  wrecked,  and  deserted  up-river ; 
whereupon  he  founded  and  governed  a 
native  settlement. 

BaU,  Charles  Joseph  (b.  1777,  d.  1827),  a 
French  writer  and  soldier ;  in  1807  he  was 
commissioned  by  Napoleon  vdth  the  organ- 
isation of  Westphalia  as  a  model  state  on 
revolutionary  principles,  and  afterwards  he 
became  inspector  of  reviews.  He  edited 
the  Correspondence  of  Bernadotte  with 
Napoleon,  and  wrote  on  historical  and 
political  subjects. 

Bailey,  Jacob  Whitman  {h.  1811,  d.  1857), 
an  American  scientist,  became  in  1838 
professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
geology  at  West  Point. 

Bailey,  Nathan  {d.  1742),  an  English 
lexicographer,  whose  dictionary  was  the 
standard  work  before  Johnson's. 

Bailey,  Philip  James  {b.  1816),  an  English 
poet,  whose  fame  rests  mainly  on  one  work, 
Festus,  a  poem  which  attracted  the  greatest 
attention  and  the  highest  praise. 

Bailey,  Samuel  (b.  1787,  d.  1870),  an 
English  philosopher,  whose  chief  works  are 
The  Formation  and  Publication  of  Opinions, 
The  Pursuit  of  Truth  and  the  Progress  of 
Knowledge,  and  The  Theory  of  Reasoning. 

Baillarger,  Jules  Gabriel  Francois  {b. 
1806),  an  eminent  French  physician ;  in 
1842  he  gained  the  Academy  of  Medicine 
prize  for  the  best  essay  on  mental  disease,  and 
helped  to  institute  the  3Iedico-Physical 
Annals  of  the  Nervous  System. 

Baillet,  Adrien  {b.  1649,  d.  1706),  a  French 
writer  of  great  erudition,  and  author 
of  Les  Jugements  des  Savane.  He  took 
orders,  and  afterwards  became  librarian  to 
M.  Lamoignon. 

Baillie,  Grisell,  Lady  {b.  1665,  d.  1746), 
the  daughter  of  Sir  Patrick  Hume,  who 
was  concerned  in  the  Rye  House  Plot, 
bravely  tended  her  father  while  he  was  in 
hiding,  and  behaved  with  the  greatest  de- 
votion while  the  family  was  in  exile  in 
Holland.  After  the  revolution  her  father 
was  created  Earl  of  Marchmont,  and  she 
married  George  Baillie,  a  fellow  exile  and 
Scot.    She  died  in  Scotland. 

Baillie,  Joanna  (J.  1762,  d.  1851),  a 
dramatic  vrriter,  greatly  esteemed  in  her 
own  day,  bom  in  Scotland,  came  to  London 
as  a  young  woman,   and  having  written 


Bai 


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Bai 


poems  anonymously,  she  putlished  in  1798 
the  first  series  of  Plays  of  the  Passions, 
and  the  second  iu  1802.  One  of  these 
plays  John  Kemble  produced  at  Drury 
Lane.  Other  dramas  followed,  of  which 
The  Family  Legend  was  the  most  popu- 
lar, and  was  produced  with  success  ia 
Edinburgh  and  London.  Besides  her  many 
tragedies  and  comedies.  Miss  Baillie  wrote 
numerous  songs,  and  a  series  of  Metrical 
Legends.  Her  works  were  highly  praised 
by  Sir  "Walter  Scott,  with  whose  friendship 
she  was  honoured. 

Baillie,  John  {b.  1772,  d.  1833),  a  dis- 
tinguished servant  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  professor  of  Persian,  Arabic,  and 
Mahometan  law  at  Fort  William.  After 
filliug  various  posts  of  honour,  he  returned 
to  England  in  1815,  entered  Parliament, 
and  became  a  director  of  the  Company. 

Baillie,  Matthew  (6.  1761,  d.  1823),  an 
eminent  physician,  brother  of  Joanna  Bail- 
lie,  and  nephew  of  the  great  Dr.  Hunter, 
with  whom  he  Lived  and  whose  heir  he 
became.  He  was  appointed  physician  to 
George  III.,  but  refused  a  baronetcy.  He 
was  physician  to  St.  George's  Hospital  and 
president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 

Baillie,  Eobert  {h.  1602,  d.  1662),  a 
Scottish  divine,  and  principal  of  Glasgow 
University,  took  orders  as  an  Episco- 
palian but  joined  the  Presbyterians  when 
Charles  attempted  to  force  Laud's  prayer- 
book  on  the  Scottish  Church,  He  was  one 
of  the  Commissioners  sent  to  negotiate  with 
Charles  iu  1640.  In  1642  he  was  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  General  Assembly  of 
Scotland  at  the  Conference  with  the  West- 
minster Assembly  of  divines;  and  when 
Charles  II.  was  in  Holland  he  was  sent  to 
negotiate  with  him  on  behalf  of  the  Scottish 
people. 

Baillie,  Robert  {d.  1683),  a  Scottish  gentle- 
man who  suffered  much  persecution  for 
holding  the  Presbyterian  faith,  and  who 
was  finally  summarily  executed  for  alleged 
participation  ia  the  Rye  House  Plot. 

BaUlon,  Emmanuel  {d.  1802),  French 
ornithologist,  botanist,  and  writer. 

Baillon,  Ernest  Henri  {b.  1827),  a  French 
physician  and  naturalist,  in  1864  became 
professor  of  medical  natural  history  to  the 
Faculty  of  Paris,  and  later,  professor  of 
hygiene  to  the  central  school  of  art  and 
manufactures. 

Baillot,  Pierre  Marie  Fran9ois  de  Sales 
(6.  1771,  d.  1842),  a  French  violinist,  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Viotti,  iu  1795  became 
professor  of  the  violiu  at  the  Conservatoire 
at  Paris,  and  later  visited  Russia,  Belgium, 
Hollajid,  and  England. 


Baillou,  Guillaume  de  (J.  1538,  d.  1616), 
a  French  physician,  distinguished  alike  for 
his  valuable  contributions  to  medical  science, 
and  for  his  high  character.  He  was  elected 
Dean  of  the  Faculty  iu  1580,  and  in  1601  was 
appointed  by  Henry  IV.  first  physician  to 
the  Dauphin. 

Bailly,  Francis  {b.  1774,  d.  1844),  an  emi- 
nent astronomer,  at  first  a  stockbroker,  pub- 
lished some  valuable  and  authoritative  works 
on  commercial  questions.  His  spare  time 
was  devoted  to  astronomy,  and  in  1811  he 
read  before  the  Royal  Society  a  paper  on 
Solar  Eclipse  which  gained  for  hirn  a  high 
reputation.  In  1813  he  published  his  £j9e<w«« 
of  Universal  History,  and  in  1814  he  under- 
took for  the  Stock  Exchange  the  preparation 
of  evidence  on  the  Berenger  frauds.  In  1820, 
by  his  exertions,  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  was  founded,  and  of  this  he  ulti- 
mately became  president.  In  1 825  he  gave 
up  business  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
astronomy,  publishing  many  valuable  works. 
He  was  made  an  honorary  D.C.L.  of  Oxford 
and  LL.D.  of  Dublin. 

Bailly,  Jean  Sylvain  (5.  1736,  d.  1793),  a 
French  scientist,  early  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  astronomy,  and  between  1763 
and  1771  gained  a  reputation  by  the  publi- 
cation of  several  able  memoirs.  His  History 
of  Astronomy  (1779)  procured  for  him  the 
almost  unique  honour  of  membership  of  the 
Academic  Frangaise  and  the  Academie  des 
Inscriptions,  as  well  as  the  Academie  des 
Sciences.  When  the  revolution  broke  out  he 
became  president  of  the  National  Assembly, 
and  in  1791  mayor  of  Paris.  In  this  position 
he  drew  on  himself  the  disfavour  of  the 
mob,  and  having  left  Paris  he  was  brought 
back  and  guillotined. 

Bailly  de  Juilly,  Edme  Louis  Barthelemy 
(i.  1760,  d.  1819),  French  revolutionist 
and  secretary  of  the  National  Convention. 
He  opposed  the  execution  of  the  king. 

Bailly  de  Monthion,  Frangois-Gedeon, 
Count  {b.  1776,  d.  1846),  a  French 
general  who  served  through  the  campaigns 
of  the  first  repubhc  and  of  Napoleon.  In 
18;  5  he  was  made  inspector-general  of 
infantry,  and  in  1837  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage. 

Baily,  Edward  Hodges  (A.  1788,  d.  1867), 
an  EngUsh  sculptor  and  R.A.  His  great 
work,  Eve  at  the  Fountain,  was  produced 
when  he  was  only  twenty-five. 

Bain,  Alexander  (Jb.  1818),  a  prolific 
writer  on  moral  and  mental  philosophy, 
logic,  and  psychology,  after  occupying 
chairs  at  the  universities  of  Glasgow, 
London,  and  Aberdeen,  was  elected  rector 
of  the  latter  imiversity.  He  has  wxitten 
and  edited  many  standard  text-books,  hia 


Bai 


(90) 


Baj 


chief  works  being  The  Senses  and  the  In- 
tellect, and  The  l^motions  and  the  Will. 

Balnbridge,  Christopher  {d.  1514),  an 
English  churchman,  created  Archbishop  of 
York  in  1508  by  Henry  VII.,  was  made 
Cardinal  in  1511,  and  died  in  Rome  while  on 
a  missiou  from  Henry  VIII. 

Bainbrldge,  John  {b.  1582,  d.  1643), 
English  astronomer  and  physician ;  his 
observations  of  the  comet  of  1618  obtained 
for  him  the  newly  fomided  chair  of  astro- 
nomy at  Oxford. 

Balnbridge,  WUUam  {b.  1774,  <?.  1833), 
an  American  naval  officer,  who,  during  the 
war  with  Tripoli  in  1803,  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  who  captured  the  British  frigate  Java 
in  1812. 

Haines,  Edward  {b.  1774,  d.  1848), 
journalist  and  politician,  from  the  position 
of  printer  on  the  Leeds  Mercury  he  became 
the  proprietor  of  the  paper,  through  which 
he  exerted  a  wide  influence.  A  Liberal  and 
a  dissenter,  he  was  returned  for  Leeds  in 
1834,  and  retired  in  1841. 

Baines,  Sir  Edward  {b.  1809,  d.  1890), 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  was  associated 
with  the  Leeds  Mercury,  and  member 
for  Leeds  from  1859  to  1874.  He  inter- 
ested himself  greatly  ia  popular  education 
and  the  temperance  cause ;  was  president 
and  founder  of  the  Yorkshire  Union  of 
Mechanics  Institutes,  and  wrote  several 
books  on  industrial  subjects. 

Baini,  Giuseppe  (*.  1776,  d.  1844),  an 
Italian  priest,  musician,  and  critic ;  his  chief 
work  is  the  Historical  and  Critical  Memoir 
of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Palestrina. 

Balrakdar,  Mustapha,  Pacha  {b.  1755,  d. 
1808),  a  Turkish  private  soldier,  who  was 
created  Pacha  of  Rustchuk  after  the 
Russian  war  of  1806 ;  and  when  Selim  III. 
was  deposed  in  1808  by  the  revolted  Janis- 
saries he  marched  on  Constantinople,  de- 
feated the  rebels,  and  placed  SeUm's  brother 
on  the  throne.  He  was  made  grand- vizier ; 
but  in  a  subsequent  revolt  of  the  Janissaiies 
he  blew  up  his  palace  in  despair. 

Baird,  Sir  David  {b.  1757,  d.  1829),  a 
brave  and  able  officer,  served  with  much 
distinction  in  India,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  Parliament  for  his  conduct  at  the 
siege  of  Seringapatam,  where  he  led  the 
storming  party.  In  1801  he  commanded 
the  Indian  forces  invading  Egypt,  and 
accomplished  a  splendid  march  across  the 
desert.  Next  year  he  served  in  the  Mah- 
ratta  war,  and  in  1806  he  commanded  the 
expedition  to  Cape  Colony,  defeating  the 
Dutch  and  taking  Cape  Town.  He  fought 
in  the  Danish  war,  and  afterwards  joined 


Sir  John  Moore  in  Spain.  He  lost  an  arm 
at  Corunna,  and  on  returning  to  England 
again  received  the  thanks  of  Parliament 
together  with  a  baronetcy. 

Baird,  Spencer  Fullerton  {b.  1823,  d.  1887), 
an  American  naturalist,  in  1850  became 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tute at  Washington,  and  secretary  in  1878, 
as  well  as  director  of  the  National  Museum. 
He  wrote  some  valuable  works  on  natural 
history,  and  in  1871  was  appointed  Com- 
missioner of  Fish  and  Fisheries  to  examine 
into  the  failure  of  the  U.S.  fisheries. 

Baird,  William  {b.  1803,  d.  1872),  a  zoo- 
logist and  physician,  after  practising  in 
London  was  appointed  to  the  Natural  His- 
tory department  of  the  British  Museum, 
and  published  The  Natural  History  of  the 
British  Entomostraca,  and  a  Cyclopaedia  of 
the  Natural  Sciences. 

Baireuth,  Frederica  Sophia  Wilhelmina, 
Margravine  of  {b.  1709,  d.  1758),  sister  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  an  unusually  gifted 
woman.  She  married  the  Prince  of  Baireuth 
in  1731. 

Baius,  Michel  (jb.  1513,  d.  1589),  a  Dutch 
divine,  and  follower  of  Augustine,  whose 
bold  declarations  on  the  questions  of  free- 
will and  divine  grace  drew  upon  him  con- 
demnatory bulls,  first  from  Pius  V.  and 
afterwards  fi-om  Gregory  XIII.  On  both 
occasions  he  retracted  his  objectionable 
opinions. 

Bajardo,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  _  1620,  d. 
1657),  an  Italian  painter  of  religious  and 
historical  subjects,  whose  great  promise 
was  disappointed  by  an  early  death. 

Bajazet  I.  {b.  1347,  d.  1403),  Emperor  of 
the  Turks,  son  of  Murad  I.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1389,  began  his  reign  with 
a  series  of  conquests,  crossing  the  Danube 
and  finally  defeating  Sigismund  of  Hungary 
and  his  army  of  100,000  men.  lU  health 
alone  prevented  him  crossing  the  Alps,  and 
he  next  turned  to  the  conquest  of  Constanti- 
nople. Bought  off  for  the  moment,  he  was 
diverted  from  the  ultimate  accomplishment 
of  his  design  by  war  with  Tamburlaine  the 
Great,  by  whom,  in  1402,  he  was  totally  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner,  dying  shortly 
afterwards. 

Bajazet  II.  {h.  1447,  d.  1512),  Sultan  of  the 
Turks,  son  of  Mahomet  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1481,  extended  his  dominions 
to  the  Danube  and  the  Dnieper ;  was 
defeated  in  Syria  by  Caid  Bey ;  but  was 
successful  in  a  war  against  the  Venetians. 
He  was  forced  to  abdicate  in  1512  by  his 
son  Selim,  and  died  soon  afterwards. 

Bajee  Rao,  Bullal  {d.  1740),  second 
Peshwa    of    the    Mahratta    State,    made 


Baj 


(91) 


Bal 


war  against  the  decaying  Mogul  empire, 
and  led  a  victorious  army  to  the  gates  of 
Delhi,  securing  the  cession  of  several  pro- 
vinces. He  died  soon  after  he  had  failed  in 
an  attempt  to  conquer  the  Deccan. 

Bajee  Rao,  Phasalkur  {d.  1660),  a  Mah- 
ratta,  distinguished  for  having,  together 
with  YessjeeKimk  and  Tannajee  Maloosray, 
joined  Sivajee  in  his  revolt  against  the 
Mogul  empire  imder  Aurungzebe.  He  was 
killed  in  battle. 

Bajee  Rao,  Eughonath  IX.  {b.  1775,  d. 
1853),  last  Peshwa  of  the  Mahrattas, 
succeeded  to  the  title  in  1796.  His  reign 
was  full  of  intrigue  and  revolt,  and  finally 
he  was  driven  from  Poona  by  the  chiefs 
Holkar  and  Sindia.  Ha^^ng  made  a  treaty 
vdth  the  governor  of  Bombay,  he  was  re- 
stored by  British  arms;  and  then  entered 
upon  treacherous  schemes  for  throwing  off 
his  dependence  on  the  English.  He  was 
defeated  in  1817,  and  having  surrendered, 
was  allowed  a  pension  for  the  rest  of  his  hf e. 

Bajza,  Anthon  {b.  1804,  d.  1858), 
Hungarian  man  of  letters,  vsTote  several 
works  and  some  poems,  and  in  1848  was 
placed  by  Kossuth  in  the  editorial  chair  of 
the  Kossuth  Birlapja. 

Bakacs,  Thomas  (d.  1521),  a  Hungarian 
ecclesiastic  of  humble  birth,  who  succeeded 
in  becoming  first,  Archbishop  of  Gian,  and 
afterwards  cardinal.  He  owed  his  advance- 
ment to  the  f  avoirr  of  King  Mathias  and  his 
successor,  Vladislas. 

Baker,  David  (6.  1575,  d.  1641),  a  native 
of  Abergavenny,  who  joined  the  order  of 
Benedictines,  and  collected  much  infor- 
mation connected  with  church  history. 

Baker,  George  {d.  1851),  an  English 
antiquary  and  author  of  the  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Northamptonshire. 

Baker,  Sir  George  (/;.  1722,  d.  1809),  phy- 
sician to  Queen  Charlotte  and  to  George 
III. ,  and  President  of  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians, 1797-  He  was  a  friend  of  Dr. 
Johnson,  and  an  esteemed  author. 

Baker,  Henry  (6.  1698,  d.  1774),  man 
of  science  and  of  letters,  interested  him- 
self in  the  education  of  deaf-mutes,  and 
wrote  both  poems  and  scientific  treatises. 

Baker,  Sir  Henry  Lorraine  (6.  1787, 
d.  1859),  a  distinguished  naval  officer, 
behaved  with  great  gallantry  at  the  bom- 
bardment of  Flushing  (1809),  in  the  Danish 
war  (1811),  andinthe  American  war  (1814). 

Baker,  John  {b.  1660,  d.  1716),  a  naval 
officer  who  distinguished  himself  chiefly  at 
the  captui-e  of  Vigo  (1702)  and  of  Gibraltar 
(1704). 


Baker,  Sir  John  (<?.  1558),  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  to  Henry  VIII.,  and  one  of  the 
trustees  for  Edward  VI. 

Baker,  John  Gilbert  {b.  1854),  an  emi- 
nent botanist  and  writer,  curator  of  the 
Herbarium  at  Kew. 

Baker,  Sir  Richard  {b.  1568,  d.  1644), 
grandson  of  preceding,  knighted  by  James 
I.,  was  imprisoned  in  the  Fleet  for  debt, 
and  never  regained  his  liberty.  While  in 
prison  he  wrote  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of 
England,  and  other  works. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White  (fi.  1821),  wa. 
African  explorer,  whose  first  important  ven- 
ture occurred  in  1861,  when,  accompanied 
by  his  wife,  he  started  to  meet  Speke  and 
Grant.  During  this  perilous  journey  the 
Albert  Nyanza  was  discovered,  and  he  was 
knighted  on  his  return.  In  1869  he  was  en- 
trusted by  the  Khedive  with  the  command 
of  an  expedition  to  suppress  the  slave  trade 
in  the  Nile  basin.  He  is  the  author  of 
various  books  of  travel. 

Baker,  Thomas  (fi.  1625,  d.  1690),  an 
English  clergyman  and  mathematician; 
author  of  The  Geometrical  Key. 

Baker,  Thomas  {b.  1656,  d.  1740),  an 
archaeologist  and  clergyman,  who  lost  his 
living  and  a  fellowship  in  the  religious 
persecution  of  the  reign  of  James  II.  He 
wrote  much,  his  Reflections  on  Learning 
obtaining  great  popularity. 

Baker,  Valentine,  Colonel  and  Pasha 
(J).  1831,  d.  1887),  a  brilliant  cavalry  officer, 
a  brother  of  Sir  Samuel,  served  in  the 
Kaffir  and  Crimean  wars,  but  in  1875, 
having  been  compelled  to  leave  the  British 
army,  he  took  service  with  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Russo-Turkish  war.  In  1882  he  took  com- 
mand of  the  EgiTptian  gendarmerie,  and 
fought  at  both  battles  of  El-Teb  against 
the  Mahdists. 

Balaam,  a  prophet,  the  son  of  Beor, 
dwelling  at  Pethor,  was  sent  for  by  Balak, 
King  of  the  Moabites,  to  curse  the  Israelites, 
on  their  journey  to  the  promised  land.  Con- 
senting, he  was  met  on  his  way  by  the  angel 
of  the  Lord,  who  made  his  ass  speak  words 
of  rebuke;  and  thrice  Balaam's  attempts  to 
curse  were  converted  into  blessings.  He 
was  killed  in  a  battle  between  the  Midianites 
and  Israelites. 

Balard,  Antoine  Jerome  {b.  1802,  d. 
1876),  French  chemist,  the  discoverer  of 
bromine,  was  professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
College  of  Fi'ance. 

Balard,  Marie  Franqoise  Jacquette  Alby 
{b.  1776,  d.  1822),  a  minor  French  poetess, 
popular  in  her  day. 


Bal 


(92) 


Bal 


Balazac,  Franqois  de  Branoud,  Baron  de 
{d.  1592),  a  Huguenot,  who  fought  uuder 
the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  who  was  sen- 
tenced to  death  after  the  treaty  of  peace  of 
1568.  He  escaped,  however,  and  served 
afterwards  with  Heniy  of  Navarre. 

Balbi,  Adrian  {b.  1782,  d.  1848),  a  Vene- 
tian ethnologist  and  geograplier,  whose 
chief  work  is  nis  Ethnological  Atlas. 

Balbi,  Graspard,  a  Venetian  traveller  of 
the  16th  century,  who  sailed  round  the 
Indian  peninsula,  reaching  the  kiugdom  of 
Pegu.     He  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels. 

Balbinus,  Aloysius  Bolcolas  (J>.  1611,  d. 
1689),  a  Bohemian  Jesuit,  who  wrote  many 
authoritative  works  on  the  history  and 
archaeology  of  his  country. 

Balbinus,  Decimus  CeHus,  a  Eoman 
consul,  who  was  created  co-emperor  with 
Marcus  Clodius  Maximus  in  a.d.  238. 
Four  months  later  both  were  murdered  by 
the  revolted  soldiery. 

Balbo,  Caesare  {b.  1789.  d.  1853),  an 
Italian  litterateur  and  politician,  who  served 
under  Napoleon  till  his  fall,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Piedmont.  His  Htstory  of  Italy 
is  the  chief  of  many  works. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de  {b.  1475,  d.  1517), 
the  discoverer  of  the  Pacific,  went  from 
Spain  to  St.  Domingo  with  Rodrigo  de  Bas- 
tidas,  and  thence,  to  escape  his  creditors,  to 
Darien  with  Enciso  in  1510.  Deposing  En- 
ciso,  he  ruled  the  colony  for  some  years  with 
great  ability,  and  then,  instigated  by  na- 
tive stories  of  the  wealth  of  Peru,  he  crossed 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  in  1513,  discovering 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Eeturning  to  Darien  in 
1514,  he  was  superseded  by  Pedrariaz 
Davila,  who  displayed  the  greatest  enmity 
to  him,  and  although  the  great  explorer 
married  his  daughter,  Pedrariaz  executed 
him  three  years  later  on  an  old  charge. 

Balbuena,  Bamardo  de  {h.  1568,  d.  1627), 
a  Spanish  poet,  who  lived  many  years  in 
Jamaica  as  a  priest,  and  afterwards  in 
Mexico  as  Bishop  of  Puerto  Rico. 

Balbus,  Cornelius,  a  Spaniard,  living  in 
the  tii-st  century  B.C.  He  was  made  civis 
Momanus  by  Pompey,  afterwards  joined 
Caesar,  and  finally,  by  the  favour  of  Octa- 
vius,  was  appointed  to  the  highest  offices. 

Balchen,  Sir  John  {b.  1669,  d.  1744),  a 
British  admiral,  was  taken  prisoner  in  an 
encounter  with  the  French  fleet  in  1707, 
served  in  the  Spanish  war,  and  in  1744, 
while  in  command  of  a  fleet  against  the 
French,  his  ship  foundered  on  the  Caskets 
off  Aldemey. 


Baldasseronl,  Pompeo  (d.  1807),  an 
Italian  j  urist,  who  wrote  several  authorita- 
tive works  on  law,  filled  several  judicial 
offices,  and  attained  the  rank  of  count. 

Balde,  Jakob  {b.  1603,  d.  1668),  a  German 
Jesuit,  a  popular  preacher  and  an  accom- 
plished writer  of  Latin  verses. 

Balderic  {d.  1130),  a  French  monk,  noted 
as  a  poet  and  historian.  As  Abbot  of 
BourgueU  and  Bishop  of  Dol,  he  endea- 
voured to  reform  monastic  hf e. 

Baldi,  Bernardino  {b.  1553.  d.  1617),  an 
Italian  monk  of  great  erudition,  at  the 
age  of  twenty- six  was  widely  versed  in 
literature  and  the  sciences,  and  before  he 
died  had  perfect  command  of  twelve  lan- 
guages.    He  was  a  voluminous  writer. 

Baldl,  Lazaro  {b.  1623,  d.  1703),  an 
Italian  painter  and  distinguished  colourist. 
He  painted  the  gallery  of  Slonte  CavaUo. 

Baldinger,  Ernst  Gottfried  {b.  1738,  d. 
1804),  a  German  physician,  and  the  author 
of  eighty-four  works,  served  as  physician 
in  the  Prussian  army  through  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  and  later  occupied  professorial 
chairs,  finally  undertaking  the  organisation 
of  the  university  of  Marburg. 

Baldini,  Giovanni  Antonio,  H  Conte 
{b.  1654,  d.  1725),  an  Italian  nobleman  and 
diplomatist  of  erudition,  travelled  through 
western  Europe,  and  was  elected  F.R.S.  in 
England. 

Baldock,  Ralph  de  {d.  1313),  an  English 
priest  of  humble  birth,  who  became  Bishop 
of  London  and  Chancellor  to  Edward  I. 
He  was  renowned  for  his  learning. 

Balducci,  Francesco  {d.  1642),  an  Italian 
anacreontic  poet,  who,  in  the  course  of 
a  changeful  life,  was  both  soldier  and 
priest. 

Baldwin,  Thomas  (d.  1191),  an  English 
monk  who  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1184.  He  crovroed  Richard  I., 
preached  the  Crusade  through  Wales,  and 
accompanied  Richard  to  the  Holy  Land. 

Baldwin,  William,  a  scholar,  printer, 
and  poet  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  is 
associated  with  the  writing  and  publication 
of  TJie  Mirrour  for  Magistrates. 

Baldwin  I.,  Bras  de  Fer,  Count  of  Flan- 
ders {b.  837,  d.  879) ;  he  fought  against 
Ciiarles  the  Bald  in  his  war  with  Lothaire, 
but  becoming  reconciled  to  him,  married 
his  daughter,  and  was  made  first  Count  of 
Flanders. 

Baldwin  IV.  {d.  1067).  He  extended  the 
Flemish  dominions,  gave  his  daughter  Ma- 
tilda in  marriage  to  William  the  Conqueror, 
and  accompanied  him  in  his  invasion  of 
England. 


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Baldwin  I.  (b.  1171,  d.  1205),  Emperor 
of  Coustantiuople  and  hereditary  Count 
of  Flanders,  joined  in  the  fouith  Crusade, 
and  when  Constantinople  was  taken  he  was 
proclaimed  king.  The  Greeks,  aided  by 
John,  King  of  the  Bulgarians,  overthrew 
him  at  Adrianople,  and  he  died  in 
prison. 

Baldwin  II.,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
succeeded  his  brother  in  1228.  Under  him 
Constantinople  was  twice  besieged,  and 
finally  taken  by  Michael  Palaeologus,  and 
Baldwin  fled  to  Italy  (1261). 

Baldwin  I.  (b.  1058,  d.  1118),  protector  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  King  of  Jerusalem 
in  1100,  was  driven  from  his  throne  in 
1102  by  the  Saracens,  but  regained  it  and 
added  to  his  dominions. 

Baldwin  II.  {d.  1131),  cousin  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  preceding,  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Saracens  (1124),  but  regained  his 
liberty  after  two  years,  and  succeeded  in 
conquering  a  large  part  of  Syria.  Abdi- 
cated in  1131. 

Baldwin  IIL  (S.  1130,  d.  1162),  son  of 
Foulgues  of  Aujou,  succeeded  the  preceding 
in  1143,  and  died  at  Tripoli. 

Baldwin  IV.  (5.  1160,  <;.  1185),  surnamed 
"  the  Leper, "  After  varying  fortunes  in  the 
struggle  against  the  Saracens,  he  was  com- 
pelled, by  advancing  disease,  to  delegate  the 
control  of  his  dominions  to  Guy  de  Lusignan, 
and  the  subsequent  victories  of  his  enemies 
drove  him  to  seek  aid  from  the  Western 
powers. 

Baldwin  V.  (d.  1185),  nephew  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  preceding,  after  a  short  reign 
of  seven  months  died,  as  is  supposed,  by 
poison,  administered  by  his  mother,  who 
wished  to  obtain  the  throne  for  her  husband, 
Guy  de  Lusignan. 

Bale,  John  (i.  1495,  d.  1563),  Bishop  of 
Ossory,  a  writer,  and  an  active  convert  to 
the  Reformation.  In  the  reigns  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Mary  he  fled  to  the  Continent, 
but  he  occupied  positions  in  the  Church 
under  Edwai-d  VI.  and  Elizabeth.  He 
wrote  19  miracle-plays  and  a  book  of  Bri- 
tish biography. 

Balechon,  Jean  Jacques  Nicolas  (b.  1715, 
d.  1765),  a  French  engraver  of  note,  who 
engraved  the  portrait  of  Augustus,  King  of 
Poland,  for  the  Dresden  Gallery. 

Balen,  Hcndrik  van  (b.  1560,  d.  1632),  a 
Dutch  historical  painter,  who  excelled  in 
depicting  the  nude. 

Balfe,  Michael  William  (b.  1808,  d.  1870), 
musical  composer,  as  a  boy  showed  great 


musical  talent,  and  at  the  age  of  16,  coming 
to  London,  he  was  engaged  in  the  Drury 
Lane  orchestra.  While  there  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  an  Italian  nobleman,  Count 
Mazzara,  who  took  him  to  Italy  to  study 
music.  After  singing  at  Paris  in  the  Italian 
Opera  under  Rossini,  Balfe  returned  to 
Italy  and  produced  in  1830  several  operas. 
In  1835  he  came  to  England  as  a  vocalist 
and  composer  of  opera,  and  after  five  yeara 
of  successful  composition  he  produced  two 
operas  in  Paris.  In  1844  his  most  popular 
work,  I7ie  Bohemian  Girl,  appeared  at 
Drury  Lane,  to  be  followed  by  several  other 
operas  before  the  fertility  of  Balfe's  genius 
was  checked  by  a  fatal  attack  of  bronchitis. 

Balfour,  Arthur  James  (b.  1848), 
statesman,  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge, was  elected  for  Hertford  in  1874, 
and  as  private  secretary  to  Lord  Salis- 
bury accompanied  him  to  Berlin  in  1873. 
In  1880  he  was  prominent  as  one  of 
the  four  members  of  Lord  R.  Churchill's 
"Fourth  Party,"  and  in  1885  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Local  Government  Board  in 
Lord  Salisbury's  administration.  In  the 
general  election  of  1885  he  was  returned 
for  East  Manchester,  which  constituency  he 
still  represents,  and  in  1886  succeeded  Sir 
Michael  Hicks-Beach  as  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland.  He  is  the  author  of  A  Defence  of 
Fhilosophic  Doubt. 

Balfour,  Francis  Maitlaud  {b.  1851,  d. 
1882),  brother  of  the  preceding  and  an 
eminent  embryologist,  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Cambridge,  after  studying  at  the  Zoo- 
logical station  at  Naples  soon  gained  a 
reputation  for  the  originality  of  his  research. 
He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  an  F.R.S.  in  1878.  In  1880 
he  was  made  an  LL.D.  of  Glasgow,  and  in 
1881  a  special  chair  of  animal  morphology 
was  created  for  him  at  Cambridge.  He  had 
vrritten  several  important  works  on  com- 
parative embryology  when  he  lost  his  life 
while  engaged  in  Alpine  climbing. 

Balfour,  James  {h.  1703,  d.  1795),  a 
Scottish  jurist  and  professor,  wrote  in  refu- 
tation of  Hume's  doctrines. 

Balfour,  Sir  James  {d.  1583),  a  Scottish 
I'urist  and  churchman,  who  took  an  active 
part  in  the  political  intrigues  of  Queen 
Mary's  reign.  He  was  made  President  of 
Sessions  by  Mary,  whom  he  betrayed,  and 
was  concerned  in  the  murder  of  Darnley. 

Balfour,  John  Button  {b.  1808,  d.  1884), 
physician  and  botanist,  was  ju-ofessor  of 
botany  at  Glasgow  and  afterward  at  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  was  queen's  botanist 
for  Scotland.  For  thirty  years  he  was  dean 
of  the  medical  faculty  of  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity.   He  left  many  works. 


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Balguy,  John  {b.  1686,  d.  1748),  an 
English  clergyman  and  controversiaUst, 
took  part  in  the  Baugorian  controversy,  and 
was  the  author  of  A  letter  to  a  Deist,  The 
Foundations  of  Moral  Goodness,  and  An 
Essay  on  Redemption. 

Bal^y.  Thomas  {h.  1716,  d.  1795),  son  of 
the  preceding,  Archdeacon  of  Winchester, 
and  author  of  Divine  Benevolence  Asserted 
and  Vindicated  from  the  Reflections  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Skeptics. 

Baliol,  John  (b.  circa  1259,  d.  1315),  King 
of  Scotland.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Margaret, 
Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce,  the  chief  claimants 
to  the  succession,  invited  Edvpardl.  to  decide 
between  them,  and  Edward  favoured  Baliol, 
who  swore  fealty  to  him  on  taking  the 
crown  in  1292.  During  the  French  war  of 
3295  BaUol  renounced  his  fealty  to  Edward, 
who  thereupon  invaded  Scotland  and  com- 
pelled him  to  submission.  After  being  a 
prisoner  in  Loudon  for  three  years,  he  was 
allowed  to  go  to  Normandy,  where  he  died. 

Baliol,  Edward  (d.  1363),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, on  the  death  of  Robert  Bruce 
invaded  Scotland  in  1332,  and  after  defeat- 
ing the  Regent  Mar  he  was  crowned  at 
Scone.  Shortly  afterward  he  swore  fealty  to 
Edward  III.  and  made  over  to  him  Berwick, 
for  which  act  he  was  driven  from  Scotland 
by  the  revolted  nobles.  Twice  he  was  re- 
instated by  an  invading  English  army,  and 
twice  again  he  was  compelled  to  fly.  At 
last  he  sold  his  claim  to  the  throne  to 
Edward  III.  for  a  pension  and  a  sum  down. 

Ball,  Sir  Alexander  John  {b.  1757,  d.  1809), 
a  British  admiral,  who  served  under  Nelson 
in  1798,  fought  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  and 
in  1800  commanded  the  expedition  for  the 
recovery  of  Malta,  of  which  island  he  was 
made  governor. 

Ball,  John  (b.  1818,  d.  1889),  a  well-known 
naturalist  and  Alpine  climber.  He  was  the 
author  of  The  Alpine  Guide,  and  other 
works  of  scientific  interest,  including  the 
account  of  his  visit  to  the  Atlas  Mountains. 
In  1857  he  was  M. P.  forCarlow,  and  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies. 

Ball,  John  Thomas  {b.  1815),  an  Irish 
lawyer,  was  returned  for  Dublin  Uni- 
versity in  1868,  and  after  becoming  suc- 
cessively Solicitor  and  Attorney-General 
for  Ireland,  occupied  the  office  of  Lord 
Chancellor  of  Ireland  from  1875  to  1880. 

Ball,  Robert  (b.  1802,  d.  1857),  an  Irish 
scientist,  secretary  of  the  Royal  Zoological 
and  president  of  the  Eoyal  Geological 
Societies  for  Ireland,  and  afterwards  direc- 
tor of  Dublin  University  museum. 

Ball,  Sir  Robert  Stawell  {b.  1840),  the 
Astronomer  Royal  of  Ireland,  to  which  post 


he  was  appointed  in  1874.      His  popular 
works  on  astronomy  are  much  esteemed. 

Ballajee  Bajee  Rao  {d.  1761),  third 
Peshwa  of  the  Mahrattas,  succeeding  his 
father,  Bajee  Rao  BuUal,  1740.  He  applied 
himself  to  administrative  reform,  and  on 
the  death  of  the  Rajah  Shao  obtained 
supreme  power.  In  1759  he  defeated  Nizam, 
Ali,  acquiring  several  provinces,  and  after- 
wards marched  into  the  Punjab.  Here  his 
forces  encountered  an  Afghan  army,  and 
after  some  fighting  they  sustained  a  terrible 
defeat,  Ballajee  dying  soon  after  of  grief. 

Ballajee  Jenardhun  {d.  1800),  better 
known  as  Nana  Furnavees,  a  famous 
Mahratta  statesman.  On  the  death  of 
Peshwa  Mahdoo  Rao,  Nana  became  guar- 
dian of  his  infant  son.  In  1782,  after  a  war 
with  the  English,  he  was  obliged  to  consent 
to  the  treaty  of  Salbye.  The  turbulence  of 
Mahratta  chiefs,  and  the  aggression  of  Tippoo, 
Sultan  of  Mysore,  compelled  him  to  con- 
clude an  alliance  with  the  British  and  the 
Nizam  of  Hyderabad.  When  Tippoo  had 
been  subdued  the  Nizam  refused  his  tribute 
to  the  Mahrattas,  by  whom  he  was  decisively 
defeated.  After  nearly  thirty  years  of  rule, 
the  young  Peshwa  having  died.  Nana  was 
imprisoned  by  Bajee  Rao  Eaghonath,  though 
restored  in  later  years. 

Ballajee  Wishwanath  {d.  1721),  the 
first  Peshwa  of  the  Mahrattas,  was  an  able 
administrator,  and  effected  many  valuable 
reforms  of  internal  government. 

Ballanclie,  Pierre  Simon  {b.  1776,  d.  1847), 
a  French  vniter  of  note  on  social  questions, 
both  in  prose  and  verse. 

BaUantine,  William  {b.  1812,  d.  1887),  a 
distinguished  barrister.  In  1856  he  was 
made  serjeant-at-law ;  he  was  counsel 
for  the  Claimant  in  the  Tichborne  case, 
and  for  the  Ga^kwar  of  Baroda  in  1875. 
He  wrote  several  popular  volumes  of  hia 
experiences. 

BaUantyne,  James  {b.  1772,  d.  1833),  the 
printer  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  works,  was 
involved  in  the  bankruptcy  of  Constable 
and  Co.  He  survived  Scott  for  only  a  few 
months. 

BaUantyne,  James  Robert  {d.  1864),  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  and  principal  of 
the  Benares  College.  He  translated  works  of 
Hindoo  philosophy  into  English,  published 
Sanscrit  versions  of  English  scientific  works, 
and  compiled  grammars  of  several  oriental 
languages.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
librarian  to  the  India  Office. 

Ballantyne,  Thomas  {b.  1806,  d.  1871),  a 
well-known  journalist,  who,  after  much 
experience  in  the  North,  came  to  London 
and  founded  the  Statesman  and  other  papers. 


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He  was  intiinate  with  Carlyle  and  Lord 
PaJmerston. 

Ballesteros,  Francisco  (*.  1770,  d.  1832), 
a  Spanish  general,  who  held  high  command 
against  the  French  invaders.  In  1815 
Ferdinand  appointed  him  minister  of  war, 
hut  he  was  soon  dismissed  ;  and  in  1820  he 
was  commissioned  with  the  reframing  of 
the  constitution.  On  the  French  invasion  of 
1823  he  commanded  the  Spanish  army,  but 
capitulated  at  once,  for  which  act  he  was 
hanished  for  life. 

Ballin,  Claude  {h.  1615,  d.  1678),  a  famous 
worker  in  precious  metals,  who  was 
patronised  by  Cardinal  KicheUeu  and 
Louis  XIV. 

Balloba,  Tattya  {d.  1800),  the  principal 
Brahmin  minister  of  the  Mahratta  chief 
Doulat  Rao  Scindia,  and  the  great  rival  of 
Ballajee  Jenardhun,  by  whom  he  was  im- 
prisoned. He  endeavoured  to  estabHsh  a 
peshwa  in  the  interest  of  Scindia,  who 
rewarded  his  efforts  with  imprisonment. 

Ballou,  Hosea  (*.  1771,  d.  1852),  an 
American  preacher,  and  founder  of  the 
"  Universalists."  He  attained  considerable 
celebrity  in  the  United  States. 

Balmez,  James  Lucian  {b.  1810,  d.  1848), 
a  Spanish  writer  of  repute.  He  exerted  a 
great  influence  as  a  journalist  in  Madrid  for 
many  years,  endeavouring  to  strengthen  the 
Church  and  the  throne.  He  wrote  Fro- 
iestantism  and  Catholicism  as  compared  in 
their  Effects  on  the  Civilisation  of  Europe. 

Balnaves,  Henry  (*.  1520,  d.  1579),  a 
Scottish  jurist  and  an  earnest  advocate  of 
the  Reformation.  He  was  imprisoned  for 
his  Protestantism,  and  after  the  murder  of 
Cardinal  Beaton  in  1546,  Balnaves  and  other 
reformers  were  imprisoned  at  Rouen,  where 
he  wrote  The  Confession  of  Faith.  He  re- 
turned to  Scotland  in  1554,  and  after  the 
adoption  of  the  Reformation  he  held  several 
high  positions. 

Balogh,  Janos  (b.  1800),  a  Hungarian 
patriot,  who  as  a  member  of  the  Diet 
staunchly  supported  the  national  cause. 
He  took  part  in  the  revolution,  and  after 
its  failure  tied  to  Turkey. 

Balsamo,  Joseph.     [See  Cagliostro.] 

Balsamo,  Theodorus  {d.  1204),  a  prohfic 
and  authoritative  writer  on  canon  law,  who 
was  a  native  of  Constantinople,  and  who 
was  made  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 

Balsham,  Hugh  de  {d.  1286),  a  Benedic- 
tine monk,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Ely,  who 
founded  Peter  House  College,  at  Cam- 
bridge. 

Baltadjl   Mehemet   Pacha  (d.   1712),   a 


guard  of  the  Turkish  Sultan  Ahmed  HI., 
who  rose  to  the  grand-viziership.  When 
in  1711  Peter  the  Great  was  intending  fin 
invasion  of  Turkey,  Baltadji  crossed  the 
Danube  and  the  Pruth  and  surrounded  the 
Russian  encampment.  He  was  bribed  to 
consent  to  a  treaty,  and  for  this  he  was 
banished  by  the  Sultan. 

Baltard,  Louis  Pierre  {b.  1765,  d.  1846), 
a  French  landscape  painter,  architect  and 
engraver,  designed  the  Lyons  Palais  de 
Justice. 

Baltard,  Victor  {b.  1805,  d.  1874),  an 
architect  and  engraver.  He  was  appointed 
government  architect,  and  conducted  the 
restorations  of  St.  Severin  and  St.  Eustache. 

Balten,  Pieter  (4. 1540,  d.  1611),  a  Belgian 
landscape  painter  of  great  repute,  and 
member  of  the  academy  of  Antwerp. 

Baltimore,  George  Calvert,  Lord  (6. 
circa  1580,  d.  1632),  was  knighted  by 
James  I.,  was  made  a  secretary  of  state, 
entered  Parliament,  and,  although  a  Roman, 
Catholic,  was  created  a  peer  of  Ireland. 
After  vainly  endeavouring  to  found  settle- 
ments in  Newfoundland  and  Virginia,  he 
succeeded  in  establishing  the  colony  of 
Maryland. 

Baltimore,  Cecil  Calvert,  Lord  (d.  1676), 
son  of  the  preceding,  continued  the  colon- 
ising work  of  his  father,  and  founded 
Baltimore. 

Baltzar,  Thomas  (*.  1630,  d.  1663),  a 
famous  German  violinist,  who  came  to 
England  in  1656  and  was  made  director  of 
the  private  concerts  of  Charles  I. 

Balue,  Jean  (b.  1421,  d.  1491),  a  French 
ecclesiastic.  He  early  obtained  the  favour 
of  Louis  XL,  and  by  systematic  treachery 
and  intrigue  was  made  Cardinal  in  1467. 
He  even  betrayed  the  king's  secrets  to 
Charles  the  Bold,  but  he  was  detected  in 
this  and  shut  up  in  an  iron  cage.  He  was 
released  through  the  influence  of  Pope 
Sixtus  rV.,  who  took  him  into  favour  and 
made  him  legate  to  France. 

Baluze,  Etienne  (b.  1630,  d.  1718),  a 
French  historian.  In  1667  he  became 
librarian  to  Colbert,  and  was  appointed  by 
Louis  XIV.  to  a  chair  in  the  royal  college. 
In  1710  he  offended  the  Court  by  his 
History  of  the  House  of  Auvergne,  for  which 
he  was  banished  till  1813. 

Balzac,  Honors  de  {b.  1799,  d.  1850), 
French  novelist,  was  intended  for  the 
law,  but  left  the  legal  profession  for 
literature,  and  imder  various  assumed 
names  produced  rapidly.  In  1826  he  en- 
tered into  partnership  with  a  printer,  but 
their  publications  were  not  successful :  and 


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Balzac,  depending  solely  upon  his  pen  for  a 
liveliliood,  endured  the  greatest  privations. 
He  obtained  no  public  recognition  till  the 
appearance  of  his  Fhysiologie  du  Mariage, 
but  afterwards  he  continued  to  write  with 
increasing  success.  In  1848  he  married  a 
Russian  lady,  and  after  xdsitiug  Eussia  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  broken  health,  and  shortly 
afterward  died.  His  collected  works  are 
included  in  forty-five  volumes. 

Balzac,  Jean  Louisguez  {b.  1594,  d.  1654), 
a  French  litterateur  of  note,  who  endea- 
voured to  introduce  reforms  of  style  into 
the  French  language.  He  was  patronised 
and  pensioned  by  Richelieu,  but  provoked 
much  hostility  against  himself,  and  so  retii'ed 
into  private  life. 

Bamfield,  Joseph,  an  Irishman  who 
fought  on  the  Royalist  side  in  the  Civil 
war.  He  succeeded  in  effecting  the  escape 
of  the  Duke  of  York  to  Holland  in  1648. 

Bamford,  Samuel  (b.  1788,  d.  1872),  a 
Manchester  poet  and  politician  of  the  ad- 
vanced school.  By  trade  a  silk  weaver,  he 
frequently  suffered  imprisonment,  and  was 
nearly  killed  at  the  Peterloo  "massacre." 
Late  in  life  he  became  connected  with  the 
Loudon  press. 

Bampfylde,  Francis,  a  nonconformist 
minister  of  the  17th  century,  who  detied  the 
Act  of  Uniformity,  being  several  times  im- 
prisoned, and  finally  dying  in  Newgate. 

Bampton,  Rev.  John  {b.  1689,  d.  1751),  a 
Canon  of  Salisbury  cathedral,  who  left  his 
estates  for  the  endowment  of  divinity 
lectures  at  Oxford. 

Bancal  des  Issarts,  Jean  Henri  {b.  1750, 
d.  1826),  a  French  revolutionist,  of  noted 
moderation,  and  a  member  of  the  National 
Convention.  In  1795  he  became  secretary  of 
the  Council  of  the  Five  Hundred. 

Bancroft,  Edward  {d.  1821),  an  American 
physician  and  writer,  who  came  to  England, 
and  published  several  works,  fictional  and 
scientific.  He  was  a  friend  of  Franklin,  for 
whom  he  wrote  considerably. 

Bancroft,  George  (Jb.  1800,  d.  1891),  an 
American  historian.  As  a  young  man  he 
travelled  and  studied  much  in  Europe. 
After  declining  to  sit  in  Congress,  he  pub- 
lished iu  1831  his  first  volume  of  the  His- 
tory of  the  United  States.  In  1845  he  became 
secretary  of  the  navy;  from  1846-49  he 
was  American  minister  at  the  Court  of  St. 
Jaiues's;  and  in  1867  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Prussia.  The  last  volume  of  his 
history,  which  is  a  standard  work,  appeared 
in  1882. 

Bancroft,  Marie  Effie  (b.  1846).  Marie 
Wiltou    was    already   a    well   known   and 


popular  actress  when  she  became  the  wife 
of  Mr.  S.  B.  Bancroft.  For  thirteen  years 
they  leased  the  old  Prince  of  "Wales's  theatre, 
where  they  were  highly  successful  in  the 
production  of  T.  W.  Robertson's  plays.  In 
later  years  they  were  chiefly  seen  at  the 
Haymarket  theatre.  Mrs.  Bancroft  and 
her  husband  retired  from  management  in 
1885,  but  the  latter  reappeared  in  1889  at  the 
Lyceum  iu  The  Dead  Heart.  They  have 
pubUshed  an  interesting  book  of  reminis- 
cences. 

Bancroft,  Richard  {b.  1544,  d.  1610),  a 
distinguished  Archbishop  of  Cauterbury.  By 
the  favour  of  Sir  Christopher  Hattou,  Lord 
Burleigh,  and  Archbishop  Whitgift  he  was 
ordained  Bishop  of  London  in  1697,  and 
became  a  favourite  with  Elizabeth.  James  I. 
created  him  primate  in  succession  to  Whit- 
gift. 

Bandarra,  Gonzalo  Annez  {d.  1556),  a 
Portuguese  fanatic,  and  writer  of  patriotic 
songs.  From  his  trade  he  was  known  as  the 
Holy  Cobbler.  His  popularity  became  so 
great  that  the  Inquisition  imprisoned  him 
as  a  false  prophet. 

Bandel,  Joseph  Ernst  von  {b.  1800,  <?.  1876), 
a  German  sculptor  of  high  repute.  His 
Sleeping  Mars,  Charity,  and  Thusuelda,  are 
among  his  finest  works. 

Bandello,  Matteo  {b.  circa  1480,  d.  circa 
1561),  Italian  novelist.  At  first  a 
Dominican  monk,  he  settled  in  Milan  and 
wrote  most  of  his  stories  there.  He  was 
later  api^ointed  Bishop  of  Agen,  where  he 
rewrote  much  of  his  work  that  had  been 
destroyed  by  fire  at  Milan. 

Bandenelli,  Bartolomeo  {b.  1487,  d.  1559), 
a  sculptor  of  Florence,  of  the  greatest 
repute.  His  genius  displayed  itself  when 
he  was  only  nine  years  old,  and  he  studied 
under  the  best  masters.  He  was  also  a 
clever  painter. 

Bandiera,  Attilio  {b.  1810,  d.  1844),  and 
Emilio  {b.  1815,  d.  1844),  Italian  patriots. 
The  two  brothers  were  originally  in  the 
Austrian  navy,  but  left  it  to  aid  the  cause  of 
Italian  independence.  They  were  in  con- 
stant correspondence  with  Mazziui,  who  has 
told  the  story  of  tlieir  lives.  They  were  taken 
prisoners  in  an  abortive  rising  iu  Calabria, 
and  shot. 

Bandtke,  George  Samuel  (b.  1768,  d. 
1835),  a  Polish  man  of  letters  and  professor 
at  the  university  of  Cracow.  He  wrote  on 
bibliographical  and  historical  subjects,  and 
compiled  a  Polish- German  dictionary. 

Baner,  Johanu  Gustavson  {b.  1595,  d. 
1641),  Swedish  general,  served  with 
Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Poland  and 
Germany,   and  earned    the   title   of    "  the 


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Lion  of  Sweden."  He  gained  several  bril- 
liant victories  over  the  Imperial  anny,  but 
died  at  Halberstadt  of  fatigue. 

Banim,  John  (6.1798,  d.  1842),  novelist, 
was  bom  in  Kilkenny.  Most  of  his 
work  was  written  in  collaboration  with  his 
brother  Michel,  the  Tales  of  the  U'Hara 
Family  being  their  best  known  production. 
Poverty  and  domestic  misfortune  greatly 
embittered  his  life;  and  when  broken 
health  compelled  him  to  leave  England, 
public  subscriptions  were  raised  for  him,  and 
finally  a  Civil  List  pension  was  granted. 
His  last  work  was  Father  O^Connell. 

Banks,  Isabella  Varley  {b.  1821),  a  popu- 
lar novehst,  and  wife  of  George  LinuEeus 
Banks.  Her  most  successful  novel  is  The 
Manchester  Man,  and  she  is  also  the  author 
of  several  volumes  of  verse. 

Bankes,  John,  a  seventeenth  century 
dramatist,  of  contemporary  celebrity. 

Bankes,  Sir  John  (b.  1589,  d.  1644), 
an  eminent  lawyer,  entered  Parliament 
1628,  was  appointed  Attorney- General  and 
knighted  1634,  and  made  Chief  Justice  of 
Comm^on  Pleas  1641.  He  led  the  prose- 
cution of  Hampden,  and  presided  at  the 
trial  of  Lord  Strafford.  During  the  Civil 
war  he  warmly  espoused  the  Royalist 
cause,  for  which  he  was  impeached  and  his 
property  confiscated. 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph  {b.  1743,  d.  1820),  a 
distinguished  naturalist.  After  makiug  a 
botanical  exploration  of  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador,  in  1768  he  joined  Cook's  expedi- 
tion as  naturalist,  together  with  Solauder, 
and  visited  South  America,  Australia,  and 
New  Guinea.  After  his  return  he  went 
with  Solander  to  Iceland.  In  1777  he  was 
elected  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
in  1781  he  was  created  a  baronet. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss  (b.  1816),  an 
American  politician,  and  a  general  of  the 
Federal  army.  A  prominent  figure  in  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  he  was  later 
returned  to  Congress,  of  which  he  became 
Speaker.  During  the  Civil  war  he  held 
command  on  the  Potomac. 

Banks,  Thomas  {b.  1735,  d.  1805),  a  noted 
sculptor.  A  Royal  Academy  studentship 
enabled  him  to  study  for  seven  years  in 
Rome ;  and  he  afterwards  went  to  Russia 
on  the  Empress  Catherine's  invitation.  His 
great  work  was  the  Mourning  Achilles. 

Bannaker,  Benjamin  (6.  1734,  d.  1807), 
an  American  negro  slave,  who,  under  most 
difficult  circumstances,  acquired  a  know- 
ledge of  astronomy  profound  enough  to 
enable  him  to  publish  intricate  calculations. 

Bannister,  John  {b.  1760,  d.  1836),  an 


actor  of  considerable  celebrity,  and  a  pupil 
of  Garrick. 

Baour-Lormian,  Pierre  Marie  Francois 
Louis  {b.  1770,  (/.  1857),  a  French  poet, 
whose  first  reputation  was  gained  as  a 
satirist.  Later  he  translated  with  great 
success  the  poems  of  Ossian,  and  Tasso's 
Jerusalem  Delivered.  His  last  work  was 
a  translation  of  the  book  of  Job. 

Baptiste,  Nicolas  {b.  1761,  d.  1835),  a 
French  actor  who  on  the  stage  of  the 
Theatre  Fra7i<;ais  won  great  popularity 
both  in  tragedy  and  comedy. 

Baraguay  D'Hilliers,  Achille,  Comte  de 
(J).  1795,  d.  1878),  French  general.  He 
was  present  at  Borodino  and  served  in 
the  Waterloo  campaign  ;  in  1841  he  fought 
in  Algiers;  in  1848  he  commanded  the 
French  army  in  the  Papal  States ;  and  in 
1854,  commanding  the  French  corps  in  the 
Baltic,  he  captured  Bomarsuud,  for  which 
he  was  created  Marshal  of  France.  He  pre- 
sided over  the  Commission  which  inquired 
into  the  conduct  of  Bazaine. 

Baraguay  D'Hilliers,  Louis  {b.  1764, 
d.  1812),  one  of  Napoleon's  generals, 
father  of  the  preceding.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  Spain  and  Italy,  but  in  the  re- 
treat from  Moscow  his  advanced  guard  was 
overpowered,  and  his  command  was  sus- 
pended in  consequence.    He  died  soon  after. 

Baraillon,  Jean  Francois  (fi.  1743,  d. 
1816),  a  French  physician  and  revolu- 
tionist, who  belonged  to  the  moderate 
section  of  the  National  Convention.  He 
afterwards  was  secretary  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred  and  president  of  the  Legis- 
lature. 

Barante,  Amable  Guillaume  Prosper 
{b.  1782,  d.  1866),  French  statesman,  his- 
torian, and  litterateur.  After  service  on 
diplomatic  missions  he  held  high  office 
under  the  restored  monarchy,  and  was 
created  a  peer  of  France  in  1819.  He  re- 
entered public  life  as  an  ambassador  on 
the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  retiiing 
finally  on  his  sovereign's  deposition. 

Baratier,  Jean  Philippe  {b.  1721,  d. 
1740),  an  extremely  precocious  German,  who 
spoke  French,  German,  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  when  seven  years  old ;  wrote  on 
ecclesiastical  history  at  ten ;  and  after 
studying  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  the 
law,  became  a  member  of  the  Acadeaay  of 
Berlin  at  fourteen.  He  died  from  over- 
study, 

Baratyuski  Jewgenij,  Abraham  [d.  1814), 
Russian  poet  of  considerable  celebrity,  and 
author  of  the  Eda. 

Barbaneg^e,  Joseph  (b.  1772,  d.  1830),  a 


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distinguished  French  general  who  served 
through  the  Napoleouic  campaigns  in  cen- 
tral Europe.  After  the  restoration  he 
was  made  Inspector- General. 

Barbara,  St.,  Christian  martyr  of  the  3rd 
century ;  was  heheaded  by  her  father. 

Baxbaro,  Francesco  (b.  1398,  d.  1454),  a 
distinguished  Venetian  who  served  the  re- 
public as  a  statesman  and  soldier,  and  was 
celebrated  as  a  scholar  and  orator. 

Baxbaro,  Ermolao  {b.  1454,  d.  1495), 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  a  distin- 
guished scholar.  As  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Padua  he  won  celebrity.  Accepting 
an  of&ce  of  dignity  from  the  Pope,  he  was 
banished  from  Venice. 

Barbarossa.     [See  Frederick  I.] 

Barbarossa,  Urusch  and  Khaireddin. 
The  name  given  to  two  brothers  of  Rou- 
meUan  extraction,  whose  naval  exploits 
against  the  Christian  powers  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean were  famous  in  the  early  sixteenth 
century.  After  gaining  possession  of  Algiers, 
Urusch  was  slain  in  battle  against  the 
Spaniards,  but  his  brother,  entering  the 
service  of  the  Turkish  sultan,  defeated  the 
Spaniards,  and  afterwards  the  G-enoese  fleet, 
ravaged  the  coasts  of  Italy,  took  Tunis, 
and  in  1538  decisively  defeated  the  com- 
■feined  fleets  of  the  Pope,  Venice,  and  Spain. 
His  triumphs  were  only  terminated  by  his 
death,  in  1546. 

Barbarous,  Charles  Joseph  Ma"^  (b. 
1767,  d.  1794),  French  revolutionist  of 
Marseilles.  He  was  a  deputy  in  the  Con- 
vention, and  a  prominent  Girondist.  For 
opposing  the  extremists  he  was  guUlotined 
as  a  royalist. 

Barbauld,  Anna  Lsetitia  (b.  1743,  d.  1825), 
a  popular  writer ;  the  wife  of  the  Rev. 
Eochemount  Barbauld,  who  died  in  an 
asylum.  She  published  a  volume  of  poems 
in  1773,  which  attracted  much  attention, 
following  it  at  intervals  vdth  various 
writings.  Finally  she  settled  in  London, 
and  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  her  brother, 
Evenings  at  Home. 

'  Barbazan,  Amauld  GuUhem,  a  French 
noble  of  the  flfteenth  century.  He  was  one 
of  six  knights  who  fought  with  six  English 
knights  in  1404,  and  he  afterwards  rendered 
good  service  against  the  Biirgundians  and 
English. 

Barbe-Marbois,  Francois,  Marquis  de  (i. 
1745,  d.  1837),  a  French  statesman  and 
historical  writer.  He  filled  several  diplo- 
matic posts  Tinder  the  Crown,  but  the 
revolutionary  tribunal  deported  him  to 
Guiana.  He  was  recalled  in  1800,  and  held 
several  State  appointments. 


Barbes,  Armand  {b.  1810),  a  violent 
French  revolutionist.  After  being  twice 
imprisoned  for  conspiring  against  the 
monarchy  he  joined  Blanqui's  futile  in- 
surrection of  1839,  and  was  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  life.  After  the  revolution 
of  1848  he  again  became  a  leading  figure  in 
politics ;  but  as  he  conspired  against  the 
republican  government  he  was  again  im- 
prisoned, only  regaining  his  liberty  in  1854. 

Barbie  du  Bocage,  Jean  Denis  {b.  1760,  d. 
1825),  an  eminent  French  geographer,  and 
the  pupil  of  D'Anville  whose  biography  he 
wrote.  In  1809  a  special  university  chair 
was  created  for  him. 

Barbier,  Henri  Auguste  {h.  1805,  d.  1882), 
a  very  successful  French  satirical  poet. 
His  chief  work  is  lambes,  a  powerful 
poem  deaHng  with  the  social  corruption  at. 
London  and  Paris.  He  also  translated 
Shakespeare's  Julius  Cmsar  in  verse. 

Barbierl  du  Cento,  Paolo  Antonio  (5. 
1596,  d.  1640),  an  Italian  painter  who 
excelled  in  depicting  animals,  flowers  and 
fruit. 

Barbosa  Machado,  Diogo  (J.  1682,  d. 
1770),  a  learned  Portuguese  monk  and 
chronicler.  He  wrote  the  Bibliotheca 
Lusitana,  Historica  Gritica  and  Chrono- 
logica,  a  work  of  vast  scope  and  great 
authority. 

Bartaou-Descourleres,  Gabriel  (^.  1761,  <f. 
1816),  French  general  who  commanded  the 
French  armies  with  much  success  in  the 
campaigns  at  the  beginning  of  the  century. 

Barbour,  John  {d.  1395),  an  early  Scottish 
poet  and  chronicler.  He  wrote  The  Book 
of  the  Gesta  of  King  Robert  Bruce,  receiv- 
ing a  pension  from  David  II.  and  Robert  II. 

Barcbam,  John  (6.  1572,  d.  1642), 
historian,  antiquary  and  clergyman.  He 
VFTote  the  life  of  Henry  II.  and  The 
Display  of  Heraldry. 

Barclay,  Alexander  (Jb.  circa  1476,  d.  1552), 
an  English  ecclesiastic,  scholar,  and  writer. 
He  wrote  The  Gastell  of  Labour  and  The 
Ship  of  Fools. 

Barclay,  John  {b.  1582,  d.  1621),  an 
English  author,  though  bom  in  France. 
He  was  introduced  to  James  I.,  to  whom 
he  indited  a  poem.  The  Loves  of  Tolyarchus 
and  Argenis  is  the  work  by  which  he  is  best 
known.    He  died  in  Rome. 

Barclay,  John  (*.  1734,  d.  1798),  a  Scottish 
divine,  and  founder  of  the  sect  known  as 
the  Bereans  or  Barclayites.  A  work  on  the 
Psalms  caused  his  dismissal  from  the 
Scottish  Presbyterian  body,  and  he  then 
settled  in  Newcastle. 


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Barclay,  Eobert  (6.  1648,  d.  1690), 
the  Scottish  champion  of  the  Quakers' 
creed.  He  was  converted  to  the  Society  of 
Friends  with  his  father  in  1666,  and 
preached  his  new  faith  through  England, 
Holland,  and  Germany.  In  1670  he  pub- 
lished his  famous  rejoinder  to  the  Rev. 
Wilham  Mitchell,  entitled,  Truth  cleared 
of  Calumnies,  and  followed  it  up  with 
other  controversial  pamphlets.  His  great 
work,  Theologicce  vere  Christiance  Apo- 
logia, appeared  in  1678,  James  II.  showed 
him  much  favour. 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  Michel,  Prince  {b.  1755, 
d.  1818),  a  great  Russian  general,  of  an  old 
Scottish  stock,  settled  in  Livonia.  He 
entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and 
served  against  the  Turks,  Swedes  and 
Poles.  In  1809  he  crossed  the  frozen  Gulf 
of  Bothnia  with  an  army,  so  securing  the 
discomfiture  of  the  Swedish  forces,  and  he 
directed  the  operations  of  the  Russian  army 
during  the  French  invasion.  Although  the 
Czar  appreciated  his  genius,  he  was  super- 
seded because  of  his  foreign  extraction,  and 
during  the  rest  of  his  life,  which  was  full  of 
active  service,  he  was  constantly  passed  by 
and  neglected. 

Bar-Cocliebas,  the  name  taken  by  a 
Jew  called  Lemion,  who  during  the  per- 
secution of  the  Jews  under  Trajan  declared 
himself  to  be  the  Messiah.  He  obtained  a 
large  following,  captured  Jerusalem,  and 
was  proclaimed  king.  Julius  Severus  over- 
threw him  A.D.  135. 

Bardesanes.  a  Gnostic  philosopher  of  the 
second  century  and  a  native  of  Edessa.  He 
founded  a  sect  professing  his  peculiar  views, 
which  he  disseminated  by  means  of  hymns. 

Bardez,  Willem,  Dutch  Calvinist  of  Am- 
sterdam, who  in  1578  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  expulsion  of  the  Catholic  magistrates 
from  the  city  council. 

Bardin,  Jean  {b.  1732,  d.  1809),  French 
historical  painter,  of  humble  birth,  who 
achieved  a  considerable  name,  and  became 
director  of  the  Orleans  school  of  fine  arts. 

Bardin,  Etienne  Alexandre,  Baron  (b.  1774, 
d.  1840),  son  of  the  preceding.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  campaigns  of  Napo- 
leon, and  wrote  several  military  treatises 
which  were  much  valued. 

Bardon,  Michel  Fran(,-oisD'Aiidre  (b.  1700, 
d.  1783),  a  French  painter  and  engraver, 
who  wrote  several  works  on  painting  and 
sculpture,  and  became  director  of  Marseilles 
academy. 

Barebones;  Praise-God,  a  London  leather 
dealer,  and  an  active  member  of  the  Parlia- 
ment which  Cromwell  summoned  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  Long  Parliament. 
b2 


Barentin,  Charles  Louis  Franqois  de  Faille 
(/'.  1738,  d.  1819),  an  honoured  councillor  of 
Louis  XVI.,  and  his  keeper  of  the  seals. 
He  was  denounced  by  Mirabeau  as  an 
enemy  of  the  people,  and  left  France,  re- 
turning only  at  the  restoration. 

Barents  (or Barentzoon), "Willem  (rf.l597), 
the  pilot  to  the  three  Dutch  expeditions  of 
1594,  1595,  and  1596,  in  search  of  a  northern 
route  to  China.  He  died  on  his  way  home 
from  the  last  expedition,  having  reached 
lat.  80°  N. 

Barentsen,  Diederik  {b.  1534,  d.  1592),  a 
Dutch  painter,  and  a  favourite  pupU  of 
Titian,  whose  manner  he  imitated  very  suc- 
cessfully. 

Barere  de  Vieuzac,  Bertrand  {b.  1775,  d. 
1841),  a  French  revolutionary  and  writer. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  National 
Convention,  and,  adopting  extreme  views, 
he  became  one  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety.  He  was  banished  in  1795,  and  again 
in  1816. 

Baretti,  Giuseppe  (b.  1716,  d.  1789),  an 
Italian  author  of  repute,  and  the  compiler 
of  an  Anglo-ItaUan  dictionary.  He  came 
to  England  in  1751,  and  became  the  close 
friend  of  Dr.  Johnson. 

Barford,  Paul  Frederick  {b.  1811),  a 
Danish  historian  and  politician  of  the  "  Scan- 
dina\aan  party. "  He  is  the  author  of  several 
valuable  works. 

Bargfes,  Jean  Joseph  Leandre  (b.  1810), 
a  French  orientalist  of  distinction.  He 
held  several  important  university  chairs, 
and  took  holy  orders. 

Barham,  Richard  Harris  (J,  1788,  d.  1845), 
the  author  of  the  famous  Ingoldsby  Ls' 
yends,  which  first  appeared  in  Bentley^s 
Magazine.  He  was  rector  of  St.  Augustine's 
and  St.  Faith's  in  London. 

Baring,  Alexander,     \_See  Ashburton.] 

Baring,  Sir  Evelyn  {b.  1841),  soldier  and 
diplomatist.  After  leaving  the  army,  he 
became  secretary  to  his  cousin,  Lord  North- 
brook,  when  Viceroy  of  India,  From 
1877  to  1879  he  was  Commissioner  of  the 
Egyptian  Public  Debt,  and  was  the  repre- 
sentative of  England  under  the  "Dual 
Control"  in  1879.  He  then  was  appointed 
financial  member  of  the  Indian  Council, 
returning  to  Egypt  in  1883. 

Baring,  Sir  Francis  (*.  1740,  d.  1810),  the 
founder  of  the  great  Baring  firm  of  mer- 
chant bankers.  A  Hanoverian  by  descent, 
he  became  Chairman  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  an  M.P.  He  was  given  a 
baronetcy  in  1793. 

Baring,    Sir    Francis    Thomhill,    Lord 


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Northbrook  {b.  1796,  d.  1866),  a  statesmau, 
and  graudson  of  the  preceding.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1826,  held  office  under  Lord 
Melbourne,  was  Chancellor  of  the  Exche- 
quer from  1839  to  1841,  and  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty  from  1849  to  1852,  He  was 
made  a  peer  in  1866. 

Baring,  Thomas  {b.  1800,  d.  1873),  brother 
of  the  preceding,  merchant  and  politician. 
He  entered  Parliament  in  1835.  He  was 
twice  offered  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  by  Lord  Derby. 

Baring-Govad,  Sabine  (b.  1834),  an  En- 
glish clergyman  and  a  popular  author. 
Besides  the  Lives  of  the  Saints,  he  has 
written  largely  on  theological  and  antiqua- 
rian subjects,  and  latterly  has  achieved 
great  success  as  a  novelist. 

Barker,  Edmund  Henry  {b.  1788,  d.  1839), 
an  English  philologist  and  lexicogi-apher. 
His  edition  of  Stepliens'  Thesaurus  Lingua 
Greece  is  of  great  value. 

Barker,  Mary  Ann,  Lady,  a  popular 
authoress,  a  native  of  Jamaica.  She  has  been 
twice  married,  and  has  spent  much  time  in 
the  Colonies,  her  experiences  of  which  have 
supplied  the  matter  for  most  of  her  works. 

Barker,  Robert  {b.  1739,  d.  1806),  an  Irish 
artist,  and  the  originator  of  panoramas,  for 
the  production  of  which  he  forsook  por- 
traiture. 

Barker,  Sir  Robert  {d.  1789),  a  general 
who  commanded  the  Bengal  forces  of  the 
East  India  Company.  He  is  best  known  for 
the  treaty  he  concluded  in  1772,  between  the 
Soubadar  of  Oude  and  the  Rohillas,  and 
against  the  Mahrattas. 

Barkly,  Sir  Henry  (i.  1815),  distin- 
guished colonial  governor.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1845.  In  1849  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  British  Guiana;  in 
1853  of  Jamaica ;  in  1856  of  Victoria ;  in 
1863  of  Mauritius ;  and  in  1870  of  the  Cape. 

Barkok  {b.  1338,  d.  1398),  a  Circassian 
slave  in  Egypt,  and  the  foimder  of  a  dynasty. 
He  was  chief  mameluke  on  the  death  of 
Sultan  AU,  in  1382,  and  he  secured  the 
succession  for  himself. 

Barlces,  (Gaspard  van  Baerle)  (5.  1584,  d. 
1648) ,  a  Flemish  poet,  theologian,  and  phy- 
sician. He  took  holy  orders,  and  filled  a 
chair  in  the  Leyden  university ;  but  being 
interdicted  for  heresy,  he  studied  medicine, 
and  obtained  a  great  reputation  at  the 
Amsterdam  university.  He  wrote  much  in 
Latin. 

Barlow,  Sir  George  Hilard  (*.  1762,  d. 
1846),  an  Indian  governor  of  distinction. 
He  entered  the  Company's  service  in  1778, 
and  was  made  provisional  Governor-general 
under  Lord  Wellesley  in  1802,  continuing  in 


the  post  until  he  succeeded  Lord  Comwallia 
as  governor.  Displaced  by  Fox,  he  accepted 
the  governorship  of  Madras. 

Barlow,  Joel  (d.  1775,  d.  1812),  an  Ameri- 
can poet.  He  served  in  the  war  of  Inde- 
pendence both  as  combatant  and  chaplain, 
writing  patriotic  songs  and  hymns.  In  1787 
he  produced  his  chief  work,  The  Vision  of 
Culumbus,  and  next  year  he  went  to 
Europe.  In  1812  he  was  appointed  minister 
at  Paris,  and  while  going  to  meet  Napoleon, 
then  in  Russia,  he  was  overtaken  with  a 
fatal  illness. 

Barlow,  Peter  {b.  1776,  d.  1862),  a  mathe- 
matician of  high  repute.  He  filled  for  some 
time  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Woolwich 
Academy,  wrote  several  valuable  works  on 
mathematics,  and  discovered  the  means  of 
correcting  eccentricities  of  the  compass.  He 
was  also  a  good  mechanician. 

Barlow,  Thomas  Oldham,  R.A.  (J>.  1824, 
d.  1889),  an  engraver.  He  studied  in  Man- 
chester, where  he  soon  obtained  a  reputa- 
tion, and  coming  to  London  he  engraved 
many  of  Sir  J.  Millais's  pictures. 

Barlow,  William,  an  Augustine  monk,  and 
a  leading  spirit  in  the  Reformation.  He  was 
a^jpointed  to  several  bishoprics  by  Henry 
VIII.,  but  was  imprisoned  by  Mary,  and, 
escaping,  only  returned  to  England  on  her 
death. 

Barlow,  William  {d.  1625), mathematician, 
son  of  the  preceding.  After  having  been 
a  sailor,  he  took  orders,  and  wrote  on 
scientific  subjects,  being  the  inventor  of  the 
box-compass,  and  the  iirst  Englishman  to 
treat  of  the  magnet. 

Barnabas,  a  Levite  of  Cyprus,  and  an 
early  Christian  convert;  he  introduced 
Paul  to  the  Church  in  Jerusalem,  and  after- 
wards imdertook  several  missions  with  him. 
The  two  quarrelled,  and  Barnabas  went  to 
Cyprus,  the  remainder  of  his  career  being 
unknown. 

Barnard,  Lady  Anne  (6.  1750,  d.  1825),  a 
Scottish  poetess,  and  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Balcarres.  Her  chief  claim  to  fame  rests 
on  the  poem  Auld  Robin  Gray. 

Barnard,  Henry  {b.  1811),  an  American 
public  man  who  interested  himself  in  the 
public  school  system  and  obtained  its  com- 
plete reorganisation. 

Barnard,  Sir  John  (*.  1685,  d.  1764),  a 
London  merchant,  who  represented  the  City 
in  ParUament  for  forty  years,  and  who 
filled  the  office  of  Lord  Mayor.  To  hia 
action  at  a  critical  time  in  1745  was  due 
the  safety  of  the  Bank  of  England. 

Barnard,  John  James  (jb.  1826,  d.  1851), 


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naTal  officer,  acted  with  great  gallantry 
on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa ;  in  1848  he 
joined  Clarke's  expedition  in  search  of 
Franklin,  and  he  was  lieutenant  of  the 
Enterprise  on  the  second  expedition,  in 
which  he  was  killed. 

Bamave,  Antoine  Pierre  Joseph  Marie 
(/'.  1761,  d.  1793),  a  distinguished  figure  of 
the  French  revolution.  Sent  to  the  States 
General  by  the  province  of  Dauphine,  he 
Boon  acquired  a  great  influence,  and  became 
president  of  the  Constituent  Assembly. 
Bamave  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  con- 
ducting the  royal  family  to  Paris  after  their 
flight,  and  his  interview  with  the  king  so 
modified  his  opinions  that  his  influence  was 
lost.  After  suffering  imprisonment  he  died 
by  the  guillotine. 

Barnes,  Bamaby,  one  of  the  Elizabethan 
minor  poets,  and  son  of  Dr.  Barnes,  Bishop 
of  Durham,  was  a  prolific  writer  of  lyrical 
verse. 

Barnes,  Joshua  {b.  1654,  d.  1712),  a  great 
Greek  scholar  and  an  English  clergyman. 
He  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge, 
edited  classics,  and  wi'ote  considerably. 

Barnes,  Robert,  one  of  the  early  promoters 
of  the  Reformation.  He  was  thrown  into  pri- 
son by  Wolsey,  but  subsequently  secured  the 
favour  of  Heni-y  VIII.  He  fell  into  disgrace 
for  attacking  Gardiner,  and  was  burnt  at 
the  stake  in  1540. 

Barnes,  Thomas  (b.  1786,  d.  1841),  editor 
of  The  Times  and  successor  to  Dr.  Stoddart 
in  that  post.  He  was  at  first  a  reporter ;  his 
conduct  of  the  paper  was  very  successful. 

Barnes,  William  (b.  1820,  d.  1886), 
English  clergjonan  of  Dorsetshire,  a  dia- 
lect poet.  He  was  also  an  orientalist,  and 
an  authoritative  writer  on  philological  and 
antiquarian  subjects. 

Bamett,  John  {b.  1802,  rf.  1890),  a  musical 
composer  of  German  extraction.  He  showed 
early  talent,  and  composed  many  songs, 
and  afterwards  operettas  and  vaicdevilles. 
His  opera.  The  Mountain  Sylph,  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Lyceum  in  1834,  and  was 
followed  by  Fair  Rosamond  and  Farinelli. 

Bamett,  John  Francis  {b.  1838),  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  and  also  a  musical  com- 
poser. Of  his  many  pieces  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Ancient  Mariner,  a  cantata,  the 
Raising  of  Lazarus,  an  oratorio,  and  the 
Good  Shepherd. 

Bamett,  Samuel  (*.  1844),  an  English 
clergyman  and  philanthropist.  His  great 
work  has  been  done  in  Whitechapel,  since 
his  appointment  to  St.  Jude's  in  1873.  He 
established  Toynbee  Hall,  which  is  the 
centre  of  a  great  organisation  for  the  social 


and    moral    improvement    of    the    East- 
End  population. 

Barneveldt,  Johann  van  Olden  {b.  1547, 
d.  1619),  a  greatDutch  statesman.  He  played 
a  leading  part  in  the  effort  of  the  Nether- 
lands to  throw  off  Spanish  dominion,  and  he 
became  Grand  Pensioner  of  the  States  of 
Holland.  He  was  sent  to  England  to  offer 
the  Dutch  crown  to  Elizabeth,  and  again 
to  conclude  an  alliance  with  James  I.  against 
Spain.  He  used  his  influence  to  obtain  the 
appointment  of  Maurice  of  Nassau  as  Stadt- 
holder  in  1587 ;  but  Maurice  afterwards 
became  jealous  of  his  patron,  and  tried  to 
excite  distrust  and  religious  enmity  against 
him.  Barneveldt  twice  sought  to  resign  his 
oifice,  but  he  was  not  allowed  to  do  so.  At 
last,  by  raising  a  corps  of  militia  to  sup- 
press riots,  he  gave  Maurice  an  excuse  for 
arraigning  him  for  high  treason,  and  he 
was  executed. 

Barney,  Joshua  (J.  1759,  d.  1818),  a  bril- 
liant American  naval  officer  who  served  in 
the  war  of  Independence  and  captured  the 
General  Monk,  and  in  1812  bore  a  distin- 
guished part  in  the  battle  of  Bladensburg. 

Bamfield,  Richard  {b.  1547),  an  Eliza- 
bethan poet,  and  a  friend  of  Shakespeare. 
He  wrote  The  Affectionate  Shepherd. 

Bamum,  Phineas  Taylor  (b.  1810,  d. 
1891),  an  American,  showman  and  proprietor 
of  "  the  greatest  show  on  earth."  He  was 
engaged  in  several  professions,  made  and 
lost  several  fortunes,  and  his  show  was 
twice  destroyed  by  fire.  He  brought  out 
Tom  Thumb,  and  introduced  Jenny  Lind 
to  the  American  public.  He  twice  visited 
Europe,  the  last  time  in  1889. 

Baroccio,  Fiori Frederico  (b.  1528,  d.  1612), 
an  Italian  portrait  and  historical  painter, 
who  earned  a  great  name  and  who  was  em- 
ployed in  the  decoration  of  the  palace  of 
Belvedere. 

Baroccio,  Francisco,  a  Venetian  scholar  of 
the  16th  century,  well  versed  in  the  classics 
and  mathematics.  He  was  imprisoned  by 
the  Inquisition  for  magic. 

Baroche,  Pierre  Jules  (b.  1802,  d.  1870),  a 
distinguished  French  advocate  and  states- 
man. He  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1846  as  a  member  of  the  opposition,  and 
after  the  revolution  he  held  high  judicial 
oflices,  and  finally  the  portfolio  tor  foreign 
affairs.  After  the  cotip  d'etat  he  was  made 
president  of  the  council  of  state. 

Baroda,  the  Gadkwars  of.  They  held 
dominion  over  a  branch  of  the  Mahratta 
confederacy.  In  1800  Auand  Rao  {d.  1819) 
placed  his  state  in  dependence  on  the 
British  :  in  1870  Malhar  Rao  succeeded  to 
the  rule,  his   misgovemment  provoking  a 


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comniissiou  of  inquiry,  aud  leading  to  his 
deposition  in  1875.  His  successor  was  Syaji 
Kao,  who  still  reigns,  and  with  great  advan- 
tage to  the  state. 

Baron,  Michel  {b.  1653,  d.  1729),  a  famous 
French  actor,  and  sou  of  professional 
parents.  His  instruction  was  largely  re- 
ceived at  the  hands  of  MoUere,  whose 
interest  he  secured. 

Barord,  CaBsare  {b.  1538,  d.  1607),  a  priest 
and  ecclesiastical  historian  of  Naples.  Cle- 
ment VIII.  took  him  into  favour,  and  made 
him  a  cardinal  and  librarian  to  the  Vatican. 
His  Annales  Ecdesiastici,  dealing  with 
church  history  of  12  centuries,  was  com- 
pleted in  30  years. 

Barral,  Andre  Horace  Francois,  Vicomte 
de  {Ik  17-13,  d.  1829),  a  soldier  and  general 
in  the  army  of  the  Alps.  He  was  also  an 
author. 

Barral,  Louis  Mathias,  Comte  de  {b.  1746, 
d.  1814),  brother  of  the  preceding,  and 
Archbishop  of  Tours.  In  1788  he  was 
forced  to  fly  the  country  for  refusing  to 
take  the  oath  of  submission.  Napoleon,  as 
First  Consul,  employed  him  in  reconciling 
the  clergy  to  the  new  order,  and  promoted 
him  to  the  see  of  Tours  for  his  services. 

Barral,  Jean  Augustin  {b.  1819),  a  French 
chemist,  whose  chief  work  was  the  ex- 
traction of  nicotine  from  the  tobacco  leaf, 
and  the  demonstration  of  its  poisonous 
properties. 

Barral,  Joseph  Marie  (b.  1742,  d.  1828),  a 
distinguished  jurist  of  Grenoble,  who  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  municipality  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolution.  He  was 
imprisoned  during  the  Reign  of  Terror,  but 
was  released  and  restored  to  ofB.ce  later. 

Barras,  Paul  Francois  Jean  Nicolas, 
Comte  de  (b.  \lbb,  d.  1829),  a  noble  French 
revolutionist  of  the  extreme  party.  He  and 
Robespierre  became  estranged,  and  to  anti- 
cipate Robespierre's  enmity  he  distinguished 
himself  by  having  the  great  Triumvir  ar- 
rested. He  was  elected  president  of  the 
Convention,  and  afterwards  a  member  of 
the  Directory.  He  retired  on  the  subversion 
of  the  Directory,  and  was  in  late  years 
constantly  changing  allegiance  from  one 
party  to  another. 

Barrelros,  Gaspar  {d.  1574),  a  Portuguese 
geographer,  who  entered  a  Franciscan 
monastery  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  left 
several  valuable  works. 

Barret,  George  (*.  1732,  d.  1784),  an 
Irish  painter,  wlio,  wdth  poor  opportunities, 
attained  a  considerable  reputation.  He 
assisted  largely  in  founding  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  was  master  painter  to  Chel- 
sea Hospital. 


Barreto,  Francisco  de  (d.  1574),  a  Por- 
tuguese governor  of  the  Indies,  who  com- 
manded an  expedition  to  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  and  penetrated  far  into  the  interior. 

Barrett,  John  (*.  1746,  d.  1821),  Vice- 
Provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  A  man 
of  very  diverse  learning,  and  an  able  philo- 
logist and  orientalist.  He  wrote  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  and  Sign  of  the  Zodiac. 

Barri,  Gerald  (6.  1146,  d.  1223),  a  Welsh 
ecclesiastic  of  noble  birth,  generally  known 
as  ' '  Giraldus  Cambrensis. ' '  He  left  numer- 
ous works,  the  chief  of  which  is  his  Typo- 
graphia  Hibernla,  written  when  the  author 
was  in  Ireland  with  Prince  John.  He  was 
Archdeacon  of  St.  David's,  and  having  been 
twice  denied  the  see,  he  retired  into  private 
Ufe,  refusing  an  offer  of  the  bishopric  when 
a  third  vacancy  occurred. 

Barri^re,  Jean  de  la  (b.  1544,  d.  1600),  a 
French  abbot  and  founder  of  the  order  of 
Feuillants,  which  was  recognised  by  Sixtus 
V.  in  1586. 

Barrington,  John  Shute,  Viscount  {b. 
1678,  (/.  1734),  a  successful  politician,  and 
son  of  a  London  merchant.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  reconciling  the  Scottish  Pres- 
byterians to  the  Union  with  England,  aud 
entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Berwick 
when  George  I.  came  to  the  throne.  He 
was  created  a  peer  of  Ireland  in  1720,  but 
for  his  connection  with  the  Hamburg  lottery 
he  was  expelled  from  Parliament,  devoting 
the  remainder  of  his  Ufe  to  theology  and 
literature. 

Barrington,  Samuel  (b.  1729,  d.  1800), 
fifth  son  of  preceding,  and  a  distinguished 
admiral.  He  fought  with  great  success  and 
gallantry  in  the  war  with  France,  his  last 
important  action  being  with  Lord  Howe  at 
Gibraltar. 

Barrington,  William  Wildman  (b.  1717, 
I  d.  1793),  eldest  son  and  successor  of  John 
i   Shute.     He  was  a  member  of  Parliament, 

Secretary  at  War  (1755),  and  Chancellor  of 

the  Exchequer  (1781). 

Barros,  Joas  de  {b.  1496,  d.  1570),  a 
Portuguese  historian.  He  was  brought  up 
in  the  royal  household :  held  an  appoint- 
ment in  Africa  ;  and  returning  to  Portugal, 
wrote  his  A.sia  Portugeza. 

Barrot,  Camille  Hyacinthe  Odillon  (b. 
1791,  d.  1873),  a  French  advocate  and  poli- 
tician of  note.  He  was  at  first  a  royalist, 
but  after  the  second  restoration  he  became 
a  prominent  figure  in  the  party  of  opposi- 
tion. He  joined  in  the  revolution  of  1830, 
and  became  prefect  of  the  Seine,  after 
which  he  again  entered  into  opposition,  this 
time  against  Guizot.  Returned  for  the 
department  of  Eure,  he  was  recognised  aa 


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leader  of  the  Left,  and  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  the  fall  of  Louis 
Philippe.  He  held  office  under  Louis 
Napoleon  as  President  of  the  Kepublic,  but 
protested  agaiast  the  coup  d^  etat,  and  retired 
from  public  hf e. 

Barrot,  Victorin  Ferdinand  (b.  1806,  d. 
1883),  a  French  poUtician  and  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  returned  by  Algeria 
to  the  constitutional  Assembly  of  1848,  and 
held  several  ministerial  posts  under  Louis 
Napoleon. 

Barrow,  Isaac  {b.  1630,  d.  1677),  scholar 
and  diviae,  and  the  preceptor  of  Isaac 
Newton.  He  earned  a  great  reputation  at 
Cambridge,  and  afterwards  chiefly  studied 
natural  science,  divinity  and  the  classics. 
After  some  foreign  travel  he  entered  the 
church,  and  in  1660  obtained  the  professor- 
ship of  Greek  at  Cambridge  and  that  of 
geometry  at  Gresham  College.  The  latter 
appointment  he  resigned  to  Newton,  and 
was  appointed  by  Charles  II.  to  the  Master- 
ship of  Trinity  College,  afterwards  being 
chosen  Vice-Chancellor  of  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity. He  died  a  little  later,  with  the 
reputation  of  being  one  of  the  best  wits  and 
prof oimdest  scholars  of  his  day. 

Barrow,  Sir  John  (b.  1764,  d.  1848),  a 
traveller  and  man  of  science.  As  private 
secretary  to  Sir  George  Staunton,  he  ac- 
compamed  Lord  Macartney's  expedition  to 
China,  and  in  1797  he  went  with  Lord 
Macartney  to  the  Cape.  He  then  became 
a  secretary  to  the  Admiralty,  and  was 
created  baronet  in  1825.  He  wrote  many 
books  of  travel. 

Barrowe,  Henry  {d.  1593),  a  religious 
enthusiast  of  the  16th  century.  In  1586  he 
was  imprisoned  for  the  heterodoxy  of  his 
views;  and  his  writings  while  he  was  in 
prison,  vindicating  his  faith,  gave  such 
offence  that  he  was  executed. 

Bamill,  Augustin  de  (b.  1741,  d.  1820), 
a  French  Jesuit,  who  wrote  against  the 
revolution  and  the  neglect  of  religion.  He 
was  twice  banished  from  France,  but  was 
finally  taken  into  favour  by  Napoleon. 

Barry,  Sir  Charles  {h.  1795,  d.  1860),  an 
eminent  architect.  He  designed  the  Travel- 
lers' and  Reform  clubs  and  the  College 
of  Surgeons,  but  the  great  work  of  his  life 
was  the  construction  of  the  Houses  of  Par- 
liament, and  for  this  work  he  was  knighted. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Barry,  Sir  David  {b.  1780,  d.  1845),  an 
Irish  physician.  He  served  in  the  Penin- 
sular war  as  army  surgeon ;  made  some 
valuable  researches  into  the  circulation  of 
the  blood ;  and  was  sent  by  Government  to 
Gibraltar  and  Russia  to  hivestigate  epi- 
demics of  yellow  fever  and  cholera. 


Barry,  Elizabeth  (b.  1658,  d.  1713),  a 
famous  tragedy  actress.  She  established 
her  great  reputation  by  a  representation 
of  Monimia  in  Otway's  Orphan,  and  was, 
before  her  death,  the  creator  of  112  parts. 
She  was  a  gi-eat  favoui-ite  at  Court,  and  it 
was  in  her  behalf  that  "benefits"  were 
invented  by  James  II. 

Barry,  Edward  Middleton  (J.  1830,  d. 
188u),  an  architect  and  son  of  Sir  Charles 
Barry,  whom  he  succeeded  as  architect  of 
the  Houses  of  Parliament.  He  also  de- 
signed the  National  Gallery  building. 

Barry,  James  {b.  1741,  d.  1806),  an  Iiish 
artist  of  considerable  genius.  His  Landing 
of  St.  Patrick,  painted  iu  his  20th  year, 
secured  the  interest  of  Burke,  by  whose  aid 
Barry  visited  Italy.  In  1776  he  finished 
the  famous  Death  of  Wolfe,  which  was 
not  appreciated,  though  Barry's  reputation 
was  great.  For  seven  years,  from  1774, 
Barry  devoted  himself  to  the  unremunera- 
tive  task  of  decorating  the  great  hall  of  the 
Society  of  Arts  with  seven  great  pictures. 
He  died  in  poverty. 

Barry,  John  {b.  1745,  d.  1803),  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  who  distinguished  himself 
greatly  in  the  war  of  Independence.  In 
1794  he  was  made  first  commodore  of  the 
U.S.  navy. 

Barry,  Marie  Jeanne  Gomard  de  Vau- 
bemier,  Comtesse  du  {b.  1746,  d.  1793),  the 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.  She  exercised  the 
greatest  influence  over  the  king ;  was 
banished  by  his  successor;  and  guillotined 
by  the  revolutionary  tribunal. 

Barry,  Martin  (J).  1802,  d.  1855),  a  physi- 
cian and  scientist,  whose  researches  in 
embryology  are  of  European  celebrity. 

Barry,  Spranger  {b.  1719,  d.  1777),  a  cele- 
brated actor  of  Irish  extraction.  He  was 
the  great  rival  of  Gamck,  with  whom  he 
competed  in  the  representation  of  Romeo. 

Barry,  Mrs.  Spranger  {b.  1733,  d.  1801),  a 
gifted  actress,  who  made  a  Loudon  reputa- 
tion in  the  character  of  Desdemona,  She 
later  appeared  in  the  name  of  her  third  hus- 
band, Crawford. 

Bart,  Jean  {b.  1651,  d.  1702),  a  gallant 
French  naval  officer,  whose  daring  exploits 
against  the  Dutch  and  English  earned  for 
him  a  great  reputation,  and  the  especial 
favour  of  Louis  XIV. 

Bartas,  Guillaume  de  Salluste,  Sieur  du 
[b.  1544,  d.  1590),  a  poet  soldier  of  Gascony, 
whose  La  Premiere  Semaine  was  highly  es- 
teemed. He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Ivry. 

Barth,   Heinrich    (J>.   1821,   d.    1865),  a 


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German  African  explorer.  From  1845  to 
1854  he  was  constantly  occupied  with 
expeditions  into  Africa,  first  into  the  north, 
and  afterward  along  the  course  of  the  Nile. 
The  records  of  his  travels  are  of  great  value. 

Barthelemy,  Auguste  Marseille  {b.  1796, 
d.  1867),  a  very  popular  French  writer  of 
politico-satirical  verse.  He  bitterly  attacked 
the  monarchical  government  of  the  restora- 
tion, and  twice  suffered  imprisonment  for 
his  writings  before  the  revolution  of  1830. 
Afterwards  he  was  as  scathing  in  his  satire 
of  Guizot,  but  having  lost  his  pension,  he 
suddenly  began  to  write  in  direct  contradic- 
tion of  his  earlier  effusions. 

Barthelemy,  Frantjois,  Marquis  de  {b. 
1747,  d.  1830),  a  French  diplomatist,  em- 
ployed on  various  missions  prior  to  the 
revolution.  He  was  for  a  time  member  of 
the  Directory,  but  he  was  imprisoned  later. 
He  was  a  pronounced  adherent  of  Napoleon, 
but  he  secured  honour  and  distinctions  under 
the  restored  king. 

Barthelemy,  Jean  Jacques  (b.  1716,  d. 
1795),  a  French  antiquary.  He  succeeded 
Gros  de  Boze  as  keeper  of  the  king's  cabinet 
of  medals,  and  held  the  appointment  until 
the  revolution.  His  great  work  is  T/te 
Travels  of  Anacharsis,  over  which  he  spent 
thirty  years. 

Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  Jules  {b. 
1805),  a  French  scholar  and  politician.  He 
■was  classical  professor  at  the  University  of 
France,  translated  Aristotle,  and  wrote  on 
Oriental  literature  and  religions.  He  was 
active  in  the  revolutions  of  1830  and  1848, 
•was  elected  life  senator  in  1875,  and  was 
foreign  minister  in  Ferry's  cabinet  of  1880. 

Barthes,  Paul  Joseph  {b.  1734,  d.  1806), 
a  French  physiologist  and  physician.  He 
was  physician  to  the  king,  his  valuable 
medical  researches  and  writings  gaining  for 
him  a  great  reputation. 

Bartholdy,  Jacob  Solomon  (b.  1779,  d. 
1825),  aPrussian  diplomatist  and  litterateur. 
He  fought  against  the  French  under  Napo- 
leon, and  later  in  life  was  employed  on 
several  important  missions. 

Bartholomseus  Anglicus,  a  learned  monk 
of  the  Franciscan  order,  named  Glan\'il, 
who  lived  in  the  14th  century,  and  is 
known  as  the  author  of  De  Proprietatibus 
Herum. 

Bartholom38us  a  Martyrihus  (b.  1514,  d. 
1590),  a  distinguished  Dominican,  Arch- 
bishop of  Braga.  He  bore  an  honourable  part 
in  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  obtained  the 
removal  of  certain  indignities  upon  his 
order. 

Bartholomew,  St.,  oue  of  the  Apostles 


and  the  son  of  Tliolomaeus  or  Tolmai.  It  is 
supposed  from  internal  evidence  that  he 
is  identical  with  the  person  referred  to  in 
some  of  the  gospels  as  Nathaniel.  He  is 
spoken  of  by  tradition  as  carrying  the 
gospel  into  India. 

Bartleman,  Hippolyte  {b.  1741,  d.  1808),  a 
French  violinist  and  composer  of  opera.  He 
came  to  London  in  1766,  where  he  did  all 
his  best  work,  and  achieved  a  considerable 
reputation. 

Bartelman,  James  {J>.  1769,  d.  1821),  a 
celebrated  bass  singer,  noted  for  his  render- 
ing of  classical  music. 

Bartlett,  William  Henry  {b.  1809,  d.  1854), 
a  clever  artist  and  illustrator  of  books.  He 
reproduced  the  scenery  of  Switzerland, 
Scotland,  Turkey,  and  the  Holy  Land,  and 
other  countries  in  pen  and  pencil  drawings 
with  the  greatest  success.  He  also  visited 
America. 

Bartoli,  Daniele  Qj.  1608,  d.  1685),  an 
Italian  Jesuit,  known  for  his  Sioria  della 
Societa  de  Gesu^  an  exhaustive  history  of 
the  Jesuit  order. 

Bartoli,  Pietro  Santo  {b.  1635,  d.  1700), 
Italian  painter  and  engraver,  especially 
noted  for  his  excellent  engravings  of  the 
great  works  of  Greek  and  Roman  art. 

Bartolini,  Lorenzo  (*.  1778,  d.  1850),  a 
Florentine  sculptor  of  the  highest  repute. 
He  studied  first  in  Paris,  where  he  soon  made 
a  name,  and  received  commissions  from 
Napoleon.  At  the  fall  of  the  empire  he 
returned  to  Italy,  and  produced  his  most 
famous  pieces  of  work — Charity  and  Her- 
cules and  Lycas. 

Bartolommeo,  Fra.     [See  Baccio.] 

Bartolommeo  Maestro,  Venetian  sculptor 
and  architect  of  the  14th  century. 

Bartolozzi,  Francesco  {b.  \12b,  d.  1813), 
a  Florentine  artist  and  engraver,  who  was 
so  successful  in  the  latter  capacity  that  he 
abandoned  painting.  In  1764  he  came  to 
London  and  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy. 

Barton,  Sir  Andrew,  Scottish  sea-captain, 
who  caused  much  destruction  among  the 
English  traders  in  .the  middle  of  the  16th 
century.  His  ships  were  at  last  cap- 
tured, and  he  was  slain,  by  Sir  Thomas 
Howard  in  1571. 

Barton,  Benjamin  Smith  (b.  1776,  d. 
1815),  an  American  physician  and  botanist. 
He  studied  in  Great  Britain  and  Germany 
with  distinction,  and  afterwards  held  high 
univei'sity  dignities  in  America. 

Barton,    Bernard    {b.   1784,    d.   1849),  a 


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native  of  London,  known  as  the  "Quaker 
poet."  He  was  a  bank-clerk  for  forty 
years.     His  writings  were  very  numerous. 

Barton,  Elizabeth,  a  religious  fanatic, 
known  as  the  "  Holy  Maid  of  Kent," 
lived  iu  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Influ- 
enced by  an  unscrupulous  priest,  she  claimed 
prophetic  inspiration,  and  gained  the  credu- 
lity of  many.  The  Star  Chamber  forced  her 
and  her  accomplices  to  confession,  aud  they 
were  executed  in  1534. 

Baxtram,  John  {b.  1701,  d.  1777),  an 
American  botanist,  who  established  the 
first  American  botanical  garden.  He  was 
appointed  royal  botanist  by  George  III. 

Bartsch,  Adam  von  {b.  1757,  d.  1820),  a 
distinguished  designer  and  engraver  of 
Vienna,  of  official  rank.  His  works  are  of 
high  merit. 

Barucli,  the  friend  and  secretary  of  the 
prophet  Jeremiah.  He  it  was  who  read 
before  the  assembled  Jewish  chiefs  the  pro- 
phecies of  Jeremiah  which  Kiug  Jehoiakim 
destroyed,  aud  who  delivered  to  Babylon 
Jeremiah's  denunciation  of  that  city. 

Barwell,  John,  a  distinguished  servant  of 
the  East  India  Company.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  new  council  appointed  in  1773, 
with  Warren  Hastings  as  Governor-general. 
He  served  for  five  years,  consistently  sup- 
porting Hastings  in  aU  dissensions,  and  re- 
tired in  1780. 

Barze,  Antoine  Louis  {b.  1795,  d.  1875), 
a  French  sculptor.  He  was  first  a  worker 
in  metals,  and  an  engraver,  and  only  exhi- 
bited statuary  for  the  first  time  when 
thirty-four  years  old.  His  work  in  bronze 
is  highly  esteemed. 

Basaiti,  Marco,  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
early  part  of  the  16th  century.  His  best 
work  is  in  Venice. 

Baschi,  Matteo.  The  founder  of  the  order 
of  the  Capuchins,  lived  in  the  loth  cen- 
tury. 

Basedow,  Johann  Bemhard  (b.  1723,  d. 
1790),  a  German  educationalist,  of  eccentric 
temper,  who,  after  occupying  chairs  at 
several  vmiversities,  was  inspired  by  Rous- 
seau's Smile  to  establish  a  system  of  pic- 
torial education.  His  writings  on  the  sub- 
ject were  very  popular,  but  his  model 
school  failed. 

Basevl,  George  (b.  1794,  d.  1845),  an 
English  architect  of  great  talent,  who  was 
much  employed  in  London,  and  who  de- 
signed the  Cambridge  Fitzwilliam  museum. 

Basevl,  James  Palladio  (d.  1871),  an 
engineer  engaged  in  the  trigonometrical 
survey  of  India.    For  seven  years  he  gave 


his  attention  to  pendulum  observations  for 
determining  the  variations  of  the  force  of 
gravity. 

Basil,  Saint  {b.  329,  d.  379),  sumamed 
"the  Great."  One  of  the  Greek  Fathers 
of  the  Church.  He  was  bom  in  Caesarea, 
and  after  studying  in  Athens,  became  an 
advocate.  He  abandoned  this  calling  for 
ascetic  seclusion,  and  finally  instituted  a 
monastery  near  Ibora  in  Pontus.  In  370  he 
succeeded  Eusebius  as  Bishop  of  Caesarea, 
and  in  this  office  carried  on  a  long  struggle 
against  Arianism,  championed  though  it 
was  by  the  Emperor  Valens.  The  goodness 
aud  devotion  of  his  life  gave  him  great  in- 
fluence, and  his  monastic  rules  were  gener- 
ally adopted.  His  writings  were  widely 
circulated,  and  have  always  been  highly 
esteemed. 

Basil  or  Basilius,  a  Bulgarian  monk  of 
the  twelfth  century,  who  founded  the  sect 
of  "Bogomiles."  In  1118  he  was  tried  for 
heresy  by  a  council  at  Constantinople,  and 
burnt  at  the  stake. 

BasU  I.  (b.  813,  d.  886),  sumamed  the 
' '  Macedonian, ' '  Byzantine  emperor ;  though 
reputed  to  be  of  royal  descent,  his 
father  was  a  small  farmer  near  Adria- 
nople,  from  whence  BasU  was  carried  away 
by  the  Bulgarians.  He  ultimately  went  to 
Constantinople,  and  by  his  powers  as  an 
athlete  gaiued  the  favour  of  the  Emperor 
Michael  III.  In  867  he  murdered  Michael, 
and  seized  the  imperial  power,  wielding 
it  with  great  effect.  He  re -organised  the 
army  and  reformed  the  process  of  justice, 
and  his  death  was  generally  lamented. 

Basil  II.  {h.  958,  d.  1025),  great  grand- 
son of  the  preceding.  He  assumed  the 
government  in  976,  on  the  death  of  the 
regent,  John  Zimisces,  and  succeeded  in 
defeating  in  Asia  two  insurgent  generals. 
He  also  conquered  the  Bulgarians. 

Basillscus  (d.  477),  a  Greek  emperor. 
He  was  brother-in-law  to  the  Emperor  Leo, 
at  whose  death  he  seized  upon  the  throne, 
He  was,  however,  soon  ousted,  and  he 
perished  in  prison. 

Basin,  Thomas  (b.  1402,  d.  1491),  French 
prelate  and  historian.  In  1447  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Lisieux,  and  his  defence  of  Joan 
of  Arc  against  the  sentence  of  the  Pope 
gained  him  the  favour  of  Charles  VII. 
Incurring  the  enmity  of  the  Dauphin,  he 
fled  from  France.  He  wrote  the  histories 
of  Charles  VII.  and  Louis  XI. 

Basire,  Claude  {b.  1764,  d.  1794),  a  French 
revolutionist.  As  a  member  and  secretary 
of  the  Convention  he  was  remarkable  for 
his  extreme  views.  He  discovered  the  re- 
actionary "  Comitt;  Autrichien,"  but  was 
later  guillotined  for  treachery. 


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Bastre,  Isaac  (b.  1607,  d.  1676),  chaplaiu- 
in-ordiuary  to  Charles  L  After  the  sur- 
render of  Oxford  to  the  Parliament  he 
went  on  a  mission  to  the  East,  and  preached 
with  much  success.  In  1661  Charles  II.  re- 
stored him  to  his  former  position. 

Baskerville,  John  {h.  1706.  d.  1775),  a 
writing  master  of  Birmingham,  who  effected 
gi-eat  improvements  in  typography. 

Bassal,  Jean  (b.  1752,  d.  1802),  a  French 
priest  and  revolutionist.  He  was  elected 
secretary  of  the  Convention  ;  was  president 
of  the  Jacobins ;  accompanied  Championnet 
to  Italy,  and  was  imprisoned  with  htm. 

Bassano,  Giacomo  da  Ponte,  H  Vecchio 
(b.  1510,  d.  1592),  an  ItaUan  painter,  a 
native  of  Bassano,  from  which  he  took  his 
name.  He  is  best  known  for  his  landscape 
and  animal  painting. 

Bassano,  Francesco  (b.  1548,  d.  1591),  son 
of  the  preceding,  and  also  a  painter  of  note. 
He  committed  suicide  from  a  morbid  fear  of 
the  Inquisition. 

Bassano,  Hugues  Bernard  Maret,  Duke 
of  {b.  1763,  d.  1839),  a  French  statesman 
and  writer.  He  was  closely  associated  with 
Napoleon  from  the  first,  was  employed  on 
several  missions  by  him  and  held  high 
offices.  In  1811  he  was  ennobled  and  made 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  After  Waterloo 
he  was  banished,  but  in  1830  he  was  re- 
habilitated. 

Bassantin,  James  {b.  1504,  d.  1568),  a 
Scottish  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
and  professor  at  the  University  of  Paris. 

Basse,  William,  a  minor  poet  of  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  who  wrote  an  epitaph  on 
Shakespeare. 

Basseville,  Nicolas  Jean  Hugou  de 
{d.  1793),  a  French  politician  and  writer. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mirabeau  in 
Berlin,  where  he  attained  some  literary  dis- 
tinction. After  editing  pa^jers  in  Paris,  he 
was  sent  by  the  National  Assembly  to 
Naples  and  Rome,  where  he  was  murdered 
by  the  mob. 

Bassl,  Laura  Maria  (b.  1711,  d.  1778),  a 
learned  lady  of  Bologna,  who  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  at  the  age 
of  21,  and  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Bologna. 

Bassl,  Ugo  (J).  1804,  d.  1849),  an  Italian 
priest  and  nationalist.  In  1848  he  joined 
the  Roman  volunteers ;  and  he  was  attached 
to  the  Garibaldi  Legion  during  the  siege  of 
Rome,  acting  as  chaplain,  medical  assistant, 
and  combatant.  Later,  he  was  taken  by  the 
Austrians,  and  after  the  crown  of  his  head 
and  the  palms  of  his  hands  had  been  flayed, 
he  was  executed. 


Bassompierre,  Fran9ois,  Baron  de  {b.  1579, 
d.  1646) ,  a  French  noble,  and  an  important 
figure  in  the  court  of  Henry  IV.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier,  was 
made  colonel  of  the  Swiss  Guards  and  a 
Marshal  of  France,  and  was  employed  on 
important  embassies.  Through  the  disfavour 
of  Richelieu  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bas- 
tille for  ten  years,  where  he  wrote  his 
Memoirs. 

Bastard,  D'Estang,  Dominic  Francois 
Marie.  Comte  de  (b.  1783,  d.  1844),  a  dis- 
tinguished French  jurist,  who  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  and  president  of  the  cour 
de  cassation. 

Bastard,  Thomas  {d.  1618),  an  English 
clergyman  and  a  notable  wit.  His  sallies 
made  him  many  enemies,  and  he  died  in  a 
debtor's  prison. 

Basti,  Pierre  {b.  1768,  d.  1814).  a  French 
admiral,  who  rose  to  that  rank  from  the 
position  of  a  common  sailor.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1808  against 
Spain,  and  was  ennobled  by  Napoleon. 

Bastian,  Henry  Charlton  {b.  1837),  an 
eminent  physician  and  biologist,  professor  of 
pathological  anatomy  at  University  College. 
He  has  wi'itten  much  on  the  origin  of  Qie 
lower  organisms. 

Bastiat,  Frederick  (Jb.  1801,  d.  1850),  a 
French  political  economist  noted  for  his  early 
advocacy  of  free  trade.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1848. 

Bastide,  Jules  (i.  1800,  d.  1879),  a  French 
politician  and  writer.  He  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  was 
condemned  to  death  for  sharing  in  the 
Grenoble  insurrection  of  1832,  but  escaped  to 
London.  After  editing  several  papers,  he 
became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1848. 

Bastien-Lepage,  Jules  (b.  1848,  d.  1885), 
a  French  painter  of  high  repute  as  an 
impressionist.  His  fame  was  secured  by  his 
Joan  of  Arc  Brooding  in  the  Garden. 

Baston,  Robert,  a  Yorkshire  monk,  and 
poet-laureate  to  Edward  I.,  by  whom  he 
was  taken  to  Scotland  in  1304  to  celebrate 
his  triumphs.  Taken  prisoner  by  the  Scots, 
he  was  compelled  to  buy  his  freedom  by 
singing  the  deeds  of  Robert  Bruce. 

Bastwick,  John  (*.  1593,  d.  1650),  an 
English  physician  and  theological  contro- 
versialist. For  his  denunciation  of  the 
extreme  pretensions  of  the  episcopacy  he  was 
heavily  fined  and  imprisoned,  and  had  his  ears 
cut  off.  He  was  liberated  and  indemnified 
after  the  Civil  war. 

Batbie,  Anselme  Polycarpe  (b.  1828),  a 
French  politician  and  vsrriter  on  legal  and 
economical  subjects.     In  1870  he  abandoned 


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his  work  as  professor  of  jurisprudence  for 
political  lLfe,and  was  returned  to  theNational 
Assembly  of  1 870  as  a  monarchist.  He  was 
an  active  opponent  of  Thiers,  and  in  1873 
held  a  portfolio  in  the  Due  de  Broglie's  ad- 
ministration. 

Bate,  Charles  Speuce  {h.  1819),  an  English 
zoologist,  and  an  eminent  authority  on  the 
crustacean  order  and  other  of  the  lower 
forms  of  animal  life.  He  is  also  in  active 
practice  as  a  dentist,  and  in  1885  was  Presi- 
dent of  the  Odontological  Association  of 
England. 

Bateman,  Kate  Josephine  {b.  1842), 
American  actress,  who  appeared  on  the 
London  stage  when  only  eight  years  old, 
and  afterwards  in  1863  gained  a  high 
reputation  by  her  acting  in  King  Lear, 

Bates,  Henry  "Walter  (fi.  1825),  a  dis- 
tinguished entomologist.  He  started  with 
Mr.  Alfred  Eussel  Wallace,  in  1848,  on  a 
naturaUstic  expedition  to  the  Amazon 
valley,  and  remained  there  eleven  years, 
returning  with  observations  and  collections 
of  exceptionally  high  value.  The  record  of 
his  visit  proved  very  popular.  He  is  now 
the  secretary  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society. 

Bates,  Joah  {b.  1740,  d.  1799),  a  gifted 
musician,  director  of  the  "concerts  of 
ancient  music,"  and  organiser  of  the  great 
Handel  festival  of  1784.  He  held  several 
ofl&ces  in  the  Civil  Service. 

Bates,  William  (b.  1625,  d.  1709),  a  cele- 
brated Nonconformist  divine.  He  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  but  refus- 
ing to  subscribe  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  in 
1662,  he  lost  his  appointments  and  hopes  of 
preferment.    He  was  a  popular  preacher. 

Bathe  or  Bathonia,  Henry  de  {d.  1261), 
an  English  judge  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
In  1251  he  was  arraigned  before  Parliament 
for  bribery  and  treason,  but  although  the 
king  endeavoured  to  procure  his  undoing,  his 
friends  were  too  numerous  and  powerful,  and 
he  was  restored  to  oiRce. 

Bathilde,  Saint  {d.  680),  a  beautiful  and 
virtuous  Anglo-Saxon  lady,  who  was 
carried  into  slavery,  and  coming  under  the 
notice  of  Clovis  II.,  became  his  wife.  She 
acted  as  regent  during  the  minority  of  her 
son,  Clotaire  III. 

Bathory,  Stephen  {d.  158G),  King  of 
Poland.  As  the  ruler  of  Transylvania  he 
succeeded  Henry  of  Anjou  to  the  throne  of 
Poland  in  1575.  The  beneficence  of  his  rule 
and  the  success  of  his  arms  againstRussia  and 
Austria  have  made  him  famous. 

Bathurst,  Allen,  Earl  {b.  1684,  d.  1775), 
politician,  entered  Parliament  as  a  supporter 


of  Harley,  and  in  1711  was,  with  others, 
created  a  peer  to  overwhelm  the  Whig 
majority.  He  was  true  to  his  leaders  when 
Walpole  came  into  office,  and  in  1757  was 
treasurer  to  George  III.,  then  Prince  of 
Wales. 

Bathurst,  Henry,  Earl  (b.  1714,  d.  1794), 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  represented 
Cirencester  till  1754,  when  he  was  raised  to 
the  bench,  and  in  1771  was  created  Lord 
Chancellor,  resigning  the  oiiice  in  1778. 

Bathyani,  Casimir,  Count  [b.  1807, 
d.  1854),  a  Hungarian  noble,  who  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Hungarian  revolution 
of  1848.  He  held  command  in  the  National 
forces,  and  when  Kossuth  was  appointed 
governor  of  independent  Hungary,  Bathyani 
accepted  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs. 
In  1849  Gorgei's  assumption  of  the  dictator- 
ship induced  Bathyaui  to  surrender  his 
army  to  the  Russians,  and  together  with 
Kossuth  he  escaped  to  Turkey. 

Bathyani,  Louis  {b.  1809,  «?.  1849),  a 
Hungarian  statesman  and  patriot.  After 
much  travel  he  entered  political  life  and 
became  a  zealous  supporter  of  Kossuth.  In 
1847  he  accepted  office  under  the  Archduke 
Stephen,  endeavouring  to  maintain  the 
political  union  with  Austria,  for  which 
purpose  he  visited  Vienna.  After  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution  he  was  taken 
prisoner  and  shot. 

Batinskcov,  Constantine  Nicholaird 
{b.  1787,  d.  1816),  Russian  poet  of  high 
estimation,  and  imperial  Ubrarian  at  St. 
Petersburg. 

Batman,  Stephen  {b.  1537,  d.  1587),  an 
English  divine  and  poet,  who  filled  the 
office  of  librarian  to  Archbishop  Parker. 

BatO.  The  name  borne  by  two  insurrec- 
tionary chiefs  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus.  Their  joint  forces  were  at  length 
defeated  by  Germanicus  (a.d.  8),  but  one  of 
them  having  killed  the  other,  the  survivor 
again  revolted,  surrendering  however  on  the 
promise  of  pardon. 

Batoni,  Pompeo  (b.  1708,  d.  1787),  a 
notable  Italian  painter  of  the  Florentine 
school,  whose  work,  founded  on  a  study  of 
the  old  masters,  did  much  to  revive  their 
prestige. 

Battishill,  Jonathan  (b.  1731,  d.  1801), 
English  musical  composer,  best  known  for 
his  sacred  pieces,  although  in  earlier  years 
he  produced  opera  music. 

Batu  Khan,  a  great  Mogul  chief,  rulei 
(1223)  of  the  Kapzac  provinces  on  the 
Vistula.  He  joined  the  expedition  of  Octal, 
his  uncle,  against  China,  and  commanded  a 
large  division  of  the  army  which  invaded 


Bat 


(108) 


Bax 


Europe,  ravaging  Poland,  Silesia,  Moldavia, 
Hungary  and  Dalmatia. 

Batula,  Ibn,  Moorisli  traveller  of  the 
14th  century.  After  visiting  Africa  and 
South-eastern  Europe,  he  crossed  the  Hin- 
doo Khoosh  mountains  and  reached  Delhi 
in  1341.  He  was  taken  into  high  favour  by 
the  emperor,  and  later  sent  au  embassy  to 
China.  Returning  to  Tangiers  in  1348,  he 
Bet  out  to  explore  Africa,  and  reached 
Timbuctoo.     He  left  a  record  of  his  travels. 

Batz,  Jean,  Baron  de  (/;.  1760,  d.  1883), 
French  general,  distinguished  himself  as 
a  financier  iu  the  States  General ;  but  in 
1794  he  was  proscribed  for  attemptLtig  to 
rescue  Louis  XVI.  and  his  queen.  He 
■was  made  a  marshal  on  the  restoration. 

Baude,  Henri  {b.  1430,  d.  1495),  French 
poet,  greatly  esteemed  by  his  contempo- 
raries, and  a  rival  of  Villon.  A  poem 
satirising  the  court  brought  imprisonment 
on  him. 

Baudissin,  Wolf  Heinrich  Friederich 
Karl,  Count  of  {b.  1789),  a  Danish  littera- 
teur. He  entered  the  diplomatic  service, 
but  left  it  for  literature,  and  settling  in 
Dresden  he  became  intimate  with  Tieck 
and  Schlegel.  Together  they  translated  all 
Shakespeare's  plays,  and  Baudissin  also 
wrote  a  book  on  Ben  Jonson  and  his  school. 

Baudrand,  Marie  Etienne  Fran(;ois  Henri 
(i.  1774,  d.  1848),  one  of  Napoleon's  generals, 
promoted  from  the  ranks.  After  the  1830 
revolution  he  was  made  a  peer. 

Baudry,  Paul  Jacques  Aime  {b.  1828,  d. 
1886),  French  painter,  who  won  the  Grand 
Frix  de  Rome  iu  1850,  and  exhibited  with 
much  success  in  the  Salon.  He  spent  ten 
years  iu  decorating  the  boxes  and  galleries 
of  the  Grand  Opera. 

Bauer,  Bruno  {b.  1809,  d.  1882),  a  German 
biblical  critic,  whose  vrritings  procured  his 
explusion  from  the  chair  of  theology  at  Bonn, 
inl842.  ^^  ^ 

Baulot  or  Beaulieu,  Jacques  (b.  1651, 
d.  1720),  a  poor  Frenchman,  who  under  the 
name  of  Fr^re  Jacques  acquired  a  great 
reputation  as  a  lithotomist.  Only  late  in 
life  did  he  receive  any  instruction  iu 
anatbmy,  and  then  he  operated  at  the  Hotel 
Dieu  of  Paris,  while  a  medal  was  struck  at 
Amsterdam  as  a  recognition  of  his  services 
in  that  city. 

Baume,  Antoine  {b.  1728,  d.  1804),  a  dis- 
tinguished French  chemist.  He  established 
the  first  European  manufactory  of  sal- 
ammoniac,  and  invented  an  areometer.  He 
left  numerous  works. 

Baumgarten,  Alexander  Gottlieb  (4.  1714, 


d.    1762),    German  philosopher,   known    as 
the  originator  of  the  aesthetic  philosophy. 

Baumgartner,  Andreas  [b.  1793,  d.  1865), 
an  Austrian  scientist,  and  professor  of  phy- 
sics at  Vienna  university.  Subsequently  he 
became  minister  of  public  works  and  com- 
merce. From  1826  to  1837  he  conducted 
the  Journal  of  Physics  and  Mathematics, 

Baune,  Eugene  (b.  1799,  rf.  1880),  an  active 
French  politician.  He  joined  the  Carbonari 
in  1830,  and  fought  in  the  revolution  of  1848. 
Later  he  was  a  leading  member  of  the 
"Moimtain  "  party,  and  for  his  opposition 
to  Louis  Napoleon  was  banished. 

Bavaria,  Kings  of.  1.  MAxruuLiAN 
Joseph  I.  (b.  1766,  d.  1825),  succeeded  to 
the  Electorate  in  1799,  and  in  1805  sided 
with  Napoleon,  who  created  him  king,  and 
granted  him  an  accession  of  territory.  Iu 
1813,  his  new  title  haviug  been  acknowledged 
by  treaty,  he  joined  the  allies.  2.  Louis  I. 
(b.  1786,  d.  1868)  succeeded  the  preceding. 
He  was  a  man  of  refined  tastes,  and  his 
reign  began  auspiciously  :  but  he  incurred 
the  odium  of  his  subjects  by  his  submission 
to  unworthy  influences,  and  abdicated  in 
1848.  3.  Maxtmtlian  IL  (b.  1811,  d.  1864) 
succeeded  the  preceding.  He  ruled  with  a 
strong  hand,  and  held  aloof  from  federation 
with  Germany.  4.  Louis  II.  {b.  1845, 
d.  1886)  succeeded  the  preceding,  a  weak 
ruler.  He  allowed  Bavaria  to  fight  with 
Austria  against  Prussia  in  1866,  but  joined 
the  German  States  against  France  in  1870. 
He  it  was  who  offered  King  William  the 
title  of  German  Emperor.  He  was  deposed 
in  1886,  as  being  of  iinsound  mind,  and  soon 
after  committed  suicide. 

Bavaux,  Francois  Nicolas  (b.  1774,  d.  1848), 
a  French  jurist,  and  professor  of  law  in  the 
school  of  Paris.  In  1819  he  was  prosecuted 
for  anti-royalist  tendencies,  but  was  ac- 
quitted. In  1830  he  joined  the  revolution, 
and  was  made  prefect  of  pohce,  but  at  once 
entered  into  opposition  of  the  Government. 

Baxter,  Andrew  {b.  1686,  d.  1750),  a  Scot- 
tish metaphysician,  known  as  the  author  of 
An  Enqtiiry  into  the  Nature  of  the  Human 
Soul. 

Baxter,  Richard  (b.  1615,  d.  1691),  a  cele- 
brated divine  and  preacher.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1638,  and  in  1640  obtained  a  living 
at  Kidderminster,  where  he  soon  obtamed  a 
reputation  for  his  oratory.  During  the  Civil 
war  he  was  with  the  army  of  the  Parliament 
preaching  to  the  soldiers,  though  he  refused 
to  support  Cromwell  in  his  assumption  of  the 
Protectorship.  On  the  Restoration  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  royal  chaplains,  and 
offered  the  see  of  Hereford,  which  he  de- 
clined. In  1662  he  refused  to  subscribe  to 
the  Act  of  Uniformity,  and  sulfered  much 


Baz 


(109) 


Baz 


persecution  in  consequence,  being  sent  to 
prison  in  1685  by  Judge  JeiiEreys.  Of  his 
many  writings,  the  Gall  to  the  Unconverted, 
and  Tli,e  Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,  obtained  a 
remarkable  popularity. 

Baxter,  WilHam  Edward  {b.  1825,  d.  1890), 
a  distinguished  public  man.  In  1855  he 
entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Montrose, 
in  succession  to  Hume.  He  twice  held 
office  under  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  was  a  Privy 
Councillor.  The  impressions  of  his  extensive 
travels  are  published. 

Bayard,  Pierre  duTerrail  (6. 1475, «?.  1524), 
a  French  knight  of  noble  birth,  who  Uves  in 
history  as  the  highest  and  best  type  of  the 
age  of  chivalry.  Entering  the  service  of 
Charles  VIII.,  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  prowess  in  tournaments,  and  in  1495,  at 
the  battle  of  Formova,  his  daring  was 
conspicuous.  In  1503,  in  the  war  against 
the  Spaniards  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
he  single-handed  stopped  a  force  of  200  from 
crossing  the  bridge  over  the  GarigUano ; 
and  he  fought  wirh  equal  gallantry  in  all 
the  wars  of  Louis  XII.  and  Francis  I.,  the 
latter  sovereign  insisting  upon  being  knighted 
by  Bayard  alone.  In  1524  Bayard  was  sent 
to  Italy  to  assist  Bonuivet  in  the  war  against 
Charles  v.,  and  while  conducting  a  retreat 
which  Bonnivet's  rashness  had  necessitated 
he  was  mortally  wounded.  His  death  was 
as  noble  as  his  life,  and  the  Spaniards,  with 
all  honours,  rendered  up  to  the  French  the 
body  of  the  ^^  chevalier'  sans  peur  et  sans  re- 
proche." 

Bayan,  Pierre  {b.  1725,  d.  1798),  a  distin- 
guished French  chemist,  and  the  conductor 
of  much  original  and  valuable  research. 
Many  of  his  most  valuable  memoirs  were 
destroyed  in  the  Reign  of  Terror. 

Bayer,  Gottheb  Siegfried  {b.  1694,  d. 
1731),  a  profound  German  philologist,  and 
student  of  oriental  languages,  including 
Chinese.  In  1726  he  visited  Russia,  where 
he  died. 

Bayer,  Johann  (b.  1572,  d.  1625),  grand- 
father of  the  preceding,  and  a  laborious 
astronomical  investigator.  He  first  instituted 
the  use  of  Greek  letters  to  distinguish  the 
members  of  a  constellation  in  the  place  of 
the  Arabic  names. 

Bayer,  Karl  Emmerich  Robert  (b.  1835),  a 
popular  Austrian  noveUst  who  served  for 
some  time  in  the  army,  and  whose  works 
are  mostly  founded  on  his  military  experi- 
ence. 

Bayeu  y  Subias,  Francesco  (b.  1734,  d. 
1795),  a  notable  Spanish  artist,  who  was 
appointed  royal  painter  by  Charles  V. 

Bayle,  Pieri'e  {b.  1647,  d.  1706),  a  pro- 
minent French  man  of  letters.    He  became 


professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Protestant 
academy  of  Sedan,  and  in  that  position 
wrote  a  defence  of  the  Duke  of  Luxembourg 
against  a  charge  of  sorcery,  and  also  pub- 
lished several  controversial  essays.  The 
Sedan  academy  being  suppressed,  Bayle 
accepted  the  chair  of  history  and  philosophy 
at  Rotterdam,  and  his  critique  on  Maine- 
bourg's  History  of  Calvinism,  written  at 
this  time,  created  a  great  sensation.  In 
1684  he  founded  the  periodical,  Les  Nou- 
velles  de  la  Republique  des  Lettres,  and  soon 
afterwards  he  lost  his  professorship  through 
the  intrigues  of  enemies.  His  great  work, 
Dictionnmre  Historique  et  Critique,  was  pro- 
duced in  1697. 

Bayley,  Sir  Edward  Clive  (6.  1821,^.  1884), 
a  distinguished  Indian  Civil  servant.  In 
1849  he  was  Under  Secretary,  and  in  1861 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  Indian 
Government.  In  1862  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Home  Office,  where  he  remained  ten 
years.     He  wrote  on  archaeological  subjects. 

Bayley,  Sir  John  [b.  1763,  d.  1841),  an 
able  judge  of  the  King's  Bench  from  1808 
to  1830,  and  the  author  of  a  standard  work 
on  bills  of  exchange. 

Bayly,  Thomas  Haynes  {b.  1797,  d.  1839), 
a  writer  of  considerable  talent.  He  wrote  a 
great  many  slight  dramatic  pieces,  one  or 
two  novels,  and  some  volumes  of  songs  and 
ballads,  among  which  were  The  Mistletoe 
Bough,  and  8he  wore  a  Wreath  of  Roses. 

Bayly,  William  (d.  1810),  an  eminent 
astronomer,  of  hiuiible  parentage.  In  1769 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  Royal  Society 
to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  and  in  1772 
he  went  round  the  world  with  Captain 
Cook. 

Bayne,  Peter  (6. 1830),  writer,  has  contri- 
buted largely  to  many  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines ;  has  written  of  the  Puritan  period ; 
and  has  published  several  volumes  of  critical 
essays,  and  is  author  of  a  Life  of  Luther. 

Baynes,  Thomas  Spencer  (b.  1823,  d.  1887), 
a  journalist  and  professor  of  logic  and  men- 
tal philosophy.  He  was  editor  of  the 
Encyclopcedia  Brittanica. 

Bayruth,  Sophie  Wilhelmina,  Margravine 
of  (*.  1709,  d.  1758),  sister  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  writer  of  interesting  memoirs  of 
the  court  of  Prussia. 

Baz  Bahadur  (d.  1572),  the  last  king  of 
Malwah  and  successor  of  Bahadur  Shah, 
reigned  seventeen  years.  He  fled  from 
Maiidoo  on  the  invasion  of  the  Emperor 
Akbar,  wandering  from  state  to  state. 
Tradition  has  woven  many  romantic  tales 
around  the  story  of  his  life. 

Bazaine,  Francois  Achille  {b.  1811,  <^.  1888), 


Baz 


(110) 


Bea 


a  French  general.  He  saw  active  service  in 
Algeria  and  Spain,  and  commanded  a  di- 
vision in  the  Crimean  war,  the  Kinburn 
exiJedition,  and  the  Italian  war.  In  1862 
he  held  chief  command  ia  Mexico,  and  was 
created  Marshal  of  France  on  his  return. 
He  commanded  the  army  of  the  Rhine  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Franco -German  war,  and 
was  shut  up  ia  Metz.  After  a  three  mouths' 
siege  he  surrendered  with  170,000  men. 
For  this  he  was  tried  by  a  military  tribunal 
in  1871,  and  sentenced  to  degradation  and 
imprisonment  for  life.  He  escaped  by 
violating  his  parole,  and  settled  in  Madrid, 
where  he  died. 

Bazalgette,  Sir  Joseph  William  (i.  1819, 
d.  1890),  a  distinguished  engineer.  As  the 
official  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works 
he  devised  an  original  scheme  for  the  drain- 
age of  Loudon,  and  designed  the  Victoria, 
Albert  and  Chelsea  embankments. 

Bazancoiirt,  Caesar,  Baron  de  (J.  1810,  d. 
1865),  a  French  litterateur.  He  was  sent  by 
the  French  Government  to  the  Crimea  to 
record  the  incidents  of  the  war ;  and  he  was 
also  the  author  of  romances  and  other 
histories. 

Bazhenov,  VasiU  Ivanovich  {b.  1737,  d. 
1799),  a  Russian  architect  of  note,  employed 
by  Catherine  in  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Kremlin  at  Moscow.  The  work  proved  so 
costly  that  when  a  portion  of  the  designs 
was  completed  Catherine  had  the  structure 
demolished. 

Bazley,  Sir  Thomas  (J.  1797,  d.  1885), 
a  large  Manchester  cotton-spinner,  and 
member  for  that  city  from  1858  to  1880. 
He  took  part  in  Bright  and  Cobden's  Free 
Trade  agitation. 

Beach,  Sir  Michael  Edward  Hicks-  (6. 
1837),  a  prominent  politician,  who  has 
sat  in  Parliament  as  a  Conservative  since 
1864.  He  was  first  Irish  Secretary  in  the 
Government  of  1874,  and  later  Secretary  for 
the  Colonies.  In  1885  he  became  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  in  Lord  Salisbury's  Govern- 
ment, and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  va.  1886  was  Irish  Secretary,  when  a 
disease  of  the  eyes  compelled  him  to  retire 
from  public  life.  In  1888  he  again  entered 
the  Salisbury  Cabinet  as  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade. 

Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  first  Earl 
of  (6.  1805,  d.  1881),  statesman  and  novelist, 
the  son  of  Isaac  D' Israeli.  He  first 
attracted  attention  by  the  publication  of 
his  novel  Vivian  Grey,  in  1827.  After 
four  years'  travel  iu  Eastern  Europe  he 
appeared  as  a  parliamentary  candidate  at 
High  Wycombe,  in  1832,  but  was  unsuc- 
cessful ;  in  1837,  however,  he  was  returned 
for    Maidstone.      A    certain    extravagance 


of  dress  and  manner  provoked  an  imf avour- 
able  reception  in  the  House,  but  he  soon 
became  a  prominent  political  figure,  while 
his  novels  Con'mgshy  and  Sibyl  secured 
him  a  very  high  literary  reputation.  When 
Sir  Robert  Peel  declared  for  Free  Trade, 
Disraeli  at  once  stepped  to  the  front  of 
the  Tory  party,  though  imtil  the  death  of 
Lord  George  Beutinck,  in  1848,  he  was  not 
nominally  leader.  He  was  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  in  Lord  Derby's  brief  adminis- 
tration before  the  coalition  government  of 
1852,  and  again  in  1858,  when  he  introduced 
his  Reform  Bill,  which  wrecked  the  Govern- 
ment. In  1866  he  returned  to  power  again, 
and  carried  a  new  Reform  Bill,  but  was 
defeated  at  the  general  election,  and  re- 
mained in  opposition  vmtil  1874.  Then 
he  became  Prime  Minister,  and  in  1877 
was  created  Earl  of  Beaconsfield.  The 
chief  activity  of  his  last  government  was 
displayed  in  foreign  politics,  and  his  part 
in  the  treaty  of  Berlin  won  him  great 
popularity.  In  the  elections  of  1880,  how- 
ever, his  party  was  crushingly  defeated,  and 
he  only  survived  the  disaster  a  year. 

Beale,  Mary  (6.  1632,  d.  1697),  a  portrait 
painter  of  some  note,  and  a  less  admirable 
writer  of  poetry. 

Beaton,  David  (6.  1494,  d.  1546),  a  famous 
Scottish  ecclesiastic,  and  Cardinal  Archbishop 
of  St.  Andrew's,  in  which  office'.he  succeeded 
his  uncle.  By  this  uncle's  influence  he  was 
appointed  to  several  high  offices  in  the  State, 
and  in  1530  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  France, 
where  he  resided  for  some  years,  being^  in 
high  favour  with  the  French  king.  In  1538 
he  was  created  cardinal,  and  in  1539  Primate 
of  Scotland,  when  he  entered  upon  a  fierce 
persecution  of  heretics.  His  attempt  to 
seize  the  regency  was  frustrated  by  Arran, 
by  whom  he  was  imprisoned,  but  his  great 
influence  compelled  Arran  to  rehabilitate 
him.  His  determined  enmity  against  Eng- 
land greatly  enraged  Henry  VIII.  He  was 
murdered  at  St.  Andrew's  in  1546. 

Beaton,  James  [d.  1539),  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  and  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's, 
to  which  office  he  was  elevated  in  1523.  He 
was  Lord  High  Treasurer  to  James  VI. .  and 
Chancellor  in  the  regency  of  the  Duke  of 
Albany.  The  accession  of  Angus  to  supreme 
power  brought  imprisonment  on  Beaton,  and 
afterwards  he  spent  some  years  in  hiuiug. 
He  was  restored  on  the  accession  of  James. 

Beaton,  James  (6.  1523,  d.  1603),  grand 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  Archbishop  of 
Glasgow.  He  negotiated  the  marriage 
between  Mary  and  the  French  dauphin, 
and  was  afterwards  ambassador  at  Paris  for 
Mary  and  James  VI. 

Beatrice  Portinari  (6.  1266,  d.  1290),  a 
lady  of  Florence,  known  to  the  world  as  the 


Bea 


(111) 


Bea 


Beatrice  of  Dante's  poems.     She  married 
Simeone  de  Bardi. 

Beattie,  James  (6.  1735,  d.  1803),  philoso- 
pher and  poet.  At  first  a  schoolmaster,  he 
was  appointed,  in  1760,  professor  of  logic 
and  moral  philosophy  in  the  Marischal  col- 
lege, Aberdeen.  He  occupied  the  post  for 
forty  years,  and  his  lectures  were  highly 
popular.  In  1770  he  published  his  Nature 
and  Immutability  of  Truth,  which  excited 
the  gi-eatest  attention,  and  won  him  a 
pension  of  £200.  Coming  to  London,  he 
became  acquainted  with  Dr.  Johnson,  Gold- 
smith and  other  men  of  the  day,  and 
published  his  poem,  Tlie  Minstrel.  The 
Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion  ap- 
peared in  1786,  but  when  his  celebrity  was 
at  its  zenith  his  health  failed  under  a  series 
of  domestic  afflictions,  and  he  died  of  palsy. 

Beauchamp,  AUonse  (6.  1767,  d.  1832),  a 
French  historical  writer,  at  one  time  a 
Boldier  in  the  Sardinian  army.  His  His- 
tory of  La  Vendee  was  suppressed  by  the 
Directory  because  of  certain  inconvenient 
revelations. 

Beauchamp,  Joseph  (6.  1752,  d.  1801),  a 
distinguished  French  astronomer  who  spent 
much  time  in  the  East.  Napoleon  sent  him 
on  a  secret  mission  to  Constantinople  in 
1799,  when  he  was  nearly  executed  as  a  spy. 

Beauclerk,  Topham  (6.  1739,  d.  1780),  one 
of  the  famous  Johnson  circle,  and  grandson 
of  the  first  Duke  of  St.  Albans.  Although 
addicted  to  fashionable  vices,  he  had  wit 
and  culture,  and  was  held  in  considerable 
regard  by  Dr.  Johnson. 

Beaufort,  Sir  Francis  (6.  1774,  d.  1857),  a 
naval  officer,  who  distinguished  himself  by 
several  brilliant  actions  in  the  French  and 
Spanish  wars.  He  was  made  head  of  the 
Hydrographic  Department  of  the  Admiralty 
in  1829,  his  work  there  being  of  great 
value. 

Beaufort,  Francois  de  Vend6me,  Due  de 
(6.  1C16,  d.  1669),  grandson  of  Henry  IV. 
He  fought  for  Anne  of  Austria  against  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  and  afterwards  joined  the 
Fronde.  Under  Louis  XIV.  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  navy,  and  served  against 
the  English  and  Turks. 

Beaufort,  Henry  (d.  1447),  cardinal  and 
Btatesman,  and  son  of  John  of  Gaunt.  He 
was  Lord  Chancellor  to  Henry  IV. ;  in  1404 
he  became  Bishop  of  Winchester,  in  1417 
he  took  part  in  the  Council  of  Constance, 
and  in  1427  he  was  made  ceirdinaL 

Beaufort,  Margaret  (6.  1441,  d.  1609), 
Countess  of  Eichmond  and  Derby,  and  a 
woman  of  much  learning.  She  foimded 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  endowed 
Beveral  chairs. 


Beaufort  d'Hautpoul,  Charles  Marie 
Napoleon  {h.  1804),  a  French  general  of 
distinction,  who  served  in  Syria  and  Egypt, 
but  most  notably  in  Algeria. 

Beaufort  d'Hautpoul,  Edouard  (6.  1782, 
d.  1831),  a  French  miUtary  engineer  who 
served  through  Napoleon's  campaigns  and 
was  made  a  peer,  minister  of  war,  and 
chief  engineer  of  Paris  by  Louis  XVIII. 

^Beaufort  de  Thorigny,  Jean  Baptiste  (6. 
1761,  d.  1825),  a  French  general  who  rose 
from  the  ranks.  He  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  troops  of  Paris,  against  Eobespierre, 
and  was  later  imprisoned  as  a  conspirator 
against  the  First  Consul. 

Beauhamais,  Alexander,  Vicomte  de  (6. 
1760,  d.  1794),  a  French  general  who  served 
in  America,  and  was  afterwards  a  member 
of  the  French  States  General  and  president 
of  the  National  Assembly.  He  was  be- 
headed for  alleged  treason  in  connection 
with  the  siege  of  Mayeuce. 

Beauhamais,  Eugene  (6.  1781,  d.  1824), 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  Napoleon's 
generals,  and  son  of  the  preceding.  The 
marriage  of  Napoleon  with  his  mother 
secured  for  him  a  place  on  Napoleon's  stafE 
in  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  his  gallantry  in 
several  battles  brought  rapid  promotion, 
and  fitnally  he  was  appointed  Viceroy  of 
Italy  and  Prince  of  Venice.  In  1809  Italy 
was  invaded  by  the  Austrians,  but  they 
were  defeated  by  Eugene,  who  carried  the 
war  successfully  across  the  frontier.  He 
held  a  high  command  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign, and  his  masterly  conduct  of  the 
retreat,  at  the  most  critical  period,  won 
Napoleon's  open  admiration.  A  second 
invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Austrians  Eugene 
resisted  with  varying  success,  when  Napo- 
leon's abdication  ended  the  war,  and  the 
Viceroy  retired  to  Munich,  where  he  died. 

Beaulieu,  Augustin  (6.  1589,  d.  1637),  a 
French  navigator,  who  left  records  of  hia 
voyages  of  the  highest  value. 

BeauUeu,  Jean  Pierre,  Baron  de  {b.  1725, 
d.  1820),  a  Belgian,  who  served  in  the 
Austrian  artillery  during  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  and  commanded  the  Netherland 
troops  against  the  French  with  success. 
In  1796,  as  general  in  chief  in  Italy,  he 
was  defeated  by  Napoleon. 

Beaulieu,  Sebastien  de  Pontault,  Sire  de 
{d.  1674),  a  distinguished  French  military 
engineer  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
author  of  Les  Gloi'ieuses  ConquHes  de  Louis 
le  Grand. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Augustin  Caron  de 
{b.  1732,  d.  1799),  a  man  of  many-sided 
genius,  was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker. 
After  writing  verse  successfully  he  adopted 


Bea 


(  112 


Bea 


his  father's  trade,  invented  an  improve- 
ment in  the  works  of  watches,  and  became 
horologer  to  Louis  XV.  His  musical  ac- 
complishments procured  him  a  place  iu  the 
roj'ai  concerts,  and  he  became  rich  by  the 
fortunes  of  two  widows  whom  he  married, 
and  by  successful  financial  speculation. 
Becoming  involved  in  litigation,  he  gained 
considerable  reputation  as  an  advocate  in 
conducting  his  own  case  before  the  courts. 
He  made  another  fortune  by  supplying 
arms  and  provisions  to  the  Americans 
during  the  war  of  Independence,  and 
then  turned  to  dramatic  writing,  producing 
several  highly  successful  pieces.  In  1793 
he  was  accused  of  treason  to  the  State,  and 
fled  to  England.  Eetumiug  to  France,  he 
was  for  some  time  imprisoned,  and  finally 
died  in  poverty. 

Beaiune,  Joseph  (6.  1798),  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  whose  principal  work  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  pictures  illustrating  the 
great  battles  of  Napoleon. 

Beaumelle,  Laurent  Angliviel  de  la  (6. 
1726,  d.  1773),  a  French  litterateur,  best 
known  for  his  hostility  to  Voltaire.  His 
criticisms  of  Voltaire  drove  him  from  Berlin 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  thrown  into  the 
Bastille,  to  the  confinement  of  which  he 
returned  in  1756,  after  publishing  his 
Memoirs  of  Madame  Maintenon.  After  a 
long  exile,  he  secured  a  pension. 

Beaumont,  Basil  (6.  1669,  d.  1703),  an 
English  admiral,  who  first  distinguished 
himself  at  the  blockade  of  Dunquerque, 
and  whose  last  service  was  a  second 
blockade  of  the  same  port. 

Beaumont,  Francis  (6.  1584,  d.  1616),  an 
English  dramatist.  Designed  for  the  law, 
he  left  it  for  the  pursuit  of  literature,  and 
in  collaboration  with  Fletcher  produced  a 
number  of  plays  which  rank  high  in  the 
literature  of  the  Elizabethan  period. 

Beaumont,  William  (6.  1796,  d.  1853),  a 
surgeon  in  the  United  States  army.  A 
remarkable  casualty  on  the  battle-field 
enabled  him  to  make  observations  of  the 
process  of  digestion  which  were  of  the 
highest  value. 

Beaumont  de  la  Bonniere,  Gustave 
Auguste  (6. 1802,  d.  1866),  French  politician 
and  writer.  In  1831  he  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  to  report  on  the  prison  system 
there,  and  his  memoir  on  the  subject  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
ptilitics,  was  sent  on  several  embassies,  and 
was  imprisoned  after  the  coup  d''etat. 

Beaumont  de  la  Bonniere,  Marc  Antoine, 
Comte  de  (6.  1760,  d.  1830),  French  soldier, 
W£i3  condemned  to  death  at  Lyons  for 
opposing    the    revolutionary  excesses,    but 


was  rescued  by  his  regiment,  and  after- 
wards served  in  Napoleon's  campaigns, 
and  was  ennobled  by  Louis  XVIII. 

Beaumont-Vassy,  Edward  Ferdinand  de 
la  Bonniere,  Vicomte  de  (6.  1816,  d.  1875), 
French  writer  and  politician.  After  publish- 
ing several  successful  novels,  he  was  sent  on 
a  mission  to  Sweden,  after  which  he  pro- 
duced works  on  Swedish  history.  He  held 
ofiice  under  Napoleon  III.,  but  fell  into  dis- 
grace, and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
writing  novels  and  historical  memoirs. 

Beaunoir,  Alexandre  Louis  Bertrand  (6. 
1746,  d.  1823),  French  dramatist.  His 
distaste  for  the  law  procured  his  disin- 
heritance, and  he  entered  the  Church,  but 
he  had  to  resign  his  orders  after  the  pro- 
dtiction  of  his  first  drama.  He  obtained 
office  on  the  Boui'bon  restoration. 

Beauregard,  Jean  Nicolas  (6.  1731,  d. 
1804),  a  French  Jesuit,  celebrated  as  a 
preacher,  and  known  to  posterity  for  the 
delivery  of  a  remarkable  prediction,  in  a 
sermon  before  the  court,  of  the  atheistic 
excesses  of  the  revolution. 

Beauregard,  Pierre  Gustave  Toussaint  (6. 
1818),  a  general  of  the  Confederate  army. 
He  took  up  the  cause  of  the  Southern  States, 
on  their  secession,  and  captui-ed  Fort 
Sumpter.  He  defeated  Butler  at  Bull's 
Run,  and  afterwards  commanded  the  army 
of  the  Mississippi.  His  obstinate  defence  of 
Charleston  is  one  of  the  remarkable  episodes 
of  the  Civil  war. 

Beaurepaire-Rohan,    Henrique    de     (6. 

1818),  a  Brazilian  explorer,  whose  daring 
explorations  of  the  primeval  regions  of 
Southern  Brazil  and  Paraguay  enabled  him 
to  publish  several  works  of  great  scientific 
value. 

Beausobre,  Isaac  (&.  1659,  d.  1730),  a 
French  Calviuist  who,  driven  from  France, 
was  received  with  honour  in  Holland  and 
Berlia.  He  wrote  a  Defence  of  Calvinism 
against  Lutherism,  and  a  History  of  Mani- 
cheism. 

Beautemps-Beaupr^,  Charles  Francois, 
(6.  1766,  d.  1854),  practically  the  first  of 
French  hydrographers.  When  only  nineteen 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  government  to 
complete  the  marine  survey  of  the  Baltic. 
In  1798  he  made  a  complete  survey  of  the 
coast  of  France. 

Beauvais,  Bertrand  Poirier  de  (6.  1775,  d. 
1827),  prominent  French  royalist,  who  held 
command  in  the  Vende'an  army.  He  died 
in  England. 

Beauvau,  Charles  Juste  de  (6.  1730,  d. 
1793),  a  chivalrous  French  soldier,  who  was 
legarded  as  a  second  Bayard,     In  1763,  as 


Bea 


(113) 


Bee 


couuuajidant  of  Languedoc,  lie  released,  in 
donauce  oi  the  Court,  fourteen  women  who 
were  imprisoned  for  Protestantism.  He  was 
made  Marshal  of  France  in  1783. 

Beauvau,  Een^  Francois  de  (&.  1664,  d. 
1739),  French  prelate  remembered  for  his 
unselfish  devotion  to  the  people,  and  for  the 
high  place  which  he  held  in  their  affections. 
He  was  Bishop  of  Bayonne  and  then  of 
Toumay,  and  later  Archbishop  of  Toulouse, 
and  finally  of  Narbonne. 

Beauvois,  Ambrose  Palisot  de  (6.  1752,  d. 

1820),  French  naturalist,  who  visited  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  San  Domingo,  and  the 
United  States,  and  as  a  result  of  his  patient 
observation  left  several  valuable  works,  to- 
gether with  a  remarkable  collection  of  speci- 
mens. 

Beauzee,  Nicolas  {b.  1717,  d.  1789),  a 
French  philologist,  and  a  contributor  to  the 
great  Encyclopedia.  Frederick  the  Great 
in  vain  endeavoured  to  attract  him  to  his 
court. 

Beaver,  PhUip  (6.  1766,  d.  1813),  an  Eng- 
liah  naval  officer  who  served  in  the  Ameri- 
can war,  and  in  later  life  under  Abercrombie 
in  the  French  war.  He  is  best  known,  how- 
ever, for  his  devoted  but  vm  successful  at- 
tempt to  establish  a  colony  of  free  negroes 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Beccadelli,  Lodovico  (6.  1501,  d.  1572),  an 
Italian  prelate  and  biographer.  He  was 
employed  on  several  important  missions  by 
the  Pope,  and  came  into  intimate  con- 
nection with*  Cardinals  Bembo,  Pole,  and 
Cbntarini,  whose  biographies  he  wrote. 

Beccafumi,  Domenico  (sumamed  Mecher- 
ino)  (6.  1484,  d.  1549).  Italian  painter  of 
peasant  birth,  his  untutored  genius  for  paint- 
ing asserted  itself  at  an  early  age.  His  best 
work  is  to  be  found  at  Siena. 

Beccari  Agostino  (6.  1510,  d.  1590),  a 
celebrated  Italian  poet,  whose  special  genius 
was  not  incompatible  with  a  profound  know- 
ledge of  law  and  philosophy. 

Beccaria,  Cesare  Bonesana  (6.  1738, 
d.  1794),  Italian  reformer,  a  native  of 
Milan.  He  early  became  intimate  with 
Pietro  Verri,  the  economist,  whose  influence 
over  him  was  great.  Turning  his  attention 
to  the  savage  penal  code  of  that  time,  he 
published,  when  only  twenty-six,  a  book 
on  Crimes  and  Punishments,  in  which  he 
advocated  a  more  humane  and  just  treat- 
ment of  social  offenders.  The  vigour  of  his 
style  and  the  originality  of  his  views  gained 
him  a  European  celebrity.  He  was  received 
with  honour  in  Paris,  and  was  offered  state 
appointments  by  the  Empress  Catherine.  He 
filled  for  some  years  the  chair  of  economy 
at  Milan. 


Becerra,  Gaspard  (6.  1520,  d,  1570),  a 
celebrated  master  of  Spanish  art,  who  ex- 
celled as  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect. 
He  was  employed  by  PhiUp  II. 

Becher,  Alfred  J.  (6.  1804,  d.  1848),  a 
German  musician  and  critic,  bom  in  Man- 
chester. After  leading  an  unsettled  life  in 
Germany  he  obtained  a  professorship  of 
music  in  London,  and  in  1845  achieved 
some  reputation  in  Vienna  as  a  critic  and 
composer.  In  1848  he  joined  the  revolution- 
ary movement,  started  a  journal,  and  was 
soon  after  shot  as  a  rebeL  ' 

Becher,  Lady  Elizabeth  {b.  1792,  d.  1872), 
a  tragic  actress  who  in  the  early  part  of 
the  century  was  very  popular  in  London. 
She  married  Sir  W.  Becher,  M.P. 

Becher,  Johann  Joachim  (6. 1635,  d.  1682), 
an  inventive  and  erudite  German,  entirely 
self-educated.  He  held  the  chair  of  medicine 
at  Mayence,  and  superintended  the  chemical 
laboratory  at  Mimich  ;  and  in  Vienna  he  was 
made  a  councillor  of  the  chamber  of  com- 
merce, in  recognition  of  services  to  com- 
mercial enterprise.  He  afterwards  visited 
Holland  and  England. 

Bechstein,  Johann  Matthias  (b.  1757,  d. 
1822),  a  very  distinguished  German  natur- 
alist. He  published  a  Popular  Natural  Sis- 
tory  of  Germany,  and  established  a  forest 
school  at  Waltershausen. 

Beck,  Karl  {b.  1817,  d.  1879),  Hungarian 
poet,  best  known  for  his  patriotic  songs, 
which  had  a  great  vogue. 

Beck,  Matthias  Friedrich  (J).  1649,  d.  1701), 
a  German  pastor  at  Augsburg,  and  one  of 
the  first  orientalists  of  his  time.  He  de- 
clined to  leave  his  ministrations  for  the 
imiversity  chairs  which  were  offered  him. 

Becker,  Charles  Ferdinand  {b.  1804,  d. 
1877),  a  German  musician  of  Leipzig.  He 
excelled  as  an  organist,  composed  much,  and 
wrote  several  interesting  works  on  music. 

Becker,  Ferdinand  (A.  1740,  d.  1810),  a 
Westphalian  pastor,  who  devoted  his  life  to 
the  education  of  the  young.  His  books  on 
education  were  condemned  as  heretical,  and 
in  consequence  for  a  time  he  suffered  im- 
prisonment. 

Becker,  Jakob  {b.  1810,  d.  1872),  a  German 
painter,  native  of  Worms,  whose  fame  chiefly 
rests  on  his  representation  of  scenes  from 
I  contemporary  German  life. 

Becker,  Johann  Philip  (6.  1809),  German 
revolutionist.  He  edited  a  paper  in  Bavaria, 
which  several  times  brought  imprisonment 
upon  him,  and  finally  compelled  his  flight 
to  Switzerland.  There  his  writings  at- 
tracted attention,  and  he  became  a  leader  of 


Bee 


(114) 


Bed 


the  German  colony.  In  1848,  when  the 
revolution  broke  out  in  Germany,  he  led  a 
band  of  his  followers  into  Baden,  and  in 
1849  took  part  in  the  Carlsruhe  rising. 
Finally  he  settled  to  trade  in  Geneva,  where 
he  made  a  f  ortime. 

Becker,  Karl  Friedrich  {b.  1777,  d.  1806), 
German  historian,  whose  works  are  much 
used  for  educational  purposes.  His  chief 
work  is  Die  Weltgeschiehte  filr  Kinder  und 
Kinderlehrer. 

Becker,  Nicolaus  {b.  1816,  d.  1845),  a 
German  poet,  whose  fame  rests  on  the 
authorship  of  a  single  poem,  Die  Wacht 
am  Rhein,  now  simg  as  a  national  song. 

Becker,  Wilhehn  Adolf  {b.  1796,  d.  1846), 
a  German  scholar,  and  profound  student  of 
the  antiquities  and  classics  of  Greece  and 
Kome.  His  works  are  authoritative  on  the 
manners  and  life  of  the  classical  age. 

Beckerath,  Hermann  de  (6. 1801,  d.  1870), 
German  poHtician,  who  for  some  time  was 
a  prominent  figure  in  the  Prussian  Diets 
as  a  Liberal.  In  1848  he  was  minister  of 
finance,  and  he  was  always  a  strong  oppo- 
nent of  Austrian  dominance. 

Backet,    GUbert    a    (6.  1810,    d.    1856), 

humorist    and    journalist,  whose    writings 

were  popular  in  his  day.  He  was  magis- 
trate at  Southwark. 

Becket,  St.  Thomas  a  (6.  1119,  d.  1170). 
The  son  of  a  London  merchant,  he  obtained 
the  patronage  of  Theobald,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  made  him  archdeacon,  and 
employed  him  in  missions  at  Rome.  Henry 
II.  took  him  into  his  favour,  made  him  his 
chancellor  and  gave  him  lands,  by  which 
Becket  was  enabled  to  maintain  great 
pomp.  In  1162  he  succeeded  Theobald 
as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  im- 
mediately changed  his  habit  of  life.  He 
turned  ascetic,  and  instead  of  deferring  to 
the  king's  pleasure,  he  opposed  him  strongly 
on  the  question  of  the  privileges  of  the 
clergy.  In  11 64  the  Constitutions  of  Claren- 
don were  passed,  which  Becket  only  agrreed 
to  reluctantly,  and  renounced  on  the  Pope's 
disapproval  of  them.  In  the  same  year  a 
council  at  Nottingham  proclaimed  the  for- 
feiture of  his  goods  and  the  confiscation  of 
the  revenues  of  his  see ;  and  the  archbishop 
fled  to  France.  In  1170  he  returned,  and 
promptly  excommunicated  the  Archbishop 
of  York  and  other  prelates  who  had  usurped 
his  functions  during  his  expatriation.  The 
king  was  incensed  at  this  action,  and  four 
of  his  retinue,  in  the  hope  of  gaining  Henry's 
favour,  set  off  for  Canterbury  and  murdered 
the  Archbishop. 


Beckett,  Sir  Edmund. 
Lord.] 


[^See  Grimthorpe, 


Beckett,  Isaac  (6.  1653,  d.  1719),  on*  of 
the  earliest  and  the  be^t  of  English  engravers 
in  mezzo -tinto. 

Beckford,  William  (6.  1760,  d.  1844),  an 
English  millionaire  and  distinguished  author. 
When  only  twenty  he  published  a  clever 
satire.  Biographical  Memoirs  of  Extraor- 
dinary Painters.  After  some  foreign  travel 
he  entered  Parliament,  and  published  his 
great  work,  The  Romance  of  Vathek,_  in 
the  French  language,  a  book  which  excited 
the  widest  admiration.  The  chief  episodes  of 
the  remainder  of  his  life  were  the  erection, 
at  enormous  cost,  of  two  vast  mansions  in 
England  and  a  "  fairy  palace  "  in  Portugal. 

Beckington,  Thomas  de  (d.  1465), 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  and  secretary  of 
state  to  Hemy  VI.  In  1442  he  was  sent  to 
negotiate  a  marriage  between  the  king  and 
the  Count  d'Armagnac's  daughter.  Hia 
record  of  the  event  has  been  published, 

Beckmann,  Johann  (6.  1739,  d.  1811),  a 
Hanoverian  naturalist  and  economist,  and 
the  vmter  of  several  valuable  treatises. 

Beckwith,  Sir  George  (6.  1753,  d.  1823), 
a  distinguished  soldier  and  West  Indian 
governor.  He  served  in  the  American  war, 
and  in  the  French  war  captured  Martinique 
and  Guadeloupe. 

Beckx,  Peter  John  (6. 1795,  <f.  1887),  general 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits.  A  Belgian  by  birth,  he 
was  appointed  procurator  of  Austria  in  1847, 
and  in  1853  was  chosen  general  of  the  order 
at  Home.  <His  influence  and  poUcy  were 
very  effective  in  extending  the  order. 

Beclard,  Pierre  .Augustin  (6.  1785,  d. 
1825),  a  distinguished  French  physician 
and  anatomist,  and  author  of  Les  Elements 
d^Anatomie  Generale. 

Becon,  Thomas  (6.  1510,  d.  1670),  an 
English  clergyman  and  adherent  of  the 
Reformation,  deprived  of  his  living  by 
Mary.  He  was  a  prolific  author  in  con- 
troversial theology. 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Caesar  (6.  1788,  d. 
1878),  a  French  scientist,  served  through 
the  Peninsular  war  in  the  Engineers,  and 
afterwards  devoted  himself  to  the  experi- 
mental study  of  electricity,  magnetism  and 
heat,  his  researches  being  of  great  value. 

Becquerel,  Alexandre  Edmond  (6.  1820), 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  his  coUaboratoi 
in  many  of  his  experiments. 

Beda  or  Bede  (6.  672,  d.  IZb),  an  English 
monk,  and  celebrated  chronicler,  generally 
known  as  the  "Venerable  Bede."  He 
spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  the 
monastery  of  Jarrow,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  study  in  evenr  branch  of  learning. 
There  he  wrote  his  Ecclesiastical  Sistory 


Bed 


(115) 


Bee 


of  the  English  Nation,  a  work  of  the 
Highest  value,  translated  from  the  Latin 
to  Saxon  by  King  Alfred..  His  last  great 
work  was  a  translation  of  St.  John's  Gospel 
into  the  vernacular. 

Beddoe,  John  (6.  1826),  an  eminent  phy- 
sician and  anthropologist,  and  the  author  of 
several  valuable  scientific  memoirs.  He 
served  on  the  medical  staff  during  the 
Crimean  war. 

Beddoes,  Thomas  (6.  1760,  d.  1808), 
eminent  physician  and  scientist.  He 
was  an  accomplished  scholar  and  linguist, 
and  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal 
Medical  and  Natural  History  Society  before 
he  took  his  M.D.  His  greatest  experiment 
was  the  estabUshmeut  of  the  Pneumatic 
Institution  at  Clifton,  which  was  not,  how- 
ever, a  success. 

Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell  (6. 1803,  d.  1849), 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  nephew  of  Maria 
Edgeworth.  He  was  learned  in  medicine 
and  physiology,  but  is  remembered  prin- 
cipally for  his  poems,  the  chief  of  which  is 
The  Bride's  Tragedy. 

Bede,  Cuthbert  (6.  1827,  d.  1890),  the 
pseudonym  of  the  Rev.  Edward  Bradley,  a 
novelist  and  humorous  writer,  whose  cele- 
brity depends  upon  his  book  The  Adventures 
ef  Verdant  Green  at  Oxford,  which  achieved 
great  popularity. 

Bedeau,  Marie  Alphonse  (6. 1804,  d.  1865), 
French  general,  was  at  the  siege  of 
Antwerp  in  1832,  and  subsequently  served 
with  much  distinction  in  Algeria.  He  was 
commandant  of  Paris  under  the  Provisional 
Government  of  1848,  was  a  member  of  the 
legislature  for  some  years,  and  was  banished 
after  the  coup  d^etat. 

Bedell,  WUliam  (6.  1570,  d.  1642),  a 
distingxiished  bishop  of  the  Irish  Protestant 
Church.  In  1627  he  was  elected  provost  of 
Trinity  CoUege,  Dublin,  and  in  1629  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  "Kilmore  and  of 
Ardagh.  His  devoted  life  made  him 
extremely  popular  with  the  people  of  every 
creed.  He  translated  the  Old  Testament 
into  Irish,  and  caused  the  Common  Prayer 
to  be  read  in  Irish  at  the  cathedral  services 
on  Sunday.  In  the  outbreak  of  1641  he 
harboured  many  Protestants,  imtil  he  was 
imprisoned  by  the  rebels.  He  died  shortly 
after  his  liberation. 

Bedford,  John  Plantagenet,  Duke  of  (6. 
1389,  d.  1435),  brother  of  Henry  V.,  and 
regent  of  the  EngUsh  dominions  in  France. 
It  was  by  his  commands  that  Joan  of  Arc 
was  burnt  at  the  stake. 

Bedloe,  William  {d.  1680),  a  disreputable 
adventurer,  who  concocted  a  story  about  a 
Popish  plot  in  Charles  II. 's  time,  in  corro- 
boration of  the  figment  of  Titus  Gates. 
1  2 


Bedmax,  Alfonso  de  Cueva,  Marquis  de 
(J.  1572,  d.  1655),  a  Spanish  ambassador  at 
Venice,  who  participated  in  the  unsuccess- 
ful intrigues  of  1618  for  the  destruction  of 
Venice.    In  1622  he  was  made  a  cardinal. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward  {h.  1813,  d.  1887), 
popular  American  preacher,  was  attached  to 
the  Plymouth  Congregational  church  at 
Brooklyn,  where  his  preaching  attracted 
enormous  congregations.  In  1886  he  visited 
England. 

Beecher-Stowe,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (i. 
1812),  an  American  authoress,  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  Lyman  Beecher,  an  eminent 
Presbyterian  minister.  She  had  wi-itten 
fiction  for  some  years  before  she  achieved 
her  great  popularity  by  the  production  of 
TJncle  Tom's  Cabin,  in  1850,  when  the 
slavery  question  was  most  intense.  Mrs. 
Beecher-Stowe  has  written  many  other 
books,  and  rather  imperilled  her  popularity 
by  one  in  which  she  endeavoured  to  establish 
a  horrible  charge  against  Lord  Byron. 

Beechey,  Sir  Frederick  William  {b.  1796, 
d.  1S56),  naval  officer  and  explorer, 
accompanied  Franklin  on  his  first  Arctic 
voyage,  and  in  1819  went  with  Sir  Edward 
Parry's  expedition.  In  1821  he  imdertook 
the  survey  of  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  and 
in  1825  he  commanded  an  Arctic  expedition 
in  the  Blossom,  and  made  some  interesting 
discoveries. 

Beek,  David  {b.  1621,  d.  1656),  a  Dutch 
portrait  painter,  appointed  by  Charles  I.  as 
instructor  to  the  royal  children.  He  was 
commissioned  by  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden 
to  paint  the  portraits  of  the  sovereigns  and 
celebrities  of  Europe. 

Beer,  George  Joseph  [b.  1763,  d.  1821),  a 
very  distinguished  surgeon  of  Vienna,  and 
an  authority  on  the  subject  of  ophthalmia. 
He  invented  many  surgical  instruments. 

Beer,  Joseph  {b.  1744,  d.  1811),  a 
Bohemian  soldier,  renowned  for  his  pro- 
ficiency on  the  clarionet.  He  served  as  a 
trumpeter  during  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and 
then  went  to  Paris,  where  his  playing  on  the 
clarionet  excited  great  attention. 

Beer,  Wilhelm  (6.  1797,  d.  1850),  aBerlin 
banker,  who  devoted  himself  to  astronomy, 
and  made  some  valuable  observations  of 
Mars  and  the  moon. 

Beerbul,  or  Bisbul,  Rajah  {d.  1586),  a 
Hindoo  statesman  and  the  close  friend  of  the 
Mogul  Emperor  Akber,  over  whom  he 
exercised  a  great  influence.  He  is  re- 
membered for  the  wisdom  of  his  counsels  and 
the  wittiness  of  his  discourse.  He  was  killed 
in  a  rash  expedition  against  the  Afghans. 

Beesly,  Edward  Spencer  {b.  1831),  a  well 


Bee 


(116) 


Bek 


known  professor  of  history,  and  a  leader  of 
the  English  Positivist  Society.  In  1886  he 
unsuccessfully  contested  a  London  con- 
stituency as  a  Eadical  and  Home  Ruler. 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  van  (6.  1770,  d. 
18-7),  German  composer,  was  descended 
from  a  musical  fauiily,  and  received  hia 
first  lessons  from  his  father.  His  pre- 
cocity attracted  the  notice  of  the  Elector 
of  Cologne,  who  secured  good  tuition  for 
him,  and  finally  sent  him  to  Vienna  to 
study  under  Haydn  and  Albrechtsberger. 
His  remarkable  powers  of  improvisation, 
and  his  compositions,  which  now  began  to 
be  published,  gained  him  a  great  reputation, 
and  made  for  him  many  influential  friends. 
A  pension  was  granted  to  him,  in  order  to 
retain  him  at  Vienna,  but  the  troubled  times 
which  succeeded  reduced  its  value  almost  to 
nothing.  When  in  his  twenty -seventh  year 
Beethoven  was  afilicted  with  the  first  symp- 
toms of  that  deafness  which  ouiy  increased 
with  years,  and  which  did  so  much  to  sour 
his  disposition.  He  was  further  distressed 
by  family  dissensions,  and  the  ungrateful 
behaviour  of  a  nephew  over  whom  he  had 
assumed  guardianship.  He  continued  to 
compose,  in  spite  of  his  loss  of  hearing, 
right  up  to  his  last  illness,  and  the  imposuig 
funeral  which  was  accorded  him  showed  the 
appreciation  in  which  his  great  genius  was 
held  by  his  contemporaries. 

Begas,  Karl  (6.  1794,  d.  1855),  a  Prussian 
portrait  and  historical  painter  of  note.  He 
was  painter  in  ordiaary  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  from  whom  he  also  received  a 
pension. 

Begh,  or  Le  Begue,  Lambert  {d.  1177),  a 
Belgian  priest  of  Li^ge,  and  a  supposed 
founder  of  the  order  of  the  Beguines.  He 
was  remarkable  for  his  severity  against 
clerical  looseness  of  Ufe. 

Beham,  or  Behaim  (6.  1436,  d.  1506),  a 
celebrated  German  geographer.  Origiually 
a  merchant,  his  skill  in  mapping  attracted 
notice  at  Lisbon,  whither  he  had  gone,  and 
he  was  appointed  geographer  to  Diego  Cam's 
expedition  to  Africa  in  1484,  the  results  of 
which  he  included  in  his  charts. 

Behn,  Aphi-a  (6.  1642,  d.  1689),  novelist, 
dramatist,  and  poetess.  Her  early  Ufe  was 
spent  in  Surinam,  where  she  was  friendly 
with  the  native  prince,  Oroonoko,  whose 
life  she  published  on  returning  to  England, 
and  thereby  obtained  considerable  celebrity. 
She  married  a  rich  old  merchant  named 
Behn,  who  soon  died,  and  left  her  free  to 
devote  herself  to  authorship  and  political 
intrigue,  her  great  beauty  assisting  her  in 
the  latter  direction.  She  managed  while  in 
Antwerp  to  obtain  information  of  the  in- 
tended descent  of  the  Dutch  on  the  Thames, 
but  her  warning  was  unheeded.    She  passed 


her  life  in  the  corrupt  court  of  the  restored 
Stuarts,  and  most  of  her  wiiting  is  irredeem- 
ably stained  with  the  wantonness  of  her 
environment. 

Behnes,  William  (6.  1794,  d.  1864),  a 
notable  English  sculptor,  of  Hanoverian 
extraction.  Extravagant  habits  consumed 
the  fortune  made  by  his  art,  and  he  died  ia 
want. 

Behring,  or  Bering,  Veit  (6. 1680,  d.  1741), 
a  Danish  navigator,  whose  name  has  been 
given  to  the  straits  which  he  discovered, 
between  Kamschatka  and  Alaska.  He  ob- 
tained service  with  Peter  the  Great,  and 
commanded  the  expedition  sent  to  discover 
whether  Asia  and  America  were  connected 
at  the  north.  In  1741  he  made  a  second 
expedition  to  the  same  region,  when  he  was 
wrecked  and  died. 

Beiram  Bia  Musagood  Ghiznevl  {d.  1152J, 
the  son  of  Musagood,  Sultan  of  Ghuzni, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1117.  He  was  a 
great  patron  of  Mohanunedan  literature, 
and  held  a  brilliant  court  of  Persian  poets 
and  writers.  He  was  driven  from  his  king- 
dom by  Prince  Alla-oo-deen,  of  Ghoor. 

Beiram  Khan,  Toorkoman  {d.  1561),  gene- 
ral-in-chief»  of  Hoomayon,  Emperor  of 
Delhi,  for  whom  he  conducted  victorious 
campaigns  against  the  Afghans  and  the 
King  of  Delhi.  He  became  the  guardian  of 
Hoomayon' 3  successor,  Akber,  but  his  am- 
bition becoming  too  great  he  was  sent  by 
Akber  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  was 
murdered  on  the  way. 

Beke,  Charles  Tilstone  (6.  1800,  d.  1874), 
an  English  traveller  and  scholar.  In  1834 
he  pubUshed  his  Origines  Biblicce,  which 
brought  him  into  celebrity  by  the  attacks  of 
the  orthodox  world.  He  was  appointed 
British  Consul  in  Saxony  in  1836,  and  ha 
spent  the  years  from  1840  to  1843  in  explo- 
rations in  Abyssinia.  He  also  visited  the 
Nile,  and  in  1865  was  sent  to  Abyssinia 
again  to  negotiate  the  release  of  captives 
from  King  Theodore.  His  last  journey  was 
a  visit  to  Syria  to  establish  the  site  of 
Mount  Sinai. 

Bekker,  Balthasar  (b.  1634,  d.  1698),  a 
Dutch  pastor,  known  to  fame  for  his  supe- 
riority to  the  superstitions  of  his  time.  He 
wrote  Ilesearches  into  Comets,  to  overcome 
the  panic  caused  by  the  1680  comet, 
and  The  World  Bewitched,  to  expose 
the  folly  of  popiUar  beliefs  in  witchcraft 
and  the  hke.  The  latter  work  was  widely 
read,  but  brought  on  its  author  all  but 
excommunication. 

Bekker,  Elizabeth  (6.  1733,  d.  1804),  a 
very  gifted  authoress,  and  collaborateur  of 
Aaghje  Deken.  She  is  best  known  as  Madame 
Wolff,  her  name  after  marriage. 


Bek 


(117) 


Bel 


Bekker,  Emanuel  (6.  1785,  d.  1871),  a 
German  philologist  and  editor  of  classics. 
He  was  professor  of  Greek  literature  at 
BerUn,  and  travelled  extensively  in  Europe, 
studying  the  MSS.  in  the  great  collections. 

Bela  L  (d.  1063),  King  of  Hungary, 
brother  of  Andrew  I.  of  Hungary,  and 
husband  of  Casimir,  sister  to  the  King  of 
Poland.  He  was  promised  the  succession 
by  Andrew  for  assistiug  to  repel  a  German 
invasion,  but  the  promise  beiag  revoked,  he 
invaded  Hungary,  and  deposed  Andrew  in 
1060. 

Bela  IL  (d.  1141),  sumamed  the  Blind, 
his  eyes  having  been  put  out  by  Goloman, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1131. 

Bela  HL  {d.  1196)  succeeded  Stephen 
IIL  1174.  He  recovered  Dahnatia  from  the 
Venetians,  and  did  much  to  organise  the 
government  of  his  coimtry. 

Bela<  IV.  (d.  1270)  succeeded  to  the 
throne  1235,  and  in  1241  was  driven  from 
his  kingdom  by  the  Mongol  invasion  Tinder 
Batu  Khan.  On.  his  return  he  successfully 
resisted  the  aggression  of  Frederick  of  Aus- 
tria, but  invading  Austria  in  turn,  he  was 
himself  defeated. 

Belalr,  Alexandre  Pierre  Julienne  de  {b. 
1747,  d.  1819),  French  general  and  military 
engineer.  In  1792  he  was  charged  with  the 
defence  of  Paris,  but  his  plans  of  fortifica- 
tion were  not  executed.  He  was  the  author 
of  treatises  on  fortification. 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward  (6.  1800,  d.  1877), 
explorer  and  hydrographer.  His  first  expe- 
dition was  in  the  Blossom,  under  Beecher, 
to  the  Behring  Straits.  From  1830  to  1852 
he  was  employed  constantly  in  surveying 
and  charting  different  parts  of  the  world's 
coasts  and  oceans,  and  then  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  a  Franklin  search  squadron. 
He  spent  two  winters  in  the  arctic  zone, 
and  made  several  discoveries.  He  left 
important  records  of  his  voyages. 

Belderbusch,  Charles  Leopold,  Count  de 
{b.  1749,  d.  1826),  Belgian  statesman,  who 
represented  the  Elector  of  Cologne  in  Paris 
ot  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution.  After 
the  union  of  France  and  Belgium  he  became 
deputy  and  senator. 

Belgians,  Kings  of  the.  A  line  created  in 
1830,  the  first  of  which  was  Leopold  I.,  Duke 
of  Saxe-Coburg  {b.  1790,  d.  1865).  Leopold 
was  appc>inted  by  the  European  powers  after 
the  separation  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  and 
the  reluctance  of  Holland  to  acquiesce  in 
this  arrangement  compelled  the  siege  of 
Antwerp  by  the  French  and  English.  Leo- 
pold's reign  was  marked  by  internal  reform 
and  commercial  expansion.  He  sanctioned 
the  first  continental  railroad.    Leopold  II. 


(6.  1835),  son  of  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded ia.  1865.  During  the  reign  the  faction 
fights  between  Cathohcs  and  Liberals  have 
been  very  fierce.  King  Leopold  was  mainly 
instrumental  in  the  estabfishment  of  the 
Congo  Free  State. 

Belgiojoso,  Christina  Trivulzio,  Princess 
of  (p.  1808,  d.  1871),  an  accomplished  Italian 
lady,  and  a  pronounced  patriot.  During  the 
Austrian  occupation  she  resided  in  Paris, 
where  her  salon  became  famous.  On  the 
ItaUau  insurrection  of  1843  she  equipped  at 
her  own  expense  a  force  of  200  men,  for 
which  act  she  was  banished.  She  then 
retired  to  Asia  Minor. 

Belidor,  Bernard  Forest  de  (6.  1693,  d. 
1761),  a  French  military  engineer.  After 
serving  in  the  army  he  obtained  a  professor- 
ship in  the  school  of  artillery  at  La  Fere, 
where  his  lectures  established  for  him  a 
wide  reputation.  He  lost  his  office  through 
the  jealousy  of  officials,  and  afterwards 
served  under  Segur  and  the  Prince  of 
Conti. 

I  Beling,  Eichard  (6.  1613,  d.  1677),  an 
Irish  Roman  Catholic  and  insurrectionist. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  Council  of  Kil- 
kenny, and  visited  Italy  to  enlist  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  Pope  in  the  Irish  cause.  He 
afterwards  joined  the  Duke  of  Ormond, 
and  on  the  defeat  of  the  Royalists  he  went 
to  France. 

Belisarius  {b.  505,  d.  565),  a  great  general 
of  the  Byzantine  empire.  He  served  in 
Justinian's  private  guard,  and  when  Justin- 
ian became  emperor  he  was  appointed  to  a 
high  command  ia  the  army.  His  conduct  of 
the  campaign  against  the  Persians  brought 
him  into  high  honour.  He  married  Anto- 
nina,  a  woman  of  vicious  character,  who 
gi-eatly  embittered  his  life,  and  ia  532  he 
suppressed  an  insurrection  ia  Constanti- 
nople, when  the  emperor  was  preparing  to 
fly.  He  next  conducted  a  victorious  war 
against  the  dreaded  Vandals  of  Africa,  from 
which  he  was  recalled,  bringing  immense 
booty,  and  in  536  he  destroyed  the  power  of 
the  Goths  in  Italy.  Again  recalled,  he  was 
soon  after  sent  against  the  Persians,  but  his 
success  thoroughly  roused  the  jealousy  of 
the  emperor,  and  he  was  exposed  to  much 
humiliation.  In  544  he  was  sent  on  a  second 
expedition  to  Italy  against  the  Goths,  but 
his  plans  were  frustrated  by  the  refusal  of 
supplies;  and  in  559  he  repulsed  the  Bul- 
garians from  the  walls  of  Constantinople. 
The  emperor,  who  had  constantly  treated 
Belisarius  vrith  jealous  distrust  and  ingrati- 
tude, now  caused  fresh  indignities  to  be 
heaped  on  the  great  commander,  who  was 
imprisoned  and  deprived  of  his  posses- 
sions. Of  his  latter  end  nothing  is  certainly 
known. 


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Bel 


Belknap,  Jeremy  (6.  1774,  d.  1798),  an 
Ajneric;iu  ministor  and  writer.  He  wrote 
the  Histonj  of  New  Hampshire,  and  much 
other  minor  work,  theological  and  his- 
torical. 

Bell,  Andrew  (6.  1752,  d.  1832),  a  Scottish 
educationalist  and  founder  of  the  Madras 
or  monitorial  system  of  teaching.  It  was  in 
his  work  at  the  Madras  military  asyliun, 
where  he  was  an  Episcopalian  clergyman, 
that  he  formed  the  ideas  of  his  system.  In 
England  a  model  school  was  foimded  by 
Joseph  Lancaster  and  Bell,  but  the  former 
being  a  dissenter,  a  breach  between  the  re- 
formers took  place,  resulting  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  British  schools  and  the  National 
Bchools.  BeU's  labours  were  recognised  be- 
fore his  death,  and  he  left  a  large  fortune 
for  educational  endowments. 

BeU,  Sir  Charles  (6.  1774,  d.  1842), 
surgeon  and  anatomist.  A  high  reputa- 
tion gained  in  Ediuburgh  was  confirmed 
in  London,  where  the  publication  of 
two  interesting  and  valuable  books  made 
Bell's  name  known.  In  1812  he  was  ap- 
pointed surgeon  to  the  Middlesex  Hospital, 
and  in  1821  he  read  a  paper  before  the  Koyal 
Society  embodying  the  result  of  years  of  re- 
search— The  Nervous  System  of  the  Human 
Body.  This  obtained  a  European  reputa- 
tion and  secured  the  investigator  a  knighthood 
and  other  honours.  In  1836  he  returned  to 
Edinburgh  as  a  professor  of  surgery. 

Bell,  George  Joseph  (6.  1770,  d.  1843), 
brother  of  the  preceding,  and  an  eminent 
lawyer  of  Scotland.  He  was  the  author  of 
Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Scotland. 

BeU,  Henry  (6.  1767,  d.  1830),  the  first 
British  subject  to  apply  steam  as  a  motive 
power  for  ships.  He  was  bom  in  Scotland, 
and  laboured  as  a  workiug  engineer.  In 
1812  he  constructed  the  first  British  steam- 
ship— a  vessel  of  about  25  tons,  with  an 
engine  of  three-horse  power,  which  was  used 
for  trafiic  on  the  Clyde.  The  people  of  Glas- 
gow raised  a  subscription  for  him,  and  he 
received  a  pension  of  £100. 

_  Bell,  Isaac  Lowthian  (6.  1816),  a  con- 
siderable ironmaster,  and  founder  of  the 
Clarence  iron  works  on  the  Tees.  He  has 
written  on  the  metallurgy  of  iron,  and  on 
the  chemical  phenomena  of  the  blast  furnace. 
From  1875  to  1880  he  was  M.P.  for  Hartle- 
pool. 

Bell,  John  (6.  1811),  a  prominent  sculptor. 
Among  his  more  widely  known  works  are  the 
Welliugton  monument  at  the  Guildhall,  the 
Guards'  Memorial  in  "Waterloo  Place,  and 
the  Crimean  Memorial  at  Woolwich. 

Bell,  John  (6.  1782,  d.  1865),  a  Newcastle 
antiquary.    He  was  an  industrious  writer ; 


his  Notes  on  the  Roman  Remains  in  Nor- 
thumherland  is  his  most  important  work. 
His  Rhymes  of  the  Northern  Bards  also 
attracted  considerable  notice. 

BeU,  John  (6. 1763,0^.  1820),  a  distinguished 
Scottish  surgeon  and  anatomist.  He  opened 
a  school  of  anatomy  in  Edinburgh,  and 
thereby  excited  much  professional  criticism, 
which  was  aggravated  by  his  attacks  on 
Monro  and  Benjamin  Bell.  In  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Charles  he  produced  his 
valuable  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body. 

BeU,  John  (6.  1691,  d.  1780),  a  Scottish 
physician  and  traveller.  In  1715  he  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  Russian  embassy 
to  Persia,  and  in  1719  he  joined  a  mission  to 
China,  travelling  to  Pekm  through  Siberia 
and  Tartary.  In  the  suite  of  Peter  the  Great 
he  visited  the  Caucasus,  and  later  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
resided  for  some  years. 

BeU,  Robert  (&.  1800,  d.  1867),  an  Irish 
writer.  After  some  j  oumaUstic  and  dramatic 
work  in  Dublin  he  came  to  London  and 
became  editor  of  the  Atlas.  A  History  of 
Russia  and  Lives  of  the  English  Poets 
were  among  his  works. 

BeU,  Thomas  (6.  1792,  d.  1880),  a  dis- 
tinguished naturalist.  He  practised  w^th 
much  success  as  a  surgeon-dentist,  devoting 
his  leisure  to  the  study  of  zoology,  and  writ- 
ing several  valuable  memoirs.  He  was  also 
one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  president  of  the  Linnsean  Society.  The 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  spent  in  retirement 
at  Selbome. 

BeU,  William  (6. 1731,  d.  1816),  anEnglish 
clergyman,  remarkable  alike  for  his  learning 
and  his  mimificence.  He  endowed  eight 
scholarships  at  Cambridge  for  the  sons  of 
poor  clergy,  and  his  writings  were  highly 
thought  of. 

BeUa,  Giano  Delia  (d.  1294),  a  noble 
Florentine,  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
people.  He  organised  a  citizen  protective 
force,  and  succeeded  in  obtaiuiug  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  nobles  fi'om  Florentine  affairs. 
Further  reforms  procured  his  exile. 

BeUa,  Stephano  DeUa  (6.  1610,  d.  1664), 
a  celebrated  engraver  of  Florence,  whose 
industry  is  credited  with  no  less  than  1,400 
works.  In  1642  he  went  to  Paiis  and 
executed  commissions  for  Richelieu. 

Bellamont,  Richard  Coote,  Earl  of  {d. 
1700),  an  Irish  statesman,  ennobled  by 
William  of  Orange  for  services  to  his  cause. 
His  chief  celebrity  is  associated  with  his  able 
governorship  of  New  York,  undertaken  in 
1695. 

BeUamy,  Jakob  (6.  1757,  d.  1786),  a  very 


Bel 


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Bel 


popular  Dutch  poet,  who  began  life  as  a 
baker's  apprentice.  He  first  attracted  at- 
tention by  his  poems  on  the  jubilee  of 
Holland's  liberation. 

Bellang6,  Joseph  Louis  Hyppolite  (p.  1800, 
d.  1S66),  French  painter  of  battle  pieces. 
TTis  paintings  commemorate  the  great  wars 
of  the  republic  and  of  Napoleon. 

BeUanger,  Fran9ois  Joseph  (6.  1744,  d. 
1818),  a  French  architect  of  note,  who  was 
employed  by  Napoleon  and  appointed  archi- 
tect to  the  Count  D'Artois  on  the  restora- 
tion, for  his  constant  efforts  in  the  royalist 
cause. 

BeUaxmino,  Eoberto  (6.  1542,  d.  1621), 
a  powerful  Jesuit  preacher.  He  was 
made  cardinal  in  1598,  and  later  Archbishop 
of  Capua,  and  librarian  to  the  Vatican.  He 
published  many  learned  works,  and  won 
considerable  repute  by  his  polemical  writings 
in  favour  of  absolute  papal  supremacy, 
which  he  artfuUy  associated  with  the  rights 
of  the  people  against  their  rulers.  His  con- 
tentions were  strongly  opposed  by  Catholics 
as  well  as  Protestants  in  France,  Italy,  and 
especially  in  England,  where  he  absolved  the 
people  from  their  allegiance  to  James  I.  It 
was  Bellarmino  who  in  1616  gave  GaUleo 
a  certificate  from  the  Holy  Of&ce  as  to  the 
falsity  of  his  reputed  recantation. 

Bellart,  Nicolas  Fran9ois  (6.1761,  d.  1826), 
a  very  distinguished  French  advocate  who 
defended  many  of  the  royalist  victuns  of  the 
revolution.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
public  orator  to  the  general  council  of  the 
Seine,  and  greatly  lauded  Napoleon,  whom 
he  however  denounced  after  his  fall.  He 
was  ennobled  and  given  office  on  the  restora- 
tion, and  distinguished  himself  as  public 
prosecutor. 

Bellay,  Guillaume  du,  Sieur  de  Langey 
(6.  1491,  d.  1543),  soldier,  diplomatist  and 
Bcholar,  and  eminent  in  each  capacity.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  his  time. 

Bellay,  Jean  du  (6.  1492,  d.  1560),  a 
French  cardinal,  and  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  sent  by  Francis  I,  on 
missions  to  England  and  Eome,  and  in  1536 
he  was  appointed  Ueuteuant-general,  in  the 
absence  of  the,  king  on  the  Proven9al  cam- 
paign against  Charles  V. 

Bellay,  Joachim  (6.  1524,  d.  1560),  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  a  poet  known  as  the 
"  lS:ench  Ovid."  He  obtained  celebrity  for 
his  verse  in  the  court  of  Francis  I.,  and 
later  in  that  of  Henry  II.  He  wrote  odes, 
elegies  and  hymns,  but  principally  sonnets 
in  praise  of  his  mistress. 

Belle,  Jean  Francois  Joseph  de  (6.  1767, 
d.  1802),  a  French  general  and  brother- 
in-law   of  Hoche,   with   whom  he  served, 


afterwards  serving  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Italy. 
He  died  at  San  Domiugo,  whither  he  was 
sent  to  suppress  Toussaint  L'Ouverture's 
insurrection. 

Belleau,  Remi  (6  1528,  d.  1577),  one  of 
the  seven  French  poets  who  were  styled 
"the  Pleiades."  He  translated  Auacreon, 
but  his  poems  are  not  of  great  value. 

Bellecourt,  Jean  Claude  Gille  (6.  1725,  d. 
1778),  a  French  actor.  The  son  of  a  distin- 
guished portrait  paiuter,  named  Colson,  he 
studied  for  the  same  profession,  and  showed 
much  ability.  But  becoming  "  stage- 
struck,"  he  devoted  himself  to  acting  and 
ultimately  reached  the  Com^die  Franc^aise. 

BeUecourt,  Eose  Petronelle  (6.  1730,  d. 
1799),  wife  of  the  preceding,  and  a  famous 
actress.  She  first  appeared  on  the  Paris  stage 
at  the  age  of  thirteen. 

Bellegarde,  Antoine  due  Bois  de  (6.  1740, 
d.  1825),  a  French  revolutionary,  who  sat 
in  the  Legislative  Assembly  as  an  extremist. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  Convention  and 
of  "Le  Conseildes  Anciens."  He  fled  from 
France  at  the  restoration. 

Bellegarde,  Henri,  Count  de  (6.  1755,  d. 
1831),  a  Savoyard,  and  field-marshal  in  the 
Austrian  army.  In  1805  he  was  president 
of  the  AuHc  Council  of  war,  and  after  being 
governor  of  Galicia  he  was  made  governor- 
general  of  the  Italian  provinces. 

Bellegarde,  Roger  de  Saint  Lary  de  (d. 
1579),  a  marshal  of  France.  For  promoting 
an  alliance  between  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and 
the  French  king  he  was  made  a  marshal  by 
Henry  III.  Falling  into  disgrace,  he  in- 
duced the  Duke  to  declare  war  against 
France,  with  the  result  that  Catherine  de 
Medici  brought  about  his  death  by  poison. 

Bellegarde,  Eoger  de  Saint  Lary  de, 
Duke  of  Tonnes  {b.  1563,  d.  1646),  French 
soldier,  who  served  in  the  wars  of  Henry  IIL , 
Henry  VI.,  and  Louis  XIII.  He  was  the 
favoured  lover  of  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  who 
became  Henry  IV. 's  mistress,  when  Belle- 
garde was  promptly  banished. 

BeUe-Isle,  Charles  Louis  Auguste 
Fouquet,  Due  de  (A.  1684,  d.  1761),  a  French 
marshal.  Commanding  the  French  troops 
in  the  Austrian  campaign  of  1740,  he 
suffered  a  disastrous  defeat,  and,  being  taken, 
was  sent  to  England  as  a  prisoner.  He  re- 
turned to  France  at  the  end  of  a  year,  and 
repelled  the  Austrian  invasion  of  Provence 
in  1744.  In  1748  he  was  ennobled,  and  next 
year  became  minister  of  war. 

Bellenden,  or  Ballentyne,  John  (d.  1560), 
a  Scottish  poet,  of  considerable  repute,  who 
wrote  in  the  time  of  James  V.  He  also  trans- 
lated historical  works  into  the  vernacular. 


Bel 


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Bel 


BeUeteste,  B.  {l>.  1778,  d.  1808),  a  French 
Orientalist,  who  was  wounded  in  the 
Egyptian  expedition,  which  he  accompanied 
as  a  member  of  the  Science  and  Art  Com- 
mission. His  Forty  Viziers  is  a  translation 
from  the  Turkish. 

Belleval,  Pierre  Riche  de  {b.  1558,  d.  1623), 
a  French  physician  and  botanist,  who  in- 
augurated the  botanical  schools  of  France. 
He  occupied  the  iirst  chair  of  botany, 
created  in  1596  by  Henry  IV. 

Belliard,  Augustin  Daniel  (6.  1769,  d. 
1832),  a  French  general  of  the  revolution. 
He  had  almost  won  a  general's  rank  when 
he  was  degraded  on  suspicion.  Enlisting 
again  as  a  private,  he  rose  to  his  former 
rank  under  Hoche.  He  fought  with  dis- 
tinction in  Italy,  Egypt,  Germany,  Russia, 
and  Spain.  He  was  imprisoned  at  the  re- 
storation, but  after  the  revolution  of  1830 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Belgium. 

Bellievret,  Pompone  de  (6.  1529,  d.  1607), 
a  French  diplomatist,  employed  on  embassies 
by  Charles  IV.  and  Henry  III.,  and  made 
chancellor  by  Henry  IV.  He  was  sent  to 
England  to  demand  the  release  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots. 

Bellini,  Giovanni  (6.  1422,  d.  1512), 
Venetian  painter,  son  of  Jacopo  Bellini, 
himself  a  painter  of  note,  and  the  teacher 
of  Titian,  who  finished  several  of  his 
works.  He  began  by  portrait  painting ; 
and  he  afterwards  executed  some  great 
historical  pieces  for  the  Hall  of  the  Great 
Council  of  Venice,  which  were  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1577. 

BeUini,  Gentile  (d.  1501),  brother  of  the 
preceding,  and  also  a  great  painter.  He 
visited  Constantinople,  and  was  received 
with  great  favour  by  the  Sultan. 

BeUini,  Vincenzo  (6.  1802,  d.  1835),  an 
Italian  musical  composer,  and  a  disciple  of 
Rossini.  The  son  of  a  Sicilian  organist,  he 
proceeded  to  the  royal  music  school  of 
Naples,  where  he  produced  his  first  opera. 
He  attracted  attention  with  II  Firata, 
brought  out  at  Milan  and  played  succes- 
sively in  all  the  European  capitals ;  and  in 
1831  the  production  of  his  greatest  opera, 
Za  Somnambula,  established  his  high  reputa- 
tion. This  was  followed  by  the  tragic  opera 
Norma,  and  in  1835  by  /  Furitani,  the  com- 
poser's last  work.  He  was  buried  in  Pere 
la  Chaise  at  Paris. 

Bellmami,  Kari  Michael  (6. 1740,  d.  1795), 
a  Swedish  lyrical  poet  of  considerable  popu- 
larity. The  nature  of  his  verse  is  indicated 
by  the  name  given  to  him — the  Swedish 
Anacreon. 

BeUoc,  Jean  Louis  (6.  1730,  d.  1807),  an 
eminent  French  surgeon,  and  professor  of 


medical  jurisprudence  at  Paris.  Among 
several  valuable  works,  he  wrote  Le  Coursde 
Medecine,  Ligale,  Judiciaire,  Theorehque  et 
Fratique. 

Bellori,  Giovanni  Pietro  (6. 1615,  d.  1696), 
a  distinguished  antiquarian  and  an  excellent 
painter,  who  also  claims  remembrance  for 
his  biographies  of  eminent  men. 

BeUot,  Joseph  Rene  (6.  1826,  d.  1853),  a 
gallant  French  naval  officer,  who  before  he 
was  twenty  years  old  was  received  into  the 
Legion  of  Honour.  In  1851  he  sailed,  under 
Mr.  Kennedy,  in  the  Frince  Albert,  with  the 
Franklin  expedition,  and  in  1852  he  joined 
another    Arctic  expedition   under    Captain 

I  Inglefield,  and  in  this  he  lost  his  life.  A 
monument  was  erected  to  him  at  Greenwich 

,  by  public  subscription. 

Bellovesus,  a  Gallic  chief  who,  according 
.  to  Livy,  emigrated  from  Gaul  during  the 
[  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and,  settling  in 
the  plains  of  Lombardy,  founded  MUan. 

BeUoy,  Jean  Baptiste  (&.  1709,  d.  1808),  a 
French  prelate.  As  Bishop  of  Gland^ves  he 
took  part  in  the  convocation  of  1755.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  he  retired  to 
Chambly,  and  was  the  first  bishop  to  resign 
his  title  in  1801,  for  the  sake  of  the  Con- 
cordat. He  was  some  time  cardinal  and 
Archbishop  of  Paris. 

Belloy,  Pierre  Laurent  Bujrrette  de  (6. 
1727,  d.  \Tih),  a  French  dramatist.  He  for- 
sook the  law  for  the  stage,  and  in  1758  he 
produced  his  tragedy  Titm,  which  failed  dis- 
mally. In  1765  he  produced  The  Siege  of 
Calais,  which  succeeded  as  notably  as  the 
first  piece  failed,  and  which  was  the  pre- 
cursor of  several  other  dramas.  The  bad 
reception  accorded  to  his  Feter  the  Cruel  is 
said  to  have  caused  his  death. 

Beimels  or  Beaumes,  Richard  de  {d. 
1127),  Bishop  of  London,  remembered  for 
his  efforts  in  the  restoration  of  St.  Paul's 
after  its  destruction  by  fire  in  10S6. 

Belmontet,  Louis  (6.  1799,  d.  1879),  a 
French  poet,  bestknown  for  his  political  odes. 
He  was  consistently  the  devoted  admirer  of 
Napoleon  and  the  Bonapartes,  and  wrote 
against  every  government  which  was  not 
Bonapartist.  In  1 81 7  he  was  banished  from 
Toulouse;  later  he  was  an  editor  of  the 
Paris  Tribune,  and  when  Louis  Napoleon 
assumed  sovereign  power  he  was  taken  into 
favour. 

Belon,  Pierre  (6.  1517,  d.  1564),  a  French 
physician  and  an  eminent  naturalist.  By 
means  of  influential  patronage  he  was 
enabled  to  make  extensive  travels  in  Eastern 
Europe  and  Egypt,  his  observations  and 
records  being  of  the  greatest  value.  He  was 
murdered  by  robbers. 


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Ben 


Belo'wselsky,  Alexander,  Prince  (6.  1757, 
d.  1809),  a  Russian  man  of  letters  and  a 
patron  of  the  fine  arts.  He  was  for  some 
time  Catherine's  ambassador  at  Turin. 

Belsham,  Thomas  (6.  1750,  d.  1829),  an 
eminent  Unitarian  minister,  whose  writings 
on  religious  subjects  were  much  esteemed  in 
his  day.  He  preached  at  the  Essex  Street 
chapel  in  London. 

Belsliazzar,  the  last  king  of  Babylon  and 
grandson  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  it  was 
whose  feast  was  interrupted  by  the  writing 
on  the  wall,  as  narrated  in  the  5th  chapter 
of  Daniel. 

Belsunce  de  Castel  Moron,  Henri  Fran- 
cois Xavier  (6.  1671,  d.  17o5),  archbishop  of 
Marseilles,  and  a  provincial  grand  vicar  of 
the  Jesuits.  He  is  remembered  for  his 
noble  conduct  during  the  plague  of  1720, 
and  for  his  persecution  of  the  Jansenists. 

Belzoni,  Giovanni  Battista  (6.  1778,  d. 
1823),  an  Italian  explorer,  who  rendered  the 
most  signal  services  to  archaeology.  After 
travelUng  in  France  and  Holland,  he  came 
to  Great  Britain.  He  was  of  singularly 
powerful  build,  and  married  an  English  wife 
of  equally  remarkable  physique,  and  the  two 
for  some  time  maintained  themselves  by  itin- 
erant exhibitions  of  feats  of  strength.  After 
visiting  Spain,  he  went  to  Egypt;  he  was 
employed  there  by  Mr.  Consul  Salt  in  the 
Nile  Valley  excavations,  and  removed  from 
Thebes  the  granite  bust  of  the  "  Young 
Memnon."  Then  he  excavated  from  the 
sand  the  Temple  of  Ipsamboul,  and  found  the 
tomb  of  Seti  I.  at  Thebes.  He  made  valu- 
able researches  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tombs 
of  the  Kings,  and  crowned  his  labours  by 
discovering  the  entrance  to  tho  Second 
Pyramid.  He  received  a  very  cordial  re- 
ception in  England  and  Italy  after  this,  and 
in  1822  he  set  out  again  to  penetrate  Airica 
from  the  Guinea  coast.  On  the  way  he 
contracted  a  serious  illness,  which  shortly 
carried  him  off. 

Bern,  Joseph  (6.  1795,  d.  1850),  a  brave 
and  skilful  PoUsh  general.  He  served  as 
general  of  artillery  in  the  Polish  revolution 
of  1830,  and  afterwards  travelled  in  Europe. 
He  joined  Kossuth  in  1848  in  the  revolt 
against  Austria,  and  won  several  battles  for 
the  national  cause.  Later  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  Turkish  sultan,  adopting  the 
Mohammedan  religion. 

Eembo,  Pietro  {b.  1470,  d.  1547),  an  emi- 
nent Italian  cardinal,  and  a  profound  scholar. 
His  early  life  he  spent  studying  in  one 
city  and  another,  and  he  attained  such  a 
reputation  for  culture  that  when  in  1512 
he  went  to  Rome  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  pontifical  secretaries,  and  in  1539  he 
was    created  cardinal.     He    wrote    prose 


and  verse,  both  in  Italian  and  Latin,  and 
his  compositions  are  most  remarkable  for 
their  purity  of  style. 

Benalcazar,  Sebastian  de  (d.  1550),  one 
of  the  Spanish  pioneers  in  South  Ajnerican 
conquest.  He  left  Spain  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  Darien  of  1514,  and  soon  attracted 
the  attention  of  Pizarro.  He  defeated  the 
Indians,  and  took  possession  of  Quito,  of 
which  he  was  made  governor,  and  from 
which  he  undertook  adventurous  expeditions 
of  conquest.  He  joined  Blasco  Nunez  in  his 
revolt  against  Pizarro,  but  after  their  defeat 
he  was  restored  to  his  office. 

Benbow,  John  (6.  1650,  d.  1702),  a  gallant 
British  admiral,  promoted  from  the  mer- 
chant service.  After  some  active  service 
against  the  French  in  Eui-ope  he  was  sent 
to  the  West  Indies,  and  encountering  a 
superior  French  fleet  he  engaged  it  for  five 
days.  The  cowardly  desertion  of  some  of 
his  captains  on  this  occasion  threw  the  brunt 
of  the  fighting  on  Benbow's  ship,  and  the 
admiral  lost  a  leg,  dying  of  the  wound 
shortly  afterwards. 

Benda,  Franz  (6.  1709,  d.  1788),  a  Bohe- 
mian violinist  of  great  ability.  He  took 
violin  lessons  from  Koniesk,  and  his  talent 
was  so  great  that  he  became  recognised  as 
the  first  violinist  of  his  time,  and  was  taken 
into  the  service  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

Benda,  Georg  (6.  1722,  d.  1795),  cousin  of 
the  preceding,  and  also  a  notable  violinist. 
He  was  kapellmeister  to  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha,  and  produced  several  successful 
operas.    He  spent  some  time  in  Italy. 

Bendemann,  Edward  (6.  1811,  d.  1889), 
a  German  painter  of  repute.  He  became 
known  by  his  religious  pieces,  and  in  1860 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Diisseldorf 
Academy  of  Arts. 

Bender,  Blaise  Colomban,  Baron  de  (6. 
1713,  d.  1798),  an  Austrian  field  marshal, 
who  rose  to  that  rank  and  to  nobility  from 
the  artisan  class.  He  was  in  high  favour 
with  Maria  Theresa,  and  served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war. 

Benedek,  Ludwig  von  (6.  1804,  d.  1881), 
an  Austrian  general  who  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  revolutionists  in  Hun- 
gary and  the  Nationalists  of  Italy.  He  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  Austrian  army 
against  the  Prussians  in  1866,  and  was  totally 
defeated  at  Sadowa,  largely  owing  to  his 
own  ineptitude. 

Benedetti,  Giovanni  (d.  1590),  a  Venetian 
mathematician  of  considerable  genius,  whose 
work  has  endured  better  than  his  personal 
fame. 

Benedetti,  Viacent  (6.  1815),  a  Corsican 


Ben 


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Ben 


by  birth,  and  a  prominent  figure  in  French 
diplomacy.  He  was  ambassador  at  Berlin 
before  the  war  of  1870,  and  he  it  was  who 
drew  up  the  secret  treaty  published  in  the 
Times,  by  which  Prussia  and  France  were 
to  co-operate  in  the  annexation  of  Belgium. 

Benedict,  the  name  of  fourteen  popes,  from 
574  to  1758.  Benedict  I.  died  (578)  during  the 
siege  of  Eome  by  the  Longobards ;  Bene- 
dict II.  (d.  685)  was  canonised ;  Benedict 
III.  (d.  858)  was  for  a  short  time  displaced 
by  a  pretender,  who  secured  the  support  of 
the  emperor,  Louis  II. ;  Benedict  IV.  (d. 
903)  ruled  but  three  years ;  Benedict  V.  (d. 
965)  was  elected  to  the  pontificate  by  the 
Eomans,  while  Leo  VIII.  was  nominated 
by  the  Emperor  Otho  I.  He  resigned,  and 
retired  to  Germany  at  the  solicitation  of  the 
emperor ;  Benedict  VI.  (d.  974)  was  deposed 
by  a  faction,  and  murdered  by  Cardinal 
Boniface,  who  usurped  the  Holy  Ofiice ; 
Benedict  Vn.  (d.  983)— itwas  under  this  pope 
that  Otho  II.  undertook  his  famous  expedi- 
tion  against  the  Saracens  in  southern  Italy; 
Benedict  VIII.  (d.  1024)  was  expelled  by  a 
faction,  but  restored  by  Henry  II.  of  Ger- 
many. He  promoted  the  crusade  of  Pisa 
and  Genoa  against  the  Saracens ;  Benedict 
IX.  (pope  1033)  was  elected  by  bribery,  and 
was  expelled  for  his  bad  life  by  the  Romans. 
Restored  by  his  friends,  he  sold  his  office, 
and  was  finally  deposed  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  III. ;  Benedict  X.  was  elected  by  a 
faction,  and  deposed  (1059)  by  a  council 
held  at  Siena;  Benedict  XI.  {d.  1304)— 
after  his  death  the  papal  see  was  transferred 
to  Avignon;  Benedict XII.  {d.  1342)  ruled 
at  Avignon,  and  to  him  was  made  the  pro- 
posal by  the  Emperor  Andronicus  for  the 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches; 
Benedict  XIII.  (b.  1649,  d.  1730)  was  best 
known  for  his  liberality  and  piety.  His 
authority  was  defied  by  the  King  of  Portugal 
because 'the  Lisbon  nuncio  was  refused  a 
cardinal's  hat,  and  Parma  and  Piacenza 
were  snatched  by  Austria  from  the  papal 
see ;  Benedict  XIV.  (fi.  1675,  d.  1758),  the 
last  pope  of  the  name,  is  distinguished  for 
the  sagacious  concessions  which  he  made  in 
regard  to  the  privileges  and  power  of  the 
papacy.  He  endeavoured  to  reform  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  clergy,  and  to  put  in  order 
the  finances  of  the  see. 

Benedict,  Sir  Julius  (&.  1804,  d.  1885), 
musical  composer.  He  was  bom  at  Stutt- 
gart, and  studied  imder  Weber,  and  in 
1825  took  the  directorship  of  the  San  Carlo 
theatre  at  Naples,  where  he  produced  his 
first  opera.  In  1835  he  came  to  London,  and 
produced  in  1838  his  first  English  opera,  The 
Gipsi/'s  Warning ;  and  later,  as  orchestral 
director  at  Drury  Lane,  he  brought  out  his 
two  best  works.  The  Brides  of  Venice  and 
The  Crusader.  He  accompanied  _  Jenny 
Lind  in  her  American  tour,  and  in  1862 


produced  The  Lily  of  Killarney.    He  was 
knighted  in  1871. 

Benedict,  Saint  {d.  542  or  547),  the  founder 
of  the  famous  Benedictine  order.  For  many 
years  of  his  early  life  he  lived  in  a  cave  near 
Subiaco,  holding  no  communication  with 
the  world.  Through  the  shepherds  he 
became  known  in  the  district,  and  several 
miracles  were  attributed  to  him.  Around 
his  cave,  whither  people  of  all  degrees 
flocked,  twelve  monasteries  were  built,  in 
which  his  rules  of  life  were  observed ;  but 
the  hostility  of  a  neighbouring  priest  drove 
Benedict  to  Monte  Casino,  where,  after 
demolishing  the  temple  and  grove  of  Apollo, 
he  built  a  monastery.  From  this  the  order 
spread  all  over  Europe,  being  distinguished 
for  the  severity  of  discipline  imposed. 
Benedict  died  after  fourteen  years  of  work 
in  his  new  abode.  His  sister,  Scholastica, 
also  founded  many  convents. 

Benedict  of  Aniane  (6.  750,  d.  821),  a 
priest  known  as  a  reformer  of  monastic  dis- 
cipline. He  retired  from  the  service  of 
Charlemagne  to  build  a  monastery  on  the 
bank  of  the  Aniane. 

Benediktof,  Vladimir  (6.  1810,  d.  1873), 
a  Eussiau  lyrical  poet  of  the  highest  repute. 

Beneke,  Friedrich  Edouard  (6.  1798,  d. 
1854),  an  eminent  German  philosopher. 
His  teaching  was  on  the  same  lines  as  that 
of  the  Scottish  metaphysicians,  and  his 
lectures  in  Berlin  were  forbidden  by 
Government.  In  1827  the  interdiction  was 
removed,  and  in  1832  he  succeeded  Hegel  as 
professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Berlin 
University.  An  excessively  laborious  life 
was  closed  by  suicide. 

Benelli,  Antonio  Peregrine  (6.  1771,  d. 
1830),  an  Italian  tenor  of  note,  and  a  musical 
composer  and  critic  of  ability.  In  1798  he 
appeared  in  the  Italian  opera  at  London. 

Benezet,  Anthony  (6.  1713,  d.  1784),  a 
Frenchman,  who  was  brought  to  England  as 
a  child  and  who  subsequently  went  to 
America,  where  he  devoted  his  life  to  better- 
ing the  condition  of  the  negroes.  His 
writings  first  aroused  attention  to  the  slave 
trade  question. 

Benfey,  Theodore  (6.  1809,  d.  1881),  a  dis- 
tinguished German  Orientalist,  and  pro- 
fessor of  Sanscrit  at  Gottingen.  He  left 
several  important  works  on  philological 
subjects. 

Bengel,  Johann  Albrecht  (6. 1687,  d.  1752), 
a  German  pastor  of  the  Lutheran  church 
known  for  his  piety  and  learning.  The 
principal  of  several  theological  works  was 
his  Gnomon  Novi  Testamenti. 

Benignus,  St.,  an   Irish    priest,   and    a 


Ben 


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Een 


disciple  of  St.  Patrick,  by  whom  he  was 
baptised  iu  433,  aud  whom  he  succeeded  as 
Bishop  of  Armagh  ia  465. 

Benincasa,  Count  Bartolomeo  (6.  1745,  d, 
1825),  au  Italian  writer  and  diplomatist. 
At  Venice  his  literary  abilities  secured  the 
favour  of  the  Countess  de  Rosenberg.  When 
Napoleon  annexed  Italy  he  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Dalmatia,  where  he  founded  a 
journal. 

Beniowsld,  Maurice  Augustus  de  (6. 
1741,  d.  1786),  a  Hungarian  soldier,  who, 
while  serving  in  Poland  against  Russia,  was 
taken  prisoner  and  exiled  to  Khamtschatka. 
He  escaped  to  France,  whence  he  was  sent 
to  found  a  colony  at  Madagascar.  He  was 
elected  king  by  the  natives,  and  returned  to 
Europe  to  open  up  commercial  relations  with 
his  subjects.  After  serving  in  the  French 
army  he  returned  to  Madagascar,  and  was 
next  year  killed  in  an  engagement  with 
troops  from  the  Isle  of  France. 

Benivicui,  Girolamo  {b.  1453,  d.  1542),  a 
greatly  esteemed  poet  of  Florence,  and  the 
friend  of  Savonarola. 

Benjamin,  Judah  Philip  (6.  1811,  d.  1884), 
an  American  politician,  who  later  became  a 
distinguished  member  of  the  English  bar. 
He  was  bom  in  the  "West  Indies,  aud  prac- 
tised as  a  barrister  at  New  Orleans.  He  sat 
in  the  Senate,  and  became  Attorney-General 
and  Secretary  of  State  to  the  Confederate 
Government  under  Jefferson  Davis.  When 
the  cause  of  the  South  was  lost,  he  fled  to 
England,  and  was,  by  influence,  at  once 
called  to  the  English  bar,  obtaining  a  large 
practice  and  becoming  a  Q.C. 

Benjamin,  Park  (6.  1809,  d.  1864),  an 
American  poet  and  jotimalist.  He  was 
connected  with  many  of  the  New  York 
papers  and  periodicals,  and  some  of  his 
numerous  poems  have  much  merit. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a  celebrated  Jewish 
Rabbi,  who  lived  in  Spain  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  12th  century.  He  visited  all  the 
synagogues  in  Europe,  and  travelled  much 
in  Asia.  The  record  of  his  joumeyings  is 
pubhshed  in  most  European  languages. 

Bennet,  Henry,  Earl  of  Arlington  {b.  1618, 
d.  IGSo),  an  English  statesman,  and  member 
of  the  famous  "  Cabal."  He  fought  on  the 
Royalist  side  in  the  Civil  war,  and  was 
secretary  to  James  II.  while  in  exile.  On 
the  Restoration  he  was  made  principal 
Secretary  of  State  and  Lord  Chamberlain. 

Bennet,  James  Henry  (b.  1816),  an  emi- 
nent physician  and  a  specialist  in  gynaec- 
ology. He  first  practised  in  Paris,  but  in 
184.'i  he  settled  in  London  where  he  obtained 
a  first-rate  position.  He  has  published 
several  important  medical  works. 


Bennet,  Sir  John  (d.  1627),  grandfather  of 
the  first  Lord  Arlington.  He  was  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
Elizabeth's  reign,  and  held  a  judicial  office 
under  James  I.,  but  was  removed  for  mal- 
practices. 

Bennett,  Edward  Turner  (b.  1797,  d. 
1836),  an  eminent  zoologist  and  first  secre- 
tary of  the  Entomological  Society.  He 
wrote  several  valuable  memoirs. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon  (6.  1800,  d.  1872), 
an  American  journalist  and  native  of  Scot- 
land. Having  emigrated  to  America,  he 
founded  in  1835  the  New  York  Herald,  which 
he  conducted  for  40  years. 

Bennett,  Sir_  James  Risdon  (6.  1809),  an 
eminent  physician,  elected  in  1876  President 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians.  He  is 
an  F.R.S.,  and  has  written  several  medical 
works. 

Bennett,  John  Hughes  {b.  1812,  d.  1875), 
a  Scottish  physician  and  physiologist.  He 
took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh,  and  afterward 
studied  in  France  and  Germany.  A  treatise 
on  the  curative  properties  of  cod-Uver  oil 
won  distinction  for  him,  and  after  a  time  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  physiology  at  Edin- 
burgh, where  his  lectures  were  highly  es- 
teemed. He  was  a  bitter  aud  prolific  con- 
troversialist, and  wrote,  besides,  some  medi- 
cal works. 

Bennett,  Sir  WiUiam  Stemdale  {b.  1816, 
d.  1875),  a  distinguished  musical  composer. 
He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
where  his  first  pieces  were  produced,  and 
soon  secured  him  a  reputation.  Going  to 
Leipzig,  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  and 
advice  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann.  He 
continued  to  compose  with  increasing  repu- 
tation, particularly  in  Germany,  and  several 
of  his  pieces  were  produced  under  Mendels- 
sohn's direction.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  music  at  Cambridge,  and  con- 
ductor of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  In 
1867  his  most  celebrated  work.  The  tFoman 
of  Samaria,  appeared,  and  he  was  knighted 
in  1871. 

Benningsen,  Levin  Augustus  Theophilus, 
Count  de  (6.  1745,  d.  1826),  a  native  of 
Brunswick,  who  held  the  highest  commands 
in  the  Russian  army.  He  was  made  Major- 
General  by  Catherine,  and  took  the  lead 
among  the  conspirators  by  whom  Paul  I. 
was  assassinated.  Under  Alexander  he  was 
constantly  employed  against  the  French, 
and  won  several  victories.  In  1812  he 
commanded  the  Russian  centre  at  Moscow  ; 
he  defeated  Murat  at  Winkowo,  fought  at 
Leipzig,  and  for  his  victory  at  Zweinaun- 
dorf  was  made  a  count  on  the  field  of  battle, 
and  soon  after  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Russian  army.     He  died  in  Hanover. 


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Ben 


Bennigsen,  Rudolph  von  (6.  1824),  a 
Gennau  politician.  He  entered  the  Han- 
overian parliament,  where  he  advocated  the 
unity  of  the  German  States  xmder  Prussia. 
To  accomplish  this  object  he  founded  the 
National  Verein,  which  before  its  dissolution 
had  30,000  members.  In  1873  he  became 
president  of  the  Prussian  Chamber  of 
Deputies. 

Benoist,  Pierre  Vincent  {b.  1758,  d.  1834), 
a  French  politician  and  writer.  His  work 
as  a  journalist  at  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tion brought  him  into  prominence,  and  he 
was  given  a  post  in  the  ministry  of  the 
interior.  He  held  several  high  posts  under 
Louis  XVIII. ,  and  was  elected  a  deputy. 

Benoist  de  Sainte  Maur,  a  troubadour 
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  for 
whom  he  wrote  a  Metrical  History  of  the 
Dukes  of  Normandy.  Another  poem,  Le 
Jioman  de  Troye,  stUl  exists. 

Benso,  Giulio  (6.  1601,  d.  1668),  a  Genoese 
historical  painter  of  considerable  repute, 
whose  works  for  the  most  part  remain  still 
in  his  native  city. 

Benson,  Edward  White  (6.  1829),  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury;  he  succeeded  Dr. 
Tait.  Sometime  assistant  master  at  Rugby, 
in  1858  he  was  appointed  head  master  of 
Wellington  college,  and  in  1872  chancellor 
of  Lincoln  cathedral.  In  1876,  on  the 
creation  of  the  bishopric  of  Truro,  he  ac- 
cepted the  see,  from  which  he  passed  to 
the  Primacy  in  1882. 

Benson,  William  (6.  1682,  d.  1754),  a  man 
of  letters  only  remembered  as  one  of  the 
persons  satiiised  in  Pope's  Dunciad.  He 
was  appointed  surveyor- general  in  suc- 
cession to  Sir  C.  Wren,  but  foimd  himself 
unequal  to  the  duties. 

Bentham,  George  (6.  1779,  d.  1884),  a 
distinguished  botanist.  At  first  he  studied 
law,  but  from  1828  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  botany,  and  in  1854  he  presented 
to  the  Royal  Gardens  at  Kew  his  valuable 
collection  and  books.  He  was  given  a  room 
at  Kew,  and  for  nearly  twenty  years  he 
worked  there  almost  daily,  classifying  and 
recording  his  observations,  and  together 
with  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  he  wrote  Genera 
Plantarum.  In  spite  of  the  great  value  and 
scope  of  his  work,  he  died  almost  imknown 
to  the  general  public. 

Bentham,  Jeremy  (6.  1748,  d.  1832),  a 
writer  on  ethics  and  jurisprudence.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1772,  but  never 
practised.  The  works  of  Helvetius  directed 
his  thoughts  to  the  utilitarian  principle  of 
"the  greatest  happiness  of  the  gi-eatest 
number,']  and  in  1776  he  produced  anony- 
mously his  Frayment  on  Government,  which 


excited  much  criticism  and  which  was 
variously  attributed  to  several  of  the  greatest 
lawyers  of  the  day.  In  1780  appeared  An 
Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legislation ;  and  in  1791  the  "Panopticon,  or 
The  Inspection  House,  was  published,  in 
which  Bentham  set  forth  new  principles 
of  prison  construction.  The  Principles  of 
International  Law  was  written  in  1786, 
though  not  published  for  half  a  century 
later.  In  1792  the  honour  of  French  citizen- 
ship was  conferred  on  Bentham,  and  in  1797 
his  attention  having  been  turned  to  the 
Poor  Law,  he  wrote  his  Pauper  Manage- 
ment Improved,  many  of  the  proposals  con- 
tained therein  being  realised  by  the  Act  of 
1834.  After  dealing  with  the  reform  of  the 
Scottish  judicial  system,  he  brought  out  in 
1818  his  Civil  and  Criminal  Codes,  and 
his  remarkable  Chrestomathia.  The  Consti- 
tutional Code,  Bentham's  great  work,  was 
published  in  1827,  together  with  The  Ra- 
tionale of  Jiidicial  Evidence.  After  his  death 
his  body  was  dissected  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  his  will. 

Bentham,  Sir  Samuel  (6.  1757,  d.  1831), 
brother  of  the  preceding.  A  brigadier-gen- 
eral and  inspector-general  of  naval  works. 
He  effected  great  improvements  in  the  dock- 
yards. 

Bentham,  Thomas  (6.  1513,  d.  1579),  an 
English  ecclesiastic,  who  suffered  persecution 
for  advocating  the  Reformation  in  Mary's 
reign.  Elizabeth  made  him  Bishop  of  Lich- 
field, and  at  her  request  he  translated  the 
Psalms  and  the  books  of  Ezekiel  and 
Daniel. 

Bentinck,  Lord  George  (&.  1802,  d.  1848), 
a  statesman,  nephew  of  Canning,  and  younger 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Portland.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1826  as  a  Whig,  but  seceded 
with  the  Earl  of  Derby  (then  Lord  Stanley), 
in  1835.  On  the  repeal  of  the  Com  Laws 
he  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  Tory  pro- 
tectionist party,  and  displayed  an  ability 
in  the  post  which  was  not  altogether  expected. 
He  was  a  great  hunter  and  patron  of  the  turf, 
and  used  to  ride  to  hounds  between  the  de- 
bates in  the  House  of  Commons. 

Bentinck,  William  (&.  1649,  d.  1709),  first 
Earl  of  Portland.  Of  Dutch  birth,  he  was 
attached  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  with 
whom  he  formed  the  closest  friendship; 
and  when  WUliam  became  King  of  England 
Bentinck  was  created  a  peer.  He  served  in 
Holland  and  Ireland,  and  went  on  a  mission 
to  France,  concluding  the  first  partition 
treaty.  For  his  share  in  the  second  treaty 
he  was  impeached,  though  his  unswerving 
fidelity  and  integrity  were  always  con- 
spicuous. 

Bentinck,  Lord  William  Henry  Cavendish 
(6. 1774,  (/.  1839),  Governor- General  of  India. 


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After  seeing  active  service  in  the  army,  he 
was  made  in  1803  Governor  of  Madras,  but 
was  recalled  in  1808.  He  then  sat  in  Parlia- 
ment tiU  1827,  when  he  was  made  Governor- 
General  of  India.  He  immediately  set  on 
foot  sweeping  financial  reforms  ;  he  opened 
the  Civil  service  to  natives,  promoted  the 
spread  of  education,  and  extended  trade.  On 
his  return  to  England  in  1837  he  entered 
Parliament  as  member  for  Glasgow. 

Bentivoglio,  Guido  (6.  1579,  d.  1644),  an 
Italian  cardinal.  He  early  won  the  favour  of 
Pope  Clement  VIII.,  and  in  1607  went  as 
nimcio  to  Flanders,  and  lq  1616  to  Paris. 
He  was  made  cardinal  in  1621  and  Louis 
Xni.  gave  bim  the  title  of  Protector  of 
France  in  Home.  His  succession  to  the 
papal  chair  was  only  prevented  by  an  un- 
timely death.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Flemish  war,  and  left  many  interesting  and 
valuable  memoirs. 

Bentley,  Eichard  (6.  1662,  d.  1742), 
scholar  and  critical  writer.  He  first  at- 
tracted attention  by  a  Latin  epistle  to  Dr. 
Mill,  and  in  1692  was  appointed  Boyle  Lec- 
turer. His  lectures  were  highly  esteemed, 
and  in  1694  he  was  appointed  royal  librarian. 
He  was  now  involved  in  a  bitter  literary  con- 
troversy, from  which  he  emerged  with  flying 
colours,  and  in  1700  he  was  appointed  Master 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Ely.  As  Master  of  Trinity  he  pro- 
voked much  enmity,  and  was  involved  in  a 
continuous  legal  struggle  with  the  fellows  for 
many  years.  He  published  many  valuable 
editions  of  the  classics,  and  in  1717  was 
appointed  Regius  Prof  essor  of  Divinity,  when 
he  again  became  involved  in  litigation. 
Editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  and  of 
Homer  were  both  imdertaken,  but  never 
completed. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart  (6.  1782,  rf.  1858), 
an  American  statesman.  For  thirty  years 
he  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Missouri 
Senate,  and  later  he  entered  the  House  of 
Representatives.  His  History  of  the  Work- 
ing  of  the  American  Government  for  Thirty 
Years,  which  was  published  in  1853,  proved 
immensely  popular. 

Benzel-Stemau,  Christian  Ernst,  Count 
(6.  1767,  d.  1S49),  a  German  politician,  who 
held  several  administrative  posts,  and  who 
also  achieved  a  considerable  reputation  as  a 
humorous  writer. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de  (6. 1780,  d.  1857), 
the  great  French  song  writer,  was  of 
bourgeois  origin,  and  served  some  time  as  a 
printer's  devil.  He  then  took  up  his  father's 
business,  and  when  that  failed,  devoted  him- 
self  to  the  composition  of  verse  in  a  garret. 
He  received  assistance  from  Lucien  Bona- 
parte, and  later  obtained  a  post  in  the  new 
Imperial  University .   His  songs  having  taken 


a  political  turn,  the  publication  of  Le  Roi 
d'  I'vetot,  made  his  name  a  household  word 
in  France.  In  181.5  the  first  collection  of  his 
songs  was  published,  but  the  second  volume, 
full  of  pungent  satire  on  the  monarchy  and 
government,  brought  on  its  author  fine  and 
imprisonment.  In  1828  he  was  again  fined 
and  imprisoned, but  the  fine  was  met  by  public 
subscription,  and  after  the  revolution  of 
1830  he  was  offered  a  pension,  which,  how- 
ever, he  refused.  After  the  1848  revolution 
he  appeared  for  a  short  time  in  public  life, 
and  then  retired  to  the  country.  His  claim 
to  be  a  national  poet  was  fully  established 
by  the  great  popular  demonstration  which  his 
fimeral  provoked. 

Berad,  Auguste  Simon  Louis  (6.  1783,  d. 
1859),  a  French  politician,  who  held  office 
during  the  Hundred  Days  and  again  in  1817. 
As  a  deputy  he  supported  the  Dxike  of 
Orleans  against  Charles  X.,  but  retired  soon 
after  the  accession  of  the  latter.  He  did 
much  for  the  development  of  industry  and 
commerce. 

Berard,  Auguste  (6.  1802,  d.  1846),  a 
highly  distinguished  French  surgeon,  and 
founder  of  the  Paris  Chirurgical  Society. 
He  was  professor  of  chemical  surgery  m 
Paris,  and  left  several  valuable  works. 

Berard,  Pierre  Honore  (6.  1797,  d.  1858), 
son  of  the  above,  and  also  a  distinguished 
surgeon.  He  was  inspector-general  of  the 
schools  and  faculties  of  medicine. 

Berardier,  Denis  (6.  1729,  d.  1794),  a 
French  abbe,  who  sat  in  the  Constituent 
Assembly  as  representative  of  the  clergy. 
At  one  time  he  was  principal  of  the  college 
of  Quimper,  and  Desmoulins  and  Robes- 
pierre were  his  pupils. 

Beraud,  Laurent  (6.  1703,  d.  1777),  a 
French  Jesuit,  and  a  distinguished  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer.  He  was  for  some 
time  director  of  the  Lyons  observatory. 

Berchet,  Giovanni  (6.  1790,  d.  1851),  one 
of  the  best  of  the  Itahan  patriotic  poets  who 
wrote  during  Italy's  struggle  for  indepen- 
dence. In  1821  he  fled  to  France  and  thence 
to  England. 

Berchoux,  Joseph  (6.  1765,  d.  1839),  a 
French  satirical  poet,  who  served  in  the 
Republican  army  to  avoid  prosecution  as  a 
Royalist.  He  became  in  1814  one  of  the 
editors  of  La  Quotidienne. 

Berchtold,  Leopold,  Count  von  (6.  1738, 
d.  1809),  an  Austrian  philanthropist,  who 
travelled  much  in  Europe  endeavouring  to 
alleviate  distress.  After  the  battle  of 
Wagram  he  converted  his  chateau  into  a 
hospital  for  the  wounded,  and  died  from  an 
attack  of  typhus  fever  then  contracted. 

Bereed,  Kasim  (J).  1504),  founder  of  the 


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dynasty  of  Beeder  in  the  Deccan.  He  was 
sold  as  a  Georgian  slave  to  Mahomed  Shah 
Bahmuny  II. ,  in  whose  service  he  rose  to  the 
grand  viziership  ;  finally  he  proclaimed 
himself  king  of  a  part  of  Bahmuny  domi- 
nions. 

Bereed,  Ameer  (d.  1549),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, whom  he  succeeded  both  as  king  and 
minister.  He  was  constantly  intriguing 
with  his  neighbours  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
covering the  lost  Bahmuny  dominions,  and 
he  plunged  into  war  with  the  king  of 
Beejapoor,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  and 
captured. 

Berends,  Karl  Augustus  Wilhelm  (6. 1753, 
d.  1826),  a  distinguished  German  physician 
for  whom  a  special  chair  at  Berlin  univer- 
sity was  endowed.  His  Lessons  on  Practical 
Medicine  is  a  work  of  the  highest  value. 

Berengario,  Jacopo  {d.  1550),  an  Italian 
anatomist  of  note,  known  as  "  II  Carpi," 
who  conducted  much  valuable  research. 

Berenger,  orBerengarius  (6. 1000,  d.  1088), 
a  French  churchman  known  for  his  repudia- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence.  He 
was  repeatedly  summoned  to  Rome,  and  his 
teachings  were  several  times  condemned  in 
Coimcil.  He  was  twice  compelled  to  recant, 
but  finally  adhered  to  his  original  doctrines. 

Berenger,  Alphonse  Marie  Marcellin 
Thomas  {b.  1785,  d.  1866),  a  French 
politician  and  jurist.  He  retired  from  the 
legislature  on  the  restoration,  but  returned 
in  1828,  and  under  Louis  PhiUppe  held  an 
influential  position  in  the  Chamber.  After 
tiie  revolution  of  1848  he  was  made  president 
of  the  High  National  Court  of  Justice  and 
one  of  the  presidents  of  the  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion. His  work  on  the  French  criminal  law 
was  of  great  authority. 

Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Agrippa  I. 
She  was  first  the  wife  of  Herod,  her  uncle, 
and  afterwards  of  King  Polemon.  Later 
she  became  the  mistress  of  Vespasian  and 
Titus. 

Beresford,  Sir  John  (6.  1769,  d.  1844),  a 
distinguished  admiral.  He  served  through- 
out the  French  war,  and  rendered  brilliant 
services  in  the  American  war  of  1812.  For 
more  than  20  years  he  was  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons. 

Beresford,  Lord  John  George  (b.  1773,  d. 
1862),  son  of  the  first  Marquis  of  Waterford, 
Ai-chbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of 
Ireland.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of 
hterature  and  science,  and  founded  the 
observatory  at  Armagh. 

Beresford, WDUam  Carr,  Viscount  (6. 1770, 
d.  1854),  a  natural  son  of  the  first  Marquis 
of  Waterford.      He  entered  the  army  iu 


1785,  served  in  Egypt,  Ireland,  at  the  Cape, 
and  commanded  the  successfxil  expeditions 
against  Buenos  Ayres  (1806)  and  Madeira 
(1807).  He  was  then  placed  in  command 
of  the  Portuguese  troops  during  the  Penin- 
sular war,  and  won  the  battle  of  Albuera. 
He  was  made  Viscount  in  1822. 

Beresford,  Lord  WUliam  Charles  Dela- 
poer  (/».  1846),  son  of  the  fourth  marquis  of 
Waterford.  He  entered  the  navy  at  thirteen; 
accompanied  the  Priuce  of  Wales  to  India 
as  naval  aide-de-camp,  and  has  received  two 
medals  for  saving  life  at  sea.  At  the  bom- 
bardment of  Alexandria  in  1882  he  com- 
manded the  Condor,  and  rendered  brilliant 
services.  In  1885  he  took  part  in  Lord 
Wolseley's  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Gor- 
don. He  was  member  for  Waterford  from 
1874  to  1880,  and  for  East  Marylebone  from 
1884  to  1889,  when  he  resumed  active  ser- 
vice. From  1886  to  1887  he  was  a  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty. 

Beresovsky,  Maxim  us  Soznovich  (b.  1745, 
d.  1778),  a  Russian  musician  and  composer. 
He  was  sent  to  study  in  Italy  by  Catherine 
II. ,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  composition 
of  religious  pieces  on  his  return. 

Bergasse,  Nicolas  (6.  1750,  d.  1832), 
French  lawyer  and  politician.  He  was  for 
some  tune  an  active  member  of  the  Estates 
General,  and  after  the  restoration  returned 
to  pubUc  life.  He  entered  into  a  correspon- 
dence with  the  Emperor  Alexander  of 
Russia,  and  some  of  his  works  had  a  con- 
siderable vogue. 

Berge,  Ernest  Gottlieb  {b.  1649),  a  German 
litterateur,  knovra  as  the  translator  of 
Faradise  Lost. 

Berger,  Ludwig  (b.  1777,  d.  1839),  a 
German  composer  and  pianist.  He  spent 
many  years  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  after- 
wards went  to  Stockholm  and  London.  He 
was  the  instructor  of  Mendelssohn. 

Bergerac,  Savinien  Cyrano  de  {b.  1620,  d. 
1655),  French  writer  of  drama  and  ro- 
mance. A  notoriously  wild  career  in  the 
army  was  closed  by  a  wound  at  the  siege  of 
Arras  (1641).  From  two  of  his  romances 
Swift  is  said  to  have  received  his  inspiration 
for  Gulliver's  Travels. 

Bergeret,  Charles  {b.  1771,  d.  1857), 
French  admiral,  who  saw  much  active 
service,  and  who  was  captured  in  the 
Virginie  by  Sir  Edward  BeUew. 

Berghaus,  Heiarich  (6.  1797,  d.  1884), 
Prussian  geographer.  Aiter  serving  in  the 
army,  he  was  appointed  geographical  en- 
gineer to  the  war  department  at  Berlin. 
He  published  a  large  number  of  very  fine 
maps,  and  several  scientific  books. 

Berghem,  Nicolas  (6.  1624,  d.  1683),  one 


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of  the  best  of  the  Flemish  painters.      He 
excelled  in  landscape  and  cattle  suhjects. 

Bergier,  Nicolas  Sylvestre  (p.  1718,  d. 
1790),  a  French  ecclesiastic,  distinguished 
as  a  philologist  and  classical  antiquarian. 
He  also  earned  a  considerable  reputation  as 
a  writer  in  refutation  of  infidel  doctrines. 

Bergmann,  Torbern  Olof  (b.  1735,  d.  1784), 
Swedish  savant,  dis'binguished  as  chemist, 
botanist,  mineralogist,  physicist,  and  mathe- 
matician. He  was  professor  of  physics  and 
chemistry  at  Upsala  university,  and  left 
many  valuable  papers. 

Berington,  Joseph  (6.  1743,  d.  1820),  an 
EngUsh  Roman  Catholic  priest  and  writer. 
He  strongly  advocated  reforms  ia  his  Church, 
and  also  Catholic  emancipation  in  England. 
TTia  Literary  History  of  the  Middle  Ages  is 
an  authoritative  work. 

Beriot,  Charles  Auguste  de  (6.  1802,  d. 
1870),  a  celebrated  violinist,  and  composer 
of  violin  music.  He  appeared  first  at  Paris, 
and  the  publication  of  his  Airs  Varies 
gave  him  a  very  wide  popularity,  which  ex- 
tended to  this  coimtry  when  he  visited  it  in 
1826.  He  married  the  famous  singer,  Mali- 
bran  Garcia,  and  on  the  death  of  his  wife 
retired  for  some  years. 

Berkeley,  George  (6.  1684,  d.  1753),  an 
English  divine,  famous  for  the  keenness  of 
his  intellect  and  the  greatness  of  his  nature. 
He  was  bom  in  Ireland,  and  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  DubHn.  In  1709  he  pub- 
lished his  Theory  of  Vision,  and  in  1710 
his  FrincipUs  of  Human  Knowledge,  prov- 
ing the  non-existence  of  matter,  a  view 
which  he  afterwards  elaborated.  Coming 
to  England  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
great  literary  men  of  the  day,  and  in  1724 
was  made  Dean  of  Derry.  In  1725  he  pub- 
lished A  Scheme  for  Converting  the  Savage 
Americans  to  Cnristianity.  This  scheme 
involved  the  erection  of  a  college  at  the 
Bermudas,  and  the  Government  granted  a 
charter,  and  promised  a  grant  ia  aid. 
Berkeley  set  out  for  the  Bermudas,  but  the 
money  not  being  forthcoming,  the  scheme 
had  to  be  abandoned.  In  1733  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Cloyne,  when  he  retired  to 
Oxford.  His  last  publication  was  a  treatise 
on  The  Virtues  of  Tar  Water. 

Berkeley,  Sir  George  Cranfield  (6.  1753, 
d.  1818),  a  distinguished  naval  of&cer.  He 
served  in  1778  with  Keppel,  and  at  the  relief 
of  Gibraltar  in  1781.  At  the  battle  of 
Ushant  he  played  a  very  gallant  part,  and 
was  thanked  by  Lord  Howe  and  Parliament. 
He  sat  in  Parliament  after  further  service 
for  thirty  years. 

Berkeley,  James,  Earl  of  (6. 1680,  d.  1736), 
a  gallant  naval   officer.      He  served  with 


distinction  against  the  French  under  Sir 
Cloudesley  Shovel,  and,  later,  under  Byng. 
His  briUiant  services  were  rewarded  by  Ma 
being  made  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty, 
and  a  K.G. 

Berkeley,  John,  Lord  Berkeley  of  Stratton 
(d.  1696),  a  British  admiral  who  com- 
manded in  the  unsuccessful  attack  on  Brest 
of  1694,  and  who  afterwards  served  with 
Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel. 

Berkeley,  Miles  Joseph  (6.  1803,  d.  1889), 
an  English  clergyman  and  naturalist,  and 
the  author  of  several  works  on  natural 
history,  including  Outlines  of  British  Fung' 
ology. 

Berkeley,  Sir  WiUiam  (6.  1639,  d.  1666),  a 
British  admiral,  third  son  of  Lord  Fitz- 
harding.  When  only  twenty-six  he  was 
made  rear-admiral  of  the  fleet,  under  the 
Duke  of  York,  which  defeated  the  Dutch. 
In  1666  he  was  in  the  forefront  of  the  great 
engagement  with  Van  Tromp,  and  was  there 
killed. 

Berkh,  VasUi  Nicolaevich  (6.  1781,  d. 
1834),  Russian  man  of  letters,  who,  after 
serving  in  the  navy,  devoted  himself  to 
historical  and  narrative  writing,  and  left 
several  important  works. 

Berkhey,  Jan  Lefrancq  van  (6.  1720,  d. 
1812),  a  Dutch  prof  essor,  distinguished  as  a 
man  of  science,  a  historian,  a  linguist,  and 
a  poet.  He  wrote  the  History,  Geographical, 
Fhysieal,  Natural,  and  Civil,  of  Holland. 

Berland,  Pierre  Q>.  1375,  d.  1457),  a  pious 
and  famous  archbishop  of  Bordeaux.  He 
foimded  the  university  there,  and  did 
much  by  his  munificence  to  beautify  the 
city. 

Berlichingen,  Goetz  von  {d.  15G2),  a 
German  freebooter,  known  as  "the  Iron- 
hand,"  whose  memory  is  perpetuated  in 
Goethe's  drama. 

BerUer,  Theophile  (6.  1761,  d.  1840),  a 
French  lawyer  who  played  a  not  unim- 
portant part  in  the  great  revolution.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  and  imder  the  Empire  was  made  a 
councillor  of  state  and  a  count.  He  was 
banished  on  the  restoration. 

BerlingMeri,  Vacca  (6.  1772,  d.  1826),  an 
Italian  surgeon  of  great  eminence.  He 
studied  in  Paris  and  England,  and  after 
acquiring  a  reputation  in  France  as  an 
operator  and  lecturer,  he  returned  to  Pisa, 
his  native  town,  and  filled  a  chair  at  the 
university.    He  wrote  some  valuable  works. 

BerUoz,  Hector  (6.  1803,  d.  1869), 
French  musical  composer.  Rejecting  the 
profession  of  medicine,  he  entered  the 
Paris  Conservatoire,  where  his  genius  was 


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but  little  recognised.  He  was  repeatedly 
unsuccessful  in  examination,  but  latterly 
took  prizes  for  composition.  While  still  a 
student  he  produced  Les  Francs  Juges, 
and  La  Si/mphonie  Fantastique.  After 
studying  in  Rome,  he  earned  a  living  in 
Paris  as  musical  critic  to  the  Journal  des 
Debats.  He  introduced  his  compositions  to 
the  public  in  a  series  of  concerts,  but  they 
were  little  appreciated,  though  Paganini  was 
so  affected  by  the  Stjmphonie  Fantastique 
that  he  sent  Berlioz  a  draft  for  20,000  francs. 
A  marriage  with  a  Miss  Smithson,  an  Eng- 
lish actress,  caused  Berlioz  much  unhappi- 
uess,  and  greatly  straitened  his  resources. 
A  tour  in  Germany  and  Russia  secured  his 
reputation,  his  compositions  being  enthu- 
siastically received ;  and  in  1852  he  came  to 
London,  where  he  met  with  the  greatest 
success.    BerUoz  wrote  his  own  Memoirs. 

Bermudez,  J6ao  (d.  1575),  a  Portuguese 
physician  who  went  to  Abyssinia  in  1520, 
and  was  appointed  patriarch  by  the  king. 
On  revisiting  Eui-ope  the  title  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Pope ;  and  he  went  back  to 
Abyssinia  for  fifteen  years.  He  left  an 
account  of  his  thii-ty  years'  residence  in  the 
country. 

Bemaldez,  Andres  (6.  1513),  Spanish 
historian,  known  as  the  "Cure  de  los 
Palacios."  He  was  the  friend  of  Colxmibus, 
and  author  of  the  Historia  de  los  Reyes 
CatoUcos,  a  work  of  great  value. 

Bernard,  King  of  Italy  (d.  818),  the 
grandson  of  Charlemagne  and  son  of  Pepin, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  812.  When  Louis  le 
Debonnaire  succeeded  Charlemagne,  Ber- 
nard rebelled,  but  was  defeated,  and  had  his 
eyes  put  out. 

Bernard,  Andrew,  a  French  Augustinian 
friar  who  was  poet  laureate  to  Henry  VII. 
and  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  who 
wrote  a  record  of  the  reign  of  the  former 
monarch. 

Bernard,  Claude  (6.  1813,  d.  1878),  a 
French  physiologist  of  distinction.  He  held 
several  of  the  highest  professional  appoint- 
ments in  Paris,  and  wrote  several  medical 
treatises  of  great  value.  The  principal  are 
Recherches  sur  les  Usages  du  Pancreas  and 
JDe  la  Physiologie  Generale. 

Bernard,  Edward  (6.  1638,  d.  1697),  a 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford,  distin- 
guished also  as  a  linguist  and  as  a  litterateur. 
His  works  were  numerous. 

Bernard,  Pierre  Joseph  (6.  1710,  d.  1775), 
a  French  poet,  known  as  "  Le  Gentil  Ber- 
nard." He  served  in  the  Italian  wars,  and 
afterwards  became  attached  to  the  Marshal 
de  Coigny. 

Bernard,  Pons  Joseph  (6.  1748,  d.  1816), 


a  French  mathematician  of  eminence  and 
director  of  the  Marseilles  observatory.  He 
left  on  record  the  results  of  much  valuable 
observation. 

Bernard,  St.  (6.  1091,  d.  1153),  of  noble 
Burguudian  birth,  was  educated  at  Paris 
university.  He  entered  the  Cistercian 
monastery  at  Citeaux,  and  there  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  At  the  head 
of  a  baud  of  monks  he  was  sent  to  found  a 
new  monastery,  which  he  established  at 
Clairvaux,  and  from  which  his  fame  and 
influence  spread  far  and  wide.  Kings, 
popes,  and  nobles,  all  appealed  to  him  for 
advice  on  the  weightiest  matters,  and 
accepted  his  decisions.  He  procured  the 
condemnation  of  several  heterodox  writers 
including  Abelard  and  Arnold  of  Brescia. 
His  great  work  was  the  preaching  of  a 
new  crusade  in  France  and  Germany.  He 
excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and 
prophesied  the  triumph  of  the  expedition. 
But  it  failed  notably,  and  Bernard  died 
soon  afterwards.  He  was  canonised  in  1 1 74, 
and  bears  the  title  of  "The  Last  of  the 
Fathers." 

Bernard,  Simon  (6.  1779,  d.  1839),  a 
French  general,  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon, 
and  head  of  the,  topographical  department. 
On  the  restoration  he  entered  the  United 
States  service,  and  undertook  important 
engineering  works.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1830,  and  was  made  aide-de-camp  to  the 
king,  and  in  1836  minister  of  war. 

Bernard,  Sir  Thomas  (6.  1750,  d.  1818), 
scholar  and  philanthropist.  He  devoted  his 
fortune  to  work  among  the  poor  and  to  the 
advancement  of  learning.  He  was  largely 
instrumental  in  founding  the  Foundling 
Hospital,  and  the  Royal  and  British  Insti- 
tutions. 

Bernard  de  Meuthon,  Saint  (6.  923,  d. 
1008),  a  noble  Savoyard,  and  Archdeacon  of 
Aosta.  He  was  the  foimder  of  the  hospices 
of  the  Great  and  the  Little  St.  Bernard. 

Bemardez,  Diego  (6.  1540,  d.  1596),  one 
of  the  best  of  Portuguese  poets,  called  the 
"prince  of  pastoral  poetry."  He  accom- 
panied an  expedition  to  Africa,  and  was 
made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Al-oacar- 
Kebir. 

Bemardi,  John  {b.  1657,  d.  1736),  an 
Englishman  of  Italian  extraction,  who  de- 
voted himself  to  the  service  of  James  II. 
He  was  imprisoned  for  supposed  complicity 
in  the  plots  against  William,  and  he  died 
in  prison. 

Bernardin,  St.  (6.  1380,  d.  1444),  a 
Franciscan  monk  of  Siena,  and  a  famous 
preacher.  His  unselfish  devotion  during  the 
plague  of  1400  gave  him  great  influence,  and 
ne  became  vicar-general  of  his  order. 


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Bemasconi,  Andrea  (b.  1712,  d.  1784), 
musical  composer  of  Freuch  descent,  though 
bom  in  Italy.  His  operas,  Alessandro  Severo 
and  Sallnstia,  made  him  known  through 
Italy  and  Germany,  and  he  was  appointed 
kapellmeister  at  Munich. 

Bemeck,  Karl  Gustav  von  (6.  1803, 
d.  1871),  a  Prussian  novelist,  and  author  of 
several  works  on  military  science.  He  served 
in  the  Prussian  cavahy,  and  then  became 
professor  of  history  at  Fraukfort-on-Oder. 
He  was  later  appoiated  to  military  chairs 
in  BerUn. 

Bemer,  Frederick  Wilhelm  (6.  1780,  d. 
1827),  German  musician,  appeared  in  public 
as  an  organist  at  nine  years  of  age,  and  was  an 
accomplished  pianist.  He  organised  at  BerHn 
a  musical  school,  after  the  model  of  Zellar's. 

Bemers,  John  Bourchier,  Lord  (p.  1470, 
d.  1532),  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  to 
Henry  VIII.,  and  a  writer  of  much  industry 
and  talent.  His  chief  work  was  the  trans- 
lation of  Froissart's  Chronicles. 

Bemers,  Juliana  (6.  1388,  d.  1485), 
Prioress  of  Sopewell  Nunnery,  near  St. 
Albans.  She  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty 
and  learning,  and  wrote  many  works  on 
fishing,  hunting,  natural  history,  and 
heraldry. 

Bemhard,  Christoph  (6.  1612,  d.  1692), 
a  German  musician,  was  sent  by  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  to  study  at  Eome,  and 
he  gained  a  great  reputation  by  his  com- 
positions. For  ten  years  he  was  musical 
director  at  Hamburg,  and  was  then  ap- 
pointed kapellmeister  at  Dresden. 

Bemhard,  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  (6. 1604, 
d.  1639),  a  famous  general.  He  fought 
against  Tilly  ia  the  Thirty  Years'  war, 
and  was  highly  esteemed  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  with  whom  he  served.  In  1633 
he  was  made  Duke  of  Franconia,  but  lost 
the  duchy  in  consequence  of  the  reverses 
inflicted  on  him  by  Wallenstein. 

BemJiardt,  Sarah  (6.  1844),  French 
actress,  ia  the  daughter  of  a  French  lawyer 
and  a  Dutch  Jewess ;  she  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatoire,  where  her  histrionic  genius 
soon  displayed  itself.  Her  first  appear- 
ance at  the  Theatre  Francjaise  ia  Racine's 
Iphigenie  was  a  failure,  and  she  re- 
tired from  the  stage;  but  she  again  ap- 
peared in  1868,  and  in  the  following  year 
established  her  reputation  by  her  rendering 
of  the  Queen  of  Spain  in  Ituy  Bias.  She 
served  as  a  hospital  nurse  during  the  siege 
of  Paris,  but  after  the  war  she  returned  to 
the  stage,  earning  ever-increasing  fame. 
Her  first  visit  to  England  was  in  1879.  and 
in  1881  she  visited  the  States.  Madame 
Bernhardt  is  also  au  accompUshed  sculptor 
and  painter. 


Berni,  Francesco  (6.  1490,  d.  1536),  an 
Italian  poet.  He  was  first  in  the  household 
of  Cardinal  Bibbiena,  and  then  secretary  to 
Gilberti,  Bishop  of  Verona.  His  satiric 
verses  and  extravaganzas  at  this  time  were 
highly  appreciated,  and  have  an  enduring 
reputation.  Weary  of  the  court  Ufe,  he 
retired  to  Florence  soon  after  the  sack  of 
Rome  in  1527,  and  his  premature  death  is 
commonly  supposed  to  have  been  the  result 
of  poison. 

Bemier,  Etienne  Alexandre  (6.  1764,  d. 
1806),  known  to  his  contemporaries  as 
"  L '  Abb6  Bemier. ' '  After  the  revolution  he 
refused  to  take  the  oath  to  the  civil  con- 
stitution, and  joLaed  the  Vend^an  army, 
but  when  the  cause  was  hopeless  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  pacifying  the  district.  As 
one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  who  negotiated 
the  concordat  he  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Orleans. 

Bemier,  FranQois  (&.  1625,  d.  1688), 
French  ti'aveller  and  writer,  having  taken 
a  medical  degi'ee,  set  out  to  travel  in  the 
East,  and  ultimately  reached  Delhi,  where 
he  became  physician  to  the  Emperor  Shah 
Jehan.  During  his  twelve  years'  stay  he 
made  the  most  of  his  exceptional  oppor- 
tunities for  observing  the  life  and  customs 
of  the  coimtry,  and  his  accounts  written 
home  possess  the  highest  iuterest.  When 
he  returned  to  France  he  devoted  himself  to 
writing  philosophical  works  which  have  no 
enduring  value, 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo  (6.  1598,  d. 
1680),  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  Italiaa 
sculptors.  His  genius  asserted  itself  very 
early ;  Gregory  XV.  made  him  a  knight, 
and  Cardinal  Barberini,  as  Urban  VIII., 
bestowed  the  highest  honour  and  favour 
upon  him.  His  works  in  Rome  were  mani- 
fold, and  his  fame  spread  through  Europe, 
Charles  I.,  Richelieu  and  Louis  XIV.  having 
their  busts  executed  by  him.  When  sixty- 
eight  years  old  he  was  invited  to  Paris  by 
Louis  XIV.  to  superintend  the  design  of  the 
Louvre,  and  until  his  death  in  his  eighty, 
second  year  he  continued  the  pursuit  of  his 
art  at  Rome. 

Bemis,  Francois  Joachim  de  Pierres  de  (6. 
1715,  d.  1794),  cardinal,  statesman,  and 
writer,  first  obtained  recognition  in  Paris 
by  his  erotic  verses,  and  was  taken  into 
favour  by  Mme.  de  Pompadour.  The  success- 
ful conduct  of  a  mission  to  Venice  procured 
for  him  in  1756  the  oifice  of  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  and  in  1758  he  was  made  a 
cardinal.  He  lost  the  royal  favour  during 
the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  retired  until 
1769,  when  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Rome.  The  revolution  deprived  him  of  all 
his  honours  and  influence,  and  he  died  in 
Rome. 


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Bemouilli,  Jacques  (6.  1654,  d.  1705),  dis- 
tiugviished  luathematician  of  Basle,  was 
destined  for  the  Church,  but  though  ordained, 
turned  to  the  study  of  science  and  attracted 
attention  by  an  essay  on  the  motion  of  comets. 
Later  he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Basle,  and  initiated  several  important 
methods  in  science. 

Bernouilli,  Jeau  (6.  1667,  d.  1748),  brother 
of  the  preceding,  mathematician  and  physi- 
cist. For  many  years  he  corresponded  with 
Leibnitz  on  scientific  questions,  and  pub- 
lished several  treatises  on  physical  and  phy- 
siological subjects  which  attracted  much 
attention.  In  1705  he  succeeded  his  brother 
at  Basle  university. 

BemouiUl,  Daniel  (6.  1700,  d.  1782), 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  physician  and 
mathematician.  In  1725  Peter  the  Great  ap- 
pointed him,  together  with  his  elder  brother 
Nicolas,  who  was  also  a  physician  and  mathe- 
matician, to  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  St. 
Petersburg.  He  remained  in  Russia  till 
1733,  and  composed  there  his  treatise  on  Hy- 
drodynamics. Eetuming  to  Basle  he  occupied 
chairs  in  the  university,  and  carried  on  much 
original  work,  ten  of  his  memoirs  written 
for  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  being 
crowned.  Jean,  his  son,  and  Jean  and  Nico- 
las, his  grandsons,  were  also  distinguished 
mathematicians. 

Bemstorff,  Albrecht,  Count  (6.  1809,  d. 
1873),  Prussian  diplomatist,  was  elected  in 
1851  to  the  first  Prussian  Chamber,  and  in 
1854  was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to  London. 
From  1861  to  1862  he  was  Prussian  foreign 
minister,  after  which  he  again  became  am- 
bassador to  London,  a  position  which  he 
retained  to  the  last. 

BemstorfT,  Andreas  Peder,  Count  von  (b. 
1735,  d.  1797),  Danish  statesman,  became 
minister  of  state  in  1769,  and  took  an 
important  part  in  foreign  affairs,  besides 
promoting  many  internal  reforms,  such  as  a 
new  financial  system  and  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  in  Schleswig-Holstein. 

Bemstorff,  Christian,  Count  von  (6.  1769, 
d.  1835),  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  lie 
succeeded  as  foreign  minister,  was  later 
ambassador  at  Paris,  and  represented  Den- 
mark at  the  Vieima  congress  of  1815.  In 
1818  he  went  to  Prussia  and  became  foreign 
minister  there. 

Bemstorff,  Johann  Hartrig  Ernst  (6.  1712, 
d.  1772),  Danish  statesman,  was  foreign 
minister  during  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and 
was  ennobled  by  Charles  VII.  He  did  much 
to  promote  commerce  and  industry,  and 
spent  large  sums  on  philanthropic  objects. 

Berquin,  Louis  de  (6.  1489,  d.  1529),  a 
French  martyr  for  the  reformed  faith.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  and  was  twice 


imprisoned  for  heretical  doctrines.    Finally 
his  books  were  burnt  and  he  died  at  the  stake. 

Berredo,  Bernardo  Pereira  de  (d.  1748), 
Portuguese  historian,  who  served  in  the 
army,  and  afterwards  went  to  America. 
His  chief  work  is  Annaes  Historicos  de 
Maranhdo. 

Berriman,  William  (6.  1688,  d.  1750), 
English  clergyman,  an  eminent  Orientalist, 
and  the  author  of  many  theological  works. 
He  is  remembered  for  his  able  contributions 
to  the  Trinitarian  controversy. 

Berroyer,  Claude  (6.  1665,  d.  1735), 
barrister  of  Paris,  and  the  author  of  several 
authoritative  legal  works. 

Berrugette,  Alonso  (6.  1480,  d.  1545), 
Spanish  painter  and  a  pupU  of  Michael 
Angelo.  He  was  court  painter  to  Charles  V., 
and  was  also  an  able  sculptor  and  architect. 

Berry,  Caroline  Ferdinande  Louise, 
Duchesse  de  (6.  1798,  d.  1870),  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  Sicily,  and  in  1816 
married  to  the  Due  de  Berry.  The  Legiti- 
mists supported  the  claims  of  her  son  to  the 
throne,  and  a  rising  took  place  in  Brittany 
in  his  favour.  She  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
then  it  was  discovered  she  had  been  privately 
married  before  she  became  Duchesse  de 
Berry,  and  her  son  was  removed  from  her 
charge. 

Berry,  Charles,  Due  de  (6.  1446,  d.  1472), 
second  son  of  Charles  VII.,  who  intended 
him  to  succeed  to  the  throne.  On  Charles' 
death  in  1461,  however,  Louis  XI.  succeeded 
and  created  his  brother  Due  de  Berry. 
Berry  took  up  arms  against  the  king,  was 
defeated  and  made  Duke  of  Guyenne,  whither 
he  was  banished,  and  where  he  died. 

Berry,  Charles  Ferdinand  d'Artois,  Due  de 
(b.  1778,  d.  1820),  son  of  Charles  X.  He 
served  in  the  army  vmder  the  Prince  de 
Cond€.  He  was  assassinated  by  an  Orleanist 
partisan  in  Paris. 

Berry,  Jean  de  France,  Due  de  (6.  1340, 
d.  1416),  third  son  of  Jean  le  Bon,  with  whom 
he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Poictiers,  and  sent 
to  England  as  a  hostage.  He  was  appointed 
a  co-guardian  of  Charles  VI.,  but  was  later 
dismissed  from  the  governorship  of  Lan- 
guedoc  on  accoimt  of  his  horrible  cruelties. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  governor  of 
Paris,  but  he  intrigued  against  the  Mng, 
and  was  besieged  m  Bourses.  After  his 
capitulation  he  went  into  retirement. 

Berry,  Marie  Louise  EHzabeth,  Duchesse 
d'Orleans  {b.  1695,  d.  1719),  daughter  of 
Philip  of  Orleans  and  wife  of  the  Due  de 
Berry,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  Her  ambi- 
tion and  viciousness  were  the  only  quaUties 
which  distinguished  her  career. 


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Berry,  Sir  Edward  (6. 1776,  d.  1831),  Eng- 
lish admiral,  fought  under  Howe  at  Ushant, 
distinguished  himself  at  St.  Viucent,  com- 
manded the  Vaitffuard  at  the  Nile,  and  the 
Agamemnon  at  Trafalgar. 

Berry,  Sir  John  (6.  1635,  d.  1691),  British 
admiiai,  after  serving  iu  the  merchant  ser- 
vice, entered  the  navy  as  a  boatswain, 
and  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  commodore  in 
the  West  Indies,  where  he  gained  a  victory 
with  only  nine  ships  over  a  iFrench  and 
Dutch  fleet  of  twenty-two  ships.  In  1672 
he  distiuguished  himself  -under  the  Duke  of 
York  against  the  Dutch,  and  was  second  ia 
command  in  Lord  Dartmouth's  expedition 
against  Tangiers. 

Berry,  Mary  (6.  1762,  d.  1852),  a  literary 
■woman  of  some  celebrity.  Together  with  her 
father  and  sister,  she  was  appointed  literary 
executor  of  Horace  Walpole,  whom  she 
defended  from  Macaulay's  criticisms.  She 
also  wrote  France  and  England, 

Berryer,  Pierre  Antoine  (6. 1790,  d.  1868), 
French  barrister  and  a  politician,  was  one  of 
the  defenders  of  Ney,  and  also  defended  De- 
beUe  and  Cambronne.  He  was  an  adherent  of 
the  Bourbons  iu  the  early  years,  and  entered 
the  legislature  in  1830,  declining  the  office 
offered  to  him.  He  was  tried,  but  acquitted, 
for  participation  in  the  rising  in  favour  of 
the  Duchesse  de  Berry's  son.  He  was 
actively  engaged  in  politics  till  1848,  but 
after  the  coup  d^etat  he  turned  his  attention 
wholly  to  the  law,  being  regarded  as  the 
first  advocate  in  France. 

Bert,  Paul  (6.  1833,  d.  1886),  French 
statesman  and  physiologist,  qualified  both 
as  an  avocat  and  a  doctor,  and  for  some 
years  held  professional  appointments  at  Bor- 
deaux and  Paris.  In  1874  he  was  returned 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  labours  in  connection 
with  public  education.  He  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  and  worship  imder  Gam- 
betta,  and  in  1886  was  appointed  governor  of 
Tonquin,  but  died  very  shortly  after. 

Berthaut,  Jean  Auguste  (6. 1817,  d.  1881), 
French  general,  who  commanded  the  Garde 
Mobile  of  the  Seine  during  the  Franco- 
German  war,  and  served  with  distinction 
during  the  siege  of  Paris.  In  1876  he  was 
minister  of  war,  and  in  1877  repressed  the 
discontent  with  the  repubHc  which  was  dis- 
played among  the  troops. 

BertMer,  Louis  Alexandre,  Prince  of 
Wagram  (6.  1753,  d.  1815),  French  general 
who  served  under  Lafayette  in  the  United 
States,  and  was  chief  of  the  staff  in  the  1796 
Italian  campaign.  He  won  the  confidence 
of  Napoleon,  and  was  appointed  minister  of 
war,  and  later  marshal  of  the  empire,  while 
the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Bavaria  was 


given  him  in  marriage.  He  served  in  the 
Austrian  and  Russian  campaigns  as  chief  of 
the  staff,  and  on  the  banishment  of  Napo- 
leon joined  Louis  XVIII.  During  the 
Hundred  Days  he  retu-ed  to  Bamberg, 
where  he  was  one  morning  found  dead  in 
the  streets  under  suspicious  circumstances. 

BertMer,  Napoleon  Louis  Joseph  Alex- 
andre Charles,  Prince  of  Wagram  (6. 
1810),  son  of  the  preceding,  an  assiduous 
agriculturist,  entered  public  life  at  the 
revolution  of  1830  on  the  popular  side,  and 
later  became  the  devoted  adherent  of  Louis 
Napoleon. 

Bertnod,  Anselm  (6. 1733,  d.  1788),  French 
Benedictine  monk  and  historical  writer,  was 
sent  through  Europe  by  Bertin  to  collect 
MSS.  bearing  on  French  history,  and  he 
undertook  the  continuation  of  Acta  iSanc- 
torum. 

Berthold  (d.  1272),  German  evangelist, 
who  travelled  through  Austria  and  Hungary 
preaching  the  Gospel,  and  who  was  widely 
celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 

Berthollet,  Claude  Louis  (6. 1748,  d.  1822), 
French  chemist ;  some  essays  and  his  discus- 
sions with  Lavoisier  brought  him  into  notice, 
and  after  the  revolution  he  devised  a  process 
for  the  production  of  saltpetre  which  was 
of  great  value  to  the  republic.  He  received 
some  official  appointments,  and  was  sent  to 
Egypt  with  the  scientific  expedition.  On 
returning,  he  devoted  himself  to  chemical  re- 
search, and  made  several  valuable  discoveries, 
leaving  numerous  works  of  importance. 

Berthoud,  Ferdinand  (6.  1725,  d.  1807), 
Swiss  horologer  of  note,  who  came  to  Paris 
and  there  invented  the  first  marine  chrono- 
meter for  taking  the  longitude  at  sea. 
He  was  horologer  meehanicien  to  the  navy, 
and  left  some  works. 

Berthoud,  Samuel  Henri  (5. 1804),  French 
novelist,  founded  the  Gazette  de  Cambrai, 
and  was  afterwards  connected  with  several 
Paris  periodicals,  in  which  many  of  his 
works  appeared. 

Bertie,  Eobert,  Earl  of  Lindsay  (6.  1582, 
d.  1642),  the  son  of  Peregrine,  Lord  Wil- 
loughby  d'Eresby,  was  a  distinguished 
soldier,  and  was  made  an  admiral  and  earl 
in  1626.  He  fought  as  a  Royalist  in  the 
Civil  war  and  was  killed  at  Edge  Hill. 

Bertin,  Edouard  Fran9ois  (6.  1797,  d. 
1871),  French  litterateur  and  landscape  pain- 
ter, and  inspector  of  fine  arts  under  Louis 
Philippe.  His  father  founded  the  Journal 
des  Debats,  to  the  management  of  which  he 
succeeded  in  1854. 

Bertin  de  Veaux,  Louis  Frant^ois  (&.  1771, 
d.   1842),  father  of   the    preceding  aod  a 


Ber 


(  132 


Bes 


principal  writer  on  the  Journal  des  Debats, 
wliich  he  founded.  He  was  at  one  time  a 
j  udge,  vice-president  of  the  Tribunal  of  Com- 
merce, and  secretaxy-general  to  the  ministry 
of  police.  Later  he  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies ;  in  1830  he  was  sent  on  missions 
to  Holland  and  England,  and  in  1832  he  was 
made  a  peer. 

Bertin,  Jean  Francois  (6.  1766,  d.  1841), 
brother  of  the  preceding.  An  active  jour- 
nalist and  a  writer  for  the  Debats,  He  was 
transported  to  Elba  for  political  reasons,  but 
escaped. 

Bertin,  Nicolas  (6.  1667,  d.  1736),  a  French 
painter  of  note.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
Academy  in  1703,  for  his  Hercules  and 
Prometheus,  and  was  invited  to  settle  in 
Rome,  Mayence,  and  Mimich. 

Bertini,  Henri  Jer6me  (6.  1798,  d.  1876),  a 
French  pianist,  who  appeared  in  public  w  ith 
success  when  only  twelve  years  old.  He 
settled  in  France,  after  visiting  Great  Britain 
and  HoUand. 

Bertola,  de'Giorgi  Aurelia  (6.  1753,  d. 
1798),  Italian  poet,  entered  a  monastery 
in  early  hfe,  but  ran  away  to  Hungary, 
where  he  served  in  the  Austrian  army. 
He  returned  to  Italy  after  some  years,  and 
his  literary  reputation  enabled  him  to  obtain 
release  from  his  reUgious  vows.  After  occu- 
pying chairs  in  the  universities  of  Siena, 
Naples,  and  Pavia,  he  went  to  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  and  became  the  friend  of 
Gesner,  whose  poems  he  translated. 

Barton,  Henri  Montan  (6.  1766,  d.  1844), 
French  composer,  produced  his  first  opera, 
Promesses  de  Mariage,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
and  subsequently  produced  more  than  forty 
others.  In  1806  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Italian  Opera,  and  he  held  posts  in  the 
Conservatoire  and  Academy  of  Music. 

Bertoni,  Ferdinando  Giuseppe  (6.  1727, 
d.  1801),  Italian  composer  and  maestro  di 
capella  of  San  Marco  at  Venice.  He  pro- 
duced many  operas,  some  oratorios,  and 
other  church  music.  He  twice  visited  Lon- 
don, and  on  the  first  occasion  produced  with 
great  success  his  opera  Orpheo. 

Bertram,  Bonaventure  ComeQle  (6.  1531, 
d.  1594),  French  Orientalist,  who  held  the 
chair  of  Hebrew  at  Lausanne,  and  who  was 
the  first  Protestant  to  translate  the  Bible 
from  the  Hebrew. 

Bertrand,  Henri  Gratian,  Count  (6.  1773, 
d.  1844),  French  general  and  the  personal 
friend  of  Napoleon.  He  served  in  the  great 
campaigns  with  distinction  and  accompanied 
Napoleon  in  exile,  to  Elba  and  St.  Helena. 
He  was  restored  to  rank  by  Louis  XVIII., 
and  in  1830  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies. 


Bertrand,  Joseph  Louis  Francois  (6. 1822), 
a  French  mathematician  of  eminence,  who 
wrote  several  valuable  works,  and  held 
chairs  in  the  College  of  France  and  the 
Lycee  Napoleon. 

Bertrand  de  Molevllle,  Antoine  Francois, 
Marquis  de  (6.  1744,  d.  1818),  minister  of 
marine  to  Louis  XVI.  of  France.  Impeach- 
ment by  the  Constituent  Assembly  caused 
him  to  fiy  to  England,  where  he  resided  for 
many  years,  writing,  among  other  works,  a 
History  of  England. 

BeruUe,  Pierre  de  (6.  1574,  d.  1629),  a 
French  cardinal,  founded  the  Order  of  the 
Carmelites  in  France,  and  was  employed  on 
several  important  missions  by  Louis  XTTL 

Berwick,  James  Fitzjames  (6.  1670,  d. 
1734),  natural  son  of  James  II.,  served 
with  the  French  against  the  Turks  in  Hun- 
gary, and  after  the  landing  of  William  of 
Orange,  was  James's  commander-in-chief  in 
Ireland.  He  then  joined  the  French  army, 
and  commanded  in  the  Xiow  Countries  and  in 
Spain. 

Berzelius,  Johann  Jakob  (6. 1779,  d.  1848), 
Swedish  chemist,  was  professor  for  many 
years  at  Stockholm  university,  and  acquired 
a  great  reputation  by  his  memoirs  and  his 
invaluable  work  in  chemical  analysis  and 
mineralogy. 

Besant,  Walter  (6. 1838),  English  novelist; 
his  first  work,  Studies  in  Early  French 
Poetry,  was  published  in  1868,  and  in  1871 
he  began  to  write  fiction  in  collaboration 
with  James  Rice.  Ready-Money  Mortiboy 
and  The  Golden  Butterfly  gained  for  the 
authors  a  wide  reputation.  Since  the  death 
of  Rice  in  1882,  Besant  has  written  alone,  his 
best-known  work  being  All  Sorts  and  Condi- 
tions of  Men,  which  prompted  the  establish- 
ment of  the  People's  Palace  in  Mile 
End. 

BescM,  Constantino  Giuseppe  {d.  1742), 
Italian  Jesuit,  who  went  to  India  as  a 
missionary,  and  acquired  the  various  native 
languages,  for  which  he  compiled  grammars 
and  dictionaries,  besides  writing  works  for 
the  benefit  of  his  converts. 

Bessaraba,  Constantino  11.  {d.  1714), 
Vaivode  of  Wallachia.  His  life  was 
passed  in  treacherous  intrigue  with  different 
powers,  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Austria,  and 
he  was  finally  put  to  death  at  Constanti- 
nople. 

Bessaraba,  Michel  II.  {d.  1601),  Vaivode 
of  Wallachia.  In  alliance  with  Sigismund 
of  Transylvania  and  Rodolph  I.  of  Germany 
he  drove  the  Turks  from  Wallachia,  and  on 
the  death  of  Sigismund  annexed  Transyl- 
vania. He  was,  however,  soon  driven  out, 
and  shortly  after  poisoned  at  Vienna. 


Bes 


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Ben 


Bessaraba,  Mirce  I.  {d.  1418),  Vaivode 
of  Wallachia,  in  1393  was  compelled  to  be- 
come a  tributary  to  Sultan  Bajazet  I.,  but 
joined  the  Christian  alliance  in  1396,  which 
was  defeated  at  NicopoUs.  He  repelled  the 
Turkish  invasion,  however,  and  retained 
the  independence  of  Wallachia  for  eighteen 
years. 

Bessaraba,  Rodolph,  "The  Black"  {d. 
1265),  founder  of  the  principality  of  Wal- 
lachia. He  built  the  towns  of  Argissa  and 
Tergovisti. 

Bessarion,  John  (6.  1395,  d.  1472),  monk 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Basil,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. John  Paleeologus  made  him  bishop 
of  Nicea  and  sent  birn  to  the  Councils  of 
Ferrara  and  Florence,  summoned  to  bring 
about  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches.  He  favoured  Eome,  for  which 
he  received  a  cardinal's  hat,  but  he  had  to 
leave  Constantinople.  His  house  at  Rome 
was  a  great  centre  of  learning ;  he  waa  sent 
on  many  papal  missions. 

Bessborough,  John  William  Ponsonby, 
fourth  Earl  of  (6.  1781,  d.  1847),  entered 
ParUament  as  Lord  Duncannon,  in  1805,  in 
the  Whig  interest.  He  was  made  Home 
Secretary  in  1834,  and  Lord  Privy  Seal  in 
1835.  In  1846  he  became  Lord-Lieutenant 
of  Ireland  under  Lord  John  Russell,  and 
during  his  viceroyalty  the  great  famine  oc- 
curred. His  son  {d.  1880)  presided  over  the 
Irish  Land  Commission  which  bears  his 
name. 

Bessel,  Friedrich  Wilhehn  (6.  1784,  d. 
1846),  German  astronomer,  entered  a  mer- 
chant's office,  and  while  there  devoted  his 
leisure  to  the  study  of  astronomy,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  an  appointment  in  the 
Lilienthal  observatory.  In  1810  an  obser- 
vatory was  constructed  at  Konigsberg  imder 
Bessel's  direction,  and  here  he  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  research  and  observations  which 
have  made  his  name  famous. 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry  (6.  1813),  a  distin- 
guished inventor.  He  early  displayed  his 
mechanical  genius  in  several  useful  in- 
ventions, and  the  great  discovery  with  which 
his  name  is  associated — the  Bessemer  steel 
process — was  brought  before  the  world  in 
1856. 

Bessieres,  Jean  Baptiste  (b.  1768,  d.  1813), 
French  general,  and  Duke  of  Istria,  who 
rose  from  the  rank  of  common  soldier.  He 
gained  the  special  regard  of  _  Bona- 
parte, and  served  with  distinction  in  many 
of  his  campaigns.  He  was  mainly  instru- 
mental in  gaining  the  victory  at  Marengo ; 
succeeded  Bomadotte  in  the  command  of 
the  army  of  the  north ;  and  was  killed  the 
day  before  Liitzen. 

Best,  William  Thomas  (jb.  1826),  organist, 


for  many  years  held  that  position  at  St. 
George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  and  at  the  London 
Albert  HaU.  He  introduced  into  England 
the  use  of  the  separate  pedal  board  on 
Bach's  system. 

BestujeflF-Rnmin,  Alexis  Petrovich  (6. 
1692,  d.  1766),  Russian  statesman,  was 
first  a  page  to  George  I.  of  England,  and 
in  1741  became  chancellor  to  the  Empress 
Elizabeth.  His  diplomatic  machinations 
against  Prussia  at  length  brought  about  his 
banishment,  but  he  was  restored  in  1762  by 
Catherine  II. 

Bethlen-Gabor  (6.  1580,  d.  1629),  Prince 
of  Transylvania  and  King  of  Hungary,  rose 
to  the  former  rank  with  the  aid  of  the  Turks 
in  a  period  of  disturbance,  and  taking  the 
lead  of  the  Hungarian  Protestants  against 
the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II. ,  was  proclaimed 
King  of  Hungary  in  1618.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  he  was  compelled  to 
resign  the  title. 

Betterton,  Thomas  (6.  1635,  d.  1710), 
EngUsh  actor,  the  son  of  a  cook  of  Charles 
I.  All  contemporary  critics  speak  of  him 
with  the  highest  praise,  and  he  was  always 
popular  during  his  career  of  fifty  years  or 
more  on  the  stage.  His  wife,  a  Miss  Saunder- 
son,  was  the  great  Lady  Macbeth  of  her 
day. 

Bettina,  tiie  asstmied  name  of  Anna 
Elizabeth  von  Amim  (b.  1785,  d.  1859),  a 
writer  of  the  Romantic  school,  best  known 
for  her  friendship  with  Goethe.  She  visited 
him  in  Weimar  in  1807,  and  this  led  to  a 
prolific  correspondence  extending  over  four 
years,  which  she  published  as  Briejivechsel 
mit  einem  Kinde.  She  was  the  friend  of 
many  other  illustrious  men  of  the  dayj 
and  in  1811  married  Ludvirig  Joachim  von 
Arnim,  a  distinguished  poet  and  novelist. 
After  her  husband's  death  she  lived  in 
Berlin,  where  her  house  became  the  centre 
of  Liberal  movements,  and  where  she  wrote 
a  number  of  social  and  political  essays. 

BettineUl,  Saverio  (6.  1718,  d.  1808), 
Italian  Jesuit,  and  a  writer  and  poet  of 
distinction,  was  professor  of  literature  at 
Brescia,  and  afterwards  at  Parma.  His 
greatest  works  were  a  history  of  the  period 
between  the  10th  and  14th  centuries,  a 
poem,  II  Farnaso  Veneto,  and  Lettere  di 
Virgilio. 

Beule,  Charles  Ernest  (6.  1826,  d.  1874),  a 
French  archaeologist.  An  important  series 
of  excavations  on  the  Acropolis  secured  for 
him  the  chair  of  archaeology  in  the  Biblio- 
theque  Imperiale,  in  which  position  he 
directed  other  excavations  at  Carthage.  In 
1 87 1  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Assernbly, 
and  in  1873  was  made  minister  of  the  inte- 
rior.   TTia  position  soon  became  so  difficult 


Beu 


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Bho 


that  he  resigned,   and  shortly  aiter  com- 
mitted euicide. 

Beumonville,  Pierre  Riel  de  (6.  1752,  d. 
1821),  French  general,  in  1793  was  sent  to 
aiTest  Dumouriez,  but  was  delivered  by  him 
to  the  Austrians,  and  remained  a  prisoner 
for  two  years.  Under  the  empire  he  was 
ambassador  at  Berlin  and  Madrid,  and  on 
the  restoration  was  ennobled,  and  made  a 
marshal  of  Fi-ance. 

Beust,  Friedrich  Ferdinand,  Count  von 
(6.  1809,  d.  1886),  German  statesman  and 
diplomatist,  in  1849  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  to  the  "King  of  Saxony,  and 
later,  prune  minister.  His  policy  at  home 
was  severely  anti-democratic,  and  in  foreign 
matters  he  strongly  resisted  the  dominance 
of  Prussia  and  Austria.  After  Sadowa  he 
had  to  resign,  but  was  at  once  appointed 
foreign  minister  to  the  Austrian  Emperor. 
In  this  position  he  carried  many  Liberal  re- 
forms, and  entirely  reorganised  the  affairs 
of  the  empire.  In  1871  he  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  London,  and  later  to  Paris. 

Beveridge,  William  (6,  1638,  d.  1708), 
English  bishop  and  distinguished  Oriental- 
ist. In  his  twentieth  year  he  wrote  a  treatise. 
on  the  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
and  Samaritan  languages.  In  1704  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  and  continued 
his  Uterary  labours  to  the  end. 

Bevem,  August  WUhebn,  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick-Lxmeberg  (6.  1715,  d.  1782),  Prussian 
general,  who  served  with  distinction  during 
the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  in  1762  defeated 
the  Austrians  at  Eeichenbach. 

Bevemmck,  Jerome  van  (6. 1614,  d.  1690), 
Dutch  statesman,  known  as  "the  Pacifi- 
cator," on  account  of  his  successful  negotia- 
tion of  many  treaties.  He  was  also  an 
eminent  botanist. 

Bewick,  Thomas  (&.  1753,  d.  1828),  Eng- 
lish engraver,  entered  into  partnership  with 
a  Newcastle  wood  engraver,  Ralph  Beilby, 
with  whom  he  published  his  History  of 
Quadrupeds,  which  proved  an  immense  suc- 
cess. After  some  more  fine  work,  he  pro- 
duced Tlie  History  of  British  Birda,  and 
later,  JEsop's  Fables,  the  two  best  examples 
of  his  art. 

Beyle,  Marie  Henri  (6.  1783,  d.  1842), 
French  wiiter,  who  only  devoted  himself  iJo 
literature  after  he  had  tried  four  or  five 
other  professions.  He  wrote,  besides  much 
excellent  biography,  two  romances,  and  a 
History  of  Painting  in  Italy. 

Beza,  Theodore  (&.  1519,  d.  1605),  Calvinist 
divine,  was  bom  in  Burgundy,  and  entering 
the  church  secured  rich  benefices  in  Paris, 
where,  for  some  time,  he  led  a  wild  life.  In 
1548  he  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  made  a 


public  confession  of  the  reformed  faith,  and 
obtained  a  Greek  professorship  at  Lausanne. 
Besides  much  polemical  writing  at  this  time, 
he  translated  the  Psalms  into  French  verse, 
and  the  New  Testament  into  Latin.  In 
1559  he  went  to  Geneva,  and  became  Calvin's 
right-hand  man.  He  remained  in  France 
with  Conde  and  Coligny  during  the  civil 
war.  After  Calvin's  death  he  became  the 
foremost  figure  among  the  Calvinists  of  the 
Continent. 

Bhdslay,  Rhagojee  I.  {d.  1753),  Mahratta 
general,  who  was  granted  the  province  of 
Berar  from  the  Peshwah  Bajee  Rao  II.  The 
greater  part  of  his  hie  was  occupied  in  war. 

Bhoslay,  Janoojee  {d.  1773),  succeeded 
the  precediug  as  liajah  of  Berar  in  1753. 
He  concluded  an  alliance  with  Nizam  Ali  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  chief  power  in 
the  Mahratta  state ;  but  Nizam  Ali  joined 
the  Peshwah  at  the  critical  hour,  and 
Janoojee  had  to  agree  to  most  disastrous 
terms  of  peace. 

Bhoslay,  Raghoojee  {d.  1816),  Rajah  of 
Berar  and  conunauder  of  the  Mahratta 
armies.  He  asserted  his  independence  of 
the  Mahratta-Peshwah,  and  in  1803  entered 
into  alliance  with.  Doulat  Rao  Sindia 
against  the  English.  Their  large  and  splen- 
didly appointed  army  was  utterly  defeated 
at  Assaye  by  WeUesley,  and  later  actions 
compelled  Raghoojee  to  effect  a  peace  by 
the  relinqmshment  of  the  greater  part  of 
his  dominions. 

Bhdslay,  Moodajee  {d.  1840),  generally 
known  as  Appa  Sahib,  Rajah  of  Berar, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  by  the  murder  of 
the  Rajah  Pursajee,  and  joined  the  Mah- 
ratta confederacy  against  the  EngUsh.  He 
was  defeated  and  deposed,  but  was  rein- 
stated after  a  time,  only  again  to  stir  up 
revolt  against  the  British.  He  escaped 
from  the  imprisonment  which  he  brought 
upon  himself,  and  afterwards  led  a  wan- 
dering life  in  Central  India. 

Bhdslay,  Sivajee,  Rajah  of  Mahrattas  (6. 
1627,  d.  1680).  His  father  was  high  in  the 
service  of  the  Beejapoor  sovereign.  In- 
stigated by  his  mother,  he,  with  tkree  other 
men,  Yessjee  Kuuk,  Yannajee  Maloosray, 
and  Bajee  Phasalkur,  raised  a  force  in  the 
hiUs,  and  conducted  such  successful  raids 
that  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan  took  him  into 
his  service.  He  greatly  enlarged  his  do- 
minions during  the  struggle  between  the 
Mogul  empire  and  the  Beejapoor  states, 
taking  part  now  with  one  side,  now  with  the 
other ;  and  finally  by  stratagem  he  destroyed 
a  powerful  army  sent  against  him  from 
Beejapoor.  After  some  years  of  successful 
predatory  wai-fare,  he  was  proclaimed 
Maharajah  of  the  Mahrattas  with  widely 
extended  dominions. 


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Bil 


Bhow,  Pirrishram  Eao  Putwurdhem, 
Mahratta  general.  In  1790  he  commanded 
the  Mahratta  forces  acting  with  the  British 
against  Tippoo  Sultan,  and  his  victorious 
campaign  in  northern  Mysore  helped  to 
bring  the  Sultan  to  a  speedy  submission. 
In  1795  he  utterly  defeated  the  Nizam,  and 
in  the  foDowing  year  performed  the  re- 
markable feat  of  marching  a  large  body  of 
cavalry  200  miles  in  forty-eight  houi-s.  In 
a  campaign  against  the  Eajah  of  Kolapoor 
he  was  taJien  prisoner  and  cut  to  pieces. 

BiancM,  Francesco,  (6.  1752,  d.  1810), 
Italian  composer  of  note;  in  1775  he  pro- 
duced at  Paris  his  first  opera,  La  Redmtian 
de  Paris,  with  much  success,  and  in  1784 
received  an  appointment  at  Milan  cathedral, 
where  he  remained  for  nine  years  producing 
operas  and  oratorios.  In  1793  he  settled 
in  London  and  married  Miss  Jackson,  a 
popular  vocalist. 

BiancM,  Vincent  Friedrich,  Baron  de, 
Duke  of  Casalanza  (6.  1768,  d.  1855), 
Austrian  general,  served  against  the  Turks 
and  through  the  French  wars,  in  which  he 
distinguished  himself.  In  1 8 1 5  he  assisted  in 
the  defeat  of  Murat  at  Tollentino,  and  at 
the  convention  of  Casalanza  secured  the 
throne  of  Naples  for  Ferdinand  IV.  In 
1817  he  commanded  the  Austrian  forces  in 
Bavaria. 

Bianconl,  Carlo  (6.  1788,  d.  1875).  the 
originator  of  the  Bianconi  cars  in  Ireland. 
His  parents  sent  him  as  a  boy  to  be  appren- 
ticed in  London ;  but  Bianconi  went  to 
Dublin,  where  he  acquired  the  nucleus  of 
his  fortune  as  an  itinerant  fruit-seller. 
After  some  years  he  initiated  his  plan  for 
very  cheap  car  conveyance  between  the 
rural  districts  and  the  principal  market 
towns,  and  with  such  success  that  his 
system  was  rapidly  adopted  all  over  Ireland. 

Bianconi,  Giovanni  Lodovico  (6.  1717, 
d.  1781),  Italian  physician  and  man  of 
letters,  in  1750  became  chief  physician  to 
the  Elector  of  Saxony,  whom  he  followed 
into  exile.  In  1764  he  was  appointed  re- 
sident minister  at  the  Papal  court,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  literary  pursuits 
which  estabhshed  his  reputation  through 
Europe. 

Bichat,  Marie  Francois  Xavier  (6.  1771, 
d.  1802),  physiologist  and  anatomist,  was 
adopted  by  Dessault,  whose  w  orks  he  edited, 
and  after  his  death  devoted  himself  to 
research  in  anatomy  and  surgery  with  such 
incessant  industry  as  to  undermine  his  con- 
stitution. He  left  numerous  works  of  the 
highest  value. 

Bickerstaff,  Isaac  (i.  1735,  d.  1787),  an 
Irish  dramatist,  the  author  of  several  suc- 
cessful comedies  and  operas. 


Bickersteth,  Edward  Henry  {b.  1825), 
Bishop  of  Exeter;  in  1866  he  published 
his  rehgious  poem  Yesterday,  To-day,  and 
For  Ever,  which  had  a  wide  vogue,  and  in 
1870  The  Hymnal  Companion  to  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer.  Several  other  works  of  a 
similar  character  have  since  appeared.  He 
was  ordained  to  the  see  of  Exeter  in  1885. 

Bidder,  George  Parkes  (6.  1800,  d.  1878), 
engineer.  In  youth  his  grasp  of  figures 
earned  him  the  title  of  the  "  Calculating 
Boy."  Afterwards  he  assisted  George 
Stephenson ;  was  one  of  the  engineers  of 
the  Blackwall  Railway,  and  a  promoter  of 
the  Telegraph  Company. 

Biddle,  James  {b.  1783,  d.  1848),  officer  of 
the  U.S.  navy,  during  the  war  vdth  Tripoli, 
1800,  was  taken  prisoner.  He  served  with 
great  distinction  in  the  war  with  England, 
capturing  two  English  men-of-war. 

Biddle,  John  (6.  1615,  d.  1662),  rehgious 
controversialist,  known  as  ' '  the  father  of 
the  EngUsh  Unitai-ians, "  was  sent  to  prison 
for  heresy,  and  his  book  was  ordered  by 
the  House  of  Conmions  to  be  burnt.  In 
1648,  for  the  pubUcation  of  his  Confession  of 
Faith,  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  the 
sentence  was  commuted ;  and  he  was 
released  in  1651,  only  to  be  again  im- 
prisoned by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Cromwell  subsequently  banished  him  to  the 
SciUy  Isles,  but  in  1662  he  returned  to 
London,  and  was  again  sent  to  prison, 
where  he  died. 

Biehl,  Charlotte  Dorothea  [b.  1731,  d. 
1788),  Danish  woman  of  letters,  known  as  a 
translator,  a  writer  of  tales  and  poetry,  and 
the  author  of  some  successful  comedies. 

Biez,  Oudard  du  [d.  1553),  French  general, 
made  a  marshal  of  France  by  Francis  I., 
and  appointed  to  succeed  to  the  ChevaUer 
Bayard's  command.  He  failed  to  drive  the 
Enghsh  from  Boulogne,  and  after  the  death 
of  Francis  I.  was  imprisoned  by  the  Guises. 

Bignon,  Louis  Pierre  Edouard  (b.  1771,  d. 
1841),  French  diplomatist  and  statesman, 
was  employed  on  many  important  missioiis 
under  the  empire.  For  four  years  he 
directed  the  administration  at  Warsaw,  and 
he  was  an  imder-secretary  for  foreign 
affairs  during  the  Hundi-ed  Days.  After 
the  1830  revolution  he  became  foreign 
minister,  and  was  created  a  peer,  and 
Napoleon  charged  him  with  the  compilation 
of  a  diplomatic  history  of  France  from  1799 
to  1815,  a  task  which  he  completed  in  four- 
teen volumes. 

Bilderdyck,  Willem  (b.  1756,  d.  1831), 
Dutch  poet,  a  lawyer  by  profession,  emi- 
grated first  to  Germany  and  then  to  London, 
where  he  lived  by  teaching.  He  returned 
to   Holland  in   1806,  and  was    taken  into 


Bil 


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Bir 


favour  by  Louis  Napoleon,  then  King  of 
the  Netherlands.  He  afterwards  settled  in 
Leyden.  The  greatest  of  his  numerous 
poems  is  his  Destruction  of  tlie  First  World. 

Bilfinger,  Georg  Bemhard  (6.  1693,  d. 
1 750 1,  Grorman  savant,  in  1724  went  to 
Russia  at  the  request  of  Peter  the  Great, 
to  occupy  a  professorial  chair,  where  he 
wrote  his  Essay  on  the  Cause  of  the  Weight 
^Bodies,  to  which  the  Paris  Academy  of 
Sciences  awarded  the  first  prize.  He  was 
afterwards  curator  of  the  university  of 
Tubingen,  and  left  several  works. 

BillaudVaxenne,  Jacques  Nicolas  (b.  1756, 
d.  1819),  French  revolutionary  of  the  most 
extreme  type,  was  prominent  from  the  first 
in  the  revolutionary  councils  for  the  fero- 
city of  his  designs:  later  he  denounced 
Robespierre.  In  1795  he  was  banished  to 
Cayenne,  and  never  returned  to  Prance, 
though  pardoned. 

Bille,  Steen  Andersen  (b.  1751,  d.  1833), 
Danish  admiral,  conducted  in  1796  the  suc- 
cessful blockade  of  Tripoli;  fought  in  the 
battle  of  Copenhagen ;  and  was  appointed 
commissioner  for  the  transfer  of  the  Nor- 
wegian fortresses  from  Denmark  to  Sweden. 

Bill^,  Steen  Andersen  (b.  1797),  Danish 
admiral,  son  of  the  preceding,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  French  navy,  and 
in  1845  commanded  a  Danish  scientific 
expedition,  which  sailed  round  the  world. 
He  commanded  the  Danish  navy  in  the 
war  against  Germany,  and  in  1852  became 
minister  of  marine. 

Bineau,  Jean  Martial  (6.  1805,  d.  1855), 
French  engineer  and  politician,  inspector- 
general  of  the  corps  of  engineers  and  mines, 
entered  the  legislature  in  1841,  and  busied 
himself  with  extending  internal  communica- 
tion. From  1849  to  1851  he  was  minister 
of  public  works,  and  in  1852  became  minister 
of  finance. 

Binet,  Jacques  Philippe  Marie  (6.  1786, 
d.  1856),  French  mathematician,  was  for 
some  time  professor  of  astronomy  in  the 
College  of  France,  and  left  behind  him 
many  papers  of  great  value. 

Bingham,  Joseph  (6.  1688,  d.  1723),  Eng- 
lish clergyman,  remembered  as  the  author  of 
Origines  Ecclesiasticce,  a  work  of  the  greatest 
erudition.  He  was  compelled  to  resign  an 
Oxford  fellowship  for  his  part  in  the  Trini- 
tarian controversy. 

Bini,  Carlo  (6.  1806,  d.  1842),  ItaUan  pat- 
riot and  writer,  whose  life  was  devoted  to 
the  national  cause,  most  of  his  writings 
being  directed  to  further  it.  He  was  the 
intimate  friend  of  Mazzini,  by  whom  his 
works  were  edited. 

Biondi,  Giovanni  Francesco  (6.  1572,  d. 


1644),  Italian  writer,  came  to  England  from 
Venice  at  the  invitation  of  Sir  Henry  Wot- 
ton,  and  was  taken  into  high  favoui-  by 
James  I.,  who  employed  hrm  on  several 
foreign  missions.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses. 

Biondi,  Luigi  (6.  1776,  d.  1839),  ItaHan 
man  of  letters,  was  an  industrious  writer  of 
prose  and  verse  of  a  high  quality.  He  was 
president  of  the  Archaeological  Academy 
at  Rome,  and  supervisor,  for  the  King  of 
Sardinia,  of  th^  study  of  fine  arts  in  Rome. 

Blot,  Jean  Baptiste  (6.  1774,  d.  1862), 
French  man  of  science,  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  the  College  of  Beauvais,  and 
later  professor  of  physics  at  the  College  of 
France.  In  1803  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  soon  after  be- 
came intimate  vnth  Arago  and  Gay-Lussac, 
with  one  or  other  of  whom  many  of  his  later 
researches  were  conducted.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  Spain  in  measuring  the  arc  of  the 
meridian,  and  in  1817  visited  Great  Britain 
with  the  object  of  further  prosecuting  his 
sidereal  measurements.  A  life  of  industrious 
research  in  many  branches  of  science,  and 
especially  in  optics  and  in  the  polarisation 
of  light,  obtained,  for  him  fellowship  in 
nearly  all  the  great  scientific  bodies  of 
Europe,  including  the  London  Royal  Society 
and  the  French  Academy,  and  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres.  In  1814 
Napoleon  I.  bestowed  on  him  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  and  in  1840  he  received  the  Rum- 
ford  medal  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Bircli,  Charles  Bell  (6.  1835),  English 
sculptor  and  Royal  Academician,  received 
his  training  at  the  BerUn  Academy,  in  1864 
won  the  £600  prize  given  by  the  Art  Union 
of  London  :  in  1879  he  was  elected  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1881  a 
member.  Among  his  best-known  works 
are  Marguerite  with  the  Jewel  Casket,  The 
Wounded  Trumpeter,  Lady  Godiva,  and  the 
statue  of  Lord  Beaconsfeld  at  Livei-pool. 

Birch,  Samuel  (&.  1813,  d.l9>9,b),  eminent 
antiquarian  and  Egyptologist,  in  1836  he 
entered  the  Department  of  Antiquities  at 
the  British  Museum,  and  in  1861  was  ap- 
pointed keeper  of  Oriental  Antftjmties,  a 
post  which  he  held  till  his  death,  lie  left 
numerous  works  of  archaeological  interest, 
and  was  a  great  authority  on  hieroglyphics 
and  Biblical  archaeology. 

Birch,  Thomas  (&.  1705,  d.  1766),  English 
clergyman  and  man  of  letters,  of  Quaker 
parentage,  was  ordained  in  the  Church  of 
England  in  1730,  devoting  much  of  his  after 
life  to  literary  work  and  antiquarian  re- 
search. He  was  secretary  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  a  trustee  of  the  British  Museum, 
and  he  wrote  The  History  of  the  £oyai 
Society  of  London. 


Bir 


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Bis 


Bird,  Edward  (6.  1772,  d.  1819),  English 
painter,  rose  to  the  dignity  of  Eoyal  Aca- 
demician from  the  position  of  a  Birmingham 
designer.  His  first  notable  picture  was 
Good  NewSi  and  his  Chevy  Chase  and  Death 
of  Mi  were  purchased  by  the  Marquis  of 
Stafford.  Later  he  was  appointed  painter 
to  the  Princess  Charlotte. 

Birdwood,  Sir  George  Christopher  Moles- 
worth  (6.  1832),  distinguished  Civil  servant 
and  authority  on  Indian  questions,  took  his 
medical  degree  at  Edinburgh  and  entered 
the  Indian  Medical  Service  in  1854.  He 
Btt-red  in  the  Persian  war,  and  in  1857 
accepted  a  chair  at  the  Grant  medical  col- 
lege and  the  curatorship  of  the  Bombay 
museum.  In  1867  he  was  sent  as  special 
commissioner  from  Bombay  to  the  Paris 
Exhibition,  and  in  1868  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, entering  the  India  Office.  For  some 
time  he  edited  the  Bombay  Saturday  Jieview, 
and  he  has  published  a  Catalogue  of  the 
Economic  I'roducts  of  Bombay,  among  other 
botanical  works. 

Birger  de  Bielbo  (6.  1210,  d.  1266), 
Swedish  noble,  married  the  sister  of  King 
Eric,  and  was  the  father  of  King  Waldemar, 
during  whose  minority  he  acted  as  regent. 
He  subdued  Finland,  founded  Stockholm, 
and  built  the  cathedral  of  UpsaL 

Blrkbeck,  George  (b.  1776,  d.  1841),  the 
founder  of  mechanics'  institutes,  was  bom 
in  Yorkshire,  and  took  his  degree  as  a  doc- 
tor. In  1 799  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  at  the  Glasgow  Ander- 
sonian  Institution.  His  lectures  to  working 
men  in  Glasgow  proved  so  successful,  that 
on  coming  to  London  he  determined  to  found 
a  mechanics'  institute.  After  much  trouble 
and  labour  he  succeeded  in  establishing  the 
now  famous  JJirkbeck  Institute,  of  which  he 
was  the  director  vtntil  his  death. 

Birks,  Thomas  Eawson  (b.  1810,  d.  1883), 
theological  and  philosophical  writer,  and  a 
Church  of  England  clergyman.  His  views 
were  Evangelical,  and  for  twenty  years  he 
acted  as  secretary  to  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance. In  1872  he  was  appointed  Knights- 
bridge  professor  of  moral  theology,  casuis- 
tical divinity  and  moral  philosophy  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  he  left  many  works,  such  as 
Modern  Rationalism,  The  Difficulties  of  Be- 
lief, First  Principles  of  Modern  Science,  and 
Modern  Utilitarianism. 

Bimey,  James  G.  (b.  1792,  d.  1857), 
American  anti-slavery  advocate,  so  early  as 
1834  agitated  public  opinion  on  the  slavery 
question,  liberating  his  own  slaves,  and 
founding  a  newspaper  in  the  abolition  in- 
terest. In  1836  he  became  secretary  to  the 
Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  in  1840  was 
nominated  for  the  office  of  president  by  the 
Republican  party. 


Biron,  Armand  de  Gontaut,  Baron  de 
(6.  1624,  d.  1592),  French  general,  served 
in  the  Catholic  army  during  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Huguenots  and  CathoHcs,  and 
in  1569  was  appointed  grand-master  of 
artillery.  In  1577  he  was  created  a  marshal 
of  France,  and  reduced  Guierme  and  Lan- 
guedoc  to  submission.  In  1580  he  rmder- 
took,  with  the  Due  D'Epemon,  the  cam- 
paign in  Flanders,  and  in  1586  he  was 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Marans.  He  went 
over  to  Henry  of  Navarre  immediately  after 
the  assassination  of  Henry  III.,  his  Protes- 
tant sympathies  having  been  long  suspected. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  Arques  and 
Ivry,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Eper- 
nay. 

Biron,  Armand  Louis  de  Gontaut,  Due  de 
(6.  1747,  d.  1794),  son  of  Charles,  Due  de 
Gontaut,  and  better  known  as  Due  de  Lau- 
zun,  which  title  was  conferred  on  him  in  his 
twenty-first  year.  In  1768  he  served  with 
distinction  in  the  conquest  of  Corsica;  in 
1779  he  drove  the  English  from  Senegal, 
and  later  played  a  prominent  part  in 
America  under  Eochambeau.  His  interest 
at  Court  having  been  lost,  he  joined  the 
revolution  when  it  broke  out,  sat  in  the 
States  General,  and  was  employed  on  im- 
portant missions.  He  successively  com- 
manded the  armies  of  the  North,  the  Ehine, 
and  the  Alps,  and  from  the  latter  command 
he  was  suddenly  transferred  to  La  Vendee. 
Here  he  fell  into  disfavour  vrith  the  central 
authorities,  and  after  some  months'  impri- 
sonment was  guillotined. 

Biron,  Charles  de  Gontaut,  Dnc  de  (6. 
1562,  d.  1602),  the  son  of  Armand  de  Gon- 
taut, under  whom  he  served  in  the  wars  of 
Henry  IV.,  was  a  great  favourite  of  the 
king,  who  made  him  admiral  of  France  in 
1592,  marshal  in  1594,  and  duke  in  1598. 
He  entered,  however,  into  a  treaty  with 
Spain  and  Savoy  for  Henry's  overthrow, 
and,  the  design  having  been  betrayed,  he 
was  beheaded. 

Bisacciom,  MaioUno  (6.  1582,  d,  1663), 
Itahan  soldier,  diplomatist,  and  writer. 
After  taking  a  degree  as  doctor  of  laws,  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Venetian  service 
before  he  was  seventeen,  and  later  in  the 
Pontificial  army  in  Hungary.  In  1640  he 
had  to  leave  the  latter  service  on  account  of 
a  duel  with  his  general,  and  for  a  similar 
reason  he  withdrew  from  the  Prince  of 
Correggio's  forces,  which  he  next  joined. 
In  the  army  of  Moldavia  he  rose  to  high 
rank,  and  took  part,  with  six  others,  in  the 
defence  of  the  bridge  of  Vienna  against  a 
large  force  of  the  enemy.  Pope  Gregory 
XV.  employed  him  later  as  ambassador  to 
several  courts.  He  left  numerous  works  in 
several  fields  of  Uterature. 

Bischof,  Karl  Gustav  (6.  1792,  d.  1870), 


Bis 


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Bis 


a  German  geologist  and  chemist  of  high 
reputation,  was  known  for  much  valu- 
able research  in  physical  science,  and  for  his 
Treatise  on  Chemical  and  Physical  Geoluyy. 
He  occupied  for  some  years  a  chair  at  the 
Bonn  university. 

Bisclioff,  Theodor  Ludwig  Wilhelm  von 
(6.  1807),  German  anatomist  and  physio- 
logist, born  in  Hanover,  graduated  at  Boan 
in  1832,  where  later  he  became  professor  of 
pathological  anatomy  and  physiology.  In 
1844  he  became  connected  with  Giesseu  uni- 
versity, where  he  founded  a  physiological 
institution  and  an  anatomical  museum.  In 
1850,  at  a  famous  trial,  he  demonstrated  the 
impossibility  of  spontaneous  combustion; 
and  in  1855  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Munich.  He  has  left  many  records  of 
his  valuable  researches  in  embryology. 

Bisette,  Cyril  Charles  Auguste  (6.  1795, 
d.  1858),  a  mulatto,  born  in  the  island  of 
Martinique,  for  some  years  championed 
the  cause  of  his  fellows  before  the  French 
Government.  He  established  successively 
the  Revue  des  Colonies  and  the  Revue  Aboli- 
tioniste,  and  in  1849  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly.  He  retired  after  the 
coup  d'etat. 

Bishop,  Sir  Henry  Eowley  {b.  1786,  d. 
1855),  English  composer,  early  devoted 
himself  to  the  composition  of  dramatic 
music;  and  in  1809  produced  his  Circas- 
sian Bride,  which  was  a  great  success.  In 
1810  he  became  coimected  with  Covent 
Garden  theatre,  and  produced  many  operas 
during  this  time,  including  The  Lady  of  the 
Lake,  Guy  Manneriny,  and  The  Slave.  In 
1825  Bishop  broke  his  connection  with 
Covent  Garden  to  go  to  Drury  Lane,  and  he 
was  succeeded  at  the  former  theatre  by 
Weber.  It  was  in  rivalry  with  Weber's 
Oberon  that  Bishop  produced  the  unsuccess- 
ful Aladdin.  In  1840  his  last  dramatic 
piece,  The  Fortunate  Isles,  was  produced  at 
Covent  Garden  in  honour  of  the  Queen's 
wedding ;  in  1842  he  was  knighted ;  and  in 
1848  he  became  professor  of  music  at  Oxford. 
An  extravagant  habit  of  life  kept  Bishop  at 
his  most  prosperous  times  in  pecuniary  difh- 
culties,  and  more  than  one  subscription  was 
raised  for  his  benefit.  The  ballads  and  glees 
which  he  wrote  are  the  compositions  on 
which  his  popularity  rests,  and  which  have 
made  his  name  famous. 

Bismarck,  Otto  Edward  Leopold,  Prince 
von  (6.  1815),  German  statesman,  and  first 
chancellor  of  the  German  empire,  is  the 
son  of  Karl  Wilhelm  von  Bismarck,  a 
landed  proprietor  of  Pomerania,  on  whose 
Schonhausen  estate  Bismarck  was  born. 
After  a  school-Hfe  spent  in  BerUn,  he 
went  to  Gottingen  university,  where 
he  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  bois- 
terousness  of  his   spirits   and  the  number 


of  duels  in  which  he  took  part.     In  1835  he 
entered  the  public  service ;  but  in  1839  he 
took  over  the  management  of  the  paternal 
estates,  and  for  nine  years  lived  the  life  of  a 
country  gentleman.     In    1847    he  married 
Johanna  von  Puttkamer,  after  having  over- 
come, with  much  diificulty,  the  objections  of 
her  parents  to  the  person  known  as  "mad 
Bismarck."     In  the   same    year  Bismarck 
was  elected  to  the  Prussian  Landtag,  and 
the  Berlin  revolution  of  1848  gave  him  an 
opportunity  of    showing    his    ability  as   a 
staunch  supporter  of  the  prerogatives  of  the 
Crown.     His  views  were  bitterly  hostile  to 
Austria,  and    he    declared  his    hope  of    a 
United  Geimany  under  Prussian  leadership. 
In  1851  he  became  leader  of  the  Conserva- 
tives, and  was  appointed  Prussian  minister 
plenipotentiary    to    the     Frankfort    Diet. 
While  occupying  this  position  he  was  sent 
on  several  diplomatic  missions,  and  iu  1859 
was   appointed  ambassador  at  St.  Peters- 
burg.    From  thence  he  was  transferred  to 
Paris,   and  in   1862    was    appointed    chief 
minister  to  the  Prussian  king.     He  was  at 
first  in  great  public  disfavour  owing  to  his 
uncompromisLug  hostility  to  the  constitu- 
tional majority  of  the  Landtag.     In   1863 
the    Danish  war    broke    out,   and    Schles- 
wig-Holstein   was   secured   for   Germany. 
In    1866     an    attempt     on    his    life    was 
made.     Austria's  predominance  was  finally 
destroyed  by  the  war  which  broke  out  in 
1866,  and  in  the    same    year    one  of  the 
ambitions  of  Bismarck's  life  was  an  accom- 
plished fact — the  establishment  of  a  North 
German  Confederation  vdth  Prussia  at  its 
head.     In   1867   Bismarck,   now  the    most 
popular  man  in   Germany,   became  chan- 
cellor of   the  Confederated  German  States, 
a  post  which  he  held  uninterruptedly  till 
1890.      When    the     inevitable    war    with 
France  came  in  1870,  Bismarck  secured  the 
neutrality  of  aU  other  European    powers, 
and  alienated  sympathy  from  France.     He 
attended  King  William  throughout  the  war 
to  the  occupation  of  Paris,  and  La  1871  read 
the  proclamation  of  King  WUliam  on  his 
being    acclaimed     German    emperor.      He 
settled  the  terms  of  peace  with  France  ; 
and  was  then    created  a  prince  and    first 
chancellor  of   the  German  empire.      From 
that  time  Prince  Bismarck's  infiuence  was 
the  dominating  factor  in  European  diplo- 
macy until  his  retirement  in  1890.     In  1870 
he  came  into  diplomatic  collision  with  the 
Pope,  and  having  caused  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits,   all    communication    with  the 
Papal  See  was  suspended  until  1880,  when 
the    dispute    was    adjusted.      During    this 
period  Bismarck's  life  was  attempted  for 
the  second  time.     His  policy  at  home  was 
one  of  consolidation  for    the    empire  and 
throne,    and    of    stem    repression    for    all 
Socialistic  tendencies.     In  1884  he  initiated 
a  colonial  policy  for  Germany,  by  wholesale 


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acquisitions  in  Africa  and  the  Pacific.  Bis- 
marck's supremacy  in  Germany  and  Europe 
remained  imquestioned  till  the  death  of  the 
old  Emperor.  He  was  known  to  be  anti- 
pathetic to  the  Emperor  Frederick,  but  the 
imtimely  death  of  that  sovereign,  followed 
by  the  accession  of  the  yovmg  Emperor 
WiUiam,  seemed  to  give  Bismarck  a  new 
lease  of  power.  However,  differences  of 
poHcy  between  him  and  his  new  master 
were  speedily  developed,  and  culminated 
in  the  beginning  of  1890  by  his  retirement. 
In  1891  he  again  entered  pubUc  Ufe  as  a 
member  of  the  Reichstag.  His  son.  Count 
Herbert  Bismarck,  was  for  some  years  at 
the  head  of  the  German  Foreign  Office.  He 
resigned  when  Prince  Bismarck  retired  from 
the  chancellorship. 

Bissen,  Wilhelm  (6.  1798,  d.  1868), 
Danish  sculptor  of  note,  who  studied  for 
some  years  under  Thorwaldsen.  In  1850 
he  became  president  of  the  Copenhagen 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

Bixio,  Jacques  Alexandre  (6.  1808,  d. 
1865),  French  naturalist  and  politician, 
by  profession  was  a  physician,  but  took 
a  deep,  interest  in  agriculture  and  horti- 
culture. After  the  revolution  of"  1848  he 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Turin ;  was  elected 
to  the  Constituent  Assembly;  and  for  a 
short  time  was  minister  of  agriculture  and 
commerce  in  Louis  Napoleon's  first  cabinet. 
On  the  coup  d'etat  he.  endured  a  brief  im- 
prisomneut. 

Bjerken,  Peder  von  (6.  1765,  d.  1818), 
Swedish  surgeon  and  oculist,  served  as  sur- 
geon in  the  Finnish  army  during  the  war 
with  Russia,  and  received  a  medal  for  his 
distinguished  services  at  that  time.  He 
was  appointed  surgeon-ia-chief  in  1814, 
and  highly  decorated. 

Bjoemstjema,  Magnus  (6.  1779,  d.  1847), 
Swedish  general  and  diplomatist,  served 
in  the  Finnish  war ;  in  1809  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  France,  and  in  1812  arranged 
for  the  sale  of  Guadeloupe.  He  fought  in 
the  Danish  war,  and  assisted  at  the  negotia- 
tions which  brought  about  peace  with  the 
transference  of  Norway  to  Sweden.  In 
1826  he  was  appointed  minister  in  London. 
He  left  several  works  on  political  and  fiscal 
matters. 

Bjbmson,  Bjonistjeme  (6.  1832),  the 
national  poet  of  Norway.  In  early  life  an 
historical  drama  of  his,  called  Valoorg,  was 
accepted  by  the  Royal  theatre,  but  its 
author  withdrew  the  piece.  In  1856  the 
international  students'  reunion  at  Upsala 
stimulated  htm  again  to  an  effort  to  produce 
a  national  poetry,  free  from  foreign  in- 
fluences. He  began  with  Sytmove  Solbakken, 
a  story  of  peasant  life,  which  was  followed 


by  Arne  and  many  other  pieces.  In  1858  he 
became  director  of  the  theatre  at  Bergen, 
and  produced  quickly  two  dramas,  Mellon 
Slagene  and  Halte  Hulda,  both  treating  of 
national  subjects.  Marie  Stuart  and  Sigurd 
Slenhe  are  both  well-known  plays,  and  he 
has  written,  besides  his  dramas,  a  series  of 
Folk  Plays,  an  ^pic,  and  much  beautiful 
lyiic  poetry.  He  receives  a  government 
pension,  but  lives  abroad. 

Black,  Adam  (6.  1784,  d.  1874),  the  well- 
known  publisher  of  Edinburgh,  made  a 
name  by  the  pubUcation  of  the  Encyclopcedia 
Britamdca.  He  also  took  ov  ex  th.e  Edinburgh 
lieview  when  the  Constables  failed,  and 
purchased  the  copyright  of  the  Waverley 
novels.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  muni- 
cipal affairs,  and  was  elected  lord  provost 
of  Edinburgh,  while  in  1856,  on  the  retire- 
ment of  Macaulay,  he  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament in  the  Liberal  interest.  He  retained 
his  seat  in  the  House  for  nearly  ten  years. 

Black,  Joseph  (i.  1728,  d.  1799),  distin- 
guished chemist,  a  favourite  pupU.  of  Dr. 
Cullen,  first  turned  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  lime,  and  in  1754  he  published  a 
treatise,  Experiments  on  Magnesia,  Quick- 
lime, and  other  Alkaline  Substances, 
which  gained  him  a  high  reputation.  In 
1756  he  was  appointed  chemistry-lecturer  at 
Glasgow,  and  in  1763  he  announced  his 
discovery  of  latent  heat.  In  1766  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Edinburgh,  in 
which  post  he  remained  tiU  his  death.  He 
published  several  scientific  treatises. 

Black,  William  {h.  1841),  English  novelist, 
spent  some  years  in  the  study  of  art,  but 
regarding  himself  as  a  failure  in  the  artis- 
tic profession,  he  turned  to  literature.  TTii^ 
first  novel,  Love  or  Marriage,  was  pub- 
lished in  1867,  being  followed  in  1868  by  In 
Silk  Attire,  and  in  1871  by  A  Daughter  of 
Heth,  which  was  a  pronounced  success. 
The  Strange  Adventures  of  a  Phaeton  and  A 
Princess  of  Thule  were  published  soon  after, 
and  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  best  novel- 
ists of  the  day  was  established.  For  four 
years  he  acted  as  assistant-editor  of  the 
Daily  News,  but  has  long  abandoned 
journalism. 

Blackbume,  Francis  (6.  1782,  d.  1867), 
eminent  Irish  lawyer  and  judge,  took  a 
gold  medal  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
the  medals  for  history  and  oratory  given  by 
the  Irish  Historical  Society.  Called  to  the 
bar  ia  1805,  he  was  from  1823  to  1825  a 
j  udge  imder  the  Insurrection  Act.  In  1830 
he  was  made  Attorney- general  for  Ireland  ; 
in  1842  he  was  appointed  Master  of  the 
Rolls ;  and  in  1846,  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Queen's  Bench.  Under  Lord  Derby  he  was 
twice  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland,  and  ia 
1856  he  became  first  Lord  Justice  of  AppeaL 


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BlacMe,  John  Stuart  (6,  1809),  Scotch 
pn)iessor  and  man  of  letters,  was  called  to 
the  Scottish  bar  in  1834,  and  published  in  the 
same  year  a  metrical  translation  of  Goethe's 
Faust.  From  1841  to  1852  he  was  professor 
of  humanity  at  Aberdeen ;  and  from  then 
tiU  1882  professor  of  Greek  at  Edinburgh. 
He  has  published  many  classical  works, 
iucluding  a  metrical  translation  of  .^schy- 
lus's  Songs  and  Legends  of  Ancient  Greece, 
and  Homer  and  the  Iliad,  with  a  transla- 
tion in  verse  of  the  latter,  besides  several 
important  critical  essays  on  points  of  Greek 
antiquity  and  literature.  In  philosophy 
Professor  Blackie's  works  have  also  been 
numerous,  and  exceedingly  popular. 

Blackmore,  Sir  Richard  (6.  1650,  d. 
1729),  English  physician  and  poet,  took  his 
medical  degree  in  Padua,  and  soon  obtained 
a  reputation  in  London.  In  1697  he  became 
one  of  William  III.'s  physicians,  and  re- 
ceived a  knighthood.  He  was  a  most  pro- 
lific writer  of  verse,  the  epic  being  his 
favourite  subject.  Prince  Arthur,  King 
Arthur,  Alfred,  and  Creation  all  came  from 
his  pen,  besides  several  works  on  medical 
science. 

Blackmore,  Richard  Doddridge  (h.  1825), 
one  of  the  first  of  modem  novelists,  in 
1852  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  practised 
for  a  short  time.  In  1860  he  published  for 
the  first  time,  the  work  being  a  poem  en- 
titled The  Fate  of  Franklin,  This  was 
followed  by  translations  of  the  first  two  of 
the  Georgics,  and  in  1864  by  his  first  novel, 
Clara  Vaughan.  His  great  work,  Lorna 
Boone,  appeared  in  1869,  and  has  been 
succeeded  by  several  others  of  less  popularity. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William  (6.  1723,  d. 
1780),  English  lawyer,  was  the  son  of  a 
City  merchant,  and  at  Oxford  was  a  dis- 
tinguished classical  scholar,  even  publishing 
some  verse.  In  1746  he  was  called  to  the 
bar,  but  made  so  little  progress  that  he 
thought  of  retiring.  Some  lectures  on  law 
gained  him  a  reputation,  however,  and  in 
1758  he  became  the  first  Vinerian  professor 
of  common  law  at  Oxford.  Declining  the 
chief  justiceship  of  Common  Pleas  in 
Ireland,  he  entered  ParUament  in  1761,  in 
1763  was  appointed  Solicitor-general  to  the 
Queen,  and  ia  1765  published  the  first  volume 
of  his  famous  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
England.  In  1770  he  was  made  a  Justice  of 
the  King's  Bench,  and  later  a  Justice  of 
Common  Pleas,  a  post  which  he  held  till  lus 
death.  He  co-operated  with  Howard  in  the 
reform  of  prison  discipline  and  the  establish- 
ment of  penitentiaries. 

Blackwood,  Sir  Henry  (J.  1770,  d.  1834), 
an  Irish  naval  oificer,  entering  the  navy  in 
1781,  behaved  with  great  gallantly  against 
the  French,  and  later  as  captain  of  the 


Euryalus  he  served  under  Nelson  at  the 
battle  of  Trafalgar.  In  1807  he  con> 
manded  the  Ajax,  in  the  expedition  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  though  the  ship  was  burnt, 
Blackwood  saved  his  crew  under  the 
greatest  difficulties.  He  was  created  rear- 
admiral  and  baronet. 

Blackwood,  John  (*.  1818,  d.  1879),  a 
member  of  the  weU-known  Edinburgh  firm 
of  publishers,  succeeded  his  brother  Alex- 
ander in  the  conduct  of  Blackwood'' s  Maga- 
zine, which  he  continued  to  direct  for  thirty- 
three  years.  He  it  was  who  first  discovered 
George  Eliot  as  a  writer,  and  the  Scenes 
from  Clerical  Life  were  first  published  in  the 
pages  of  his  magazine. 

Blackwood,  William  (b.  1776,  d.  1834), 
the  founder  of  the  Edinburgh  firm  of  pub- 
Ushers  bearing  his  name,  began  life  as  a 
bookseller,  and  his  antiquarian  knowledge 
enabled  him  to  publish  a  valuable  catalogue 
of  Scottish  historical  and  antiquarian  books. 
In  1816  he  turned  to  publishing,  and  started 
the  magazine  which  made  his  name  a 
familiar  word  in  Great  Britain. 

Blagden,  Sir  Charles  {b.  1748,  d.  1820), 
English  physician  and  chemist  of  high 
repute,  for  a  long  time  acted  as  secretary 
to  the  Royal  Society,  to  the  Transactioiis  of 
which  he  contributed  numerous  memoLra 
of  value. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie  {b.  1830),  Ameri- 
can politician,  after  being  professor  of 
mathematics,  and  editor  of  newspapers, 
was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Republican 
party  in  Maine,  and  remained  a  repre- 
sentative tiU  1876,  when  he  became  a 
senator,  having  been  for  five  years  Speaker 
of  the  Lower  House.  In  1876  he  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
and  again  in  1880  ;  but  in  1881  he  became 
secretary  of  state  to  President  Garfield. 
In  1884  he  was  nominated  by  the  Republi- 
can caucus  for  the  presidency,  but  the 
Democrats  carried  the  election  owing  to  the 
split  which  Mr.  Blaine's  candidature  caused. 
In  the  election  of  1888  Mr.  Blaine  refused 
to  be  nominated  ;  but  on  Mr.  Harrison's 
election  he  again  became  secretary  of  state, 
and  his  term  of  oifi.ce  was  noted  for  the 
diplomatic  troubles  with  England  and 
Italy. 

Blainville,  Henri  Marie  Ducrotay  de 
{b.  1777,  d.  1850),  French  naturalist  of  dis- 
tinction, first  studied  art  with  the  design 
of  becoming  a  painter,  but  was  attracted  to 
natural  history  by  hearing  Cuvier  lecture  at 
the  College  of  France.  He  took  a  medical 
degree  in  1808,  and  for  many  years  devoted 
himself  with  Oppel  to  the  study  of  reptiles. 
He  then  began  to  work  under  Cuvier,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  zoology 
in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.     In  1832  he 


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succeeded  Cuvier  in  the  chair  of  compara- 
tive anatomy. 

Blair,  Hugh  {b.  1718,  d.  1800),  Scottish 
miuister,  renowned  in  his  own  day  as  a 
preacher.  When  his  fame  as  a  pulpit 
orator  was  at  its  height,  he  began  to  lecture 
on  rhetoric  and  belles  lettres,  and  with  such 
remarkable  success  that  a  chair  was  created 
for  him  at  Edinburgh  university.  George 
III.  gi'anted  him  a  pension  of  £200. 

Blake,  Joachim  (3.  circa  1768,  d.  1827), 
Spanish  general,  who  played  a  very  pro- 
minent part  in  the  Peninsvilar  war,  served 
vrith  distinction  in  the  war  agaiust  France 
of  1793,  and  Lu  1808  he  was  made  marechal 
de  camp.  When  the  king  abdicated,  the 
Junta  gave  Blake  command  of  the  levies 
which  were  being  raised.  He  was  forced 
into  an  engagement  by  their  enthusiasm,  and 
so  lost  the  battle  of  Medina  del  Eio  Seco. 
Again  he  was  defeated  at  Espinosa,  but  his 
reputation  with  his  countrymen  remained 
unimpaired,  and  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-ia-chief  iu  Aragon,  Valencia,  and 
Catalonia.  He  was  defeated  iu  Catalonia 
by  Suchet,  but  fought  a  long  and  obstinate 
campaign ;  and  together  with  Beresford 
won  the  Ijattle  of  Albuera.  Marching  to 
Valencia,  he  was  defeated  and  forced  to 
capitulate,  and  for  some  years  remained 
a  prisoner  in  France. 

Blake,  Robert  (6.  1598,  d.  1657),  British 
admiral,  took  part  iu  the  Civil  war  on  the 
Parliamentary  side,  and  proved  a  good 
soldier;  but  he  had  had  no  naval  experi- 
ence when  in  1649  he  was  chosen  by  the 
ParUament  to  command  the  fleet  of  the 
Commonwealth  against  the  Royal  fleet 
under  Prince  Rupert.  However,  he  drove 
the  enemy  into  Eansale  harbour,  and  then, 
when  they  put  to  sea,  followed  them  to 
the  Portuguese  coast,  where  he  destroyed 
all  the  vessels  but  two.  In  May  of  1642 
he  engaged  the  Dutch  fleet  under  Van 
Tromp,  and  dispersed  it,  and  soon  after  he 
blockaded  the  Dutch  admiral  in  the  Texel, 
besides  taking  twelve  ships  and  nearly  the 
whole  Dutch  fishing  fleet.  A  few  months 
later  Van  Tromp,  with  a  greatly  superior 
force,  drove  Blake  into  the  Thames ;  but 
next  year  Blake  met  his  old  enemy  again, 
and  after  a  three  days'  fight  completely 
defeated  him.  Again,  in  the  same  year,  he 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Dutch  off  the 
Foreland.  In  1654  he  was  sent  to  the 
Mediterranean,  to  demand  reparation  for 
insults  to  the  Commonwealth,  and  satisfac- 
tion was  eagerly  accorded  him  on  all  hands, 
though  he  had  to  bombard  Tunis.  In  1656 
he  blockaded  the  Spanish  fleet  in  Cadiz, 
and  next  year  he  accomplished  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  naval  exploits  on  record. 
While  the  Spanish  Plate  fleet  was  lying 
at  anchor  in  the  Bay  of  Santa  Cruz  under 


the  protection  of  powerful  batteries,  he  sailed 
straight  into  the  bay  and  destroyed  the 
fleet,  in  spite  of  the  heavy  fire  from  the 
forts.  On  his  way  home  to  England  he 
died  of  scurvy,  and  his  body  was  laid  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  After  the  Restoration 
it  was  transferred  to  St.  Margaret's  church. 

Blake,  William  (6.  1757,  d.   1828),  post, 
painter,  and  engraver,   was  the   son  of  a 
London  tradesman,  and  began   life  as  an 
engraver's    apprentice.       His    genius  dis- 
played itself  early  in  poems,  and  in  those 
visions  which  were  with  him  throughout 
his  life,  and  from  which  he  drew  his  inspira- 
tion.   In    1782  he  married  a  servant  girl, 
who  proved  to  be  a  most  devoted  and  sym- 
pathetic    wife      and      helpmeet      to     the 
eccentric  genius.     At  this  time  Blake  not 
only    wrote    poems  and  executed  designs, 
but  he  printed    the   books,   and    coloured 
the  designs  with  no  other  help  than  that 
of  his  wife.     In  this  manner  the  Songs  of 
Innocence  were  given  to  the  world.     The 
Book  of  Thel,  The  Marriage  of  Heaven  and 
Hell,   and  the  Proverhs  of  Hell  followed, 
all   illustrated  with  Blake's    own  designs. 
The  Gates  of  Paradise,  Songs  of  Experience, 
The  Song  of  Los,  and  other  poems  were 
produced,    while    the  indefatigable   Blake 
was  executing  orders  for  engravings,  and  in 
1799  he  exhibited  The  Last  Sxipper  at  the 
Royal  Academy.    Blake  then  went  to  live 
for  four  years  at  Felpham  in  Sussex,  and 
after  his  return  produced  his  poems  Jeru- 
salem and  Milton.    He  was  engaged  upon 
designs    for    illustrating     Dante's     Divine 
Comedy  when  he  died.     In  1891  the  MS.  of 
an  unpublished  poem  by  Blake  was  found. 

Blakeney,  William,  Lord  (6.  1670,  d. 
1761),  distinguished  soldier,  of  Irish  descent, 
served  at  Carthagena  and  Boca-Chica,  and 
as  governor- general  of  Minorca  in  1756 
he  held  Fort  St.  Philip  for  twenty  days 
against  the  French  under  Marshal  Riche- 
lieu. For  this  action  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage. 

Blakey,  Robert  (6.  1795,  d.  1878),  phUo- 
sophical  writer,  and  an  authority  on 
angling.  His  whole  life  was  spent  in  the 
study  of  philosophy,  logic  and  metaphy- 
sics claiming  his  special  attention.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  Moral  Science,  the 
History  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Mind,  and 
a  History  of  Political  Literature,  besides 
several  books  on  angling.  In  1835  he 
accepted  the  chair  of  logic  and  metaphysics 
at  Belfast. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis  (6.  1811,  d. 
1882),  better  known  as  Louis  Blanc,  a 
French  revolutionist,  supported  himself  at 
first  by  teaching,  but  in  1834  he  began 
to  vrrite  for  the  National  newspaper,  and 
the  Revue  Repuhlicaine.     Later  he  edited 


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the  Sons  Gens,  and  founded  the  Revue  du 
Frogrls,  I'oiitique,  Social  et  Littei-aire,  in 
which  his  articles  on  the  conditions  of 
labour  attracted  much  attention.  In  1841 
he  published  his  Histoire  de  Dix  Ans,  which 
was  a  vehement  attack  upon  the  Bourbon 
rule,  and  which  created  a  great  impression. 
After  the  1848  revolution  he  entered  the 
provisional  government,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  a  government  commission  for 
labourers.  His  influence  at  this  time  was 
i-iumense,  and  a  procession  of  200,000 
workmen  waited  on  him  one  day  to  offer 
him  the  dictatorship.  The  establishment, 
failure,  and  abandonment  of  the  national 
workshops,  with  which  Blanc  was  con- 
nected, lost  him  his  popularity,  and  after 
the  Communist  insurrection  he  had  to  fly 
France.  He  lived  in  England  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  writing  his  histories  of 
the  great  Revolution,  and  the  1848  Revo- 
lution, and  a  series  of  letters  on  England  to 
the  French  press.  He  returned  to  Paris  in 
1870,  of  which  city  he  was  elected  a  deputy. 

Blanchard,  Fran9ois  (6.  1738,  d.  1809), 
French  aeronaut,  in  1785  crossed  the 
Channel  from  Calais  to  Dover  in  a  balloon 
of  his  own  construction  provided  with 
■wings  and  rudder,  and  received  in  recog- 
nition of  the  exploit  a  handsome  present 
and  pension  from  Louis  XVI.  He  made 
the  first  parachute  descent  in  London,  and 
soon  after  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tyrol  for 
a  pohtical  offence.  He  died  of  apoplexy 
while  making  his  sixty- sixth  balloon  ascent 
at  the  Hague. 

Blancliet,  Alexandre  Louis  Paul  {b.  1819, 
d.  1867),  French  physician,  devoted  the 
greater  part  of  his  Hfe  to  the  study  of  the 
bUnd,  the  deaf,  and  the  dumb,  and  was 
appointed  by  the  French  government  in 
1846  surgeon-in-chief  to  the  institution 
for  deaf  mutes.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  his  special  study,  and  on  his  system 
for  the  education  of  deaf  mutes. 

Blandin,  Philippe  Francois  (6.  1798,  d. 
1849),  French  surgeon  and  anatomist,  was 
surgeon  at  the  Hotel  Dieu,  and  left  many 
professional  works  of  great  value,  a  Traite 
d^Anatomie  Topographique  among  others. 

Blandrata,  Giorgio  (&.  1520,  d.  1590), 
ItaUan  physician,  better  known,  however, 
as  the  founder  of  Unitarianism  in  Poland 
and  Transylvania.  His  heresies  compelled 
him  to  fly  to  Geneva,  but,  incurring  the 
enmity  of  Calvin,  he  fled  again  to  Poland. 
Later  he  became  attached  as  physician  to  the 
court  of  the  Prince  of  Transylvania,  and 
while  there  he  invited  the  younger  Socinus 
to  come  and  expound  his  views.  In  1590 
he  was  murdered  by  his  nephew. 

Blane,  Sir  Gilbert  (6.  1749,  d.  1834), 
medical  man   of   Scottish  birth,  served  as 


surgeon  in  the  royal  navy  for  many  years, 
rendering  very  valuable  services,  and  pub- 
lishing his  work  On  the  Diseases  of  Seamen. 
He  was  pensioned,  appointed  physician  at 
St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  physician  extra- 
ordinary to  George  IV.,  and  commissioner 
for  sick  and  wounded  seamen.  His  advice 
was  sought  for  by  several  foreign  govern- 
ments as  well  as  by  the  British  govern- 
ment, and  he  was  a  member  of  many  home 
and  foreign  learned  societies. 

Blangini,  Giuseppe  Marco  Maria  Felice 
(6.  1781,  d.  1841),  Italian  composer  and 
musician,  in  1799  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
created  no  little  stir  by  his  concerts,  at 
which  he  sang  his  own  compositions.  Later 
he  obtained  the  appointment  of  kapell- 
meister to  the  King  of  Bavaria,  and  after- 
wards to  the  King  of  Westphalia.  In  1814 
he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  granted 
an  ofiicial  post,  and  made  professor  of 
singing  in  the  Royal  School  of  Music. 

Blanqui,  Louis  Auguste  (6. 1805,  d.  1881), 
French  revolutionary,  student  of  law  and 
medicine  in  Paris,  became  connected  with 
the  secret  societies,  and  was  wounded  in 
the  outbreak  of  1827.  He  was  imprisoned 
in  183S,  and  again  in  1837,  for  complicity 
with  conspiracies,  and  after  the  futile  rising 
of  1839  he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  life.  The  1848  revolution  set  him  free 
again,  and  he  joined  the  Socialist  faction,  in 
which  he  soon  became  a  leader.  He  headed 
the  mob  which  burst  into  the  Legislative 
Chamber  to  demand  the  restoration  of 
Poland,  and  soon  after  was  sentenced  to  ten 
years'  imprisonment  for  his  communistic 
leanings.  Released  in  1859,  he  was  again 
imprisoned  for  conspiracy  in  1861.  When 
the  Prussian  war  broke  out  he  founded  a 
communistic  paper  entitled  La  Patrie  en 
Danger,  and  took  part  in  the  conspiracy 
against  the  government  of  defence.  In 
1871  he  was  elected  a  member  for  the  Com- 
mune, though  under  sentence  of  death.  He 
was  arrested,  and  early  in  1872  tried  and 
condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life.  In 
1879  he  was  returned  as  a  deputy  for 
Bordeaux,  but  the  election  was  annulled, 
though  Blanqui  was  soon  after  liberated. 
He  continued  his  socialist  propaganda  until 
his  sudden  death  from  apoplexy. 

Blanqui,  Jer6me  Adolphe  (6.  1798,  d. 
1854),  a  French  economist.  He  succeeded 
Say  at  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and  Trades 
in  Paris  in  1833.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Political  Economy  in  Europe  from  tKe 
Ancients  to  the  Present  Time,  and  A  Sum- 
mary of  the  History  of  Commeree  and 
Industry. 

Blavatsky,  Helene  P.  {h.  1831,  d.  1891), 
founder  of  the  Theosophical  Society,  be- 
longed   to    a    noble    Mecklenburg    family 


Bla 


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BU 


Bettled  in  Russia,  and  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen married  General  Nicole  Blavatsky, 
from  whom  she  separated  in  a  few  montlis. 
After  travelling  over  Europe  and  the  East, 
she  went  to  Canada  in  1851,  and  from  thence 
to  New  Orleans  and  Mexico.  Later  she 
made  two  several  attempts  to  penetrate 
Thibet  from  India,  and  then  settled  for  a 
time  in  Russia.  She  met  with  a  serious 
accident  in  the  Caucasus,  and  while  recover- 
ing from  it  she  first  turned  her  attention  to 
spiiitualism.  Afterwards,  while  in  India, 
she  was  initiated  into  the  arcana  of 
Buddhism,  and  in  1875  she  founded  the 
Theosophical  Society  in  the  United  States. 
In  1877  she  pubUshed  her  principal  book, 
Isis  Unveiled.  A  very  large  part  of  her  life 
was  spent  in  India,  and  she  was  able  to 
speak  nearly  forty  European  and  Asiatic 
languages  and  dialects. 

Blaze -Castil,  Fram^ois  Henri  Joseph  (6. 
1784,  d.  1857),  French  musician,  critic  and 
writer,  practised  at  the  bar  for  some  time, 
but  then  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  music,  publishing  in  1820  his  critical 
review.  Be  V  Opera  en  France.  He  wrote 
also  a  Dictionnaire  de  Musique  Moderne, 
besides  the  score  and  libretto  of  three  operas. 

B16,  Nicholas  du  (6. 1652,  d.  1730),  French 
general,  and  Marquis  of  UxOles,  in  1672 
served  in  Holland,  and  afterwards  in 
Germany,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
by  his  obstinate  defence  of  Mayence  against 
the  Due  de  Lorraine.  In  1708  he  was  made 
a  marshal  of  France,  and  acted  as  minister 
plenipotentiary  at  Gertruydenberg  and 
Utrecht. 

Bleek,  Wilhehn  (d.  1875),  German  philo- 
logist, who  specially  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  South  African  languages.  In 
1854  he  accompanied  an  English  expedi- 
tion to  Jehadda  and  the  Niger,  and  next 
year  went  with  Bishop  Colenso  to  Natal. 
After  eighteen  months  he  went  to  Cape 
Town,  and  in  1861  was  appointed  keeper 
to  the  Grey  Library,  continuing  his  philo- 
logical investigations  among  the  lower  grade 
tribes.  He  wrote,  among  other  works.  The 
Languages  of  Western  and  Southern  Africa, 
Hottentot  J^ables  and  Tales,  and  A  Compara- 
tive Grammar  of  South  African  Languages. 

Blenker,  Ludwig  (h.  1815,  d.  1863),  a 
German  revolutionary,  who  played  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  insurrections  of  1848.  He 
was  chosen  colonel  of  the  National  Guard 
at  "Worms,  and  led  the  insurgents  ia  the 
revolution  at  Baden.  He  took  Worms,  and 
engaged  the  Prussians  at  Bobenheim  and 
Baden ;  and  later  he  commanded  the  in- 
surgent forces  on  the  Neckar.  He  ultimately 
escaped  to  Switzerland,  and  afterwards  to 
America. 

Blesslngton,  Margaret,   Countess  of   (6. 


1789,  d,  1849),  novelist,  and  for  many 
years  a  leader  in  hterary  society.  When 
quite  a  gul  she  was  married  to  a  Captain 
I'anner,  but  the  imion,  which  was  a  most 
imhappy  one,  was  dissolved  tu  1817  by  her 
husband's  death.  Next  year  she  married 
the  Earl  of  Blessington,  and  her  salons  in 
London  were  thronged  with  aU  the  most 
distiagmshed  people  of  the  day.  In  1822 
she  went  abroad  with  her  husband,  and  did 
not  return  to  England  till  after  his  death  in 
1829.  Then  she  resumed  her  famous  reunions 
at  Gore  House,  where  she  resided  with 
Count  D'Orsay,  her  daughter's  husband. 
She  wrote  a  good  deal  at  this  time,  notably 
her  Journal  of  Conversations  with  Lord 
Byron,  of  whom  she  was  an  intimate 
friend.  In  1849  pecuniary  embarrassments 
compelled  her  to  leave  London  for  Paris, 
where  she  died  quite  suddenly. 

Blicher,  Steen  Steensen  (6.  1782,  d.  1848), 
Danish  poet  and  writer  of  romances.  He 
was  a  native  of  Jutland,  and  spent  most  of 
his  Hfe  there  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties 
as  a  clergyman.  He  translated  The  Vicar 
of  Wakefield  and  pubKshed  two  volumes  of 
poetry,  besides  writing  his  Romances  of 
Jutland,  which  attained  great  popularity. 

BUgh,  William  (6.  1753,  d.  1817),  British 
naval  officer,  remembered  as  commander  of 
H.M.S.  Bounty,  on  which  occmTed  the 
memorable  mutiny.  The  ship  was  sent  out 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  bread-fruit  plants 
from  Otaheite  to  the  West  Indies.  When 
the  vessel  was  three  days  out  from  Otaheite 
the  crew  mutinied,  and  turned  Bligh,  with 
eighteen  men,  adrift  in  the  long-boat.  After 
three  months'  severe  privations  the  casta- 
ways reached  the  island  of  Timor,  and  from 
thence  England.  BHgh  published  a  Narra- 
tive of  the  Muting  on  board  H.M.S.  Bounty, 
which  attracted  much  notice.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  governor  of  New 
South  Wales,  but  after  two  years  he  was 
sent  back  to  England  on  account  of  his 
tyrannical  government. 

Blind,  Karl  (6.  1826),  German  revolu- 
tionist, began  Ids  agitation  when  still  a 
student,  and  in  1847  was  imprisoned  for  a 
short  time.  He  took  part  in  the  rising  of 
1848,  and  then  fled  to  Alsace,  from  whence 
the  French  Government  sent  him  to  Switzer- 
land. He  joined  Struve  iu  the  seccxid  Black 
Forest  insurrection,  and  was  condemned  to  a 
long  term  of  imprisonment,  but  was  liberated 
by  the  people.  Being  banished  from  France, 
and  a  fugitive  from  Germany,  he  went  to 
Belgium,  and  afterwards  to  England,  where 
he  has  written  industriously  in  support  of 
his  political  ideas.  It  was  Blind's  son-in- 
law  who  attempted  Bismarck's  life  in  1866. 

Bliad,  Mathilde,  an  English  writer  of 
verse,  and  step-daughter  of  the  preceding. 


BU 


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Blu 


She  has  published  an  edition  of  Shelley,  and 
a  trauslatiou  of  Strauss's  Old  Faith  and  the 
JS'etv  besides  a  Life  of  George  Eliot,  and  a 
volume  of  poems  entitled  The  Frophecy  of 
St.  Oran. 

Blittersdorf,  Friedrich  Sandolin  Karl, 
Baron  von  (h.  1792,  d.  18G1),  German 
statesman  of  Baden,  in  1818  he  was  charge 
d'affaires  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1821  was 
returned  to  the  Frankfort  National  Assem- 
bly as  deputy  for  Badeu.  He  succeeded 
Baron  Teukheim  as  foreign  minister,  but 
his  reactionary  policy  caused  his  speedy  re- 
tirement from  the  oflice,  and  after  the  1848 
revolution  he  retired  from  political  life. 

Blizaxd,  Sir  William  (&.  1748,  d.  1835), 
surgeon.  As  surgeon  of  the  London 
Hospital  he  estabUshed,  with  Dr.  Maclaurin, 
the  first  regular  medical  school  in  connection 
with  London  hospitals.  He  was  twice  pre- 
sident of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

Blomfield,  Charles  James  (6.  1786,  d. 
18o7),  Bishop  of  London  and  an  accom- 
plished Greek  scholar.  Li  1819  he  was 
appointed  Rector  of  St.  Botolph's,  Bishops- 
gate;  in  1824,  Bishop  of  Chester;  and  in 
1828,  Bishop  of  London.  He  was  very 
actively  concerned  in  the  colonial  extension 
of  the  Church,  and  in  the  erection  of  new 
churches.  He  published  editions  of  several 
of  the  plays  of  ^schylus,  an  edition  of 
CalUmachus,  and,  in  collaboration,  Fost- 
humom  Tracts  of  Forson. 

Blomfield,  Arthur  WilHam  (6.  1829), 
architect,  fourth  son  of  the  preceding. 
Among  the  many  examples  of  his  workman- 
ship may  be  mentioned  St.  Peter's  church, 
Eaton  Square,  the  chapel  at  Haileybury 
college,  and  St.  Saviour's,  Oxford  Street. 

Blondel.Frangois  (6. 1617,  d.  1686),  French 
diplomatist,  mathematician,  and  architect. 
He  was  employed  on  several  important 
missions,  and  was  made  a  councillor  of  state 
and  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  Royal 
CoUege.  Among  his  architectural  works  in 
Paris  was  the  triumphal  arch  at  the  Porte 
St.  Denis. 

Blood,  Thomas  (b.  1628,  d.  1680),  Irish 
adventurer,  served  in  the  Royalist  army 
and  in  the  Parliamentary  army  as  well. 
He  formed  a  plot  for  the  assassruation  of 
the  Duke  of  Ormond;  and  in  the  guise  of 
a  clergyman  he  endeavoured  to  steal  the 
crown  jewels  from  the  Tower. 

Bloomfield,  Robert  (b.  1766,  d.  1823), 
English  poet,  at  the  age  of  eleven  worked 
on  a  farm  for  a  short  time,  and  then  came 
to  London.  An  omnivorous  reader,  he  soon 
appeared  in  print,  contributing  several  poems 
to  the  London  Magazine,  and  a  few  years 
later   he   produced   his   chief    piece,    The 


Farmer's  Fag.  Publishers  refused  the  poem, 
which  was  printed  by  private  means,  and 
which  immediately  commanded  a  large  sale. 
He  also  pubUslied  Fural  Tales,  Ballads,  and 
Songs,  and  other  poems.  His  latter  days 
were  spent  in  great  destitution. 

Blount,  Sir  Henry  {b.  1602,  d.  1682), 
English  traveller  and  writer,  spent  a  great 
deal  of  time  in  the  East  and  in  various 
quarters  of  the  Continent,  writing  an 
account  of  his  experiences,  which  gained 
great  popularity. 

Blount,  Sir  Thomas  Pope  (b.  1649,  d. 
1697),  English  poUtician  and  writer  and 
sou  of  the  preceding,  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  St.  Albans  and  Herefordshire, 
and  made  a  baronet  by  Charles  II.  His 
writings  treated  of  natural  history  and 
poetry,  his  chief  work  being  Cernura  Cele- 
briorum  Authorum. 

Blow,  John  (6.  1648,  d.  1708),  English 
musical  composer,  while  one  of  the  child- 
ren of  Hie 'Majesty's  chapel  showed  hia 
genius  in  the  composition  of  several  anthems, 
and  later  in  Ufe  his  compositions,  both 
secular  and  sacred,  were  very  numerous. 
He  succeeded  Purcell  as  organist  of  West- 
minster Abbey  and  composer  to  the  king. 

Bliicher,  Gerhard  Leberecht  von  (6.  1742, 
d.  1819),  Prussian  Field  Marshal  and  Prince 
of  Wahlstadt,  first  entered  the  Swedish, 
but  soon  passed  to  the  Prussian  army,  in 
which  he  served  during  the  Seven  Years' 
war.  He  went  through  the  Polish  cam- 
paign of  1772,  and  gained  rapid  promotioa 
duiing  the  struggle  with  the  French  in- 
vaders begun  in  1792.  He  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  army  in  Silesia,  and  while 
carefully  refusing  battle  with  Napoleon  he 
defeated  Marshal  Macdonald  at  Katzbach. 
Soon  after  he  defeated  Bertrand,  and  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  victory  of  Leipzig. 
At  Auerstadt  he  behaved  with  great  gallan- 
try at  the  head  of  the  Prussian  cavalry; 
but  soon  afterwards  had  to  yield  to  superior 
forces,  and  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Hamburg. 
In  the  campaign  of  1814  Bliicher  held  high 
command,  and  though  defeated  by  Napoleon, 
he  beat  Marshal  Marmont,  and  enter^  Paris 
with  the  Allies.  Afterwards  he  visited  Lon- 
don with  the  aUied  sovereigns,  and  was 
received  with  great  cordiality.  In  the 
Waterloo  campaign  he  commanded  the 
Prussian  army  in  Belgium,  and  was  severely 
defeated  by  Napoleon  at  Ligny.  However, 
by  out-manoeuvring  Grouchy  he  was  able 
to  arrive  at  Waterloo  in  time  to  decide  the 
victory  for  the  Allies  and  pursue  the  routed 
French  army.  He  then  retired  from  active 
service  and  died  four  years  later. 

Bluhme,  Christian  Albrecht  (6.  1794,  d. 
1866),  Danish  statesman ;  educated  for  the 
legal    profession,   was    appointed  a   judge 


Blu 


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Boc 


in  1822,  and  in  1843  director-general  of  cus- 
toms and  commerce.  In  1851  he  became 
home  minister ;  in  1852  president  of  the 
Council,  and  in  1853  foreign  minister.  He 
excited  much  enmity  by  advising  the  neu- 
trality of  Denmark  during  the  Crimean 
war  and  was  impeached.  In  1864  he  became 
prime  minister. 

Blumenbach,  Johann  Friedrich  (6.  1752, 
d.  1840),  German  ethuologist,  tDok  a 
doctor's  degree  at  Gottingeu  in  1775;  in 
1776  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  cabinet 
of  natural  history,  and  in  1778  professor 
of  medicine.  While  coutiuuiug  his  _  re- 
searches and  academic  labours  he  obtained 
a  world-wide  reputation  by  his  Handbjok 
of  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology . 
His  remarkably  fine  collection  of  human 
skulls  was  bought  by  the  govemmeut,  and 
is  now  at  Gottmgen  university.  He  first 
proposed  the  ethnological  division  of  the 
human  race  into  five  types.  He  left  many 
valuable  records,  and  among  his  pupils 
were  Hufeland  and  the  two  Humboldts. 

Blumenthal,  Jacob  (6.  1829),  pianist  and 
composer ;  after  spending  some  time  in 
Hambiirg,  Vienna  and  Paris  he  came  to 
London  in  1848,  and  was  appointed  pianist 
to  the  Queen.  He  has  composed  a  great 
deal  for  the  pianoforte,  but  his  best  and 
most  popular  compositions  are  his  songs, 
among  wliichare  The  Message,  The  Requital, 
and  My  Queen. 

Blumenthal,  Leonard  von  (6.  1810),  dis- 
tinguished Prussian  general,  was  sent  in 
1850  on  two  special  missions  to  England. 
In  the  Danish  war  he  rendered  brilliant 
service  as  chief  of  the  general  staff,  a  post 
which  he  again  filled  in  the  Austrian  war 
and  the  Franco-German  war. 

Boadicea  {d.  a.d.  62),  one  of  the  queens 
of  early  British  history.  Having  been 
treated  with  great  indignity  by  the  Eomans, 
she  raised  an  army,  but  was  completely  de- 
feated by  Suetonius.  She  then  poisoned 
herself. 

Bobadilla,  Francisco,  Spanish  knight,  was 
sent  as  a  commissioner  in  1500  to  inves- 
tigate the  State  of  Hispaniola,  founded  by 
Columbus.  Having  dismissed  Columbus, 
and  sent  him  to  Spain  in  fetters,  he  was  re- 
called, and  died  on  the  homeward  voyage. 

Boccaccino,  Boccaccio  (6.  1460,  d.  1518), 
Italian  painter,  a  native  of  Cremona,  who 
takes  a  very  high  rank  among  the  painters 
of  his  day.  His  son,  Camillo  (6.  1511,  d. 
1546),  was  also  a  painter. 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni  (J.  1313,  d.  1375), 
one  of  the  greatest  names  in  Italian  litera- 
ture. Eesitling  in  Naples  as  a  young  man, 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Petrarch,  a 


friendship  which  has  become  historical.  In 
1353  he  published  his  Jbecamerou  ;  and  later 
he  filled  the  chair  instituted  for  the  explana- 
tion of  Dante's  Divme  Comedy  at  Florence. 
He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  first  seven- 
teen cantos  of  the  Inferno,  and  a  Ufe  of  its 
author,  besides  many  prose  stories,  and 
much  verse  in  ItaUan  and  Latin. 

Boccage,  Manoel  Maria  Barbosa  de  (&. 
1771,  d.  1806),  Portuguese  poet  who  lived 
many  years  in  Goa,  and  achieved  a  very 
high  reputation  by  his  verse.  He  was  im- 
prisoned for  a  short  time  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion. 

Boccanera,  Giulio,  naval  commander  in 
the  Spanish  service,  though  born  at  Genoa. 
In  1340  he  went  to  help  King  Alfonso  XI. 
of  Castile  against  the  Moors,  when  his  con- 
duct of  the  naval  operations  was  most  suc- 
cessful. In  1371,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
of  Castile,  he  defeated  the  Portuguese,  and 
in  1372  the  English,  under  Lord  Pembroke, 
at  La  Eochelle. 

Boccanera,  Sunone  {d.  1363),  brother  of 
the  preceding.  As  a  popular  champion 
against  the  nobles,  he  was  elected  Doge  of 
Genoa  in  1339,  but  he  was  forced  to  abdi- 
cate in  1344.  After  residing  in  exile  at 
Pisa,  he  returned  in  1356,  and  having  helped 
the  Duke  of  Milan  to  crush  the  insurgent 
nobles,  he  supplanted  the  duke's  authority, 
and  was  again  elected  Doge. 

Boccherini,  Luigi  (6.  1740,  d.  1806), 
musician  of  Italian  descent ;  in  1771  his 
compositions  and  performances  on  the  vio- 
loncello gained  him  a  high  reputation  in 
Paris ;  and  afterwards  he  received  a  post  in 
the  Spanish  court.  Being  dismissed  from 
this,  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
poverty. 

Bochsa,  Eobert  Nicholas  Charles  (6.  1789, 
d.  1856),  French  musical ,  composer  and 
harpist,  developed  his  genius  very  early,  and 
on  going  to  Paris  in  1806,  obtained  a  speedy 
recognition  of  his  gifts.  In  1817  he  came  to 
Loudon,  and  met  with  equal  success,  though 
he  became  baukiupt  tlirough  extravagance. 
For  some  years  he  was  director  of  the  aca- 
demy of  music,  and  later  of  the  king's 
theatre.     He  died  in  Australia. 

Bock,  Jerome  (fi.  1498,  d.  1555),  German 
savant,  and  one  of  the  first  of  scientific 
botanists.  He  was  a  doctor  of  medicine 
and  a  Protestant  clergyman. 

Bockh,  August  {h.  1785,  d.  1867),  German 
archeeologist  and  philologist;  in  1811  was 
appointed  to  a  chair  in  Berlin  vmiver- 
sity,  where  his  lectures  were  held  in  the 
highest  estimation.  Among  his  numerous 
works  were  The  Political  Economy  of  the 
Athenians  and  Meteorological Investigatiotia 


Bbc 


(146) 


Boe 


tonceming  the  Weights,  Coins,  and  Measures 
of  Antiquity. 

Bdcklin,  Arnold  (6.  1827),  Swiss  painter, 
after  some  years  spent  in  Paris,  Germany, 
and  Italy,  was  appointed  in  1858  one  of  the 
directors  of  the  Weimar  school  of  art.  In 
1861  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  after  that 
resided  in  Basel,  Munich,  and  tiiially  Flo- 
rence. In  spite  of  his  undoubted  genius, 
the  unconventiouality  and  grimness  of  his 
works  have  greatly  militated  against  his 
prosperity. 

Boczkai,  Stephen  {d.  1696),  Hungarian 
patriot,  who  in  1604  secured  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Transylvanian  Protestants  by  a 
revolt  against  Austria,  assisted  by  Turkish 
arms.  He  was  crowned  King  of  Upper 
Himgary,  but  later  became  f eudatoiy  to  the 
Austrian  throne. 

Bode,  Johann  Elert  (6.  1747,  d.  1826), 
German  astronomer  of  eminence,  who  was 
for  some  years  director  of  the  Berlin  Obser- 
vatory. His  life  was  spent  in  astronomical 
pursuits,  and  besides  the  record  of  his  im- 
portant observations  he  left  several  works. 

Bode,    Johann     Joachim     Christoph     (6. 
1730,  d.  1793),   German  musician  and  man 
of  letters;  of  the  humblest  origin,  by  diat 
of   his   own  mdustry   he  became  a  musi- 
cian and  a  composer,  and  then  turned  his  I 
attention    to    poetry      Having    mastered  1 
several    European    languages    he    adapted  ! 
dramas  from  foreign  literatures  for  the  Ger-  I 
man  stage.     He  published  translations  of 
many  European  classics 

Bodenstedt,  Frederick  Martin  (6.  1819), 
German  poet  and  writer ;  in  1840  he  went 
to  Russia,  when  he  published  German  trans- 
lations of  the  works  of  several  Russian 
poets  ;  and  later,  spending  some  time  in 
Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  he  wrote  A  Thou- 
sand and  One  Days  in  the  East,  which 
proved  highly  popular.  In  1851  he  pub- 
lished Songs  of  Mirza  Schaffy,  a  series  of 
Oriental  poems  purporting  to  be  transla- 
tions. He  has  also  written  some  epics, 
lyric  poetry,  novels  and  translations  of 
Shakespeare.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  Sclav  languages  and  literature  at  Munich. 

Bodiclion,  Barbara  (6.  1827),  well-known 
water-colour  painter,  and  an  active  promo- 
ter of  women's  education,  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  obtaining  the  Married  Women's 
Property  Act.  She  founded  a  school  in 
London  for  the  education  of  artisans' 
daughters ;  and  she  helped  to  establish 
Girton  College.  The  daughter  of  Mr.  Ben- 
jamin Smith,  M.P.,  she  married  Dr.  Bodi- 
chon,  with  whom  she  went  to  Algeria. 

Bodley,  Sir  Thomas  (6.  1544,  d.  1612), 
founder  of  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford, 


lectured  at  the  University  for  some  time, 
and  then  becoming  attached  to  the  court 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  employed  on 
several  important  diplomatic  missions.  Dis- 
appointed at  failing  to  obtain  the  offtce  of 
secretary  of  state,  he  forsook  poUtics.  He 
was  knighted  by  James  I.,  and  laid  the  first 
stone  of  the  Bodleian  Library  in  1610. 

Boece,  or  Boyce,  Hector  (6. 1470,  d.  1536), 
Scottish  historian,  and  a  man  of  great 
learning.  After  being  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Paris,  he  became  principal  of  the 
Aberdeen  college.  He  wrote  a  history  of 
Scotland  in  Latin. 

Boehm,  Sir  Joseph  Edgar  (6.  1834,  d. 
1891),  an  English  sculptor  of  German  origin, 
came  to  England  to  settle  in  1862.  In  1878 
he  was  elected  an  associate,  and  in  1882  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  ;  while  in 
1881  he  was  appointed  sculptor  in  ordinary 
to  the  Queen.  His  works  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  include  Lord  John  Russell  in  West- 
minster Hall,  Thomas  Carlyle  on  the  Thames 
Embankment,  Lord  Lawrence  in  Waterloo 
Place,  and  The  Duke  of  Wellington  at  Hyde 
Park  comer. 

Boerliaave,  Hermann  (6.  1668,  d.  1738), 
German  physician,  and  one  of  the  first 
authorities  of  his  time  on  botany  and 
chemistry.  In  1709  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Leyden 
vmiversity,  where  his  lectiu'es  made  him 
famous ;  and  in  1714  he  was  made  rector  of 
the  university,  and  soon  afterwards  professor 
of  chemistry.  He  was  a  great  linguist  and 
mathematician,  and  the  author  of  numerous 
works,  including  Institutiones  Jledica.  In 
1729  he  retired. 

BoetMus,  Anicius  ManHus  Torquatus 
Severinus  (6.  a.d.  455,  d.  524),  Latin  writer 
and  philosopher,  in  487  was  Consul  of 
Rome  under  the  rule  of  Odoacer,  King  of 
the  Heruli ;  and  he  held  the  same  office  in 
510  and  522  under  Theodoric,  King  of  the 
Goths.  His  public  labours  went  side  by 
side  with  his  work  in  literature,  and  he 
translated  several  of  the  Greek  philosophers, 
besides  writing  treatises  of  his  own.  At  last 
he  lost  the  favoirr  of  Theodoric,  and  was 
imprisoned;  during  which  time  he  wrote 
his  De  Consolatione  Fhilosopha. 

Boettcher,  Adolf  (6.  1815,  d.  1870), 
Gei-man  poet  of  considerable  repute,  trans- 
lated the  works  of  English  poets,  among 
others  of  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Pope,  and 
Goldsmith. 

Boettcher,  Johann  Friedrich  (6.  1681,  d. 
1719),  German  cheimist,  whose  labours,  led 
to  the  f oimding  of  the  famous  Dresden  ehina 
factory,  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
searching  for  the  philosopher's  stone;  but 
the  Elector  Frederick  Augustus  of  Dresden 


Bog 


(H7) 


Boi 


made  ^ifn  apply  his  knowledge  of  chemistry 
to  the  conversion  of  the  Meissen  clay  into 
porcelain. 

Bogardus,  James  (b.  1800,  d.  1875), 
American  inventor  of  great  fecundity,  who 
worked  lor  some  time  as  a  watchmaker  and 
engraver  in  New  York.  Among  his  inven- 
tions were  the  king-flyer  for  cotton  spin- 
ning (1828)  ;  the  eccentric  mill  (1829)  ;  the 
dry  gas-meter  (1832)  ;  a  dynamo-meter, 
and  a  pyrometer  (1848).  In  1847  he  built 
the  first  structure  of  cast  iron  in  the  United 
States. 

Bogdanovitch,  Hyppolytus  Feodorovitch 
(b.  1743,  d.  1803),  Russian  lyrical  poet,  after 
going  to  Dresden  as  secretary  to  the  em- 
bassy, he  published  his  Lushexka,  which 
attracted  much  attention.  He  wrote 
dramatic  pieces  as  well  as  poetry. 

Boha  Ed-Din,  Abul-Hassan  Yusef  (6. 
1145,  d.  1232),  Arabian  historian  and  jurist, 
the  Sultan  Saladin  made  him  Cadi  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  he  wrote  the  life  of  his  patron, 
as  well  as  a  history  of  the  Cnisades.  He 
founded  a  college  at  Aleppo. 

Bohemond,  Mark  [d.  1111),  a  famous 
Crusader  of  Norman  descent,  and  son  of 
Eobert  Guiscard,  Duke  of  Apulia.  After 
serving  \mder  his  father  in  lUyria  and 
Greece,  he  was  ousted  from  his  inheritance 
by  his  brother.  Joining  the  Crusaders  with 
Tancred,  he  captured  Antioch,  after  a  siege 
of  seven  months.  He  established  himself  in 
the  town  as  prince,  and  his  descendants  re- 
tained the  position  for  ninety  years. 

Boieldieu,  Francois  Adrien  (6.  1775,  d. 
1834),  French  musical  composer,  bom  a,t 
Rouen,  where  some  of  his  earlier  composi- 
tions were  produced,  went  to  Paris  about 
1796,  and  produced  his  opera  Le  Dot  de  Su- 
zette,  which  was  a  great  success.  In  1800  he 
wrote  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  which  gave  him 
a  European  reputation .  After  producing  Ma 
Tanfe  Aurore,  he  went  to  Russia,  and  was 
received  with  much  favour  by  the  Czar  ;  and 
returning  to  Paris  in  1811,  after  an  absence 
of  eight  years,  he  regained  his  prestige  in 
France  by  his  Jean  de  Paris.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  several  other  operas,  and  in  1825 
by  La  Jjame  Blanche,  his  greatest  effort, 
which  was  received  with  the  greatest  en- 
thusiasm. He  only  produced  one  more 
opera,  Les  JJeux  Xuifs,  a  failure.  In  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  lost  his  pension,  but 
recovered  it  later  by  the  efforts  of  M.  Thiers. 

Boigne,  Benoit,  Count  de  {b.  1741,  d. 
1830),  French  soldier  of  fortune,  entered 
the  French  army  in  1768,  and  at  the  end  of 
two  years  entered  the  service  of  Catherine 
TI.  of  Russia,  fighting  against  the  Turks. 
Then  he  went  to  India,  and  received  a 
commission  in  a  native  regiment,  and 
k2 


finally  took  service  with  the  Mahadajee 
Sindia.  In  this  position  he  raised  and  dis- 
ciplined to  a  high  state  of  efficiency  a  force 
of  30,000  men  with  200  pieces  of  artillery, 
and  at  the  same  time  administered  the  pro- 
vinces devoted  to  the  army's  maintenance. 
In  1796  he  retired  to  France  with  a  large 
fortune.  The  army  which  he  had  formed 
was  broken  up  in  1802  at  the  battle  of 
Assaye,  though  De  Boigne  had  always  ad- 
vised friendship  with  the  English. 

BoQeau-Despreaux,  Nicolas  (6.  1636,  d. 
1711),_  a  French  poet  of  high  rank,  after 
studying  law  and  theology,  gave  his  mind  to 
hterature,  and  in  1660  produced  a  satirical 
poem  which  at  once  attracted  notice.  This 
was  followed  by  other  satires,  by  his  Twelve 
Epistles,  and  in  1674  by  his  Art  of  I'oetry 
and  Lntrin.  These  works  secured" him  the 
society  of  the  best  literary  people  of  the 
daj%  and  earned  a  pension  from  the  Crown. 
He  was  appointed  joint  historiographer 
with  Racine. 

BoUeau,  GOles  (6.  1631,  d.  1669),  brother 
of  the  preceding,  and  a  poet  of  considerable 
merit.  The  two  brothers  were  very  jealous 
of  each  other,  and  inspired  many  of  each 
other's  satiric  verses. 

Boisrobert,  Francois  le  Metel  de  (6.  1592, 
d.  1662),  French  litterateur  and  wit, 
going  to  Rome,  won  the  favour  of  Pope 
Urban  VIII.,  who  gave  him  clerical  pre- 
ferment ;  and  he  was  a  familiar  associate 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  wrote  dramas, 
poems,  and  stories,  and  is  believed  to  have 
been  instrumental  in  foimding  the  French 
Academy. 

Boissonade,  Jean  Francois  (6.  1774), 
French  writer,  scholar,  and  Hellenist,  was 
professor  of  Greek  at  the  Academy  of  Paris 
and  College  of  France,  and  refused  many 
lucrative  posts  for  the  sake  of  pursuing  h& 
learned  researches.  He  left  some  valuable 
contributions  to  philological  science. 

Boissy,  D'Anglas  (&.  1756,  d.  1826), 
French  statesman,  was  an  actor  in  the 
earlier  scenes  of  the  great  revolution, 
sitting  in  the  States  General  and  the  Con- 
vention, of  which  he  later  became  secretaiy. 
He  was  instrumental  in  the  overthrow  of 
Robespierre,  and  behaved  with  great 
courage  when  the  mob  attacked  the 
chamber.  Later  he  was  suspected  of 
RoyaUst  sympathies,  and  had  to  fly  to 
England,  but  in  1802  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Tribunate.  He  was  ennobled 
by  Louis  XVIII. :  gave  his  adhesion  to 
Napoleon  during  the  Himdred  Days ;  and 
aclmowledged  Louis  on  his  restoration. 

Boiasy,  Louis  de  (6.  1694,  d.  1758), 
French  poet  and  dramatist,  commanded 
considerable  contemporary  popnlarity,  but 


Boi 


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Bom 


is  now  little  read.    His  principal  produc- 
tion was  V Homme  du  Jour. 

Boiste,  Pierre  Claude  Victor  (6.  1765,  d. 
1824),  French  man  of  letters,  who  is 
remembered  as  the  author  of  La  Diction- 
natrf  L'niverselle  de  la  Langiie  FrariQaise. 

Bojer,  Wenceslas  (6.  1800,  d.  1856),  dis- 
tinguished Austrian  naturalist  and  botanist, 
visited  Mauritius,  Madagascar,  and  Africa, 
sending  home  valuable  collections  of  botani- 
cal and  biological  specimens. 

Bojardo,  Matteo  Maria,  Count  of  Scan- 
diano  (6.  1434,  d.  1494),  Italian  scholar 
and  poet,  is  remembered  as  the  author  of 
Orlando  Innamorato,  a  poetical  romance, 
which  was  almost  the  first  really  literary- 
work  of  its  kind.  He  was  a  finished  Greek 
and  Latin  scholar,  and  wrote  verse  in  Latin, 
besides  translating  the  History  of  Herodotus. 
He  held  public  posts  under  the  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  and  was  Governor  of  Reggio  at 
his  death. 

Boker,  George  Henry  (6,  1824),  American 
poet ;  his  first  published  poem  was  The 
Lesson  of  Life  (1847),  and  this  was  followed 
by  two  tragedies,  which  were  produced 
on  the  stage.  For  ten  years  he  was 
secretary  of  the  Union  League,  Phila- 
delphia, and  his  Poems  of  the  War  proved 
very  popular.  In  1S69  he  went  as  U.  S. 
Minister  to  Constantinople.  He  published 
in  1882  an  elegy,  The  Book  of  the  Lead. 

Bokliari,  Abu-Abdallah  Mohammed  (6. 
810,  d.  S70),  Arabian  doctor  of  Moslem  law, 
wrote  several  works,  and  si)ent  sixteen  years 
in  the  composition  of  his  Al-djanii  Alsahy, 
which  is  regarded  with  gi-eat  reverence. 

Boleyn,  Anne  (b.  1507,  d.  1536),  Queen  of 
England,  and  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Boleyn 
of  Kent,  accompanied  Mary  Tudor  to 
France,  but  returned  to  England  after  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  and  was  appointed  by 
Henry  VIII.  a  maid  of  honour  to  Queen 
Catherine.  The  king  having  fallen  in  love 
with  her,  prevented  her  marriage  with  Lord 
Percy,  and  in  1532  created  her  Marchioness 
of  Pembroke,  taking  her  with  him  on  his 
visit  to  Francis  I.  The  proceedings  for  the 
divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  having  been 
delayed,  Henry  married  Anne  Boleyn  pri- 
Tately  in  1533,  in  which  year  she  bore 
Queen  Elizabeth.  By  1536  the  king's 
passion  had  cooled,  and  Anne  Boleyn  was 
charged  with  criminal  misconduct.  Anne 
was  found  guilty  by  a  court  of  twenty- 
seven  peers,  and  beheaded  barely  three 
weeks  after  her  arraignment. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John,  Viscount 
(6  1678,  d.  1751),  philosopher  and  states- 
man, after  a  brilliant  career  at  Oxford, 
entered  Parliament  in  1701  as  a  Tory,  and 


soon  became  a  prominent  figure  in  the 
party.  In  1 704  he  was  appointed  secretary 
at  war,  and  in  1710  he  became  foreign 
secretary,  and  received  the  title  of  Vis- 
coimt  Bolingbroke.  He  was  a  stiong 
adherent  of  the  Stuart  dynasty,  and  when 
the  Hanoverian  line  was  established, 
Bolingbroke  was  dismissed  from  oilice. 
He  lied  to  France  ;  an  impeachment 
immediately  followed,  and  he  was  found 
guilty  of  high  treason.  He  then  became 
secretary  of  state  to  the  Pretender,  but  was 
dismissed  in  1715.  As  the  efforts  of  his 
friends  to  secure  his  pardon  from  George  I. 
were  imsuccessful,  he  Hved  quietly  at 
Orleans,  writing  and  gardening.  In  1720  he 
married  a  niece  of  Madame  de  Mainteuon, 
through  whom  he  did  at  last  procure  his 
pardon.  He  returned  to  England  in  1723, 
but  was  not  allowed  to  sit  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  for  which  he  attacked  Walpole  with 
great  fierceness.  In  1735  he  returned  to 
France,  and  remained  there  for  seven  years, 
writing  his  Letters  on  the  Study  and  Use  of 
History,  and  his  Idea  of  a  Patriot  King. 
His  Itejlections  upon  Lxile  was  written 
during  his  earlier  residence  in  France. 

Bolivar,  Simon  (h.  1783,  d.  1830),  the 
founder  and  first  president  of  the  KepubUc 
of  Columbia,  known  as  "  The  Liberator  of 
South  America. ' '  Born  in  Venezuela,  he  was 
educated  in  Madrid,  and  travelled  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  When  the 
revolt  against  the  Spanish  yoke  broke  out 
in  Venezuela,  he  joined  it,  but  had  to  fiy. 
In  1813  he  returned,  and  gathering  a  force 
together,  defeated  General  Monteverde 
at  Caracas.  The  tide  then  turned,  and 
Bolivar  fled  to  Jamaica,  but  he  shortly 
returned,  and  after  varying  fortune  in 
1819  won  the  battle  of  Bojaca,  resulting 
in  the  inauguration  of  the  Republic  of 
Venezuela  in  the  same  year,  to  which  was 
afterwards  united  New  Granada.  In  1822 
Bolivar  went  to  help  the  Peruviansin  their 
struggle  for  liberty,  and  was  given  the 
chief  command.  After  a  long  campaign  he 
won  the  great  battle  of  Ayacucho.  U]ipei 
Peru  was  constituted  a  separate  republic 
with  the  title  of  Bolivia.  As  President  of 
,  Columbia  he  had  to  endure  much  factious 
'hostility;  but  though  he  tendered  his 
resignation  more  than  once  it  was  never 
accepted,  the  supreme  power  being  con- 
firmed in  him  in  1828. 

Bologna,  Giovanni  da  (6.  1524,  d.  1608), 
Italian  sculptor,  spent  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  in  Florence,  in  which  most  of 
his  works  find  place.  The  Rape  of  the 
Sahines,  and  Mercury  are  his  best  known 
productions.  He  was  an  architect  also,  and 
designed  most  of  the  internal  decorations  of 
the  Florence  San  Marco. 

Bombelli,    Raffaelle,    mathematician    ol 


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Bologna,  who  lived  in  the  16th  century. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  algebra, -and  was  the 
first  to  attempt  the  extraction  of  the  cube- 
root,  and  the  solution  of  "  the  irreducible 
case  "  in  cubic  equations. 

Bon,  Louis  Audr^  (b.  1758,  d.  1799), 
French  soldier,  after  having  served  in 
America,  commanded  a  battalion  of  the 
national  volunteers  with  much  success ;  and 
in  1795  displayed  admirable  generalship  in 
Italy.  In  1798,  as  general  of  division,  he  went 
to  Egypt  with  Napoleon,  and  was  killed  in 
the  unsuccessful  assault  on  St.  Jean  d'Acre. 

Bonald,  Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,  Vicomte 
de  (6.  1754,  d.  1840),  French  writer  and 
theorist,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution 
he  went  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  wrote  his 
Theorie  du  Foiivoir  Folitique  et  Rellgieux. 
The  book  was  considered  so  reactionary  that 
the  Directory  proscribed  it.  In  1802  he 
published  his  Legislation  Primitif.  When 
Napoleon  was  proclaimed  Emperor  he  re- 
turned to  Paris  and  received  a  government 
appointment,  "and  as  a  deputy  under  the 
restored  Bourbons  he  was  so  pronouncedly 
Conservative  as  to  receive  a  title.  After  the 
1830  revolution  he  was  degraded,  and  retired 
from  pubUc  life. 

Bonald,  Louis  Jacques  Maurice  de  (h. 
1787,  d.  1870),  fom-th  son  of  the  preceding, 
Cardinal  Ai'chbishop  of  Lyons,  was  a  man 
of  great  eloquence  and  devotion  to  the 
Church,  and  his  preferment  was  rapid. 
Ordained  in  1811,  he  became  in  1817  Grand 
Vicar  and  Archdeacon  of  Chartres  ;  in  1823, 
Bishop  of  Puy;  in  1839,  Archbishop  of 
Lyons;  and  in  1841,  Cardinal.  He  was  a 
supporter  of  the  revolution  of  1848. 

Bonamy,  Charles  Auguste  (6,  1764,  d. 
1830),  French  general,  entered  the  army 
as  a  volunteer,  and  after  seeing  much 
service,  gained  considerable  distinction  as 
chief  of  the  staff  to  Kleber  in  1795.  A 
charge  of  treason,  though  disproved,  kept 
him  in  retirement  for  two  years,  when  he 
went  to  Italy,  becoming  general  of  brigade. 
He  narrowly  escaped  disgi-ace  in  1799,  and 
in  1800  he  was  retired  by  Napoleon.  He 
served,  however,  in  the  Russian  campaign, 
and  behaved  with  the  greatest  gallautry. 
He  was  promoted  and  decorated  under  the 
restored  monarchy,  and  served  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1815. 

Bonapartes,  The.  The  family  to  which 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  belonged  came 
from  Corsica.  The  father.  Carlo  Maria 
Bonaparte  [h.  1746,  fl.  1785),  was  a  lawyer 
and  an  adherent  of  Paoli,  the  insurgent. 
The  mother,  Letizia  Ramolini  (h.  1750,  d. 
1836),  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty ;  and 
with  the  titla,  "  Madame  Mere,"  Uped  in 
Paris  during  the  rule  of  Napoleon : — 

(1)  Joseph  (6.   1768,  d.   1844),  the  eldest 


son,  practised  as  an  advocate,  and  married 
a  merchant's  daughter  at  Marseilles.  He 
was  commissary-general  to  the  army  in 
Italy  under  Napoleon,  and  in  1797  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Pope.  An  able 
diplomatist,  he  negotiated  the  treaties  of 
peace  at  Lune'ville  (1801),  and  at  Amiens 
(1802).  When  his  brother  was  proclaimed 
Emperor,  he  was  placed  upon  the  throne  of 
Naples,  but  being  a  merely  nominal  ruler, 
his  good  judgment  and  better  instincts  had 
no  play.  In  1808  he  was  transferred  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  where  his  position  was  still 
more  unfortunate.  He  was  twice  compelled 
to  fly  from  Madrid,  and  iinally  abandoned  the 
throne  after  the  battle  of  Vittoria.  He  was 
lieutenant-general  of  the  empire  during  the 
1814  campaigns  and  the  Hundred  Days;  and 
after  Waterloo  he  hved  for  some  years  in  the 
United  States  as  the  Comte  de'SurvOUers. 
He  died  in  Florence,  and  left  his  highly 
interesting  Memoirs  and  Correspondewe. 

(2)  Napoleon,  the  second  son.  \8ee  Na- 
poleon I.J 

(3)  Lucien(6.  1775,  d.  1840),  in  1795 became 
commissary  to  the  army  of  the  North.  In 
1798  he  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  the 
Five  Hundred,  and  played  an  important 
part  in  the  revolution  which  destroyed  the 
Directory  and  made  Napoleon  First  Consul. 
After  becoming  minister  of  the  interior,  he 
went  as  ambassador  to  Madrid ;  but  his 
marriage  with  Mme.  Joubuthon  brought 
about  an  estrangement  between  him  and  the 
Emperor,  and  in  1804  he  retired  to  his 
estates  in  Italy,  as  Prince  of  Canino,  where 
he  cultivated  his  tastes  for  hterature  and  the 
iine  arts.  After  the  peace  of  Tilsit  he  was 
offered  the  crown  of  Italy,  but  he  refused 
it ;  and  in  1810  set  out  for  the  United  States, 
Captured  by  a  British  cruiser,  he  was  kept  a 
prisoner  in  England  till  1814.  After  Water- 
loo he  induced  Napoleon  to  abdicate  in  favour 
of  his  son  ;  and  he  himself  retired  to  Italy. 
He  wrote  an  epic,  Charlemagjw, 

(4)  Marie  Anne  Elisa  {b.  1777,  d.  1820), 
married  Felix  Pascal  Baciocchi,  and  was 
created  Princess  of  Piombino  and  Lucca, 
and  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany.  She  retired 
from  France  in  1815,  and  died  at  Trieste. 

(5)  Louis  (h.  1778,  d.  1846),  the  father  of 
Najioleon  III.  He  served  in  the  Italian  and 
Egyptian  campaigns;  and  in  1802  he  was 
compelled  to  marry  Hortense  Beauharnais, 
from  whom  he  was  afterwards  separated. 
Under  the  empire  he  was  created  a  prince 
and  constable  of  France,  and  after  occupy- 
ing Holland  he  was  proclaimed  king  of  the 
country.  He  became  extremely  popular 
with  the  people,  but  offended  the  Emperor, 
and  in  1810  he  abdicated,  the  country  being 
absorbed  in  France.  He  spent  most  of  his 
life  after  Napoleon's  banishment  in  Italy, 
and  wrote  several  books,  of  which  the  Uocu- 
tnents  Historiqties  is  the  most  important. 

(6)  Marie  Pauhne.     [&'«  Borghese.] 


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(7)  Caroliue  Marie  Anuouciade  (b.  1782,  rf. 
1839),  married  Marshal  Murat  iu  1800. 

(S)  Jerome  {b.  1784,  d.  1860).  He  was 
given  a  commaud  m  the  navy,  and  while  on 
the  American  station  married  a  Miss  Pater- 
sou,  a  marriage  which  he  was  forced  to  re- 
nounce by  the  Emperor.  In  1806  he  was 
made  king  of  Westphalia,  and  married  a 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Wurtemberg,  who 
became  the  mother  of  Prince  Napoleon.  In 
1812  he  proved  so  incapable  a  general  during 
the  Russian  campaign  that  he  was  removed 
from  commaud  ;  but  he  commanded  a  divi- 
sion at  Waterloo.  After  Napoleon's  abdica- 
tion he  lived  in  exile,  until  1847,  when 
Napoleon  III.  made  him  a  marshal  of 
France  and  President  of  the  Senate. 

Of  the  second  generation : — 

(1 )  Napoleon,  son  of  Louis.  [See  Napoleon 
III.l 

(2)  Napoleon,  Joseph  {b.  1822,  d.  1891), 
commonly  known  as  Prince  Napoleon,  and 
son  of  Je'rome  Bonaparte.  His  early  life  was 
spent  in  travel,  but  after  the  1848  revolution 
he  was  elected  to  the  Assembly.  In  1849  he 
held  for  a  year  the  post  of  ambassador  at 
Madrid ;  and  in  1854  he  commanded  a  divi- 
sion of  the  army  in  the  Crimea.  He  threw 
up  his  command  suddenly,  and  in  1858  be- 
came president  of  the  ministry  for  Algiers. 
In  1859  he  held  a  command  in  Italy,  and 
married  the  Princess  Clotilde,  a  daughter  of 
Victor  Emmanuel.  In  1861  he  created  a 
sensation  in  the  Senate  by  a  fine  oration  in 
support  of  democratic  principles,  provoking 
a  challenge  from  the  Due  d'Aumale.  His 
loudly-expressed  approval  of  the  Polish  re- 
volution brought  him  into  disgrace  with  the 
Emperor  more  than  once,  and  compelled  his 
resignation  of  the  presidency  of  the  Com- 
missioners for  the  Universal  Exhibition. 
After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  the 
death  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  he  was  re- 
cognised as  head  of  the  Napoleon  family. 
In  1883  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  pronuncia- 
mento,  and  in  1886  he  was  banished  from 
France,  and  died  in  exile. 

(3)  Charles  Lucien  Jules,  Prince  de  Canino 
(6.  1803,  d.  1857),  the  son  of  Lucien  Bona- 
parte, a  distinguished  naturalist,  in  1822 
married  his  cousin,  Zenaide,  the  daughter 
of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  and  soon  after  went 
to  America,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  science,  and  published  his 
valuable  American  Ornithology.  In  1828  he 
returned  to  Italy;  in  1833  he  pubUshed 
his  Italian  Fauna,  and  in  1847  he  succeeded 
to  the  title  of  prince.  He  was  for  a  short 
time  active  in  Italian  politics,  but  finally 
settled  at  Paris.  His  son,  Lucien  (6.  1828), 
la  a  cardinal. 

(4)  Louis  Lucien  {b.  1813,  d.  1891),  the 
second  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  He  passed 
his  youth  in  scientific  and  linguistic  study.  In 
1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly asdeputyfor  Corsica,  but  the  election  was 


annulled.  In  1852  he  was  made  a  senator, 
and  in  1860  grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour.  He  has  written  a  great  deal,  much 
of  his  work  being  translations. 

(3)  PieiTe  Napoleon,  Prince  {b.  1815,  d. 
1881),  third  son  of  Lucien.  After  getting 
into  disfavour  in  Italy  and  America,  he 
went  to  Paris  in  1848,  and  sat  in  the 
Assembly.  In  1849  he  served  in  Algeria, 
and  filially  settled  in  England. 

Of  the  third  generation  :— 

Prince  Louis,  better  known  as  the  Prince 
Imperial  {b.  1856,  d.  1879),  the  only  child  of 
Napoleon  III.  and  the  Empress  Eugenie. 
He  accompanied  his  father  at  the  opening 
of  the  Franco-German  war,  but  after  Sedan 
he  came  to  England.  He  entered  the 
Woolwich  Military  Academy,  and  in  1879 
went  with  the  expedition  to  Zululand.  He 
was  killed  in  this  war,  a  small  body  of 
soldiers  with  whom  he  had  gone  out  having 
been  surprised  by  the  Zulus.  A  monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Chislehurst. 

Bonati,  Theodoro  Massimo  (&.  1724,  d. 
1820),  Italian  physician,  mathematician,  and 
physicist,  filled  a  chair  at  Ferrara  university, 
executed  many  public  works  in  Italy,  and 
wrote  much  on  hydraulics  and  physics. 

Bonaventura,  Giovanni  de  Fidenza,  Saint 
(6.  1221,  d.  1274),  an  Italian  ecclesiastic. 
He  belonged  to  the  Franciscan  Order,  and 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Paris,  being 
known  for  his  erudition  as  "Doctor  Sera- 
phicus."  In  1256  he  was  made  general  of 
the  Franciscan  Order,  and  his  influence  in 
the  Church  was  so  great  that  in  1272  the 
cardinals  agreed  to  elect  to  the  Papal  Chair 
whomsoever  he  should  nominate. 

Bonchamp,  Artus  de  (6.  1759,  d.  1793),  the 
greatest  of  the  generals  of  the  Vendean 
army,  served  in  America,  and  then  re- 
tired from  the  army  ;  but  when  La  Vendee 
rose  against  the  republic  he,  as  a  territorial 
noble,  was  chosen  one  of  the  leaders.  He 
displayed  great  courage  and  military  ability 
in  this  position,  and  was  regarded  with  the 
greatest  confidence  and  affection  by  his 
troops.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
passage  of  the  Loire. 

Bond,  Edward  Augustus  (6.  1815),  prin- 
cipal librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  in 
1838  entered  the  Department  of  Manu- 
scripts iu  the  British  Museum;  in  1854  he 
was  appointed  assistant-keeper,  and  in  1866, 
keeper,  a  post  which  he  held  for  twelve 
years.  He  helped  to  found  the  Palaeogra- 
phical  Society,  and  edited  for  it  Facsimiles 
of  Ancient  Manuscripts.  He  also  edited 
Giles  Fletcher's  Russia  for  the  Hakluyt 
Society;  Speeches  in  the  Trial  of  Warren 
Hastings  for  the  Government ;  and  the 
Chronica  Monasterii  de  MelsA  for  the  Rolls 
Series.     In  1878  he  was  appointed  principal 


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librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  and  made 
his  tenure  of  office  memorable  by  the  Lastitu- 
tion  of  many  admirable  reforms. 

Bond,  William  Cranch  (6.  1789,  d.  1859), 
American  astronomer,  was  originally  a 
watchmaker,  but  gave  his  attention  to  as- 
tronomy after  seeing  the  eclipse  of  1806. 
He  discovered  the  comet  of  1811;  and  in 
1838  he  was  appointed  by  the  govermnent 
astronomer  to  (Japtaiii  Wilkes's  exj)edition 
to  the  South  Seas.  In  1840  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  Harvard  Observatory. 
He  has  recorded  important  observations  of 
Saturn ;  he  discovered  the  satellite  of  Nep- 
tune, and  was  the  first  to  apply  photo- 
graphy to  astronomical  observations. 

Bone,  Henry  (6.  1755,  d.  1834),  English 
painter  on  enamel.  First  a  china  painter  in 
Plymouth,  he  came  to  London  in  1778,  and 
supported  himself  by  enamel  painting  for 
jewellers.  In  1780  he  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  at  once  achieved  a  reputa- 
tion. He  was  made  an  Academician,  and 
painter  to  the  king. 

Bonlieur,  Rosa  (6.-1822),  FrencTi  animal 
paiater,  first  exhibitecl  in  the  Salon  in  1840, 
and  next  year  her  Sheep  and  Goatu  attracted 
much  attention.  In  1855  she  exhibited  lier 
Horse  Fair  in  England,  and  established  her 
reputation  in  this  country.  The  picture  is 
now  in  the  National  Gallery.  During  the 
siege  and  occupation  of  Paris  in  1871,  her 
house  was  respected  by  special  order  of  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Prussia. 

Boniface,  Saint  (6.  680,  d.  755),  an  Eng- 
lish monk,  known  as  the  "Apostle  of 
Germany,"  abandoned  certain  and  distin- 
guished preferment  to  go  in  716  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Germany.  Having  obtaiured 
authority  from  Pope  Gregory  11.,  he  lived 
among  the  barbarous  tribes  for  many  years, 
and  finally  met  a  martyr's  death  near 
TJtrecht. 

Boniface  VIII.,  Pope  (6.  1228,  d.  1303), 
succeeded  to  the  papal  chair  in  1294,  having 
induced  Celestine  v.  to  resign ;  and  he  at 
once  came  into  collision  with  Philip  tlie 
Fair,  Kin?  of  France,  on  the  question  of 
the  taxation  of  the  clergy.  It  was  deter- 
mined to  try  Boniface  at  a  council  at 
Lyons,  when  he  issued  his  famous  bull 
Utiam  Sanctum,  and  excommunicated  Philip. 
The  bull  was  publicly  burnt  in  Paris,  and  an 
emissary  was  sent  to  bring  Boniface  before 
the  council.  He  was  seized  and  treated 
with  great  indignity,  and  died  shortly  after. 

Bonner,  Edmund  (6.  1500,  d.  1569), 
Bishop  of  London,  was  first  noticed  by 
Wolsey,  and  Cromwell  afterwards  em- 
ployed him  on  missions,  preferring  him  to 
the  see  of  Hereford  in  1538,  and  to  that  of 
London  in  1540.  In  Edward  VI. 's  reign  he 
was  imprisoned  and  deprived  of  his  office ; 


but  he  was  restored  by  Mary,  to  whose  re- 
ligious persecution  he  readily  lent  himself. 
He  refused  to  take  Elizabeth's  oath  of 
supremacy,  and  was  again  degraded  and 
imprisoned,  dying  in  the  Marshalsea. 

Bonnet,  Charles  (6.  1720,  d.  1793),  Swiss 
naturalist,  whose  observations  aad  dis- 
coveries in  entomology  and  botany  were 
of  great  value,  and  who  left  works  which 
are  held  in  high  estimation.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 

Bonnivard,  Fran9ois  (6.  1496,  d.  1570),  a 
Frenchman  who  is  known  to  fame  for  his 
efforts  on  behalf  of  the  liberties  of  Geneva. 
He  headed  the  resistance  to  Charles  III., 
Duke  of  Savoy,  but  in  1519  was  betrayed 
and  imprisoned  for  two  years.  Then  he 
agaiu  resumed  his  leadership  till,  in  1530,  he 
again  was  taken  prisoner,  and  remained  in 
the  Castle  of  Chillon  for  six  years,  when  he 
was  liberated  by  the  Bernese,  to  be  stiitably 
honoured  by  the  citizens  of  Geneva. 

Bonnivet,  Guillaume  Gouffriere  de  (6. 
1488,  d.  1525),  French  general,  won  the 
favour  of  Francis  I.  at  the  siege  of  Genoa 
and  the  battle  of  Spurs,  and  was  employed 
on  embassies  to  England  and  Spain.  It 
was  during  the  retreat  of  his  forces  from 
Milan  that  Bayard  was  killed.  Bonnivet 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Pavia. 

Bonomi,  Joseph  (6.  1796,  d.  1878), 
distinguished  hierogljrphic  draughtsman, 
studied  art  at  the  Royal  Academy,  where 
he  showed  great  ability  in  drawing  and 
sculpture.  In  1824  he  went  to  Egypt  and 
Nubia  with  Hay,  Lane,  and  Wilkinson,  and 
rendered  great  services  by  his  reproduction 
of  the  hieroglyphs.  In  1833  he  went  with 
Arundell  to  Sinai  and  the  Holy  Land,  and 
in  1842  he  acted  as  draughtsman  to  the 
Prussian  expedition  to  Egypt.  In  1861  he 
was  appointed  curator  of  Sir  John  Soane's 
Museum  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields. 

Bonpland,  Ahni  (b.  1773,  d.  1858),  French 
botanist,  who  served  at  one  time  as  a 
naval  surgeon,  became  the  friend  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  in  Paris,  and 
accompanied  him  on  the  great  expedition 
to  America.  He  afterwards  produced  two 
valuable  botanical  works,  besides  colla- 
borating with  Humboldt.  In  1816  he  went 
to  Buenos  Ayres,  and  became  professor  of 
natural  historv  there.  In  1821,  in  at- 
tempting an  inland  expedition,  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  Director  of  Paraguay,  and 
did  not  recover  his  liberty  for  many  years. 
He  finally  settled  in  Santa  Anna. 

Boole,  George  (b.  1815,  d.  1864),  mathe- 
matician, earned  his  living  as  a  school- 
master while  following  up  his  mathematical 
stu^iSles,  and  in  1839  published  his  first 
paper,  on  Analytical  Formations,  in  the 
Cambridge   Mathematical    Journal.       Thia 


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and  the  others  that  followed  secured  him 
a  reputation ;  and  in  1844  he  received  the 
KoyaJ  Society's  gold  medal  for  a  paper  on 
A  General  Method  in  Analysis,  In  1847 
he  published  his  Mathematical  Analysis 
of  Logic,  and  in  1848  his  Calculus  of  Logic. 
In  1849  he  was  appointed  professor  at 
Queen's  College,  Cork;  aud  in  1859  he  re- 
ceived the  Kf'itli  Gold  Medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  London  Eoyal  Society.  He 
continued  to  pubUsh  valuable  memoirs  until 
his  sudden  death. 

Booth,  Barton  (6.  1681,  d.  1733),  Eng- 
lish tragedian  of  note,  who  deserted  the 
Church  to  foUow  his  inclination  for  the 
stage.  He  first  appeared  in  Dublin,  and 
confirmed  later  in  London  the  high  reiJuta- 
tion  he  there  achieved.  His  great  part  was 
Cato  in  Addison's  tragedy  of  that  name. 

Bootll,  Edwin  (6.  1833),  American  actor, 
and  the  son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth.  He 
first  made  a  name  in  1851  in  his  imperson- 
ation of  Richard  III.,  and  it  is  by  his  re- 
presentation of  Shakespeare's  great  charac- 
ters that  he  is  best  known.  In  1881  he 
was  in  England,  and  played  at  the  Lyceum 
with  Irving  iu  Othello,  the  parts  of  Othello 
and  lago  being  alternated  between  them. 
He  retired  from  the  stage  in  1891. 

Booth,  Sir  Felix  (6.  1775,  d.  1850),  an 
EngHsh  merchant,  who,  from  his  own  re- 
Bom'ces,  equipped  and  maintained  Sir  John 
Ross's  second  expedition  for  the  discovery 
of  the  North-West  Passage. 

Booth,  Join;  Wilkes  (&.  1839,  d.  1865), 
third  sou  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  was  the 
assassin  of  President  Lincoln.  He  was  an 
actor  by  profession  until  the  Civil  war  broke 
out,  when  he  sided  with  the  South.  He 
was  shot  by  his  piu'suers,  after  committing 
the  murder  of  the  president. 

Bootll,  Junius  Brutus  (6.  1796,  d.  1852), 
tragedian,  of  English  birth,  but  an  Ameri- 
can by  adoption,  appeared  with  great  suc- 
cess at  Coveut  Garden  in  1814  as  Richard 
III.,  and  created  a  great  sensation;  but  a 
theatrical  riot,  provoked  by  the  rival  ad- 
mirers of  himself  and  Edmund  Kean,  caused 
his  withdi-awal  from  the  stage  for  a  time. 
In  1821  he  went  to  America,  where  he  held 
the  first  place  as  tragedian.  He  revisited 
England  in  1825  and  1836. 

Booth,  AYilliam  (6.  1829),  "General"  and 
organiser  of  the  Salvation  Army,  was  boxn 
at  Nottingham,  and  became  a  minister  in 
the  Primitive  Methodist  Connexion.  In 
1861  he  withdrew  from  that  body,  and  in 
1865  started  in  the  East  End  of  London 
"The  Christian  Mission,"  which  in  1878 
developed  into  the  Salvation  Army,  now 
possessing  stations  all  over  Great  Britain, 
America,  India,  and  the  Continent.     Many 


of  the  chief  posts  in  the  army  are  occupied  by 
the  members  of  the  Booth  family,  of  whom 
Mr.  Bramwell  Boothis  the  chief.  Mrs.  Booth, 
to  whom  much  of  the  credit  for  the  success 
of  the  Salvation  Army  is  supposed  to  be  due, 
died  in  the  autimin  of  1890.  "General" 
Booth's  book,  In  Darkest  England  (1890), 
attracted  much  attention  and  provoked  a 
tierce  controversy. 

Bopp,  Franz  (6.  1791,  d.  1867),  philologist 
aud  Sanscrit  scholar,  was  born  at  Mainz, 
aud  educated  in  Gennauj'.  Having  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  Sanscrit, 
he  published  his  first  work,  On  the  System 
of  Coniiigaiion  in  Sanscrit,  compared  with 
that  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  Fersian,  and 
German  Languages,  which  is  regarded  as 
the  foundation  of  scientific  philology.  In 
1821  he  became  professor  of  Sanscrit  and 
comparative  grammar  at  Berlin.  He  pub- 
hshed  many  other  works,  his  greatest  being 
a  Comparative  Grammar  of  Sanscrit.  Zend, 
Greek,  Latin,  Lithuajiian,  Old  Sclav,  Gothic, 
and  German  (1833-1852). 

Bordone,  Paris  (b.  circa  1500,  d.  1570), 
Itahan  painter  of  eminence,  a  pupil  of 
Titian,  excelled  as  a  portrait  painter. 

Borghese,  Marie  Pauline  Bonaparte.  Prin- 
cess de  {b.  1780,  d.  1825),  second  sister  of 
Napoleon  I.  In  1801  she  married  General 
Leclerc,  with  whom  she  went  to  St.  Domin- 
go, and  displayed  great  devotion  during  his 
fatal  attack  of  yellow  fever.  In  1803  she 
married  Prince  Camillo  Borghese,  from 
whom  she  separated,  Uving  iu  Italy  with  the 
title  of  Duchess  of  Guastalla.  She  accom- 
panied Napoleon  to  Elba,  and  endeavoured 
to  go  with  him  to  St.  Helena. 

Borghesi,  Bartolomeo  {b.  1781.  d.  I860), 
Itahan  antiquary,  in  1818  published  his 
Xiiori  Fiammento  dei  Fasti  Capitolini,  an 
exhaustive  work  on  ancient  Rome,  which 
achieved  for  its  author  a  European  repu- 
tation. The  study  of  Roman  archeeology 
occupied  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  though 
his  participation  in  the  Italian  revolution 
of  1821  caused  him  to  retiie  to  San  Marino. 

Borgia,  Caesare  {b.  1476,  d.  1507),  Italian 
master  of  statecraft  of  great  but  evil  fame, 
was  the  fourth  son  of  Poiie  Alexander  VI., 
by  Rosa  Yanozza,  and  was  created  a  cardinal, 
though  he  divested  himself  of  the  office  in 
later  years  to  suit  his  purposes.  He  compassed 
the  death  of  his  brother  Giovanni,  who  was 
Duke  of  Candia,  in  order  to  gain  complete 
ascendency  in  the  papal  government :  and 
in  1498,  having  been  sent  as  nuncio  to 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  he  was  created  Duke 
of  Valentinois  and  married  the  daughter  of 
Jean  d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre.  After 
accompanying  Louis  XII. 's  Itahan  cam- 
paign, he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  kingdom 
in  Central  Italy,  and  by  force,  treachery, 


Bor 


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Sos 


and  murder  he  had  nearly  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining ascendency  throughout  the  Eoman 
States,  when  the  death  of  his  father  de- 
prived him  of  his  great  source  of  power. 
He  was  sent  in  1504  a  prisoner  to  Spain  by 
Pope  Julius  II.,  but  escaped,  and  joined  the 
King  of  Navarre's  army  against  Castile.  In 
this  campaign  he  was  tolled. 

Borgia,  Lucrezia  (6.  U80,  d.  1523),  sister  of 
the  preceding,  and  like  h'  m  the  possessor  of  an 
infamous  reputation,  iler  father  compelled 
her  twice  to  marriage  and  divorce  before  she 
became  the  wife  of  the  Duke  of  Bisceglia. 
After  her  third  husband  had  been  murdered 
by  Caesare  Borgia,  she  married  Alfonso  of 
Este,  and  passed  her  life  in  the  court  of 
Fen-ara,  cultivating  literature  and  art. 

Boris,  Godonov  {d.  1605),  a  Russian  noble, 
brother-in-law  to  the  Czar  Feodor  Ivano- 
vitch,  on  whose  death  he  contrived  to  usurp 
the  throne.  His  rigorous  rule  provoked  a 
rebellion,  and  Boris  poisoned  himself. 

Bom,  Bertrand  de  (6.  circa  1145,  d.  circa 
1209),  a  troubadour,  many  of  whose  songs 
still  exist.  Dante  gives  him  a  place  in  the 
Inferno. 

Bom,  Ignaz  von  {b.  1742,  d.  1791),  Aus- 
trian mineralogist.  In  1770  he  became 
director  of  the  mint  and  mining  depart- 
ment at  Prague  ;  and  in  1776  Maria  Theresa 
commissioned  him  with  the  arrangement  of 
the  Vienna  natiual  liistory  museum,  where 
he  laboured  till  his  death. 

Bome,  Ludwig  (b.  1786,  d.  1837),  Ger- 
man political  writer  and  critic,  of  Jewish 
descent,  and  bearing  the  name  Lot  Baruch. 
He  became  a  professed  convert  to  Christian- 
ity. In  1818  his  theatrical  criticisms  in 
the  Frankfort  press  attracted  much  notice  ; 
and  in  1830  he  went  to  Paris,  at  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution,  writing  his  famous 
Briefe  aus  Faris,  which  gave  him  the  posi- 
tion of  leader  in  the  German  party  of 
revolution.  He  continued  to  wi'ite  in  ad- 
vocacy of  his  political  aspirations,  his  most 
brilliant  work  being  the  Menzel  der  Fran- 
zosoifresser. 

Borromeo,  San  Carlo  {b.  1538,  d.  1584),  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  remembered  for  his  piety 
and  devotion,  cardinal  and  Archbishop  of 
Milan.  He  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
Trent,  and  helped  to  found  the  Vatican 
Academy.  His  efforts  for  the  reform  and 
better  instruction  of  the  priesthood  pro- 
voked an  attempt  on  his  life  by  the  Umiliati ; 
but  he  suppressed  the  order,  and  transferred 
their  wealth  to  the  hospitals,  to  which  he 
had  sacrificed  all  Ins  own  property.  During 
the  pestilence  he  devoted  himself  unflinch- 
ingly to  the  care  of  the  sufferers,  and  died 
shortly  after  from  over-exhaustion. 

Borrow,  George  Henry  {b.  1803,  d.  1881), 


student  of  Gipsy  hfe  and  language,  aban- 
doned the  law  for  literature,  and  among 
other  early  works  he  edited  the  Sewqnte 
Calendar.  In  1833  he  was  sent  by  the  Bible 
Society  to  St.  Petersbm-g,  and  later  to 
Spain,  wheie  he  spent  much  time  among 
the  Gipsy  tribes.  In  1840  he  published  The 
Zincalt,  dealing  with  the  Gipsy  language 
and  hf e  in  Spaia:  and  in  1843  he  published 
The  Bible  in  Spain,  which  proved  very 
popular.  In  1851  and  1857  appeared  his 
greatest  works,  Lavengro  and  The  Romany 
Mye,  and  in  1874  his  L'omano  Lavo  Lit.,  a 
vocabulary  of  the  EngUsh  Gipsy  language. 

Borsi3ri  de  Kanifeld,  Giovanni  Battista, 
(6. 1725,  d.  1785),  a  celebrated  Italian  phy- 
sician, who  founded  the  school  of  clinical 
medicine  at  Pavia  university.  He  left 
many  valuable  works  on  medical  subjects. 

Boru,  Brian  (6.  926,  d.  1014),  a  famous 
Irish  king.  On  succeeding  to  the  throne  of 
Munster  he  drove  the  Danes  from  Limerick 
by  a  series  of  brilliant  victories,  and  after 
another  long  struggle  succeeded  in  being 
proclaimed  king  of  Ireland.  His  govern- 
ment was  as  wise  as  his  arms  were 
victorious.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Clontarf ,  in  which  the  Danes  were  defeated. 

Bory  de  Saint-Vincent,  Jean  Baptists 
Georges  Marie  (6.  1780,  d.  1846),  French 
naturalist  and  soldier,  in  1800  accom- 
panied Baudin's  expedition  to  Aust;alasia 
as  naturalist,  and  published  on  his  letum 
Fssais  sur  les  lies  Fortunees  et  V-i/itique 
Atlantide,  and  his  Voyage  en  Afriqiie 
Then  he  entered  the  army,  and  saw  much 
active  service,  till  his  banishment  after 
Napoleon's  downfall.  He  edited  the  Nain 
Jaune  in  Brussels,  and  contributed  largely 
to  Les  Annales  Geiuralesdes  ticioices  Phy&i- 
ques.  In  1828  he  returned  to  France,  and 
commanded  a  scientific  expedition  to  the 
Morea :  in  1830  he  was  appointed  chief  of 
the  Historical  bureau,  and  major-generaJ 
of  engineers. 

Boscawen,  The  Hon.  Edward  (6.  1711,  d. 
1761),  British  admiral,  third  son  of  Lord 
Falmouth.  After  rendering  brilliant  service 
against  the  Spanish  and  Fiench,  he  was  given 
command  in  1748  of  the  forces  sent  to  India. 
In  1758  he  commanded  the  naval  force  that 
co-operated  with  General  Wolfe  in  America, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  defeated  a 
French  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Boscovitcli,  Eugiero  Giuseppe  (b.  1711, 
d.  17S7),  ItaUan  Jesuit,  and  a  disliuguished 
mathematician.  He  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Rome,  Pavia,  and  Milan, 
until  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  when 
he  went  to  Paris  and  was  appointed  director 
of  optics  to  the  navy.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  wrote  among 
other  works,  Theoria  PJiilosophice  X(itt<rali». 


Bos 


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Bou 


Bosquet,  Pierre  Francois  Joseph  (b.  1810, 
d,  ISul).  French  general,  in  1835  distin- 
guished himself  in  Algeria,  and  obtained 
very  rapid  promotion.  He  went  to  the 
Crimea  as  general  of  division,  and  for  the 
part  he  played  at  Inker-man  he  was  thanked 
by  Parliament,  and  made  a  G.C.B.  In  1856 
he  was  created  a  senator  and  marshal  of 
France.  He  died  from  the  effects  of  a 
wound  received  in  a  duel. 

Bossuet.  Jacques  Benigne  (b.  1627, 
d.  1701),  French  divine,  renowned  for  his 
eloquence  and  his  controversial  writings. 
After  entering  the  priesthood  at  an  early 
age,  he  became  attached  to  the  cathedral  at 
Metz,  and  gained  much  credit  by  an  able 
refutation  of  the  Protestant  catechism  of 
Paul  Ferri.  His  fame  as  a  pulpit  orator 
soon  procured  him  the  honour  of  preaching 
before  the  king  (Louis  XIV.),  and  in  1669 
he  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Condom.  He 
resigned  the  see  on  being  appointed  tutor  to 
the  Dauphin,  for  whose  benefit  he  wrote 
his  great  work,  Biscoiirs  sur  PHistoire  Uni- 
verselle.  In  1671  he  published  Expositions 
of  the  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church  on 
Matters  of  Controversy,  which  had  a 
Eui'opean  publicity.  In  1681,  the  Dauphin's 
education  having  been  completed,  Bossuet 
accepted  the  bishopric  of  Meux,  and  in  1683 
he  published  his  History  of  the  Variations 
of  the  Protestant  Churches.  At  this  time  he 
was  much  engaged  in  efforts  to  promote  the 
union  of  all  Christian  churches.  At  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Galilean  clergy  in 
1682  Bossuet  took  up  a  strong  attitude  ia 
favour  of  the  independence  of  the  Galilean 
Church,  and  against  papal  interference  in 
temporal  affairs ;  and  he  procured  the 
formal  adoption  of  these  views  by  the 
Assembly.  His  last  controversy  was  with 
Feuelon,  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  whom  he 
attacked  violently  for  defending  the 
Quietists  of  Port  Royal.  He  passedthe  rest 
of  his  life  in  his  diocese,  bearing  the  repu- 
tation of  the  greatest  orator  of  his  day. 

Bossut,  Charles  (5.  1730,  d.  1814),  French 
Jesuit,  and  a  famous  mathematician,  de- 
voted himself  especially  to  the  study  of 
hydrostatics  and  hydrodynamics,  and 
achieved  several  highly  valuable  results.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  hydrodynamics 
at  Paris,  but  lost  his  position  during  the 
revolution.  Under  the  Empire  he  became 
examiner  at  the  lEcole  Polytechnique.  His 
works  are  very  numerous. 

BosweU,  James  {b.  1740,  d.  1795),  the 
friend  and  biographer  of  Dr.  Johnson,  was 
the  son  of  a  judge  of  the  Scottish  Court  of 
Session,  styled  Lord  Auchinleck.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1766,  after  he 
had  spent  some  time  in  continental  travel, 
during  which  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Paoli,   the  Corsican  patriot.     In  1763  he 


published  his  Account  of  Corsica,  and 
Memoirs  of  Pascal  Paoli.  In  1773,  having 
previously  made  Dr.  Johnson's  acquaint- 
ance, he  was  admitted  to  the  Literary  Club, 
and  became  the  companion  of  the  great 
doctor,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  tour 
in  the  Hebrides.  Having  finally  settled  in 
London  with  his  wife,  he  was  called  to  the 
English  bar  in  1785,  and  attempted  imsuc- 
cessfully  to  enter  ParUament.  His  Life  of 
Samuel  Johnson  was  published  in  1791. 

Bosworth,  Joseph  (i.  1790,  d.  1876),  En- 
gUsh  clergyman  and  philologist.  From  1829 
to  1841  he  was  EngUsh  chaplain  in  Amster- 
dam and  Rotterdam,  where  he  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  an  authority  on  early  EngUsh 
and  the  Low  German  dialects.  In  1857  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Anglo-Saxon  at 
Oxford.  He  published  an  Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar  and  Dictionary. 

Bothwell,  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  (6. 
circa  1530,  d,  1577),  in  1567  murdered 
Darnley  and  carried  off  Queen  Mary  to 
Dunbar  Castle,  where  he  manied  her  on 
May  15th.  He  then  became  a  fugitive,  but 
was  captured  and  imprisoned  in  Draxholm 
Castle,  where  he  died. 

Botta,  Carlo  Giuseppe  Guglielmo  {b. 
1766,  d.  1837),  Italian  historian,  studied 
medicine,  and  was  imprisoned  in  1792  as  a 
revolutionary.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  government  of  Piedmont,  set  up  by 
Napoleon,  but  before  the  Emperor's  over- 
throw he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  litera- 
ture. He  wrote  T/ie  History  of  Italy 
between  1789  and  1814,  and  a  History  of 
the  American  War  of  Independence. 

Botta,  Paolo  Emilio  (b.  1802,  d.  1870), 
archasologist,  son  of  the  preceding.  When 
acting  as  French  Consul  at  Mosul,  in  As- 
syria, he  discovered  the  ruins  of  Nineveh. 

Bottesiai,  Giovanni  (b.  1823,  d.  1889), 
Italian  player  of  the  double-bass,  and  com- 
poser. 

Botticelli,  Alessandro  (b.  1447,  d.  1515), 
Italian  painter,  in  response  to  the  invitation 
of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  went  to  Rome  and  exe- 
cuted some  fine  paintings  for  the  chapel  of 
the  Vatican.  On  returning  to  Florence  he 
became  a  devoted  follower  of  Savonarola. 

Botzaris,_  Markos  (b.  1790,  d.  1823), 
Greek  patriot,  was  engaged  in  the  abortive 
insurrection  of  1806,  then  joined  the  French 
Albanian  corps,  retiring  to  the  Ionian 
Islands  in  1815.  In  1820  he  raised  a  force 
of  Suliotes,  and  carried  on  hostilities  with 
the  Turks  for  two  years,  when  he  was 
beleaguered  in  Missolonghi.  He  was  killed 
in  the  desperate  sortie  which  routed  the 
Turkish  besiegers. 

Bouchardon,  Edmonde  {b.  1698,  d.  1762), 
French    sculptor,  after  acquiring   a   high 


Bon 


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Bou 


reputation  in  Paris  and  Rome,  was  com- 
missioned to  execute  the  tomb  of  Clement 
XI.  in  1733,  and  in  1746  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  French  Academy. 

Boucher,  Franc^ois  (b.  1703,  d.  1770), 
French  painter  of  landscapes  and  figures. 

Bouchotte,  Jean  Baptiste  Noel  {b.  1754, 
d.  1840),  French  revolutionist,  was  minister 
of  war  in  1793,  in  succession  to  Beurnonville. 

Boucicault,  Dion  {b.  1822,  d.  1890), 
actor  and  playwi-ight.  His  first  work  for 
the  stage,  London  A.ssurance,  was  produced 
with  success  in  1841 ;  and  for  some  time 
after  that  he  devoted  himself  to  adaptations 
from  the  French,  such  as  Louis  XI.  and  The 
Cordcan  Brothers.  In  1855  he  went  to 
America,  and  in  1860  produced  his  Colleen 
Baton,  followed  by  Arrah-na-Pogue,  the 
Shaughraiin,  and  many  others. 

Bouflers,  Louis  Franqois,  Due  de  {b. 
1644,  d.  1711),  French  general  and  marshal 
of  France,  after  seeing  much  service  in 
Holland  and  the  Rhine  provinces,  defended 
Namur  in  1695  against  William  III.  with 
great  obstinacy.  In  1708  he  defended  Lille 
against  Prince  Eugene,  and  held  the  town 
in  spite  of  repeated  orders  to  surrender. 
For  this  service  he  was  created  Due.  He 
afterwards  served  in  Flanders  under  Villars. 

Bouflers,  Stanislas,  Marquis  de  {b.  1737, 
d.  1815),  French  nobleman  distinguished  in 
many  capacities.  As  prior  of  the  Knights 
of  Malta  he  was  known  as  "I'Abbe"  and 
"le  Chevalier";  and  when  the  revolution 
came,  he  played  a  prominent  part  as  member 
of  the  Tiers  Mat. 

BougalnviUe,  Louis  Antoine  de  {b.  1729, 
d.  1811),  French  navigator,  sailed  round 
the  world  in  1766,  and  later  assisted  the 
American  revolutionists. 

Boughton,  George  Henry  (5.  1833),  artist, 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  New 
York,  and  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy since  1879.  Among  his  paintings  are 
The  Return  of  the  Mayflower,  Evangeline, 
and  Milton  visited  by  Andrew  Marvell. 

Bouguer,  Pierre  {b.  1698,  d.  1758), 
French  mathematician,  distinguished  for  his 
scientific  work  in  connection  with  naviga- 
tion. In  1 736  he  was  sent  to  Peru  with  a 
scientific  expedition. 

Bouguereau,  Adolphe  Guillaume  (6. 1825), 
French  painter.  In  1855  his  Triomphe  du 
Martyre  was  bought  by  the  State,  and  pre- 
viously he  divided  the  honours  of  the  Grand 
Prix  du  Rome  with  Baudry.  Two  of  his 
later  pictures  which  are  well  known  are  The 
Youth  of  Bacchus  and  the  Adoration  of  the 
Mi'gi  and  the  Shepherds. 

BouMer,  Jean  {b.  1673,  d.  1746),  French 
man  of  letters  of  great  versatility  and  wide 


I  information,  was  president  of  the  Parlia- 
!  ment  of  Dijon,  and  was  elected  to  the 
'  Academy,  though  not  resident  in  Paris. 

Bouille,  Fran9ois  Claude  Amour,  Marquis 
de  (i.  1739,  d.  1800),  French  general, 
when  he  was  only  seventeen  years  old  his 
gallantry  won  the  battle  of  Gramberg.  He 
served  in  America  during  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  was  appointed  commander  of 
Metz  under  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He 
endeavoured  to  effect  the  flight  of  the  king, 
and  failing,  tried  to  induce  Catherine  of 
Russia  and  the  Swedes  to  invade  France. 

Bouillon,  Frederic  Maurice  de  la  Tour 
d'Auvergne  {b,  1605,  d.  1652),  elder  brother 
of  Turenne,  after  serving  in  Holland  under 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  joined  the  Comte  de 
Soissons  against  RicheHeu,  and  defeated  the 
French  at  La  Marfee.  Then  he  entered  the 
French  service,  and  commanded  in  Italy; 
and  after  the  death  of  Louis  XIII.  he  com- 
manded the  Pontifical  troops.  He  joined 
in  the  war  of  the  Fronde,  and  part  of  his 
property  was  confiscated. 

Boulanger,  George  Ernest  Jean  Marie 
(6.  1837,  d.  1891),  French  general  and  poU- 
tician,  was  made  colonel  diuing  the  siege 
of  Paris,  general  of  brigade  in  1880,  and 
minister  of  war  in  1886.  He  achieved  great 
popularity,  and  was  elected  in  1889  by  the 
Nord,  Somme,  Charente  Inferieure,  and  a 
division  of  Paris.  A  threat  of  prosecution 
drove  him  into  exile,  and  he  committed 
suicide  at  Brussels. 

Boulogne,  Etienne  Antoine  de  {b.  1747, 
d.  1825),  French  prelate,  was  three  times 
sentenced  to  deportation  during  the  Reign 
of  Terror ;  but  in  1808  he  was  ordained 
Bishop  of  Troyes.  Napoleon  imprisoned 
him  in  Vincennes  for  a  short  time ;  he  de- 
livered the  funeral  oration  over  Louis  XVI., 
and  in  1817  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Vienne  and  made  a  peer  of  France. 

Boulton,  Matthew  (*.  1728,  d.  1809),  the 
partner  of  James  Watt  in  the  Soho  Works, 
provided  the  money  for  Watt's  experiments 
with  the  steam  engine. 

Bourbaki,  Charles  Denis  Sauter  {b.  1816), 
French  general,  served  in  the  Crimea,  and 
was  aide-de-camp  to  the  Emperor  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war.  He 
shared  in  the  defence  of  INIetz,  and  was 
given  command  of  the  wing  for  the  relief 
of  Belfort,  his  failure  driving  him  to  attempt 
suicide.  As  commander  of  the  Lyons  dis- 
trict he  suppressed  the  Communist  rising 
of  1871. 

Bourbon,  Charles,  Due  de  (*.  1490,  d. 
1527),  commonly  known  as  "The  Con- 
stable," after  serving  in  Italy,  was  created 
Constable  of  France,  when  only  twenty-six 


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years  of  age,  by  Francis  I.  He  was  left  in 
cominaiid  of  a  small  force  in  the  Milanese 
after  Francis'  successful  campaign  against 
the  Emperor,  and  succeeded  iu  holding 
his  own.  Recalled  to  France  he  fell  into 
disfavour  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the  king, 
and  entered  into  negotiations  with  Charles  V. 
to  operate  against  the  French.  Refusing 
the  concessions  offered  by  Francis,  he  fled  to 
Italy,  and  defeated  the  French  at  Biagrano. 
An  invasion  of  France  did  not  succeed,  but 
he  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Pavia, 
when  Francis  was  taken  prisoner.  In  1527 
he  marched  an  army  of  13,000  Germans 
across  the  Alps  and  attacked  Rome,  but  was 
shot  j  ust  as  his  troops  had  gained  the  day. 

Bourbon,  Louis,  Due  de  {!>.  1279,  d.  1341), 
the  first  duke  of  the  family,  saved  the 
French  army  at  Courtray,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  English  wars. 

Bourdon,  Sebastian  {b.  1616,  d.  1671), 
French  painter;  his  reputation  was  estab- 
lished by  his  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter.,  in 
Notre  Dame,  which  he  produced  when 
only  twenty- seven  years  old.  Later  he  was 
appointed  first  painter  to  Queen  Christina 
of  Sweden. 

Bourgelat,  Claude  {b.  1712,  d.  1799), 
Frenchman  celebrated  as  the  founder  of 
veterinary  schools  in  France,  opened  his 
first  school  in  Lyons  in  1772. 

Bourgeois,  Sir  Francis  {b.  1756,  d.  1811), 
Englishman  of  Swiss  descent,  remembered 
for  his  bequest  of  paintings  and  money 
to  the  Dulwich  gallery.  A  painter  himself, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  court  of  the  King 
of  Poland. 

Bourget,  Paul  {b.  1852),  French  novelist, 
author  of  Un  Crime  d'Amour,  Mcnsonges, 
and  other  works. 

Bourgoyne,  Louis,  Duo  de  {b.  1682,  d. 
1712),  dauphin  of  France,  grandson  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  father  of  Louis  XV.,  was 
remarkable  for  his  goodness  and  gentleness, 
and  showed  himself  an  able  general. 

Bourmont,  Louis  Auguste  Victor  de, 
Comte  de  Ghaisnes  (b.  1773,  d.  1846), 
French  general  and  a  marshal  of  France, 
entered  the  army  at  fifteen,  and  served  in 
the  Vendee  and  elsewhere.  He  was  im- 
prisoned by  Napoleon,  but  afterwards  fought 
under  him  with  distinction  in  several  cam- 
paigns. He  was  appointed  general  of  divi- 
sion in  1815,  but  deserted  on  the  first  day. 
The  Bourbons  conferred  many  honours  on 
him,  and  he  successfully  commanded  the 
Algerian  expedition  of  1830.  He  was  dis- 
missed from  command  on  the  revolution, 
and  endeavoured  unsuccessfully  to  raise  the 
Vendee. 

Bourne,  Hugh  [b.  1772,  d.  1852),  English 
dissenting  minister,  who  in    1810    seceded 


from  the  Wesleyans,  and  founded  the 
Primitive  Methodast  Connexion.  In  1844 
he  went  to  America,  where  he  was  very 
successful  as  a  preacher. 

Bournon,  Jacques  Louis,  Comte  de  [h. 
1751,  (/.  1825),  French  mineralogist,  emi- 
grated to  England  during  the  revolu- 
tion, and  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
and  Geological  societies. 

Bournouf,  Eugene  {b.  1801,  d.  1852), 
distinguished  Orientalist  and  professor  of 
Sanscrit  at  the  College  of  France.  He  trans- 
lated much  Sanscrit  literature. 

Bourrienne,  Louis  AntoineFaralet  (6. 1769, 
d.  1834),  secretary  to  Napoleon,  whose 
memoirs  he  wrote. 

Bouvart,  Alexis  {b.  1767,  d.  1843),  French 
astronomer  and  mathematician  of  great  in- 
dustry, first  observed  the  perturbations  of 
the  planet  Uranus,  which  led  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  planet  Neptime  in  1846. 

Bouvet,  Joachim  (*.  1662,  d.  1732),  one  of 
the  earliest  French  missionaries  dispatched 
by  Louis  XIV.  to  China,  remained  in  that 
country  from  1687  to  1697,  and  then  brought 
with  iiini  forty-nine  volumes  of  Chinese 
literature.  He  retiu'ned  to  China  in  1699, 
and  remained  there  till  his  death. 

Bowdich,  Thomas  Edward  {b.  1790,  d. 
1824),  English  traveller,  after  joining  the 
African  Company  he  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  the  King  of  Ashantee.  His  record  of  the 
journey  attracted  much  attention.  In  1822 
he  returned  to  Africa,  and  died  in  Gambia 
of  fever. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel  {b.  1773,  d.  1838), 
American  mathematician,  entirely  self- 
taught,  spent  five  years  at  sea  as  a  young 
man,  and  published  his  Practical  Naviga- 
tor. Then  he  became  actuary  to  an  in- 
surance company  in  Boston,  and,  devoting 
his  leisure  to  scientific  pursuits,  produced 
several  valuable  works,  especially  an  un- 
completed translation  of  La  Place's  Me- 
canique  Celeate. 

Bowdler,  Thomas  {b.  1754.  d.  1825),  editor 
of  expurgated  editions  of  Shakespeare  and 
Gibbon. 

Bowen,  Sir  George  Ferguson  (b.  1821), 
colonial  governor,  in  1847  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  university  of  Corfu,  and 
in  1854  government  secretary  of  the  Ionian 
Islands.  In  1859  he  was  named  governor  of 
Queensland ;  in  1867,  governor  of  New 
Zealand  ;  in  1873,  governor  of  Victoria ;  and 
later  of  Mauritius  and  Hong-Kong. 

Bowerbanb,  James  Scott  {b.  1797,  d. 
1877),  naturalist  and  microscopist,  early 
devoted  himself  to  science,  and  was  among 
the  founders  of  the  Zoological,  Palaeonto- 
graphical,  Microscopic*al,  and  Ray  societies. 


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In  1841  he  turned  his  attention  to  Spongiad<e, 
forming  a  splendid  collection,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  publishing  in  1864  his 
Monograph  of  the  British  Spongiadx. 

Bowles,  WilHam  Lisle  [b.  1762,  f  1850), 
English  clergyman  and  poet,  in  1789 
published  Fourteen  Sonnets,  which  attracted 
much  attention,  and  which  was  followed  by- 
other  poetical  writiuajs  In  ISOo  he  became 
vicar  of  Bremhill,  Wilts.  He  provoked  a 
long  and  bitter  controversy  by  his  dicta  on 
poelry,  published  with  his  edition  of  Pope. 

Bowman,  Sir  WilUam  (i.  1816,  d.  1892), 
oculist,  in  1842  gained  the  Eoyal  Medal  m 
physiology,  and  from  1845  to  1856  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  and  morbid  anatomy  at 
King'sCollege.  In  1877he became  consultmg 
surgeon  of  the  Royal  Ophthalmic  Hospital. 
He  has  written  several  medical  works,  in- 
cluding Lectures  on  the  Farts  concerned  m 
the  Operations  of  the  Eye,  Observations  on 
the  Artificial  Pwpil,  and  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Todd,  The  Physiological  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  of  Man. 

Bowring,  Sir  John  {b.  1792,  d.  1872), 
linguist  and  an  active  participator  in  public 
affairs.  For  some  years  he  edited  the  Edin- 
burgh Review,  and  published  songs  and 
ballads  in  translation  of  many  European 
tongues,  besides  treatises  on  liemunerative 
Prtson  Labour  and  African  Slavery.  He 
was  member  of  Parliament  for  Clyde  from 
1835  to  1837,  and  for  Bolton  from  1841  to 
1849.  In  the  last  mentioned  year  he  was 
appointed  British  Consul  at  Canton,  and 
later  plenipotentiary  to  China,  and  governor 
of  Hong  Kong.  In  1855  he  negotiated  a 
commercial  treaty  with  the  King  of  Siam. 

Bowyer,  Sir  George  (b.  1811,  d.  1883), 
barrister  and  public  man,  wrote  The  Cardinal 
Archbishop  of  Westminster  and  the  New 
Hierarchy,  in"  defence  of  the  Pope's  distri- 
bution of  England  into  Catholic  sees.  He 
was  M.P.  for  Dundalk  from  1852  to  1868,  and 
for  county  Wezford  from  1874  to  1880. 

Boxall,  Sir  William  (b.  1800,  d.  1879), 
Eno-lish  painter,  and  director  of  the  National 
Gaflery  from  1865  to  1874.  He  was  elected 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1863. 

Boyce,  William  (6.  1710,  d.  1779),  English 
composer  of  church  music,  etc.,  popularly 
known  by  his  song  Hearts  of  Oak. 

Boydell,  John  (*.  1719,  d.  1804),  eminent 
English  engraver,  is  known  not  only  for 
his°own  engravings,  such  as  his  Views  in 
England  and  Wales,  but  for  the  series  of 
engravings,  which  he  issued  through  many 
years,  of  °the  best  pictures  done  by  the  best 
engravers. 

Boyer,  Alexia  (h.  1757,  d.  1833),  French 
surgeon,    picked    up    his    first    knowledge 


of  surgery  in  a  barber's  shop,  but  by 
attendance  at  the  schools  of  anatomy 
he  received  an  appointment  at  La  Char  it  e, 
and  later  became  second  surgeon  at  the 
Hotel  Dieu.  Napoleou  created  him  premier 
surgeon  and  baron  of  the  empire,  and  he 
was  consulting  surgeon  to  Louis  XVIII. 
and  his  two  succet'Sors. 

Boyer,  Jean  Pierre  {b.  1776,  d.  1850), 
president  of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  a 
mulatto  by  birth,  took  part  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  1793,  succeeded  Petion  as  president, 
and  in  1822  took  possession  of  St.  Domingo. 
His  tyranny  alienated  the  support  of  the 
people,  and  his  conduct  of  affairs  with 
France  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  Port- 
au-Prince  by  a  French  fleet.  Finally  he  was 
compelled  to  fly  the  island. 

Boyle,  Charles,  Lord  Orrery  and  Baron 
Boyle  (b.  1676,  d.  1753).  His  publication  of 
an  edition  of  The  Letters  of  Phalaris  pro- 
voked a  famous  controversy  with  Bentley, 
in  which  many  of  the  scliolars  of  the  day 
were  engaged.  He  served  under  the  Duke 
of  Ormonde  in  Flanders,  and  was  committed 
to  the  Tower  under  George  I.  for  a  Jacobite 
conspiracy. 

Boyle,  Richard  (A.  1566,  d.  1643),  Earl  of 
Cork,  an  Englishman  by  bii-th,  went  to  Uve 
in  Ireland  in  1588.  After  the  rebellion  he 
was  made  clerk  of  the  council  of  Munster ; 
and  years  of  active  service  to  the  Crown 
were  rewarded  by  a  peerage.  Later  he 
became  Lord  High  Treasurer  of  Ireland,  and 
during  the  1641  rebellion  displayed  the 
greatest  activity  in  its  suppression. 

Boyle,  Robert  {b.  1626,  d.  1691),  youngest 
son  of  the  preceding,  a  distinguished  man 
of  science,  was  an  early  member  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  besides  conducting 
chemical  and  physical  research,  studied 
Oriental  languages  in  order  to  be  better  able 
to  expound  the  Scriptures.  He  instituted 
the  "Boyle  Lectures"  on  Christian  evi- 
dences ;  and  promulgated  the  gaseous  law 
known  as  "Boyle's  law." 

Boyle,  Roger,  Lord  Broghill  (b.  1621,  d. 
1679),  son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Cork,  gained 
the  complete  confidence  of  Cromwell  by  his 
behaviour  against  the  Irish  rebels,  and  was 
made  a  privy  coimcillor  and  president  of  the 
council  in  Scotiand.  For  his  services  in 
Ireland,  Charles  II..  on  the  Restoration, 
made  him  Earl  of  Orrery,  lord  president  of 
Mimster,  and  a  lord  justice  of  Ireland. 

Braboume,  Edward  KnatchbuU-Huges- 
sen  Lord  {b.  1829),  politician,  sat  for  Sand- 
wich from  1857  to  1880,  when  Mr.  Gladstone 
raised  him  to  the  peerage.  As  a  commoner 
he  was  a  Liberal,  but  in  the  House  of  Lords 
he  has  generally  voted  with  the  Tories.  He 
is  the  author  of  several  highly  popular  fairy 
tales. 


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Brackenbiiry,  Henry  (*.  1837),  British 
general,  I'ouglit  in  the  Indian  Mutiny,  and 
in  1870  was  sent  to  the  Franco- German  war 
by  the  British  National  Society  for  Aid  to 
the  Sick  and  Wounded.  He  served  with 
Wolseley  in  Ashantee,  and  afterwards  in 
Natal;  and  commanded  a  division,  imder 
General  Earle,  in  the  Nile  Expedition  of 
1884-5.  He  has  written  A  Nan-ative  oj'  the 
Ashantee  War  and  The  Nile  Column. 

Braddock,  Edward  {b.  1695,  d.  1755), 
British  general,  served  in  the  Peninsula  and 
Germany,  and  in  17o4  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  forces  in  Virginia.  In  1755 
he  led  an  expedition  against  Fort  Du  Quesne, 
where  his  troops  fell  into  an  ambush  and 
were  routed,  and  himself  killed. 

Braddon,  Maiy  Elizabeth  (*.  1837), 
popular  novelist,  after  contributing  to  the 
provincial  press,  succeeded  in  getting  a 
comedy.  Loves  of  Arcadia,  accepted  at  the 
Strand  theatre.  In  1861  she  produced  a 
volunae  of  poems,  Garibaldi,  and  then  turn- 
ing to  fiction,  published  rapidly  Lady 
Lisle,  Lady  Audley^s  Secret,  Aurora  Floyd, 
and  Henry  Dunbar.  These  books  established 
her  as  one  of  the  most  popular  novelists  of 
the  day,  and  later  works,  which  she  has 
published  in  large  number,  have  not  dimin- 
ished her  reputation. 

Bradford,  John  {d.  1555),  English 
martyr,  was  converted  by  Latimer  to  the 
reformed  faith,  and  became  chaplaiu  to 
Edward  VI.  His  eloquent  advocacy  of  the 
Protestant  faith  brought  on  him  an  im- 
prisonment of  eighteen  months  under  Mary, 
and  death  at  the  stake  at  Smithfleld. 

Bradford,  William  {b.  1588,  d.  1657),  one 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  In  1621  he  suc- 
ceeded Carver  as  governor  of  New  Plymouth. 
He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Plymouth  Planta- 
tion. 

Bradlaugh,  Chaxles  (*.  1833,  d.  1891), 
politician,  after  working  in  several  humble 
capacities,  enlisted  in  the  army.  In  1853 
he  entered  a  solicitor's  office;  and  then  he 
achieved  a  great  influence  with  working 
men  as  a  Eadical,  and  an  antagonist  of 
the  Christian  religion.  His  lectures  in  the 
Hall  of  Science,  London,  on  social,  political, 
and  religious  questions,  were  very  popular  ; 
and  in  1860  he  started  the  National  Re- 
former, against  which  a  futile  government 
prosecution  was  instituted.  In  1870  he 
secured  a  judicial  decision  in  favour  of 
affirmation  in  courts  of  law,  but  the  ex- 
penses of  the  trial  made  him  bankrupt.  In 
1872  he  published  his  Lmpcachment  of  the 
House  of  Brunswick,  and  the  question  of 
perpetual  pensions  always  formed  one  of 
his  favourite  subjects.  In  1880  he  was  re- 
turned for  Northampton  to  Parliament,  but 
refusing    to    take    the    oath,    he    was   not 


allowed  to  take  his  seat  until  after  the 
general  election  of  1885,  although  he  was 
repeatedly  returned  by  the  constituency. 
Afterwai'ds  he  earned  a  high  reputation  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  though  a 
thorough  Eadical,  opposed  the  advocates 
of  socialism.  In  1889  he  visited  India,  his 
interest  in  Indian  affairs  having  always 
been  pronounced. 

Bradley,  James  {b.  1692,  d.  1762),  Eng- 
lish astronomer,  took  orders,  but  in  1721, 
being  appointed  Sylvian  professor  of  as- 
tronomy at  Oxford,  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  science.  He  discovered  the  aber- 
ration of  light  and  established  the  formula 
for  the  law  of  refraction,  and  in  1742  was 
appointed  astronomer-royal. 

Bradshaw,  John  {b.  1602,  d.  1659), 
EngUsh  lawyer  and  a  prominent  Parlia- 
mentarian during  the  Civil  war,  presided 
over  the  commission  which  tried  Charles  I., 
and  was  appointed  lord  president  of  the 
council. 

Brady,  Henry  Bovpman  {b.  1835),  Eng- 
lish zoologist,  who  for  many  years  was  a 
pharmaceutical  chemist  at  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne.  His  special  work  has  been  in  con- 
nection with  the  minute  forms  of  inverte- 
brate life,  and  he  has  written  A  Monograph 
of  Carboniferous  and  Permian  Forammifera, 
and  The  Foraminifera  of  the  Challenger 
Expedition. 

Bragg,  Braxton  {b.  1817,  d.  1876),  Ameri- 
can general,  served  in  the  Mexican  war.  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  was  given 
a  command  in  the  Confederate  army.  He 
achieved  a  series  of  victories  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi campaign,  but  was  at  last  defeated 
by  Grant. 

Brah6,  Tycho  (b.  1546,  d.  1601),  Swedish 
astronomer,  in  his  observatory  at  Huen  he 
made  the  observations  on  which  he  founded 
his  planetary  system.     He  died  at  Prague. 

Brahms,  Johannes  {b.  1833),  Gei-man 
musical  composer.  Schumann  early  ex- 
pressed the  highest  opinion  of  Brahms' 
genius,  but  for  many  years  he  was  not 
appreciated  in  Germany.  In  1861  he  went 
to  Vienna,  where  he  acquired  a  high  re- 
putation, and  held  several  important  musical 
posts.  In  1868  he  composed  the  Deutsches 
Requiem,  which,  after  the  Franco-German 
war,  was  performed  all  over  Gennany,  and 
since  then  his  compositions  have  been  very 
highly  valued. 

Bramah,  Joseph  (b.  1748,  d.  1814), 
English  locksmith  and  machinist,  the  son  of 
a  Yorkshire  farmer.  Coming  to  London, 
he  invented  his  famous  lock,  which  for 
sixty- seven  years  resisted  aU  attempts  to 
pick  it.     In  1795  he  invented  the  hydraulic 


Era 


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Bre 


press ;  1797,  liis  beer  pump ;  and  in  1806, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  governor  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  he  invented  a  machine 
for  printing  the  numbers  and  date-lines  on 
bank  notes. 

BramliaU,  John  {b.  1594,  d.  1663),  bishop 
of  the  EngHsh  Church.  In  1634  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Derry,  and  his  in- 
sistence on  the  rights  of  the  Church 
caused  him  to  be  summoned  before  the  Star 
Chamber  in  1G37.  Later  he  was  imprisoned 
in  Ireland  by  the  Parliament,  but  was  re- 
leased by  the  king.  After  the  restoration 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Armagh. 

Brand,  Sir  John  Henry  {b.  1823,  d.  1888), 
president  of  the  Orange  Free  State,  to 
which  position  he  was  elected  in  1863.  His 
tenure  of  oiiice  proved  beneficial  for  the 
repubUe.  During  the  Transvaal  war  Pre- 
sident Brand  preserved  the  strict  neutrality 
of  his  state,  and  acted  as  mediator  at  the  con- 
ference of  1881,  when  peace  was  concluded. 

Brande,  William  Thomas  (5.  1788,  d. 
1866),  chemist,  in  1813  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institution,  and  in 
1818  he  was  awarded  the  Copley  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society. 

Brantome,  Pierre  de  Bourdeilles,  Seigneur 
de  {b.  circa  1540,  d.  1614),  historian,  left 
valuable  Memoirs. 

Brasidas  (d.  422  B.C.),  Spartan  general, 
relieved  Megara  in  424.  and  defended  Am- 
phipoUs,  where  he  was  killed. 

Brassey,  Thomas  {b.  1805,  d.  1870),  rail- 
way engineer.  He  constructed  several  of 
the  important  railways  in  Great  Britain, 
the  French  Western  Railway,  and  others  in 
Spain. 

Brassey,  Thomas,  Baron  (b.  1836),  a  pro- 
minent politician.  For  many  years  he 
represented  Hastings  in  Parliament,  and 
has  occupied  positions  in  the  Admiralty 
in  Mr.  Gladstone's  governments.  He  was 
raised  to  the  House  of  Lords  in  1886. 

Bravo,  Nicolas  {b.  1790,  d.  circa  1854), 
Mexican  general,  was  prominent  during  the 
revolution,  and  was  at  the  head  of  the 
provisional  goveninient  which  succeeded  on 
Iturbide's  downfall;  in  1827  he  was  ban- 
ished by  Guerriero ;  and  in  1829  he  again 
headed  the  administration.  In  1833  he  was 
defeated  by  Vittoria,  and  retired  to  the 
United  States. 

Bravo-Murillo,  Don  Juan  (*.  1803,  d. 
1873),  Spanish  politician,  after  La  Granja's 
revolution  became  a  leader  of  the  Con- 
servative Opposition.  He  fled  to  France  in 
1840  during  Espartero's  dictatorship,  but 
returned  in  1847  and  became  bead  of  the 
government.  His  reactionary  policy  com- 
pelled his  resignation  in  1852. 


Bray,  Anna  Eliza  (i.  circa  1790,  d.  1883), 
noveUst  and  writer,  in  1826  published  her 
first  historical  novel,  De  Foix,  which  was 
followed  by  others  of  the  same  class. 
She  also  wrote  a  Life  of  Sandel,  and  some 
historical  sketches.  She  was  twice  married  ; 
in  1818  to  Thomas  Stothard,  and  in  1825  to 
the  Rev.  E.  A.  Bray. 

Brazil,  Emperors  of — 

(1)  Pedro  L,  de  Alcantara  {b.  1798,  d. 
1834),  eldest  son  of  John  VI.  of  Portugal, 
was  taken  to  Brazil  by  his  father  on  the 
French  invasion  of  Portugal  in  1807.  In 
1821  he  was  left  as  Regent,  and  in  1822  was 
proclaimed  emperor  of  an  independent 
Brazil.  His  reign  was  marked  with  revolu- 
tion and  discontent,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  abdicate  in  1831  ia  favour  of  his  son. 

(2)  Pedio  II.,  de  Alcantara  {b.  182.5), 
successor  of  the  preceding ;  in  1861  Brazil 
became  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  England, 
which  lasted  for  several  years ;  and  in  1865 
Brazil  joined  the  alUance  against  Paraguay. 
In  1872  the  emperor  secured  the  passage  of 
an  Act  providing  for  the  emancipation  of 
slaves,  which  disaffected  many  loyal  sup- 
porters, and  in  188.9  a  revolution  broke  out 
which  expelled  him  from  the  throne,  and 
set  up  a  republican  government. 

Breckenridge,  John  CabeU  {b.  1821,  d. 
1875),  American  politician,  in  1851  entered 
Congress,  and  m  1856  was  elected  vice-presi- 
dent under  Buchanan.  In  1860  he  was  a 
candidate  for  the  presidency  in  the  Southern 
interest,  but  was  defeated  by  Lincoln ;  and 
having  denounced  Lincoln's  address  as  a 
declaration  of  war,  he  was  expelled  from  the 
House  of  Representatives.  He  was  givpn  a 
command  in  the  Confederate  army. 

Bremer,  Frederika  {b.  1801,  d.  186-5), 
Swedish  novelist,  many  of  whose  works 
have  been  translated  into  English,  and 
widely  circulated  in  Great  Britain  and 
America.     Her  Sketches  of  Every  Day  Life 

and    The  H Family  first  brought  her 

into  notice ;  and  besides  her  numerous 
stories,  she  has  written  accounts  of  travel 
in  Europe  and  America. 

Brennus,  the  celebrated  chief  of  the  Gauls 
who  captured  Rome  about  B.C.  390,  and 
compelled  a  ransom  of  1,000  poimds  of  gold, 
throwing  his  sword  into  the  scale  with  the 
words  ''  \'cs  victis." 

Brentano,  Clemens  {b.  1778,  d.  1842), 
German  poet  of  the  romantic  school,  and  the 
brother  of  "Bettina"  (q.v.),  eloped  vnth 
the  wife  of  Professor  Mereau,  and  settling 
in  Heidelberg,  became  associated  with  Von 
Amim  in  a  remarkable  collection  of  German 
folk-songs  and  baUads.  He  continued  to 
produce  romances  and  poems  rapidly,  till 
he  was  seized  with  religious  mania  about 
1S12. 


Bre 


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Breteuil,  Louis  Auguste,  Baron  de  (6. 
1733,  d.  1807),  French  statesman,  was 
employed  by  Louis  XV.  on  many  important 
diplomatic  missions,  and  in  1783  Louis  XVI. 
appointed  him  governor  of  Paris  and 
minister  of  state.  After  the  1789  insur- 
rection he  succeeded  Neckar  as  head  of 
the  government,  but  he  withdrew  from 
France  after  the  fall  of  the  Bastille. 

Brett,  John  {b.  1830),  English  landscape 
and  sea-piece  painter  of  great  merit,  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy 
in  1S8'2.  His  BrUannia''s  Realm  (1880)  was 
bought  by  the  Chantry  Bequest. 

Brett,  Sir  Piercy  {b.  1710,  d.  1781),  Bri- 
tish admiral,  served  with  Anson  in  his 
voyage  to  the  South  Seas,  and  in  1745,  as 
commander  of  the  Lion,  fought  a  desperate 
action  of  nine  hours  with  a  French  liue-of- 
battle  ship  conveying  the  Pretender  to 
Scotland.     He  was  knighted  in  1753. 

Breughels,  The,  a  family  of  Dutch  pain- 
ters— 

(1)  Pieter  the  elder,  known  as  "  The 
DroU"  {b.  1510  or  1530,  d.  1569). 

(2)  Pieter  the  younger,  known  as  "  The 
Infernal"  (b.  1559,  d.  1637). 

(3)  Jan,  son  oit  Pieter  the  elder,  and 
known  as  "Velvet"  {b.  1669,  d.  1625). 

Brewer,  John  Sherren  (b.  1810,  d.  1879), 
English  clergyman  and  historian;  in  1858 
appeared  the  iirst  volunie  of  his  edition  of 
the  Momcmenla  Franciscana,  followed  by 
other  reprints  of  mediaeval  classics ;  from 
1862  till  his  death  he  was  engaged  on  his 
great  work,  the  Calendar  of  Letters  and 
Papers,  Foreign  and  Domestic,  of  the  Reign 
of  Henry  VLLL.,  which  is  of  the  greatest 
historical  value. 

Brewster,  Sir  David  {b.  1781,  d.  1868), 
physicist,  in  1808  became  the  editor  of  the 
Edinburgh  Fncgclopcedia,  and  attracted 
much  attention  by  his  investigations  into 
the  phenomena  of  light.  He  invented 
the  kaleidoscope,  invented  or  improved 
many  optical  instruments,  and  introduced 
polygonal  lenses  for  lighthouses.  In 
1819  he  was  presented  with  the  Eumford 
gold  and  silver  medals  by  the  Eoyal  Society 
for  his  discoveries  with  regard  to  the  polari- 
sation of  light,  and  in  1849  he  was  elected 
one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  Besides  numerous 
scientific  works,  he  wrote  a  Life  of  Newton, 
Martgrs  of  Science,  and  More  Jrorlds  than 
One,  books  which  possess  a  high  literary 
merit. 

Briconnet,  Guillaume  {d.  1514),  French 
statesman  and  ecclesiastic,  induced  Louis 
XI.  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Italy,  and 
was  appointed  by  that  monarch  Archbishop 
of  Eheims  and  prime  minister.     In  1491  he 


was  made  cardinal ;  was  excommunicated 
by  Julius  I.,  but  was  restored  by  Leo  X., 
who  made  him  archbishop  of  Narbonne. 

Bridgeman,  Sir  Orlando  (i.  1606,  d.  1674), 
English  judge,  rapidly  attained  distinction 
at  the  bar,  and  was  returned  to  the  Long 
Parliament  in  1640,  when  he  supported  the 
Royalist  party.  He  sided  with  the  king 
during  the  Civil  war,  and  after  the  Restora- 
tion was  made  Chief  IBaron  of  the  Exchequer 
and  a  baronet,  and  shortly  after.  Chief  .Tus- 
tice  of  Common  Pleas.  He  presided  at  the 
trial  of  the  regicides,  and  succeeded  Claren- 
don as  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Seals. 

Bridgewater,  Francis  Egerton,  Duke  of 
{b.  1736,  d.  1803),  youngest  son  of  the  first 
duke,  is  especially  remembered  for  hia 
enterprise  in  the  construction  of  canals, 
notably  the  Bridgewater  Canal,  in  com- 
pleting which  his  resources  were  greatly 
strained.  However,  he  died  the  possessor  of 
great  wealth. 

Bridgewater,  Rev.  Francis  Henry  Eger- 
ton, 8th  Earl  of  {b.  1758,  d.  1829),  son  of 
Lord  Egerton,  Bishop  of  Durham.  From 
him  originated  the  celebrated  Bridgewater 
Treatises.  He  left  £8,000  for  the  writing 
and  publishing  of  1,000  copies  of  a  work  on 
the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God. 

Bridport,  Alexander  Arthur  Hood,  Vis- 
count (b.  1728,  d.  1814),  British  admiral  and 
brother  of  Lord  Hood,  after  fighting  several 
gallant  actions,  and  serving  under  Keppel 
and  Howe,  was  knighted  in  1788,  and  took 
part  in  the  famous  action  of  the  1st  June, 
1794.  In  1795  he  defeated  the  French  fleet 
ofE  Lorient,  and  in  1796  was  created  a  peer 
of  Great  Britain. 

Brienne,  Gauthier  {d.  1356),  Duke  of 
Athens  and  Constable  of  France,  having 
lost  his  duchy,  went,  in  1336,  to  Florence 
as  administrator  for  the  King  of  Naples. 
In  1339  he  fought  with  Philip  de  Valoia 
against  the  English  ;  and  in  1341  defeated 
the  Pisans,  and  became  ruler  of  Florence. 
Having  been  expelled  from  the  city,  he  re- 
turned to  France,  and  was  killed  at 
Poictiers. 

Bright,  John  {b.  1811,  d.  1889),  orator  and 
statesman.  He  was  bom  near  Rochdale  of 
a  Quaker  family,  his  father  being  engaged 
in  the  cotton-spinning  trade.  When  sixteen 
years  old  John  Bright  entered  his  father's 
business,  and  began  to  take  an  interest  in 
public  affairs.  He  first  met  and  became 
!  associated  with  Cobden  in  connection  with 
the  national  education  question,  after  return- 
ing from  a  visit  to  Eastern  Europe ;  and  in 
1839  his  name  was  prominent  among  the 
committee  of  the  National  Anti-Corn  Law 
League,  which  sprang  up  at  that  time,  and 
his  devotion  to  the  cause  was  intensified  by 
the  giief  occasioned  by  the  death  of  his 


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Bri 


wife  in  1841,  after  a  married  life  of  only  two 
years.  In  1843  he  was  returned  by  Durham 
to  Parliament,  and  was  indefatigable  in  his 
efforts  for  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws. 
The  movement  set  on  foot  by  Lord  Shaftes- 
bury for  the  Umitation  of  factory  labour  to 
ten  hours  a  day  was  strongly  opposed  by 
Bright,  who  thereby  incurred  much  un- 
popularity. His  eloquence  was  next  turned 
to  Irish  and  Indian  questions ;  and  in  regard 
to  Ireland  he  advocated  reform  of  the  land 
laws  and  disestablishment  of  the  Irish 
Church.  In  1849  he  married  a  second  time. 
The  parliamentary  session  of  1855  was 
rendered  memorable  as  the  occasion  of  some 
of  Bright's  finest  orations,  delivered  in 
denunciation  of  the  Crimean  war.  Illness 
compelled  him  to  go  abroad  in  1857,  when 
Palmerston  was  defeated  on  the  Chinese 
question.  In  the  general  election  which 
followed  Bright  was  defeated  at  Manchester, 
for  which  constituency  he  had  sat  since 
1847.  In  1857  he  was  elected  for  Birming- 
ham, and  remained  that  borough's  member 
till  his  death.  After  helping  to  defeat  Lord 
Palmerston  in  1858,  he  supported  strongly 
Lord  Derby's  measure  for  the  abolition  of 
the  Kast  India  Company  ;  and  on  the  out- 
break of  the  American  Civil  war  he  again 
excited  great  unpopularity  by  his  uncom- 
promising advocacy  of  the  cause  of  the 
North.  After  Mr.  Gladstone's  defeat  in 
1865  on  the  Reform  Bill,  Bright  conducted 
a  campaign  in  favour  of  reform,  and  ob- 
tained from  Mr.  Disraeli's  government  a 
measure  embodying  many  of  his  principles. 
Again  he  turned  to  the  questions  of  Irish 
disestablishment  and  land  reform,  and  was 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  Mr. 
Gladstone's  government  which  passed  the 
1870  Land  Act  and  the  Irish  Church  Dis- 
establishment Act.  For  two  years  he  retired 
from  public  hfe,  but  joined  Mr.  Gladstone's 
Ministry  in  1873,  and  from  then  until  his 
return  to  oifi.ce  with  the  Liberals  in  1880 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  agitation  for 
the  disestablishment  of  the  English  Church. 
lu  1886  he  opposed  Mr.  Gladstone's  Home 
Rule  policy,  and  became  the  great  strength 
of  the  LTuionist  party,  his  influence  going  a 
very  long  way  towards  -vnnning  the  general 
election  of  1886. 

Bright.  Richard  (b.  1789,  d.  1858), 
English  doctor,  physician  of  Guy's  Hospital, 
was  the  first  to  describe  the  affection  of  the 
kidneys  known  as  "Bright's  Disease" — a 
disease  to  which  he  himself  succumbed. 

Brindley,  James  (*.  1716,  d.  1772), 
English  engineer,  after  serving  as  a  farm 
labourer,  became  a  wheelwright,  and  also 
attained  a  reputation  as  a  practical  engineer, 
inventing  an  engine  for  the  draiuiug  of  coal- 
mines. He  effected  many  improvements 
in  miU  machinery,  and  superintended  the 
coostructiou  of  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater'a 

L 


canals.  His  last  work  was  the  construction 
of  the  Grand  Trunk  Canal  connecting  the 
Mersey  and  the  Trent. 

Brinkley,  John  (b.  1763,  d.  1836), 
Enghsh  astronomer  and  Regiua  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in 
1814  discovered  the  parallax  of  the  fixed 
stars,  and  in  1826  he  was  ordained  bishop  of 
Cloyne. 

Brinvilliers,  Marie  Marguerite,  Marquise 
de  {b.  1630,  d.  1676),  French  criminal, 
poisoned  her  father,  brothers,  and  sister,  for 
which  crimes  she  was  tortured  and  executed. 

Brisbane,  Sir  Charles  (*.  1769,  d.  1829), 
British  admiral,  fought  in  many  of  the 
memorable  naval  engagements  with  the 
French  and  Dutch  at  the  close  of  the  last 
century,  and  in  1805  distinguished  himself 
by  a  brilliant  action  against  the  Spanish 
at  Havannah.  In  1807  he  sailed  into  the 
harbour  of  Curac^oa,  and  captured  the 
island.  In  1808  he  was  made  governor  of 
St.  Vincent. 

Brisbane,  Sir  Thomas  Macdougall  {b. 
1773,  d.  1860),  soldier  and  astronomer, 
served  with  the  army  in  Flanders,  the 
Peninsula,  the  West  Indies,  and  North 
America,  and  in  1821  was  appointed  governor 
of  New  South  Wales.  His  administration 
was  able  and  beneficial  in  a  high  degree. 
He  founded  a  large  observatory  in  Australia, 
and  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  for  his  work  in  cataloguing  7,385 
stars.  On  returning  to  Great  Britain  he 
devoted  himself  to  astronomy,  and  succeeded 
Sir  Walter  Scott  as  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh. 

Brisson,  Henri  (6.  1835),  French  states- 
man ;  in  1864  his  articles  in  the  Temps,  in 
opposition  to  the  second  empire,  gave  him 
considerable  reputation.  After  the  fall  of 
the  empire  he  became  deputy-mayor  of 
Paris,  but  soon  resigned  the  office.  In  1871 
he  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  in 
1879  became  its  president.  In  1885  he 
formed  an  administration  in  succession  to 
that  of  M.  Ferry,  and  was  succeeded  in  1886 
by  M.  de  Freyciuet. 

Brisson,  Mathurin  Jacques  {b.  1723,  d. 
1806),  French  physician  and  naturalist, 
was  professor  of  physics  at  the  College 
of  Navarre,  and  instructor  to  the  royal 
children.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works, 
and  was  emploj^ed  by  government  on  several 
occasions. 

Brissot-de-Warville,  Jean  Pierre  (b.  1754, 
d.  1793),  French  politician  and  political 
writer,  studied  law  in  the  same  office  as 
Robespierre,  and  gained  some  reputation 
by  his  Theory  of  Criminal  Laivs.  He  was 
committed  to  the  Bastille  for  some  time,  and 
afterwards  fled  to  England  and  America. 


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In  17S9  he  returned  to  France,  and  edited 
the  Putriote  FnDifiis,  and  he  entered  the 
National  Assembly  as  representative  for 
Psii-is.  Falling  under  the  suspicion  of  the 
extremists,  he  was  guillotined  in  1793. 

Bristow,  Henry  "William  (h.  1817),  dis- 
tinguished geologist,  in  1842  became  con- 
nected with  the  Geological  Survey  of 
England,  of  which  he  was  director  for  many 
years.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Royal  and 
Geological  Societies,  and  has  written,  among 
other  works.  Geology  of  the  Isle  of  IVight, 
A  Glossary  of  Mu'ieralogy  and  British  Sedi- 
mentary  and' Fo.ssiliferous  Strato,  the  last  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Etheridge. 

Brock,  Thomas  {b.  1847),  R.A.j  sculptor, 
finished  the  O' Conn  ell  monument  m  Dublin, 
begun  by  Foley,  and  has  executed  statues  of 
Richard  Baxter,  Robert  Raikes,  Sir  Rowland 
Hill,  and  the  bust  of  Longfellow  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  His  equestrian  group,  A 
Moment  of  Feril,  was  purchased  by  the 
Royal  Academy,  to  which  he  was  elected  an 
associate  in  1883. 

Brockhaus,  Friederich  Arnold  {h.  1772,  d. 
1823),  a  German  bookseller,  founder  of  the 
greatest  publishing  firm  in  Germany.  He 
settled  in  Leipzig,  where  the  business  was 
carried  on  by  his  sons  Heinrich  and 
Friederich. 

Brocktiaus,  Hermann  {b.  1806,  d.  1877), 
son  of  the  preceding,  a  distinguished  Orien- 
talist, was  professor  of  Indian  literatm-e 
at  Leipzig,  and  translated  several  of  the 
Sanscrit  classics. 

Brodhead,  John  Romeyn  (b.  1814,  d. 
1873),  American  historian,  in  1835  went 
to  the  Hague  as  charge  d'' affaires,  when  he 
was  commissioned  by  the  Government  to  col- 
lect materials  for  a  history  of  New  York.  In 
1845  the  first  volume  of  the  work  appeared  ; 
and  in  1846  Mr.  Brodhead  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  Legation  in  London. 

Brodie,  Sir  Benjamin  Collins  (i.  1783,  d. 
1862),  surgeon,  for  many  years  was  surgeon 
to  St.  George's  Hospital,  where  his  lectures 
were  highly  valued.  In  1819  he  became 
anatomical  professor  to  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons;  and  in  1823  became  surgeon- 
in-ordiuary  to  the  king.  Among  his 
numerous  works  were  Thysiohgical  Papers 
and  Physiological  Inquiries. 

Broglie,  AchilleLeonce  Victor  Charles,  Due 
de  {b.  1785,  d.  1870),  after  the  overthrow  of 
Napoleon  in  1815  joined  Guizot's  party  as 
a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  and  in 
1832  he  became  Louis  Philippe's  foreign 
secretary,  and  retained  the  post  for  two 
years.  In  1836  he  was  for  a  short  time 
prime  minister,  and  after  the  1848  revolution 
was  a  strong  opponent  of  Louis  Napoleon. 


Broglie,  Albert,  Due  de  (b.  1821),  son 
of  the  preceding,  after  writing  several 
brilliant  historical  and  theological  works, 
became  in  1S71  ambassador  to  London; 
but,  resigning  in  the  following  year,  he 
became  leader  of  the  royalist  party  in  the 
Chamber.  His  efforts  were  devoted  to 
restoring  the  monarchy  in  France,  and  in 
1873  he  succeeded  in  placing  Marshal 
McMahon  in  the  president's  chair  instead  of 
Thiers,  while  he  himself  became  president 
of  the  council  and  foreign  minister.  He 
then  set  to  work  to  displace  republican 
oificials  throughout  France,  and  carried  the 
prolongation  of  the  marshal's  presidency 
for  seven  years.  In  1876,  however,  his  plans 
were  upset  by  the  defection  of  the  Legiti- 
mists, and  he  had  to  resign.  In  1877  he 
again  became  head  of  an  administration,  but 
was  defeated  in  the  same  year,  and  was 
subjected  soon  after  to  a  vote  of  censure 
from  the  Chamber.  In  1885  he  was  rejected 
at  the  general  election. 

Broglie,  Victor  Maurice,  Comte  de  {b. 
1639,  d.  1727),  distinguished  marshal  of 
France,  who  served  in  most  of  the  cam- 
paigns of  his  day. 

Broglie,  FranQois  Marie,  Due  de  {b.  1671, 
d.  1745),  son  of  the  preceding,  entered  the 
army  at  a  very  early  age,  and  from  1689  to 
1713  saw  constant  service  in  Germany, 
Flanders,  or  Italy.  In  1733  he  commanded 
in  Italy,  and  in  1741  commanded  the  army 
in  Bohemia,  where  he  was  shut  up  in 
Prague.  As  he  found  it  impossible  to 
defend  Bavaria,  he  withdrew  his  army,  for 
which  he  was  exiled  to  his  estates. 

Broglie,  Victor  Fran9ois,  Due  de  {b.  1718, 
d.  1804),  son  of  the  preceding,  served  in 
Italy  and  in  Germany  before  he  wa? 
twenty,  and  in  1 745  succeeded  to  the  title. 
Having  fought  throughout  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  in  1759  he  achieved  a  briUiant  victory 
against  Prince  Ferdinand,  for  which  he  was 
created  prince  of  the  empire.  As  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Germany  he  defeated 
the  Prussians  at  Corbach,  and  in  1761  again 
defeated  Prince  Ferdinand  at  Fillinghausen. 
In  1762  he  was  recalled  and  exiled,  but 
restored  in  1764.  In  1789  he  was  com- 
pelled to  fly  from  France,  and  joined  in 
1792  the  Duice  of  Brunswick's  invasion  of 
Champagne.     He  died  in  Germany. 

Broglie,  Charles  Francjois,  Comte  de  (J. 
1719,  rf.  1781),  brother  of  the  preceding,  for 
some  years  was  ambassador  at  Warsaw, 
and  then  served  under  his  brother  in 
Germany.  Later  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  secret  ministry ;  and  was  then  exiled 
for  a  time.  He  was  again  exiled  before  the 
death  of  Louis  XV. 

Broglie,  Claude  Victor,  Prince  de  (*.  1757, 
d.  1794;,  son  of  the  preceding,  joined  the 


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popular  movement ;  was  elected  to  the  States 
General,  and  was  for  a  time  president  of  the 
National  Assembly.  Appointed  commander 
of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  he  was  recalled  in 
liy'Z  for  refusing  to  acquiesce  in  the  king's 
deposition,  and  was  shortly  after  executed. 

Broke,  Sir  Philip  Dives  Vere  {b.  1776,  d. 
1841  J,  Eritish  admiral,  memorable  as  the  hero 
of  the  naval  duel  between  the  C/iesapcakc  and 
the  iihannon  duiing  the  war  with  America. 

Bronte,  Charlotte  (6.  1816,  d.  1855),  Eng- 
lish authoress,  the  eldest  of  the  three  Bronte 
sisters.  After  some  experience  as  a  gover- 
ness she  became  engaged  with  her  sisters  in 
the  writing  of  novels,  and  in  1846  published 
with  them  a  small  volume  of  poems  under  the 
names  of  Currer,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell.  In 
1847  sK©  published  the  well-known  story 
Jane  Eyre.  Its  success  was  instantaneous 
and  complete.  Although  adversely  and 
severely  criticised,  it  was  and  is  admitted 
to  be  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  English 
novels.  Her  second  story,  Shirley,  was 
published  in  1849,  and  her  third  and  last, 
Villette,  in  1853.  Another  stoiy.  The 
Professor,  which  had  been  refused  by  the 
publishers  before  Jane  Eyre  had  made  its 
authoress  famous,  was  published  after  her 
death.  In  June,  1854,  she  married  the  Eev. 
Mr.  Nicholls,  who  had  been  for  a  time  her 
father's  curate.  But  soon  after  her 
marriage  consumption,  which  had  carried 
off  her  sisters  and  brothers,  settled  on 
her,  and  she  died  in  her  fortieth  year. 

Bronte,  Emily  (b.  1818,  d.  1848).  At  the 
same  time  that  Charlotte  was  engaged  in 
writing  The  Professor,  and  the  younger 
sister  Agnes  Grey,  Emily  wrote  Wuthermg 
Heights,  which  was  accepted  and  pubhshed. 

Bronte,  Anne  {h.  1819,  d.  1849),  whose 
story  of  Agnes  Grey  was  succeeded  by  The 
Tenant  of  Wildfell  Hall;  but  neither  of 
these  stories  is  in  any  way  remarkable. 
She  died  in  less  than  six  months  after 
EmUy. 

Brooke,  Gustavus  Vaughan  (b.  1818,  d. 
1866),  tragedian,  when  only  fifteen  ap- 
peared in  Dubliu  as  William  Tell,  aud 
in  1848  made  a  great  success  in  London 
as  Othello.  In  1850  he  went  to  New 
York,  where  he  was  enthusiastically  re- 
ceived, and  in  1854  to  Australia.  In  1866 
he  set  out  on  a  second  visit  to  Australia  in 
the  London,  in  the  wreck  of  which  vessel  he 
perished. 

Brooke,  Henry  (b.  1706,  d.  1783),  an 
Irish  man  of  letters,  coming  to  London, 
married  in  his  twentieth  year  his  cousin, 
who  was  not  quite  fifteen.  He  did  not 
succeed  at  the  bar  ;  and  so  turned  to  litera- 
ture, producing  a  philosophical  poem,  Uni- 
'  versal  Beauty,  in  1735.  He  was  taken  up  by 
Z.2 


the  literary  celebrities  of  the  day,  and  his 
next  work,  Gustavus  Vnsa,  a  tragedy,  proved 
a  great  success,  having  been  interdicted 
from  representation  on  the  stage.  He 
retii-ed  to  Ireland,  and  continued  to  write 
prolifically.  His  best-known  work  is  The 
Fool  of  Qnality. 

Brooke,  Sir  James  {b.  1803,  d.  1868), 
known  as  the  Rajah  of  Sarawak,  at  the 
age  of  twenty-two  entered  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company,  and  took  part 
in  the  first  Burmese  war.  In  1838  he 
went  to  Borneo  in  the  yacht  Moyalist, 
and  aided  the  Sultan  to  reduce  theDyak 
tribes  of  Sarawak,  a  service  for  which  he 
was  made  Rajah  in  1841.  In  1847  he  was 
made  governor  of  Labuan,  purchased  by 
England  from  Borneo.  He  was  deprived  of 
his  governorship,  however,  on  a  cliarge  of 
umdue  severity,  though  acquitted  by  the 
royal  commission  at  Singapore. 

Brooke,  Rev.  Stopford  Augustus  (b. 
1832),  preacher,  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  took  his  M.A.  in 
1868.  He  held  the  ministry  of  St.  James's 
chapel  from  1866  to  1875,  and  after- 
wards that  of  Bedford  chapel,  Blooms- 
bury,  and  in  1872  he  was  ajjpointed  chap- 
lain-in-ordinary to  the  Queen.  In  1880  he 
seceded  from  the  Chui'ch  of  England.  He 
is  the  author  of  several  theological  works. 

Brooks,  Charles  William  Shirley  (h.  1815, 
d.  1874),  journalist,  was  appointed  editor  of 
Punch  in  1870,  and  he  wrote  Aspen  Court, 
The  Gordian  J\.not,  and  other  works. 

Brougham     and    Vaux,    Henry    Peter, 

Lord  {b.  1778,  d.  1868),  statesman  and 
lawyer,  was  educated  at  the  High  School 
and  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1800 
became  a  member  of  the  Scottish  bar, 
becoming  conspicuous  as  the  centre  of  the 
group  of  young  Whigs  then  in  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Edinburgh  Jieview,  the  first  number  of 
which  appeared  in  October,  1802,  and  for 
many  years  he  continued  to  be  one  of  its 
largest  contributors.  Later  he  was  called 
to  the  English  bar,  and  in  1809  was  re- 
turned to  Parliament  for  the  small  Cornish 
borough  of  Camelford.  He  became  at  once 
a  leading  orator  of  the  Whigs  and  the 
special  opponent  of  Canning  himself,  against 
whom  he  fought  a  famous  election  contest 
at  Liverpool.  The  greatest  achievement  in 
his  early  parliamentary  career  was  carrying 
through  the  bill  which,  by  making  the  slave 
trade  felony,  made  effectual  Fox's  Act  for 
its  abolition.  As  a  lawyer,  his  successfiil 
defence  of  Leigh  Hunt  for  republishing  an 
article  on  flogging  in  the  aiTny  brought  him 
into  the  first  rank  of  political  advocates.  He 
was  largely  influential  in  giving  prominence 
to  schemes  of  popular  education,  in  1823 
co-operated  with  Mr.  Birkbeck  in  foimding 


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mechanics'  institutes,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  prominent  amongst  those  who  es- 
tablished the  unsectarian  London  Uni- 
versity. From  1820  his  political  importance 
continued  to  increase.  He  made  poUtical 
capital  out  of  the  wrongs  of  Queen  Caroline, 
and  obtiiiued  great  popularity  out  of  his 
coaiduct  of  her  case.  He  advocated  every 
motion  for  parliamentary  reforms,  and  in 
1822  brought  forward  an  attack  on  the 
influence  of  the  Crovra.  His  famous  speech 
in  1828  on  the  defects  of  the  common  law 
courts  and  the  law  of  real  property  brought 
him  into  prominence  as  a  law  reformer ; 
atid  in  1830  the  fall  of  the  Wellington 
ministry  was  precipitated  by  liis  announce- 
ment that  he  would  introduce  a  Reform 
Bill.  In  Grey's  Whig  ministry  he  became 
Lord  Chancellor  and  a  peer.  This  was  the 
culminating  point  of  his  career.  As  Lord 
Chancellor,  his  overbearing  manners,  cou- 
pled with  his  ignorance  of  equity  law,  made 
him  extremely  unpopular,  and  in  the  cabinet 
his  inordinate  vanity  and  reckless  incon- 
sistency made  it  impossible  for  his  colleagues 
to  work  with  him.  The  Whig  ministry  was 
thrown  out  in  1834,  and  on  its  return  after 
Peel's  failure  no  place  was  found  for  the 
late  minister.  For  many  years,  however,  he 
found  useful  scope  for  his  energies  as  a  law 
reformer,  and  in  literature.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  History  of  the  House  of  Lancaster, 
and  Sketches  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of 
George  III. 

Broughton,  William  Robert  {b.  1763,  d. 
1822  ,  English  navigator,  took  part  in  Van- 
couver's expedition  of  1790,  and  in  1793 
undertook  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the  Pro- 
vidence. Having  passed  Japan,  he  was 
shipwrecked ;  but  having  refitted  in  Can- 
ton, set  out  again.  He  published  A  Voyage 
of  i)iscovery  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

Brouwer,  Adria  (6.  1608,  d.  1640),  Dutch 
painter  of  scenes  of  low  life. 

Brown,  Ford  Madox  {h.  1821),  painter, 
by  many  has  been  regarded  as  the  leading 
light  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  school,  though 
he  was  not  the  first  to  adopt  its  methods. 
Among  his  best- known  works  are  Chaucer 
Jtecitiiig  his'  Poetry  at  the  Court  of 
Edward  the  Third,  which  now  decorates 
the  gallery  at  Sydney,  and  Christ  Washing 
Peter'' s  Feet.  Later  in  life  he  spent  many 
years  Ln  Manchester,  decorating  the  Town 
Hall  of  that  city  with  a  series  of  brilliant 
designs  illustrative  of  its  history.  He 
married  the  sister  of  D.  G.  Rossetti. 

Brown,  John  (b.  1810,  d.  1882),  doctor  and 
author,  wrote  Rah  and  his  Friends,  Pet 
Marjorie,  and  other  works. 

Brown,  John  {b.  1800,  d.  1859),  American 
aboUtioniBt,  in  1S59  conceived  the  idea  of 


effecting  the  abolition  of  slavery  by  a 
general  negro  rising :  but  though  he 
seized  the  arsenal  of  Harper's  Ferry  (Oct. 
10th)  the  negroes  refused  to  stir,  and  he  was 
taken  and  hanged. 

Brown,  Robert  {b.  1773,  d.  1858),  Scottish 
surgeou  and  botanist,  was  appointed 
naturalist  to  the  Investigator  in  the 
Australian  expedition  of  1801.  In  1810  he 
published  the  results  of  the  voyage  in 
Prodromus  Florae  Novee  HoUandice.  As 
librarian  to  the  Linnaean  Society  he  wrote 
many  works  of  value,  and  ultimately  became 
president  of  the  society. 

Brown,  Robert  (*.  1549,  d.  1630),  a  Puri- 
tan, known  as  the  founder  of  the  Browuists, 
in  1561,  while  at  Cambridge,  was  cited 
before  Archbishop  Parker  for  heterodoxy, 
and  before  he  died  he  was  imprisoned  thirty- 
two  times.  In  1580  he  accepted  a  ministry 
at  Norwich,  and  later  went  to  Holland.  In 
1585  he  returned  to  England,  and  suffered 
excommunication. 

Brown,  Sir  Samuel  {b.  1776,  d.  1852), 
English  naval  officer,  is  remembered  for  his 
skill  as  a  mechanical  engineer,  and  made 
several  useful  inventions  in  bridges,  piers, 
and  chain  cables.  The  Brighton  Pier  and 
the  Tweed  Bridge  are  due  to  him. 

Brown,  Thomas  {b.  1778,  d.  1820),  a  cele- 
brated Scottish  metaphysician,  studying  in 
Edinburgh,  published  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
and  took  a  medical  degree  in  1803.  The 
first  work  which  attracted  much  attention 
was  his  Examination  of  Hume''s  Principles 
respecting  Causation.  In  1810  he  became 
joint  professor  of  moral  philosophy  with 
Dugald  Stewart,  and  his  lectures  were 
highly  valued.  He  wrote  several  volumes 
of  verse,  which  were  well  received. 

Browne,  Charles  Farrer.  \_See  Ward, 
Artemus.] 

Browne,  Edward  Harold  (5.  ISll), 
theologian,  educated  at  Eton,  and  Em- 
manuel, Cambridge,  became  a  fellow  and 
tutor  of  his  college,  and  in  1857  Norresian 
professor.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Ely  in 
1864,  and  when  Bishop  Wilberforce  died  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Winchester,  and 
appointed  prelate  to  the  Order  of  the  Garter. 
Dr.  Browne  has  published  a  large  number 
of  works,  chiefly  on  theological  subjects. 

Browne,  Hablot  Knight  {b.  1815,  d.  1882), 
distinguished  artist  and  caricaturist,  known 
to  fame  as  "  Phils."  Apprenticed  to  a  me* 
chanical  engraver,  he  first  attained  success 
by  his  illustrations  of  Pickwick  (1837),  and 
from  that  time  continued  with  increasing 
popularity.  He  illustrated,  besides  several 
of  Dickens'  works,  nearly  all  Lever's  novels, 
and  some  of  Fielding  and  Smollett.  In  1867 
he  wu  af&icted  with  a  serious  illness,  in 


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which  he  lost  much  of  his  capability  for 
further  work,  and  he  was  for  some  time  ia 
great  pecuniary  distress.  Having  failed  to 
obtain  a  government  pension,  he  received  an 
annuity  from  the  Koyal  Academy. 

Browne,  Sir  Samuel  James,  K.C.B., 
K.C.S.I.  {b.  1824),  first  saw  service  in  the 
Punjaub  campaign  of  1848-9,  and  went 
through  the  Indian  Mutmy,  being  twice 
severely  wounded,  and  losuig  au  arm  at  the 
battle  of  Seerporah.  He  was  mentioned  in 
despatches,  and  received  the  Victoria  Cross 
and  the  C.B.  He  held  a  command  in  the 
Afghan  war  of  1878-9,  and  opened  the 
campaign  by  the  capture  of  Ali  Musjid  in 
the  Khyber  Pass. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1605,  d.  1682), 
Enghsh  physician,  eminent  as  a  philosophical 
writer,  took  a  degree  at  Oxford,  and  after 
extensive  travel  on  the  Continent,  pro- 
duced, in  1635,  his  famous  Heligio  Medici, 
which  at  once  acquired  a  European  reputa- 
tion. He  settled  in  Norwich,  where  he  pro- 
duced many  other  works,  tlio  most  important 
being  Pseiulodoxia  Epidcmica.  In  1671  he 
was  knighted  by  Charles  II. 

Brown  -  Sequaxd,  Edward  (6.  1818), 
American  physician  and  physiologist,  was 
appointed  successively  professor  of  pathology 
at  Harvard,  professor  to  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine  at  Paris,  and  succeeded  Claude 
Bernard  in  the  chair  of  experimental 
medicine  at  the  College  of  France.  He  has 
published  two  important  series  of  lectures 
on  the  Paralysis  of  the  Lower  Extremities 
and  on  Functional  Agitations. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett  {b.  1806,  d. 
1861),  English  poetess ;  her  first  volimie  of 
verses  was  published  in  her  niaeteenth  year, 
and  in  her  twenty-fourth  appeared  Pro- 
metheus Unbound  (to  be  styled  afterwards  "A 
Sin  of  My  Youth  ") ,  and  Miscellaneous  Poems. 
Two  years  later  another  volume  appeared, 
which  included  IsobePs  Child,  The  Romance 
of  Margaret,  and  the  sonnet  Consolation. 
About  this  time  delicate  health  and  the 
loss,  by  drowning,  of  her  brother,  brought 
her  very  near  to  death,  and  it  was  some 
years  before  anything  more  appeared  from 
her  pen.  In  1845  she  met  the  poet  Brown- 
ing, and  the  tale  of  their  courtship  she  her- 
self has  told  in  Sonnets  from  the  Portugu£se 
(1850).  Browning  and  she  were  married  in 
1846,  and  with  him  she  settled  in  Florence. 
Here  a  son  was  bom  to  them,  and  here  in 
the  glow  of  a  new  and  happy  life,  and  with 
new  interests  encompassing  her,  she  wrote 
her  Casa  Guidi  (1851),  a  poem  that  might 
have  been  written  by  an  Italian  patriot,  and 
Aurora  Leigh  (1856).  Her  Poems  before 
Congress  appeared  in  1860,  but  these,  with 
the  exception  of  Last  I'oems,  which  were 
published  after  her  death  by  her  husband, 
were  her  last  works. 


Browning,  Robert  (*.  1812,  d.  1889), 
poet ;  his  first  poem,  Pauline,  was  pub- 
lished when  he  was  twenty-one,  but  it 
was  not  until  two  years  later  that  the 
dramatic  poem,  Paracelsus,  appeared — of 
4,000  lines,  and  in  five  parts.  Shortly  after- 
wards he  wrote  for  Macready  (who  produced 
it  at  Covent  Garden)  his  first  tragedy, 
Strajford,  and  published  it  in  the  same  year. 
His  next  poem,  Sordello,  was  then  "  nearly 
ready,"  but  it  was  not  produced  imtil  1840. 
From  1841  to  1846  Browning  brought 
out  his  Bells  and  Pomegranates,  in  eight 
parts.  These  contained  three  plays,  of 
which  Pippa  Passes  is,  perhaps,  the  best 
known;  four  tragedies,  including  A  Blot 
on  the  ''Scutcheon,  and  thirty  fresh 
dramatic  lyrics,  three  of  which,  The  I'ted 
Piper  of  Hamelin,  Plow  they  brought 
the  Good  ^ews  from  Ghent  to  Aix,  and 
the  Lost  Leader,  are  among  the  most 
popular  of  his  works.  After  marrying  the 
poetess,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  he  settled  in 
Florence,  and  remained  there  for  fifteen 
years,  until  his  wife's  death  in  1861.  Dui-ing 
this  time  he  produced  Paracelsus  and  Men 
and  Women.  In  1864  he  opened  the  third 
period  of  his  work  with  Dramatis  Personce, 
and  four  years  later  his  most  important 
work,  The  Ring  and  the  Book.  Siuce  then, 
from  time  to  time,  he  produced  fresh 
poems,  plays,  and  translations,  the  most 
notable  among  them  being  Fifine  at  the  Fair, 
the  Enghsh  version  of  the  Alcestis,  the 
Agamemnon  and  Jocoseria.  He  was  elected 
an  honorary  fellow  of  Balliol,  Oxford,  and 
the  degree  of  M.A.  was  coufeiTed  on  him 
by  that  university,  as  was  that  of  D.C.L. 
by  Cambridge.  He  died  after  a  short  illness 
in  Florence,  and  was  buried  in  Poets' 
Comer,  Westminster  Abbey. 

Bruce,  David  {b.  1323,  d.  1370),  king  of 
Scotland,  and  son  and  successor  of  Eobert 
Bruce.  The  invasion  of  Scotland  by  Edward 
III.  forced  him  to  fly  to  France  :  but  he  re- 
turned during  the  war  between  France  and 
England.  He  invaded  England,  but  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  He  was 
ransomed  for  £100,000. 

Bruce,  Edward  {d.  1318),  brother  of 
Robert  Bruce,  fought  with  great  bravery 
in  the  war  against  the  English,  and  in  1315, 
being  oflrered  the  crown  of  Ireland,  he  went 
to  that  country,  maintaining  his  position 
with  great  success.  He  was  killed  in  a 
battle  against  the  Enghsh. 

Bruce,  Sur  Frederick,  W.A.W.  (*.  1814,  d. 
1867),  younger  son  of  the  seventh  Lord 
Elgin,  entered  the  diplomatic  service,  and 
was  appointed  envoy  extraordiuary  to  the 
Emperor  of  China  in  1858.  Subsequently 
he  estabhshed  the  mission  in  Pekiu,  and  in 
1805  succeeded  Lord  Lyons  as  ambassador 
to  tiie  United  States. 


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Bruce,  James  (5.  1730,  d.  179-i), 
traveller,  iii  1763  went  out  as  British 
coiisul  to  Algiers,  and  in  1765  set  out  to 
search  for  the  source  of  the  Nile.  In 
1770  he  had  penetrated  to  Abyssinia,  and 
traced  the  Abawi  to  its  source,  that  being 
then  believed  to  be  the  main  source  of  the 
Nile.  He  returned  to  Loudon  in  1774:,  and 
in  1790  published  his  Travels. 

Bruce,  Robert  [b.  1274.  d.  1329),  Earl  of 
Carrick  and  King  of  Scotland  ;  his  grand- 
father was,  with  Baliol,  a  claimant  for  the 
Scottish  throne,  and  when  Edward  I.  decided 
in  favour  of  BaUol,  the  family  withdrew  to 
England.  Having  entered  into  a  conspi- 
racy for  the  overthrow  of  the  English 
suzerainty  in  Scotland  and  having  been 
beti-ayed,  Bruce  fled  to  Scotland  and  was 
crowned  in  1306.  He  was  defeated  by 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  hunted  up 
and  down  the  country,  but  in  1307  he 
succeeded  in  defeating  Pembroke,  when 
Edward  marched  against  him,  but  died 
on  the  way  to  Scotland.  Edward  II. 
left  the  prosecution  of  the  war  to  the 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  against  whom  Bruce 
struggled  for  three  years,  ultimatel}'  estab- 
lishing himself  as  King  of  Scotland.  In 
1314  Edward  II.  marched  against  him  in 
person,  but  was  totally  routed  at  Bannock- 
bum.  In  1328  a  peace  was  arranged,  which 
Bruce  only  survived  a  short  time. 

Brucker,  Johann  Jakob  (A.  1696,  d.  1770), 
German  Protestant  divine  and  philoso- 
pher; in  1723  produced  his  Historia  Phi- 
losophica  de  Ideis,  and  in  1741  his  Historia 
Critica  Philosophice,  both  works  being  of 
the  greatest  erudition  and  value. 

Brueys,  Francois  Paul,  Comte  de  (b.  17o3, 
d.  1798),  French  admiral,  commanded  the 
French  fleet  at  the  capture  of  Malta  in  1798, 
and  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  when  his  fleet 
was  destroyed  by  Nelson  and  he  himself  was 
kiUed. 

Brugsch,  Heinrich  Carl,  Pasha  {b.  1827), 
German  Egyptologist,  was  made  curator 
of  the  Egyptian  museimi  at  Berlin,  and 
became  professor  of  oriental  languages 
at  Gottiugen  university.  He  resided  many 
years  in  Egj-pt,  and  among  several  important 
works  on  that  country,  his  Hintori/  of 
Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs  is  one  of  the  best 
on  the  subject. 

Bruix,  Eustache  de  (b.  1759,  d.  1805), 
French  admiral,  served  in  the  American 
war  of  1793,  and  took  part  in  the 
expedition  against  Ireland.  He  escaped 
with  his  fleet  from  Brest  harbour  when  it 
was  blockaded  by  the  British,  and  relieved 
Massena,  who  was  besieged  in  Genoa.  He 
was  given  the  command  of  the  fleet  as- 
sembled at  Boulogne  for  the  invasion  of 
England. 


BnUlow,  Charles  Paulovitch  {b.  1800,  d. 
1852),  Russian  artist,  and  president  of  the 
St.  Petersburg  Academy. 

Brummell,  George  Bryan  (6. 1778,  d.  1840), 
"Beau,"  the  noted  dandy  and  friend  of 
George  IV. 

Brune,  Guillaume  Marie  Anne  {b.  1763,  d. 
1815),  French  general  and  a  marshal  of 
France,  joined  the  Republican  cause, 
and  in  1798  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  forces  in  Switzerland.  Subsequently 
he  was  transferred  to  Holland,  which  he 
compelled  the  Duke  of  York  to  evacuate. 
He  defeated  the  Austrians  in  Italy,  but 
soon  after  offended  the  emperor,  who  did 
not  again  employ  him  till  the  Hundred 
Days'  campaign,  when  he  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Var.  He  was 
murdered  by  a  Royalist  mob  at  Avignon. 

Brunei,  Sir  Marc  Isambard  [b.  1769,  d. 
1849),  engineer,  was  the  son  of  a  Norman 
farmer.  Leaving  France,  he  found  occupation 
as  an  ensjineer  in  the  United  States.  Com- 
ing to  England  in  1799,  he  induced  the 
Admiralty  to  accept  his  designs  for  making 
ships'  blocks  by  machinery.  Minor  inven- 
tions due  to  him  were  machines  for  winding 
cotton  and  nail-making.  But  his  greatest 
engineering  work  was  the  Thames  Tunnel, 
which,  bei^un  in  1824,  was  completed  in 
1843  with  the  assistance  of  his  son. 

Brunei,  Isambard  Kingdom,  F.R.S., 
D.C.L.  {b.  1806,  d.  1859),  engineer,  son  of 
the  above,  besides  greatly  assisting  his 
father,  was  the  constructor  of  the  Monk- 
wearmouth  Docks,  and  the  Clifton  Sus- 
pension Bridge  was  built  from  his  de- 
signs. He  was  the  engineer  of  the  Great 
Western  Railway,  and  the  "  broad  gauge  " 
was  due  to  his  efforts.  He  designed  the 
Grent  Britain,  the  first  large  iron  ship,  and 
the  first  large  ship  to  use  the  screw  propeller; 
his  last  great  work  was  the  ill-fated  Great 
Eastern. 

BnmeUeschi,  Filippo  {b.  1377,  d.  1446), 
Florentine  architect,  a  veiy  able  gold- 
smith and  sculptor,  was  outstripped  by 
Ghiberti  in  the  competition  for  the  gates 
of  the  Baptistery.  Then  he  turned  wholly 
to  architecture,  and  was  commissioned  to 
build  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore, 
a  work  that  was  all  but  completed  when  he 
died. 

Briume,  Robert  of,  a  monk,  who  lived  in 
the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  and  III.,  and  was 
author  of  the  Handlynge  Synne. 

Bruno,  Giordano  {b.  circa  1550,  d.  1600), 
Italian  philosopher,  spent  many  years  in 
France,  Germany,  and  England,  disputing  on 
philosophical  theories,  when  he  returned  to 
Italy.  He  was  seized  by  the  Inquisition, 
and  refusing  to  recant,  perished  at  the  stake. 


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Bnm-RoUet,  Antoino  {b.  1810,  d.  1858),  a 
Savoyard  traveller,  as  a  merchant  pene- 
trated far  into  the  Soudan,  and  ascended 
the  Nile  as  far  as  Abyssinia.  He  stayed 
some  time  at  Khartoum,  from  which  he  ; 
made  expeditions  into  the  neighbouring 
country.  In  1855  Le  published  Le  Xil  Blanc 
et  le  iSoudane.     He  died  in  Khai'toum. 

Brxmswick,  Dukes  of— 

(1)  Frederick  Wilham  of  Brunswick- 
Wolfenbiittel  {b.  1771,  d.  1815)  was  the 
fourth  son  of  Charles,  who  died  in  1806,  and 
commanded  the  allies  in  their  first  attack 
against  France.  He  served  imder  Bliicher 
in  the  Jena  campaign  Lu  1805,  and  took  a 
prominent  and  honourable  part  in  the  dis- 
astrous Wagram  campaign.  He  was  com- 
pelled finally  to  fly  to  England.  He 
returned  to  his  dominion  of  Brunswick  ou 
the  occasion  of  the  general  uprising  against 
Napoleon  in  1813,  and  commanding  the 
Brunswick  troops  at  Quatre  Bras  on  June 
16th,  1815,  he,  "  foremost  fighting,  fell." 

(2)  Charles  {b.  1801,  d.  1873),  the  eldest 
son  of  Frederick  William.  A  few  years 
after  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Bruns- 
wick, his  subjects,  weary  of  his  extrava- 
gances, rose  against  him  and  he  fled,  the 
next  year  to  be  deposed  by  the  German 
Diet. 

(3)  WiUiam  (b.  1806,  d.  1884),  the 
younger  son,  was  elected  to  the  throne  from 
which  Charles  had  been  deposed.  He  died 
unmarried. 

Brunswick-Limebourg-Bevem,  Augustus 
William  {h.  1715,  d.  1781),  one  of  Frederick 
the  Great's  generals,  served  in  the  first 
Silesiau  war,  and  during  the  Seven  Years' 
war  won  the  battle  of  Eeichenberg.  He 
was  constantly  employed  by  Frederick  in 
important  commands  till  he  was  defeated 
in  1757  and  taken  prisoner.  On  his  release 
he  was  sent  to  Stettin,  but  was  recalled  to 
active  service  later. 

Brunswick -Lunebourg,  Charles  William 
Ferdinand,  Sovereign  Duke  of  (6.  1735,  d. 
1806),  nephew  of  the  preceding,  OTcatly 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  and  in  1787  commanded  the  Prussian 
expedition  into  Holland,  and  was  in  1792 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  allied 
forces  in  the  invasion  of  France.  This 
campaign  was  abortive,  and  in  1704  he  re- 
signed. In  1S06  he  was  defeated  by  Napo- 
leon, and  died  of  wounds  received  at  Auer- 
stadt.  He  was  the  father  of  Queen  Caroline 
of  England. 

Brunswick  -  Wolfenbiittel,  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  (*.  1721,  d.  1702),  known  as  Prince 
Ferdinand,  served  in  the  Prussian  army 
during  the  first  Silesian  war,  and  the  Seven 
Years*  war  :  and  in  1758  was  appointed  com- 
mamler  of  fhe  English  forces  iu  Germany. 
la  1759  he  won  the  battle  of  Minden. 


Brutus,  Decimus  Junius  Albinus  {d.  43 
B.C.),  one  of  the  assassins  of  Julius  Caesar. 
After  the  murder  of  the  consul,  he  was 
besieged  in  Mutiua  by  Mark  Antony,  but 
drove  off  the  enemy.  Crossing  into  Mace- 
donia he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of 
Antony  and  put  to  death. 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  a  Koman  consul. 
Tarquinius  Superbus,  having  put  the  fjitoer 
and  brother  of  Brutus  to  death,  Bruttia 
feigned  madness,  imtil  the  rape  of  Lucretia, 
w^hen  he  excited  the  populace  to  insurrec- 
tion, and  drove  Tarqiuuius  from  the  city. 
He  and  CoUatinus  were  appointed  consuls 
together,  and  in  this  capacity  Brutus 
ordered  the  execution  of  his  own  sons  for 
complicity  in  a  conspiracy.  He  was  killed 
by  Tarquinius'  son. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Jimius  (J.  85  B.C.,  d. 
42  B.C.),  the  nephew  of  Cato  of  Utica, 
sided  with  Pompey  against  Csesar,  and  after 
the  battle  of  PharsaUa  retired  to  literary 
pursuits.  Csesar  made  him  governor  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  but  he  joined  the  con- 
spirators who  murdered  the  consul.  After 
the  assassination  he  collected  troops  in 
Macedonia,  and  assuming  the  title  of 
Imperator,  ravaged  Khodes  and  Lydia.  In 
42  B.C.  he  and  Cassius  were  defeated  by 
Octavius  Caesar  and  Mark  Antony,  when 
Brutus  committed  suicide. 

Bryant,  WUliam  CuUen  (b.  1794,  d. 
1878),  American  poet  and  historian,  whea 
only  nineteen  pubUshed  his  poem  Thana- 
topsis,  which  attracted  much  attention  ;  and 
in  1825  he  became  editor  of  several  peri- 
odicals in  New  York.  Having  twice  visited 
Europe,  he  wrote  his  Letters  of  a  Traveller 
in  Europe  and  America;  for  more  than 
thirty  years  he  acted  as  editor  of  the  New 
York  Ilvenitig  Post,  and  wrote  much  poetry, 
as  well  as  many  other  prose  works. 

Bryce,  Professor  James,  M.P.  (*.  1838), 
after  a  distinguished  career  at  Oxford, 
was  in  1870  appointed  regius  professor  of 
civil  law.  He  was  returned  M.P.  for 
Tower  Hamlets  in  1880,  for  Aberdeen  in 
1885,  and  in  1886  became  imder- secretary 
for  Foreign  Affairs  in  Mr.  Gladstone's 
government,  and  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster  in  1892. 

Brydges,  Sir  Samuel  Egerton  {b.  1762,  d. 
1837),  English  writer  and  antiquary,  in 
1790  induced  his  brother  to  claim  the 
succession  to  the  title  of  Duke  of  Chandos. 
The  claim  was  disallowed  by  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  Brydges  impeached  this  decision 
in  numerous  publications.  From  1812  to 
1818  he  was  M.P.  for  Maidstone  ;  and  in 
1824  he  was  created  a  baronet.  He  left 
many  works  in  verse,  fiction,  politics,  and 
archaeology. 


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Bach,  Leopold  von  (*.  1774,  d.  1853), 
German  geographer  and  geologist,  by 
Humboldt  was  regarded  as  the  greatest 
geologist  of  his  time.  He  travelled,  study- 
ing, through  Styria,  Auvergne,  Italy,  the 
coast  of  Scotland,  Norway,  Lapland,  and 
Germany,  and  was  the  author  of  many 
valuable  works  embodying  his  researches. 

Buchanan,  George  (b.  1506,  d.  1582),  Scot- 
tish poet  and  historian,  after  an  unsettled 
life,  spent  partly  in  France,  where  he  was 
converted  to  Protestantism,  became  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  at  Bordeaux,  and  in  1547  at 
Coimbra.  After  a  time  he  was  im^prisoued 
by  the  Inquisition,  and  one  of  the  penalties 
imposed  upon  him  was  to  translate  the 
Psalms  into  Latin  verse,  a  task  which  he 
performed  with  great  success.  After  acting 
as  tutor  to  the  Comte  de  Brissac's  son,  he 
became  in  1562  classical  tutor  to  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  on  her  mamage  wrote 
an  EpUhidamium.  After  Mary's  marriage 
with  Bothwell,  Buchanan  joined  Murray's 
party,  and  was  made  a  lord  of  the  privy 
council  and  privy  seal.  In  1570  he  was 
appointed  tutor  to  James  VI.  of  Scotland. 
He  wrote  in  his  last  years  A  History  of 
Scotland,  and  a  treatise  I)e  Jure  Regni 
apiid  Scotos,  which  in  1683  was  burned  at 
Oxford. 

Buchanan,  James  {b.  1791,  d.  1868), 
fifteenth  president  of  the  United  States, 
elected  to  the  state  legislature  in  1814,  in 
1820  became  a  member  of  Congress,  and 
in  1833  was  elected  a  senator.  He  was 
minister  at  the  court  of  St.  James's  from 
1853  to  1856,  and  in  the  latter  year,  as  the 
democratic  and  pro-slavery  candidate,  was 
elected  president.  After  his  retirement  in 
1860  he  took  no  further  part  in  public  Ufe. 

Buchanan,  Eobert  {b.  1841),  playwright 
and  novelist.  His  first  book,  Undertones, 
was  published  in  1860.  Since  then  he  has 
produced  The  Shodoiv  of  the  Sword,  The 
New  Abelard,  and  God  and  the  Man 
among  novels,  and  several  plays  and  adapta- 
tions. He  has  also  contributed  largely  to 
periodical  literature. 

Biichner,  Friedrich  Carl  Christian  Ludwig 
(i.  1824),  materialistic  philosopher,  his 
book  on  Force  and  Matter  [Kraft  und  Stoff, 
1855),  an  exposition  of  extreme  material- 
istic views,  created  great  interest  through- 
out Europe.  He  is  the  author  of  many 
philosophical  works,  some  of  them  popular 
expositions  of  the  ultimate  theories  of 
Darwin,  Haeckel,  and  Huxley. 

Buckingham.  George  Villiers,  Duke  of 
(b.  1592,  d.  1628),  the  celebrated  courtier, 
was  taken  into  favour  by  James  I.,  who 
rapidly  promoted  him  to  the  highest 
dignities  and  titles.  la  1623  he  accompanied 
Prince  Charles  to  Spain,  when  he  went  to 
■woo  the  Infanta ;  and  his  behaviour  caused 


the  breaking  off  of  the  match  and  a  war 
with  Spain.  He  was  the  chief  adviser  of 
Charles  I.  in  his  disputes  with  Parliament, 
which  would  have  impeached  the  favourite 
had  it  not  been  dissolved.  In  1627  he  com- 
manded an  unsuccessful  expedition  to  the 
Isle  of  Ehe ;  and  in  1628  he  was  stabbed  at 
Portsmouth  while  organising  a  second  ex- 
pedition. 

Buckingham,  George,  Duke  of  (jb.  1627, 
d.  IGi^Si),  son  of  the  preceding,  fought  on 
the  Eoyalist  side  during  the  Civil  war,  but 
after  the  battle  of  Worcester  he  fled  to  the 
Continent.  In  1657  he  returned  and 
married  Lord  Fairfax's  daughter,  and 
under  Charles  II.  was  given  several 
ajipointmeuts.  He  was  one  of  the  famous 
'•  Cabal"  ministry,  and  with  them  was  dis- 
missed in  1674. 

Buckingham,  James  Silk  {b.  1786,  d. 
1855),  traveller  and  politician,  after  an 
adventurous  life  went  to  India,  and  es- 
tablished a  newspaper  in  Calcutta,  which 
was  suppressed  by  the  East  India  Company. 
Returning  to  England  he  lectured  against 
the  company's  monopoly,  and  his  losses 
were  made  good  by  public  subscriptions. 
He  established  the  Athenceum  and  wrote 
many  books  of  travel,  and  from  1832  to 
1837  sat  for  Sheifield  in  Parliament. 

Buckland,  Frank  Trevelyan  Q).  1826,  d. 
1880),  surgeon,  was  a  naturalist  at  heart, 
and  his  appointment  in  1866  as  in- 
spector of  fisheries  gave  him  every 
opportxmity  for  gi-atifying  his  intense  love 
of  animals  and  their  habits.  In  his 
official  capacity  he  visited  nearly  every  part 
of  the  coast  and  all  the  salmon  rivers.  He 
strove  vigorously  to  acclimatise  foreign 
animals  suitable  for  food  or  sport  in  this 
country,  and  his  house  was  a  museum  of 
natiiral  history,  mostly  living.  The  results 
of  his  researches  are  to  be  found  scattered 
about  ia  innumerable  short  papers  in  the 
magazines  and  newspapers,  in  his  Curiosities 
of  Natural  History,  and  in  the  memories  of 
many  warm  friends  and  admirers. 

Buckland,  William,  F.R.S.  {b.  1784,  d. 
185G),  the  founder  of  Enijlish  geology, 
was  a  fellow  of  Corpus  Christi,  Oxon,  and 
a  canon  of  Christ  Church.  In  1819  he 
occupied  the  newly  formed  readership  of 
geology  in  Oxford,  and  in  this  position 
conducted  researches  on  the  palseoutology 
of  the  Reading  beds,  and  the  formation  of 
the  coal  and  the  glacial  period  strata.  He 
accumulated  the  collection  known  as  the 
"Buckland  Museum,"  Oxford,  and  was 
the  author  of  the  Bridgewater  treatise  on 
Geology  and  Mineralogy  with  reference  to 
Natural  Theology,  which  was  afterwards 
revised  by  his  son. 

Buckle,  George  Earle  {b.   1854),  was  a 


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scholar  of  Winchester  College  and  New 
College,  Oxon.  He  obtained  a  double  first  in 
classics  and  history,  and  was  elected  a 
feUow  of  All  Souls'.  Adopting  journalism 
as  a  profession,  he  became  first  attached  to 
the  Mancheater  Guardian,  and  afterwards 
wrote  for  the  Times.  On  the  death  of  Pro- 
fessor Chenery  in  1884  he  became  the  editor 
of  the  Times,  having  for  some  time  occupied 
the  post  of  assistant  editor. 

Buckle,  Hem-y  Thomas  {b.  1821,  d.  1862), 
historian.  In  1857  the  first  volume  of  his 
History  of  Civilisation  in  Europe  appeared, 
and  was  very  well  received.  The  secoud 
volume,  published  in  1861,  found  too  an  ap- 
preciative public,  but  in  1862  his  health 
gave  way,  and  he  died  leaving  his  work  un- 
completed. 

Buokstone,  John  Baldwin  (b.  1802,  d. 
1879),  actor  and  playwright,  was  the  author 
of  many  plays  of  the  weU-known  Adelphi 
type.  The  Green  Bushes  and  The  Flowers  of 
the  Forest  among  them.  He  was  the  author 
too  of  many  farces  and  "  genre  "  pieces,  of 
which  class  Good  for  Nothing  and  Thi  Rough 
Diamond  are  excellent  specimens. 

Buffet,  Louis  Joseph  {h.  1818),  French 
statesman,  returned  for  his  department  of 
the  Vosges  in  1848,  became  minister  of  com- 
merce under  Louis  Napoleon.  Having 
retired  from  pubUc  life  for  some  years,  he 
became  in  1870  minister  of  finance,  and 
in  1873  president  of  the  Assembly. 

Buffon,  Jean  Louis  Leclerc,  Comte  de 
(6.  1707,  d.  1788),  French  naturalist, 
after  a  tour  in  Italy  and  England 
became  known  for  his  scientific  investiga- 
tions, and  was  admitted  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  In  1739  he  was  appointed 
intendant  of  the  Jardin  du  Eoi  at  Paris, 
and  in  1749  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
monumental  work,  L'Flisioire  Naturelh, 
which  secured  to  him  a  place  in  the  front 
rank  of  men  of  science.  In  1753  he  was 
admitted  to  the  Academy,  and  in  1776  he 
was  created  a  count.  Builon  only  completed 
the  mineralogical  and  a  portion  of  the  zoo- 
logical section  of  his  Histoire  Naturelle ; 
but  the  work  was  accompanied  by  several 
Bupfjlements,  including  his  Epochs  of  Nature. 

Bugeaud  de  la  Piconnerie,  Thomas 
Robert,  DucD'Isly(i.  1784,  rf.  1849),  French 
general,  rose  rapidly  during  the  Napoleonic 
campaigns,  and  after  Waterloo  won  a  brilliant 
victory  at  L'Hopital,  on  the  Is^re,  over 
a  greatly  superior  force  of  Austrians.  After 
the  1830  revolution  he  entered  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  and  in  1836  went  to  Algeria  in 
command  of  the  French  forces.  In  1841  he 
was  appointed  governor-general  of  Algeria, 
and  for  his  successful  campaigns  against 
Morocco  was  created  marshal  of  France  and 
Due  D'IsIy.    He  died  of  cholera. 


Bugenhagen,  Johann  (6.  1485,  d.  1558), 
German  scholar  and  reformer,  a  convert  o£ 
Luther,  whom  he  aided  in  his  translation 
of  the  Bible.  In  1537  he  organised  the 
chm-ch  in  Denmark. 

Bugge,  Thomas  {h.  1740,  d.  1815),  Danish 
astronomer,  was  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Copenhagen,  and  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Society  of  Sciences  in  Denmark. 
He  left  much  valuable  writing. 

Bulgaria,  Alexander  I.,  Prince  of.     [See 

Alexander.] 

BuU,  John  Q).  1563,  d.  1628),  English 
musical  composer  of  some  celebrity,  in  1591 
was  appointed  organist  of  the  Chapel 
Eoyal ;  in  1595,  professor  of  music  at 
Gresham  College,  and  later  organist  to 
James  I.  In  1617  he  went  to  Holland, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He  is 
supposed  to  be  the  composer  of  the  National 
Anthem. 

BuU,  Ole  Bornemann  (3.  1810,  d.  1880), 
Norwegian  violinist,  and  follower  of 
Paganini. 

Buller,  Sir  Redvers  {h.  1839),  soldier, 
first  saw  service  in  the  China  war  of 
1860.  In  1870  he  took  part  in  the  Red 
River  expedition,  and  in  1874  in  the 
Ashantee  war.  In  1879  he  was  sent  on 
special  service  to  the  Cape,  held  command 
of  the  Frontier  Light  Horse  in  the  Kaffir 
war  of  1878-9,  and  served  with  great  gal- 
lantry in  the  Zulu  war.  He  was  present  at 
Tel-el-Kebir,  at  El  Teb  and  Tamai,  and 
accompanied  the  Nile  expedition  of  1884, 
In  1890  he  succeeded  Lord  Wolseley  as 
ad  j  utant-  general. 

Biilow,  Friedrich  WUhelm  von  (i.  1775,  d. 
181C),  Prussian  general,  obtained  field- 
marshal's  rank  in  1813,  and  by  the  victory  at 
Lukan  saved  Berlin  from  the  French.  His 
victories  at  Grossbeeren  and  Dennewitz  over 
Oudinot  and  Ney  respectively  twice  agaia 
saved  the  Prussian  capital  at  critical  mo- 
ments. He  was  present  at  Leipzig,  and  in 
command  of  the  right  wing  of  the  allies  he 
occupied  the  Low  Cotm tries.  In  1814  he 
marched  into  France,  and  he  was  in  com- 
mand during  the  Waterloo  campaign. 

Biilow,  Hans  Guide  von  (5. 1830),  pianist, 
conductor  and  composer,  best  known  for  his 
adherence  to  Wagner  and  Wagnerian  theo- 
ries. Of  his  own  productions  Niruana  is 
the  most  distinguished,  but  he  is  more  re- 
markable for  his  transcriptions  of  Wagner's 
scores. 

Bulwer,  Sir  Henry  Ernest  Gascoigne  {b. 
18y6),  after  filling  several  less  imiiortant 
positions  in  1871,  was  in  1875  appointed 
lieut. -governor  of  Natal.  He  protested 
against  the    annexation  of  the  Tcansvaal, 


Bnl 


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Buo 


and  ag:uust  the  necessity  of  coercing  the 
Zulu  kiug  (Cotewayo).  His  appointment 
ended  in  1880,  before  the  outbreak  of  war 
with  the  Boers,  but  in  1882  he  was  re- 
appointed governor  of  Natal.  In  1885  he 
was  appointed  lord  high  commissioner  of 
Cyprus. 

Bulwer,  Lytton.     [See  Lytton.] 

Bulwer,  Sir  William  Henry  Lytton  Earle 
(b.  1804, (/.  1-8  72),  diplomatist,  brother  of  Lord 
iij-tton,  in  1843  wa>s  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Madrid,  and  remained  till  1848,  when 
he  was  ordered  to  leave  by  Narvaez. 
He  next  went  to  Washington,  where 
he  conduded  the  Bulwer-Clayton  Treaty, 
From  1852  to  1855  he  was  envoy  extra- 
ordinary to  Tuscany ;  and  from  1857 
to  1865  ambassador  to  the  Porte.  He  sat 
in  Parliament  for  many  years,  and  just 
before  his  death  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  under  the  title  of  Baron  Balling 
and  Bulwer. 

Bimseu,  Christian  Charles  Josias,  Baron 
von  (b.  1791,  d.  1860),  philosopher  and 
diplomatist,  educated  at  G-ottingen,  be- 
came attached  to  the  German  diplomatic 
service  in  Rome.  Here,  in  addition  to  his 
scholarly  researches,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  difficult  task  of  keeping  peace  between 
the  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  of  his 
own  country.  In  1838  he  came  to  England, 
where  he  was  some  years  later  appointed 
ambassador.  In  1854  he  resigned  his  post 
and  retired  practically  into  private  life  at 
Heidelberg.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
important  philosophical  works. 

Bunsen,  Robert  Wilhelm  {b.  1811), 
Germau  chemist,  in  1852  accepted  the 
post  of  professor  at  Heidelberg,  where 
he  coustructed  his  great  laboratory,  and 
founded  a  school  of  chemistry.  He 
has  conducted  innumerable  important 
scientific  researches,  and  has  invented 
many  special  f oims  of  apparatus.  His 
most^  important  publications  are  a  Treatise 
on  Ga-i  Analysis  and  Spectroscope  Analy- 
sis, but  the  mere  list  of  his  papers 
forms  a  large  catalogue.  He  has  received 
every  distinguished  scientific  honour,  and  is 
one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the 
French  Academy. 

Bunting-,  Edward  {b.  1773,  d.  1843),  an 
Irish  muiiuian  and  organist,  on  the  oc- 
casion of  the  meeting  of  the  Irish  bards  in 
1792  was  commissioned  to  write  down 
their  melodies,  and  he  afterwards  went 
up  and  down  the  country  collecting 
the  airs  of  old  haqjists  and  minstrels.  In 
1840  he  pubUshed  the  work  in  the  compila- 
tion of  which  so  much  of  his  life  had  been 
spent.  The  Ancient  Mnsic  of  Ireland. 

Bunyan,  John  {b.  1628,  d.  1688),  author 


of  The  Pilgrim^s  Progress,  was  a  tinker  by 
trade,  belonging  to  a  Bedfordshire  family. 
In  1656  he  began  to  preach  in  Bedford  as  a 
Baptist,  his  sei-mons  being  extremely  popu- 
lar. In  1600  he  was  committed  to  Bedford 
gaol  for  his  religious  teaching,  and  he  re- 
mained there  for  twelve  years.  During  this 
period  he  wrote  his  Grace  Abounding  and 
The  Holy  City.  In  1672  he  was  released,  and 
resunied  his  preaching  before  great  crowds. 
During  a  second  imprisonment,  in  1675,  he 
wrote  The  Pilgrini's  Progress.  He  built  a 
meeting  house  in  Bedford,  and  annually 
visited  the  Baptist  congregation  in  London, 
where  he  died.  The  Holy  War  was  written 
in  1682. 

Buonarroti,  Filippo  {b.  1761,  d.  1837),  an 
Italian  patriot,  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  revolution  went  to  Paris,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  alTairs,  opposing  the 
usurpation  of  Napoleon.  After  suffering 
some  imprisonment,  he  became  in  1830  head 
of  the  "  Veri  Italiani  "  party  in  Paris. 

Burbage,  Richard  {b.  circa  1557,  d.  1619), 
the  foremost  actor  of  the  Elizabethan  stage, 
and  the  original  performer  of  Richard  III., 
Hamlet,  and  Othello,  etc. 

Burckhardt,  John  Ludwig  (b.  1784,  d. 
1817),  one  of  the  early  Eastern  travellers,  was 
Swiss  by  bii-th,  Germau  by  education,  and 
EngUsh  by  adoption.  He  travelled  as  the 
envoy  of  an  English  association  for  pro- 
moting African  discovery.  The  East  having 
attracted  him,  he  became  Egyptian  by  habit 
and  language,  travelling  as  an  Eastern 
merchant.  He  was  the  first  European  to 
visit  Mecca.  His  valuable  Arabic  Proverbs, 
reprinted  in  1875,  are  well  known. 

Burdett,  Sir  Francis  (^>.  1770,  d.  1844), 
politician,  was  famous  for  his  advanced 
views,  which  in  1810,  on  the  occasion  of  a 
letter  to  his  constituents  commenting  on  the 
right  of  Parliament  to  commit  for  libel, 
resulted  in  the  issue  of  a  warrant  by  the 
Speaker  for  his  aiTest.  In  1819  he  was,  for 
a  like  outspoken  expression  of  opinion,  fined 
and  imprisoned. 

Burdett  -  Coutts,  Angelina  Georgina, 
Baroness  (Jj.  1814),  the  daughter  of  Sir 
Francis  Burdett,  succeeded  in  1837  to  the 
great  vrealth  of  her  grandfather,  Mr.  Thomas 
Coutts.  The  Shoe-black  Brigade,  the  Nova 
Scotia  Gardens,  model  lodging  houses,  and 
Colimibia  Market  are  of  her  foundation.  The 
poor  and  the  distressed  at  home  and  abroad 
have  had  a  constant  benefactress  in  her ;  the 
East- End  weavers,  the  Irish  fishermen  of 
Cape  Clear,  the  Turkish  peasantry  after  the 
Russo-Turkish  war,  are  among  those  who 
have  received  her  help.  In  1871  the  Queen 
made  Miss  Coutts  a  peeress,  and  in  1881  the 
baroness  married  ilr.  William  Ashmead- 
Bai-tlett. 


Bur 


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Bur 


Buren,  Van.     [See  Van  Buren.] 

__Burg'er,  Gottfried  August  (6.  1747,  d. 
1794),  German  lyric  poet;  Lenore  and  The 
Wild  Huntsman  are  well-known  ballads  of 
his. 

Surges,  William,  A.R.A.  {b.  1827,  d.  1881), 
architect,  aud  a  master  of  the  Gothic  style. 
The  rebuilding  of  Cork  cathedi-al  and  the 
speech-room  at  Harrow  were  after  his 
designs. 

Burgess,  John  Bagnold  {b.  1830),  artist, 
was  elected  an  associate  in  1877,  and  is  best 
known  as  a  painter  of  Southern  and  Eastern 
subjects. 

Burgess,  Thomas  (b.  1756,  d.  1837), 
English  prelate,  was  preferred  from  the 
prebendary  at  Durham  to  the  bisliopric  of 
St.  David's,  where  he  founded  aud  liberally 
endowed  the  college  of  Lampeter.  In  1805  he 
was  translated  to  the  bishopric  of  SaUsbury. 

BurgMeigli,  WOliam  Cecil,  Lord.  \See 
Cecil.] 

Burgoyne,  John  (Jb.  1730,  d.  1792),  an 
English  general  and  dramatic  writer,  in 
17(31  entered  Parliament,  aud  in  1772  moved 
a  vote  of  censure  on  Lord  Chve.  In  1775 
he  was  sent  to  command  an  expedition  from 
Canada  against  the  Americans,  and  was 
compelled  to  sun-ender  at  Saratoga.  On  re 
turning  to  England  the  king  refused  to  see 
him,  whereupon  he  threw  up  all  his  appoint- 
ments and  joined  the  opposition.  He  was 
given  further  commands  afterwards,  but  re- 
tired from  active  service  in  1784. 

Burke,  Edmund  (i.  1728,  d.  1797),  states- 
man  and  orator,  an  Ii-ishman  by  birth, 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Com- 
ing to  Loudon,  he  attracted  attention  by 
his  essays  on  the  Sithlime  and  Beautiful,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  founding  in 
1759  The  Annual  Begiater.  In  1761  he  be- 
came private  secretary  to  Hamilton,  the  new 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland ;  and  served  Lord 
Rockingham  in  the  same  capacity  when  that 
nobleman  became  prime  minister.  He  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Wendover,  and 
his  speeches  on  American  affairs  created  a 
great  sensation  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
His  position  in  political  life  was  raised  still 
higher  by  the  pamphlets  which  he  wrote  on 
current  questions.  Returned  for  Malton, 
he  produced  in  1780  his  great  plan  of  eco- 
nomical reform  ;  and  in  17!^2  he  became 
paymaster  under  Lord  Rockingham's  go- 
vernment. He  again  took  office  in  the 
Duke  of  Portland's  coalition  ministry,  when 
he  made  his  famous  speech  on  the  India 
bill.  In  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Has- 
tings Bui'ko  played  a  leading  part,  his 
opening  speech  extending  over  four  days. 
The  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution 
was  the  occasion  of  one  of  his  finest  eft'orts 
of  oratory.     Burke's  attitude  in  this  matter 


severed  his  friendship  vrith  Fox,  and  ha 
seceded  from  the  Wliig  party.  In  1794  he 
retired  from  parliamentary  hfe,  though  he 
continued  to  produce  his  pamphlets  on 
political  affairs. 

Burke,  Su-  John  Bernard  (6.  1815),  Irish 
Herald,  Ulster  king-of-arms  in  1853  ;  author 
of  several  valuable  works  on  genealogical 
subjects. 

Burke,  Robert  O'Hara  (&.  1812,  d.  1861), 
explorer,  perished  with  Wills  in  an  expedition 
across  Australia. 

Burke,  William  {d.  1828),  a  notorious 
criminal,  who,  with  Hare,  murdered  many 
persons  in  order  to  provide  "  subjects  "  for 
the  Edinburgh  surgeons. 

Burmali,  The  Kings  of— 

(1)  Mentaragyi  {d.  1819).  His  reign  is 
remarkable  for  the  first  dispute  with  the 
British,  amicably  settled  by  General  Erskine. 

(2)  Phagyi  Dan  (dethroned  1837)  was 
involved  in  war  with  Britain  in  1824,  who 
conquered  Aracan,  which  was  ceded  as  the 
price  of  peace. 

(3)  Kounboug-men  (d.  1846),  usm-ped  the 
throne  in  1837.  He  was  violently  anti- 
Enghsh. 

(4)  Pagan-men  (dethroned  1853),  his 
son,  imitated  his  father's  policy,  and  pre- 
cipitated the  second  Burmese  war  in  1852. 
It  resulted  in  the  annexation  of  Pegu,  and 
a  revolution  ended  the  king's  reign. 

(5)  Meudon-meu  {il.  1878).  At  first  dis- 
posed to  be  hostile  towards  the  Indian  govern- 
ment, the  king  in  1862  consented  to  a  treaty 
(renewed  1867).  British  travellers,  by  these 
conventions,  were  allowed  to  pass  thi'ough 
Burmah. 

(6)  Theebaw  (b.  1859,  deposed  1885) 
signahsed  his  accession  to  the  throne  by 
massacring  eighty-six  of  his  relations. 
Affairs  shortly  became  unbearable  at 
Maudalay,  aud  in  1880  a  war  seemed  im- 
minent. In  1882  he  made  a  fruitless 
attempt  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  but  the  nego- 
tiations broke  off.  In  spite  of  a  continued 
weakening  of  his  position,  owing  to  internal 
rebellions,  he  massacred  some  two  himdred 
of  his  subjects  in  1884,  and  in  1885  began  to 
direct  aggressive  operations  against  British 
commerce.  An  expedition  was  sent  against 
him  in  1889,  and  he  was  deposed  and 
deported  to  India. 

Bumaby,  Frederick  Gustavus  {b.  1842,  d. 
1885),  British  officer,  and  an  enterprising 
and  daring  traveller,  was  best  known 
from  his  ride  to  Khiva  on  horseback.  He 
was  attached  to  the  expedition  to  the 
Eastern  Soudan,  aud  fought  and  was 
wounded  at  El  Teh.  He  was  killed  at  Abu 
Klea,  the  first  battle  of  the  Nile  expedition, 

Bumand,  Francis  Cowley  (i.  1837), 
journalist,  barrister  by  profession,  became 


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Biir 


a  writer  of  farce  and  humorous  literatTire 
by  choice.  In  18S0  he  succeeded  Mr.  Tom 
Taylor  as  editor  of  Funeh.  Happy  Thoughts 
are'  among  his  happiest  elf  orts ;  and  the 
farces,  Ixion,  Black-eyed  Susan,  and  the 
plays,  Betsy,  The  Colonel,  and  Artful  Cards, 
among  the  most  successful  of  his  dramatic 
works. 

Burne- Jones,  Edward,  (6.  1833),  painter, 
early  fell  under  the  influence  of  the  pre- 
Eaphaelite  Brotherhood,  and  his  paintings 
ai-e  marked  by  the  mediaevalism  and  realism 
of  that  school.  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1885. 

Blirnes,  Sir  Alexander  {b.  1805,  d.  1841), 
an  explorer  of  Central  Asia,  entered  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company  at 
sixteen,  and  became  known  as  an  explorer 
of  the  north-west  frontier.  In  1836  he 
undertook  a  mission  to  Cabul,  and  remained 
at  his  post  tiU  assassinated. 

Bumet,  Gilbert  {b.  1643,  d.  1715), 
bishop  of  the  English  Church,  in  1669 
became  professor  of  divinity  at  Glas- 
gow, and  having  declined  a  Scottish 
bishopric,  came  to  London,  publishing  in 
1679  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  the 
Eeformation  in  England.  Charles  II.  offered 
him  the  see  of  Chichester,  but  he  refused, 
and  was  soon  after  dismissed  from  his  offtces. 
Under  James  II.  he  went  to  the  Continent, 
and  became  a  chief  adviser  of  William  of 
Orange.  He  returned  to  England  with 
"William,  and  was  ordained  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury'. 

Bumet,  John,  E.R.S.  (6.  1784,  d.  1868), 
painter  and  engraver.  It  is  in  the  latter 
capacity  he  is  chiefly  known,  and  most 
of  the  engravings  of  Wilkie's  pictures 
are  by  him.  His  most  successful  painting 
was  Greenwich  Hospital  and  Naval  Heroes, 
a  companion  to  Wilkie's  Chelsea  Pensioners. 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson  {b.  1849), 
American  authoress,  became  first  knowii  as 
a  contributor  to  the  American  magazines, 
and  most  of  her  sketches  and  stories, 
including  That  Lass  of  Zowrie's,  and  one 
fine  novel,  Through  One  Administration, 
have  been  republished  from  them.  Among 
other  works  are  the  Little  Lord  FauntU- 
roy,  A  Fair  Barbarian,  and  the  drama, 
Esmeralda. 

Bumey,  Frances.     [See  D'Arblay.] 

Bumouf,  Eugene  {b.  1801,  d.  18o;2),  an 
eminent  Orientalist,  was  an  authority  on 
the  Zend  language,  and  translated  several 
important  Buddhist  manuscripts. 

Bums,  Robert  {b.  1759,  d.  1796),  Scottish 
poet,  was  the  son  of  an  Ayrshire  farmer, 
and  with  his  brothers  worked  on  the 
farm.      His    first    volume    of   poems    was 


pubhshed  ia  1786,  and  attracted  much 
attention.  Burns  being  invited  to  Edinburgh 
and  made  much  of  by  literary  society.  At 
this  time  he  was  on  the  point  of  emigrating 
to  Jamaica.  In  1788  he  married  Jean 
Armour,  and  in  1789  became  an  excise 
oflicer,  as  well  as  a  farmer  in  Dumfriesshire. 
In  1791,  fanning  not  being  profitable,  he  re- 
moved to  Dumfries,  where  he  continued  his 
post  in  the  excise,  and  wrote  poems  for  the 
Edinburgh  publishers.  The  irregularities 
which  had  marked  his  earher  life  returned 
in  his  later  days,  and  accelerated  his  death. 

Bumside,  Ambrose  Everett  {h.  1824,  d. 
1881),  general  in  the  U.S.  army,  early 
distinguished  himself  in  border  warfare, 
and  in  the  Civil  war  was  present  at  the 
battles  of  Bull  Run,  South  Mountain,  and 
Antietam.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Con- 
federates at  Petersburg,  but  held  command 
of  the  9th  army  corps,  under  Grant,  until 
Lee's  surrender. 

Burr,  Aaron  (*.  1756,  d.  1836),  a  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  war  of  independence. 
In  1807  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  con- 
spiracy. It  was  supposed  that  he  aimed  to 
separate  the  Western  States  from  the  Union 
and  annex  them  to  Mexico,  but  he  was  ac- 
quitted. Coming  to  Europe,  he  was  ordered 
to  leave  England  for  endeavouring  to  pro- 
mote a  fllibusteiing  expedition  against 
Mexico.  He  returned  to  America  in  1812, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement. 

Burritt,  Elihu  {b.  1811,  d.  1879),  an 
eminent  American  peace  advocate.  A  black- 
smith by  trade,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  languages,  acquiring  a  mastery  of 
twenty-three.  In  1845  he  visited  England, 
and  established  his  "Leagues  of  Universal 
Brotherhood,"  and  he  was  mainly  instru- 
mental in  summoning  several  peace  con- 
gresses. He  was  appointed  U.S.  consul  at 
Birmingham,  and  wrote  many  works. 

Burrows,  Sir  George  {b.  1800,  d.  1887),  a 
distinguished  physician,  was  educated  at 
Caius  College.  Cambridge,  of  which  college 
he  became  fellow  and  mathematical  tutor. 
He  was  five  times  president  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  and  in  1873  became 
one  of  the  physicians-iu-ordinary  to  the 
Queen.  He  is  the  author  of  several  medical 
works. 

Burton,  John  Hill  {b.  1809,  d.  1881), 
historian,  from  1833  a  contributor  to  the 
Westminster  and  Edinburgh  Reviews  and 
Blackwood's  Mafaztne,  his  first  inde- 
pendent work  was  the  Life  and  Correspon- 
dence of  Dtirid  Hume.  The  main  work  of  his 
life  was  The  History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Lnvasion  of  Agricola  to  the  Revolution  of 
1688.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  historio- 
grapher royal  for  Scotland. 


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BVLX 


Bur.on,  Sir  Eichard  Francis  (i.  1821,  d. 
ISyu),  traveller,  linguist,  and  author,  in 
1842  entered  the  East  India  Company's 
service,  and  in  India  explored  the  Neilgherry 
Hills,  and  acquired  an  extensive  knowledge 
of  the  Eastern  languages.  He  visited,  dis- 
guised as  a  dervish,  Medina  and  Mecca.  In 
18oS,  with  Speke,  he  discovered  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, and  later  explored  the  highlands 
of  Brazil.  He  visited  besides  Utah,  Palestine, 
Fernando  Po,  and  the  Gold  Coast,  wherever 
he  went  extending  our  geographical  know- 
ledge and  increasing  his  store  of  iiifonnation. 
He  has  written  several  boots  of  travel,  and 
a  most  scholarly  translation  of  the  Arabian 
Xights. 

Burton,  Robert  {b.  1576,  d.  1640), 
English  clergyman  and  writer,  celebrated  as 
the  author  of  The  Anatomy  of  Melancholy . 
His  life  was  one  of  retirement,  spent  at  his 
vicarage  in  Leicestershire  or  at  Oxford. 
His  book  appeared  in  1621. 

Busby,  Eichard  {h.  1606,  d.  1695),  head- 
master of  Westminster  School,  1640. 

Bussy,  Charles  Joseph  Patissier,  Marquis  de 
{h.  1718,  d.  1785),  French  officer,  celebrated 
for  his  connection  with  India  ;  his  influence 
became  paramount  in  the  Deccan  by  his 
services  to  the  Nizam  Salabout  Jung,  whom 
he  had  placed  on  the  throne.  The  Nizam 
attempted  once  to  dismiss  liim,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  seek  a  reconcihation ;  and  Bussy 
would  have  been  able  to  assert  French  pre- 
dominance over  a  great  part  of  India  had  he 
not  been  recalled  to  Pondicherry.  In  1760 
he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English,  but 
in  1783  he  returned  to  India,  and  com- 
manded the  French  forces  there  till  his  death. 

Bute,  John  Stuart,  third  Earl  of  (6.  1713,   , 
d.  1792),  was  entrusted  with  the  education  ! 
of    George    III.,    on    whose    accession    he 
became  a   secretary  of   state.     In  1762  he 
formed  a  ministry,  which  proved  highly  un- 
popular, and  only  lasted  a  short  time. 

Butler,  Elizabeth,  Lady  {b.  1843),  an 
artist,  as  Miss  Thompson  became  known  for  \ 
her  series  of  brilliant  paintings  of  military  ; 
subjects.  Her  first  picture  at  the  Eoyal  ! 
Academy  was  Mitssmg  (1873),  and  it  was  | 
followed  by  the  Roll  Call  (1874),  Quatre  ] 
Bras,  BaJaclara.  and  others.  She  married 
Colonel  Sir  W.  F.  Butler  in  1877. 

Butler,  Joseph  (6.  1692,  d.  17o2), 
English  divine,  and  celebrated  as  the  author 
of  Tlie  Analogy  of  Iteligion,  Natural  and 
Revealed,  to  the  Constitution  and  Course  of 
Nature.  After  ordination  he  became 
preacher  to  the  Eolls,  and  in  1725  was 
preferred  to  the  benefice  of  Stanhope,  where 
for  some  years  he  lived  in  close  retirement, 
engaged  in  the  preparation  of  his  great 
work.      In     1733    he   became   chaplain    to 


the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  a  prebend  in 
Eochester,  and  in  1738  was  ordained 
bishop  of  Bristol.  In  1750  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  see  of  Durham,  where  he  ex- 
cited some  accusations  of  Popish  tendencies. 

Butler,  Samuel  (*.  1612,  d.  1680),  English 
satirist,  in  his  seventeenth  year  became 
attached  to  the  household  of  the  Earl 
of  Kent,  when  he  frequently  attended 
meetings  at  the  house  of  a  Sir  Samuel  Luke, 
a  strict  Puritan  and  Parliamentarian.  The 
experiences  of  this  time  furnished  him  with 
the  material  for  his  famous  work,  Hudihras, 
the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  1663,  and 
achieved  the  widest  popularity.  Two  other 
parts  of  the  work  appeared  at  intei-vals,  but 
of  Butler's  life  during  that  time  little  is 
known. 

Butt,  Isaac,  Q.C.,  M.P.  {b.  1812,  d. 
1879),  the  leader  of  the  Irish  Home  Rule 
party  from  1872  until  he  was  superseded 
by  Parnell.  He  first  entered  Parliament 
in  1852  as  a  pohticiau  of  emphatically 
Conservative  opinions.  He  retired  from 
Parliament  for  sis  years,  but  at  the 
end  of  that  time  reajipeared  (representing 
Limerick)  as  the  head  of  the  knot  of  Pro- 
testants who  in  1872  started  the  Home  Eule 
movement.  Beyond  a  speech  of  polished 
oratory  at  the  beginning  of  each  sessiou  in 
exposition  of  his  party's  demands,  he  proved 
a  supine  leader.  A  more  determined  sec- 
tion, however,  headed  by  Pamell,  ousted 
him  from  his  leadership,  and  his  career, 
honourable  as  it  undoubtedly  was,  ended  in 
something  very  like  failure. 

Button,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  navigator 
of  the  time  of  James  I.,  in  1812  was 
sent  by  the  merchants  of  Loudon  on  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  Arctic  regions,  and  he  was 
the  first  to  cross  the  entire  extent  of 
Hudson's  Bay,  and  to  sight  the  Nelson 
river. 

Buxhowden,  Frederick  William,  Count  of 
{h.  1750,  d.  1811),  Russian  general,  greatly 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Swedish  and 
Polish  wars,  and  was  made  governor  of 
Poland.  He  had  to  fly  to  Gemiany,  having 
lost  the  Emperor  Paul's  favour,  but  he  was 
restored  to  his  honours  by  Alexander.  He 
held  important  commands  during  the  French 
wars,  and  later  conquered  Finland. 

Buxton,  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  {b.  1786,  d. 
184.5),  became  known  in  1816  as  the 
champion  of  the  Spitalfields  poor,  and 
shortly  afterwards  was  associated  in  an 
inquiry  into  the  state  of  prisons,  which 
ultimately  led  to  all  the  great  improvements 
in  gaol  management.  He  was  the  successor 
of  Wilberforce  in  his  efforts  to  secure  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  of  the  West 
Indies.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1818, 
and  was  created  a  baronet  in  1840. 


Byn 


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Cab 


Byng,  Sir  George,  Viscount  Torrington 
(b.  1663,  d.  1733),  a  British  admiral,  after 
much  distinguished  service  commanded 
the  fleet  which  captured  Gibraltar,  and  tool? 
part  in  the  battle  off  Malaga.  In  1718  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  fleet,  and  totallj'  defeated 
the  Spaniards,  forcing  them  to  quit  Sicily. 
On  his  return  he  was  made  a  peer,  and  in 
1727  appointed  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

Byng,  John  (b.  1704,  d.  1757),  British 
admiral  and  son  of  the  preceding,  in  1747 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  fleet,  and  in  1756  was 
sent  out  with  a  small  fleet  to  relieve 
Minorca,  which  was  threatened  by  a  power- 
ful French  fleet.  When  he  arrived  the 
French  had  landed  in  force,  and  it  was 
decided  to  retire  in  face  of  the  great 
superiority  of  the  enemy.  However,  an 
indecisive  action  was  fought ;  and  for  this 
Byng  was  court- martialled  on  his  return 
and  shot  on  his  own  quarter-deck. 

Byron,  George  Noel  Gordon,  Lord  (b. 
1788,  d.  1824),  poet,  his  early  years  were 
spent  in  Scotland,  and  in  1798  he  succeeded 
his  grand-uncle  the  "  wicked  Lord  Byron." 
He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Cambridge, 
leaving  the  university  in  1808.  In  1807  he 
■published  Hours  of  Idleness,  and  in  1809  he 
left  England  to  travel  in  Eastern  Europe. 
In  1812  the  first  two  cantos  of  Childe 
Harold  were  published,  at  once  establishiug 
Byron's  reputation.  Between  this  and  1815 
several  otlier  poems  were  published,  and 
Byron  took  a  fitful  interest  in  politics.  In 
1815  he  married  Miss  Milbanke.  The 
tmion  proved  most  unfortunate,  and  in  1816 
they  were  separated,  and  Byron  again  left 
England.     He  settled  in  Switzerland,  where 


he  wrote  several  of  his  poems,  including 
ManJ'red  and  several  cantos  of  Bon  Juan. 
In  1819  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
Countess  Guiccioli,  with  whom  he  lived  iu 
Italy  for  more  than  three  years,  his  poetical 
productions  during  that  period  being 
numerous.  In  1823  he  sailed  from  Genoa 
in  an  English  ship  freighted  with  arms  and 
ammunition  to  help  the  Greeks.  He 
reached  Missoloughi  nest  year,  and  ob- 
tained considerable  influence  among  the 
patriots.  But  he  was  seized  with  fever  and 
died  iu  April  of  that  year. 

Byron,  Henry  James  (*.  1835,  d.  1884), 
actor  and  playwright,  his  earliest  dramatic 
effort  was  a  burlesque  of  Fra  Diavalo,  and 
was  the  first  of  a  number  of  such  pieces. 
After  a  time  he  turned  his  attention  to 
comedy,  and  produced  Xot  Such  a  Fool  as 
He  Looks,  and  the  most  successful  of  modern 
comedies,  (Jnr  Boys.  Several  of  his  pieces 
were  wiitten  specially  for  Mr.  Toole,  and 
include  A  Fool  and  His  Money  and  The 
Upper  Crust. 

Byron,  John  (*.  1723,  d.  1786),  British 
admiral,  and  grandfather  of  the  poet.  He 
sailed  as  a  midshipman  in  the  Wager  in 
Anson's  expedition  round  the  world  in 
1740.  The  JVager  was  lost,  and  the  officers 
and  crew  endured  gi'eat  sufferings  in  South 
America,  and  the  surviving  remnant  did  not 
reach  home  for  five  years.  Byron  published 
an  account  of  these  adventures.  In  1764 
he  was  sent  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the 
South  Seas ;  in  1769  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Xewfoundland,  and  ia  1778 
fought  an  indecisive  action  with  a  French 
fleet  off  Grenada.  He  was  known  as  "  Foul 
Weather  Jack,"  owing  to  his  ill-luck  ia 
encountering  heavy  gales. 


Caamano,  Jos6  M,  Placido  (6.  1838), 
president  of  Ecuador,  banished  in  1882  for 
conspiring  against  the  dictator-general,  or- 
ganised a  revolutionary  expedition  in  Lima, 
and  returned  to  Ecuador  in  1883 ;  assisted 
in  the  storming  of  Guayaquil,  was  elected 
president  of  the  Eepublic  in  1884,  and  in 
that  capacity  did  much  to  improve  the  in- 
ternal condition  of  the  country. 

Cabakdji  {d.  1808),  Turkish  commander, 
in  1S07  led  his  troops  to  Constantinople, 
deposed  the  Sultan  SeUm,  and  proclaimed 
Mustapha  in  his  stead. 

Cabanel,  Alexandre  {b.  1825,  d.  1889), 
French  painter,  began  to  exhibit  in  1844; 
in  1868  was  appointed  professor  of  paint- 
ing in  the  School  of  Art,  and  taught  with 


success.  His  earlier  works  are  chiefly  on 
scriptural  subjects ;  later  he  painted  por- 
traits and  scenes  from  mythology. 

Cabanis,  Pierre  Jean  George  (Jb.  1757,  d. 
1808),  phj^sician,  man  of  letters,  and  philo- 
sophical writer,  friend  of  Mirabeau,  whose 
political  aims  he  shared.  His  chief  work  is 
Des  Rapports  du  Fhysique  et  du  Moral  de 
VHomme. 

Cabarrus,  Franqois,  Comte  de  (6. 1752,  d. 
1810),  went  to  Spain  in  early  life,  and  there 
became  minister  of  finance. 

Cabasole,  Philippe  de  (6.  1305,  d.  1371), 
French  cardinal,  friend  of  Petrarch,  and 
papal  superintendent  of  Italy  while  the 
popes  resided  at  Avignon. 


Cab 


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Cad 


Cabel  or  Kabel,  Adrian  van  der  (6.  1631, 
d.  1095),  Dutch  painter,  excelled  in  land- 
scapes, sea-pieces,  and  cattle.  His  style 
somewhat  resembles  that  of  Salvator  Rosa. 

Cabet,  Etienne  {b.  1788,  d.  1856),  founder 
of  the  ''Icarians,"  Communists  so-called 
from  his  Utopian  Voyage  en  Icarie,  pub- 
lished in  1842.  In  1848  they  made  an  at- 
tempt to  realise  their  ideal  in  the  city  of 
Nauvoo  in  Texas,  fonnerly  inhabited  by 
Mormons,  Cabet  being  appointed  ruler ;  the 
settlement  did  not  survive  his  death. 

Cabeza  de  Vacca,  Alvar  Nunez,  Spanish 
traveller,  was  appointed  governor  of  La 
Plata  in  15139,  and  left  an  account  of 
Paraguay. 

Cabezalero,  Juan  Martin  de  (b.  1633,  d. 
1673),  Spanish  historical  painter  of  high 
reputation.  His  chief  works  are  in  Madrid, 
where  he  painted  for  the  churches  and 
convents. 

Cable,  George  "W.  (h.  1844),  American 
author,  has  written  Old  Creole  Bayn  (1879), 
Dr.  Sevier  (1883),  and  other  novels,  giving 
a  graphic  picture  of  Creole  and  negro  Life. 

Cabot,  John  (6.  1420,  d.  circa  1498),  ori- 
ginally a  Venetian  pilot,  settled  in  Bristol 
about  1472,  obtained  letters  patent  from 
Henry  VII.  to  discover  unknown  lands, 
sailed  with  his  sons  in  1497,  and  sighted  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  or  Labrador  and 
Florida. 

Cabot,  Sebastian  (6.  1473  or  77,  d.  1557), 
son  of  the  preceding,  accompanied  his  father 
in  1497 ;  was  in  the  service  of  Spain  from 
1512  to  1548,  except  for  a  visit  to  England  in 
1516-19  ;  led  an  expedition  to  Brazil  in  1526, 
and  visited  the  river  La  Plata,  remaining 
four  years,  but  failed  to  effect  the  conquest 
of  the  country.  After  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  founded  the  Company  of  Mer- 
chant Adventurers  to  trade  with  Russia. 

Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez  {b.  circa  1460,  d. 
circa  lo26),  Portuguese  navigator,  in  1500 
established  a  factory  at  Calicut,  and  on  his 
way  thither  discovered  Brazil 

Cabrera,  Bernard  de  {d.  1364),  Spanish 
statesman,  minister  of  Pedro  IV.  of  Ara- 
gon,  conquered  Majorca,  and  defeated  the 
Genoese  fleet,  but  losing  favour  ■w^th  the 
king,  was  beheaded. 

Cabrera,  Don  Ramon  (6.  1810,  d.  1877), 
Count  de  Morella  and  Duke  de  la  Vit- 
toria,  entered  the  Church,  but  when  civil 
war  broke  out,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
yn.,  in  1833,  joined  Don  Carlos,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  cruelty  to  the 
adherents  of  Christina.  Completely  defeated 
by  General  Espartero  in  1840,  and  severely 


wounded  at  Pasteral  in  1849,  he  left  Spain, 
and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  Ufe  in 
foreign  countries. 

CabriUo,  Juan  Rodriguez  {d.  1543), 
Portuguese  navigator,  discovered  Santa 
Cruz,  Santa  Rosa,  and  other  islands. 

Caccia,  Gugliebno  {b.  1568,  d.  1625), 
Italian  fresco-painter,  named  Moncalvo, 
from  his  place  of  residence.  His  mastei-piece 
is  the  I)(positio)t  from  the  Cross  at  No  vara. 
Other  of  his  works  are  in  Milan  and  Pavia. 

Caccini,  Giulio  {h.  circa  1560,  d.  circa 
1610),  Italian  musician,  composed  several 
melodramatic  works. 

Cada-Mosto,  Ahase  (Luigi)  (J.  1432), 
Venetian  navigator  in  the  service  of  the  King 
of  Portugal,  explored  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  discovered  the  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
and  left  an  account  of  his  voyages. 

Cade,  Jack  {d.  1450),  an  Irishman  who 
assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer  and  headed 
a  rebellion  against  Lancastrian  misgovem- 
ment,  probably  in  favour  of  the  Duke  of 
York.  He  defeated  the  royal  forces  at 
Sevenoaks,  marched  into  London,  and 
executed  Lord  Say ;  but  his  followers  were 
soon  dispersed,  and  he  himself  slain. 

CadeU,  Francis  {b.  1822,  d.  1879),  Austra- 
lian explorer,  in  1850  sailed  many  hundred 
miles  along  the  Murray.  In  consequence  of 
his  observations  the  "Murray  Steam  Navi- 
gation Company"  was  formed,  which  has 
done  much  to  develop  the  resources  of 
Australia. 

Cadoc,  Saint  {d.  circa  570),  founder  of 
the  Welsh  monastery  at  Llancarvan. 

Cadogan,  Hon.  Henry  {b.  1780,  d.  1813), 
English  officer,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Peninsular  war,  and  was  mortally  wounded 
at  Vittoria. 

Cadogan,  William,  Earl  of  (b.  1675,  d. 
1726),  English  officer,  served  under  Marl- 
borough at  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  and  else- 
where. He  was  made  commander-in-chief 
and  raised  to  the  peerage  by  George  I. ,  who 
employed  him  as  a  diplomatist. 

Cadoudal,  George  (*.  1771,  d.  1804),  a 
famous  chief  of  the  Chouans,  who  with  the 
Vendeans  upheld  the  cause  of  the  royalists. 
In  1800  he  retired  to  London,  but  returning 
to  excite  the  royalists,  he  was  acciised  of 
planning  Napoleon's  death,  and  executed. 

Cadovius  or  Miiller,  John  {b.  1650,  d. 
1725),  learned  native  of  Friesland,  authoi 
of  the  valuable  Memoriale  Lingua  Frisica 
Antiqucc. 

Cadroe,  Scottish  saint  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury,  studied  at  Armagh,  and   journeyed 


Cad 


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Cses 


through  Eugland  to  Gaul,  where  he  became 
abbot"  of  Wassor  ou  the  Meuse,  and  St. 
Felix,  uear  Metz. 

Cadvan,  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century, 
founder  and  first  abbot  of  a  monastery  ou 
Bardsey  island.  Also  founded  the  churches 
of  Llaugadvau,  in  Montgomeryshire,  and 
Towyu,  m  Merionethshire.  In  the  latter  a 
pillar  called  "St.  Cadvau's  Stone,"  with  a 
Welsh  inscription,  still  remains. 

Cadwaladyr,  called  Vendigaid,  or  "The 
Blessed  "  (rf.  664  V),  a  king  of  the  Britons,  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Cadwallawn. 

Cadwallader,  John  (b.  Philadelphia  circa 
1743,  d.  17S6),  American  officer,  prominent 
during  the  revolutionary  war  as  a  leader 
of  militia  and  volunteers. 

Cadwalloa,  a  prince  of  North  Wales  in 
the  7  th  century,  was  constantly  at  war 
with  the  Saxons. 

Caecilius  Statius  {d.  b.o.  168),  a  native  of 
Milan,  wrote  comedies,  of  which  frag- 
ments alone  remain. 

Caedmoa,  {d.  circa  680),  Anglo-Saxon 
poet,  born  in  Northumbria,  originally  a 
cow-herd,  was  inspired  in  a  dream  to  sing 
the  story  of  the  creation ;  entered  the 
monastery  of  Whitby  under  the  Abbess 
Hilda,  and  was  taught  the  story  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  which  he  paraphrased 
in  verse.  Much  of  the  poetry  attributed  to 
him  is  now  known  to  be  older. 

Csesalpinus,  Andrea  (4.  1519,  d.  1603), 
Italian  physician,  naturalist,  and  adherent 
of  Aristotle,  whose  system  he  expounded  in 
his  Qiicestinnes  Feripateticce.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  work  JDe  Plantis. 

Caesar,  Aquilinus  Julius  {b.  Gratz,  Styria, 
1720,  d.  1792),  a  learned  antiquarian. 

Caesar,  Caius  Julius  {b.  B.C.  100,  d.-a.a.  44), 
belonged  to  an  old  patrician  family,  but  was 
connected  with  the  popular  party  through 
his  auut  Julia,  who  married  Marius,  and 
his  wife  Cornelia,  daughter  of  the  Marian 
leader  L.  Ciuna.  Proscribed  by  Sulla  in 
81  for  refusing  to  put  her  away,  he  was 
spared  through  the  intercession  of  the  Vestal 
Virgins,  but  dreading  his  power,  he  withdrew 
into  Asia,  where  he  served  under  M.  Miuu- 
cius  Thermus,  earning  a  civic  crown  at  the 
siege  of  Mityleue.  On  the  death  of  Sulla 
(B.C.  7S)  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  prac- 
tised as  an  orator,  winning  much  applause 
by  his  prosecution  of  Cn.  Dolabella  for  ex- 
tortion in  his  province  of  Macedonia.  To 
perfect  himself  in  oratory  he  repaired  to 
Khodes,  but  on  his  way  there  was  captured 
by  pirates.     After   gaining   his   liberty  by 


paying  a  ransom  of  fifty  talents,  he  fitted 
out  a  squadron  at  Miletus,  subdued  the 
pirate  fleet,  and  caused  the  greater  number 
of  his  captives  to  be  crucified  at  Pergamus. 
He  now  studied  for  a  time  under  Apollonius 
at  Rhodes,  and,  crossing  over  to  Asia  in  74, 
collected  a  body  of  men  on  liis  own  respon- 
sibility and  defeated  the  general  of  King 
Mithridates.  Elected  poutitf  during  his 
absence,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  became 
successively  quaestor  (68),  curule  aedile  (67), 
and  prastor  (62).  In  61,  as  proprastor 
in  Spain,  he  subdued  the  Lusitanians, 
and  on  his  return  was  elected  consul,  and 
formed  the  coaUtion  with  Pompey  and 
Crassus  known  as  the  first  triumvirate 
(60) ;  his  union  with  Pompey  was  further 
strengthened  by  the  marriage  of  the  latter 
to  his  daughter  Julia.  During  his  consiil- 
ship  an  agrarian  law  and  a  measure  of  relief 
to  the  Equites  increased  his  popularity,  and 
a  bill  was  passed  by  the  people  granting 
hi  in  the  two  Gauls  and  Illyricum  for  five 
years  (58—53).  An  interview  with  Pompey 
and  Crassus  at  Luca,  in  56,  resulted  in  the 
extension  of  his  government  over  another 
five  (to  the  end  of  49).  During  the  years 
58 — 52  he  defeated  the  Helvetii,  and  drove 
Ariovistus  over  the  Rhine  (58) ;  subdued 
the  Nervii  (57)  ;  conquered  the  Gauls  of  the 
North- West,  thus  completing  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  country  (56)  ;  routed  two  Ger- 
man tribes  (55) ;  tvdce  visited  Britain  (55, 
54),  and  gained  some  successes,  though  no 
permanent  settlement  was  made,  and  quelled 
three  Gallic  insurrections  (54,  53,  52)  ;  the 
year  51  was  occupied  in  the  pacification  of 
Gaul.  Meanwhile  Pompey,  whom  the 
death  of  Crassus  in  54  had  left  his  sole  rival, 
had  attached  himself  to  the  senatorial  party, 
and,  with  them,  had  intrigued  against  him 
in  his  absence.  War  between  the  two  was 
now  imminent.  Caesar  led  his  army  to 
Ravenna ;  the  senate  declared  him  an 
enemy  to  the  state  unless  he  disbanded  his 
army  by  a  certain  day,  and  the  consuls  were 
invested  with  dictatorial  power.  Caesar 
crossed  the  Rubicon  (Jan.  16,  49),  marched 
victoriously  to  Rome,  and  then  pursued 
Pompey,  who  had  fled  to  Brundisium  and 
succeeded  in  escaping  to  Greece.  After 
crossing  to  Spain  and  there  defeating  Pom- 
pey's  lieutenants,  Caesar  paid  a  short  visit 
to  Rome,  where  the  office  of  dictator  had 
been  conferred  upon  him  in  his  absence.  In 
January,  48,  Caesar,  now  appointed  consul, 
crossed  over  into  Greece,  where  Pompey 
had  collected  a  formidable  anny,  and, 
though  repulsed  at  first  before  Dyrrachium, 
defeated  Pompey  in  the  decisive  battle  of 
Pharsalia  (August,  48),  and  pursued  him 
into  Egypt,  where  he  was  treacherously 
assassinated  by  Ptolemy's  generals.  Fas- 
cinated by  Cleopatra,  Ptolemy's  sister, 
Caesar  arranged  a  division  of  the  kingdom 
between   her  and  her   brother,  and   then 


Caes 


(177) 


Cai 


proceeded  to  Pontus,  where  he  defeated 
Phamaces,  son  of  Mithridates,  in  a  battle 
near  Zela.  A  two  months'  visit  to  Rome, 
where  he  had  a  second  time  been  appointed 
dictator,  was  followed  by  a  brief  camjiaign 
against  Scipio  and  Cato  in  Africa,  resulting 
in  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Pompeiau 
anny  at  Thapsus  (April,  46) ;  Cato  com- 
mitted suicide  at  Utica.  Caesar  now  felt 
himself  master  of  the  Roman  world,  and, 
instead  of  imitating  the  proscriptions  of 
Marius  and  Sulla,  determined  by  a  liberal 
and  magnanimous  policy  to  establish  his 
government  on  a  firm  basis.  He  celebrated 
four  triurajihs,  all  for  victories  over  foreign 
foes ;  made  sumptuary  enactments ;  cor- 
rected the  calendar ;  and  was  meditating 
further  reforms,  when  he  heard  of  the  re- 
volt of  the  sons  of  Pompey  in  Spain.  They 
were  defeated  at  Munda  (March.  45). 
Caesar  returned  in  September,  and  was 
nominated  consul  for  ten  years,  and  dictator 
and  prasfectus  morum  for  life.  M.  Antonius 
shared  the  consulship  in  44,  and  M.  Lepidus 
was  made  master  of  the  horse.  It  is  prob- 
able, from  the  schemes  he  is  known  to  have 
planned,  that  Caesar  would  have  proved  a 
beneficent  ruler  if  his  Hfe  had  not  been 
abruptly  closed.  Whatever  may  have  been 
his  motive  in  inducing  Antonius  to  offer  him 
the  diadem  at  the  feast  of  Lupercalia,  it 
aroused  the  indignation  of  C.  Cassius  Lon- 
ginus,  who,  in  conjunction  with  M.  Junius 
Brutus  and  others,  assassinated  him  at  the 
foot  of  Pompey's  statue  on  the  Ides  of  March 
(March  15),  in  the  year  44,  Of  Caesar's 
literary  works,  the  Commentaries,  containing 
accounts  of  the  Gallic  and  civil  wars,  alone 
remain. 

Csesaxius  (4.  470,  d.  542),  prelate,  who, 
as  bishop  of  Aries,  presided  at  several 
councils,  and  did  much  to  restore  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  Church. 

Caffa,  Melchior  {b.  1631,  d.  1687),  Italian 
sculptor,  pupil  of  Bernini ;  many  of  his  works 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  churches  of  Rome. 

CafiFarelli,  Fran9oi8 Marie Auguste (b.l 766, 
d.  1849),  entered  the  republican  army  as  a 
private  dragoon,  commanded  a  division  at 
Austerlitz,  and  in  1831  was  made  a  peer  of 
France. 

CaffareUi  du  Falga,  Louis  Marie  Joseph 
Maximilien  {b.  1756,  d.  1799),  French 
officer  of  engineers,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, served  in  the  campaign  under  Jourdan 
in  1795,  and  commanded  the  engineers  in 
the  expedition  to  Egypt.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  while  conducting  the  investment 
of  St.  Jean  d'Acre. 

Cafifaro  (/;.  1080,  d.  1166),  Italian  chroni- 
cler, whose  history  of  Genoa  throws  much 
light  on  the  part  taken  by  the  Italian  re- 
publics in  the  Crusades. 
M 


Cafferty,  James  H.  (5.  1819,  d.  1869), 
American  painter  of  portraits  and  still  life, 
became  an  academician  in  1853. 

Cagliari,  Benedetto  (b.  1538,  d.  1598), 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  brother  of 
Paolo  Veronese,  also  famed  for  his  skill  in 
architecture. 

Cagliari,  Carletto  {b.  1570,  d.  1596),  son 
and  pupil  of  Paolo,  gave  promise  of  great 
excellence,  but  died  at  an  early  age. 

Cagliari,  Paolo.     [See  Veronese,  Paolo.] 

Cagliostro,  Alessandro  (b.  1743,  d.  1795), 
adventurer,  endowed  with  a  remarkable 
aptitude  for  enforcing  belief.  After  im- 
proving his  skill  in  charlatanism  by  a 
journey  in  the  East,  he  assumed  the  title 
of  Coimt,  and  married  a  Neapolitan,  Lo- 
renza  Feliciani,  with  whom  he  travelled 
over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  pretending  to 
have  discovered  the  philosopher's  stone,  the 
water  of  beauty,  etc.  He  was  a  protege  of 
Cardinal  de  Rohan,  and  was  concerned  in 
the  affair  of  the  diamond  necklace.  Im- 
prudently returning  to  Rome  in  1789,  he 
was  detected,  seized,  and  imprisoned  for 
life. 

^^Cagniard  de  la  Tour,  Charles,  Baron  (*. 
1777,  d.  1859),  French  physicist,  made  nu- 
merous and  valuable  researches  in  mechanics, 
chemistry,  and  physics. 

Cagnola,  Luigi,  Marquis  of  (b.  1762,  d. 
1833),  Italian  architect,  who,  besides  other 
works,  designed  the  Arch  of  Peace  at  Milan 
commemorating  the  marriage  of  Eugene 
Beauhamais,  said  to  be  the  finest  modem 
specimen  of  its  kind. 

Cagnoli,  Antonio  (b.  1743,  d.  1816), 
distinguished  astronomer  and  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Modena,  left  several  works 
on  trigonometry  and  other  mathematical 
subjects. 

Cahen,  Samuel  {b.  1796,  d.  1862),  of 
Jewish  descent,  became  director  of  a  Jewish 
school  at  Paris,  and  there  completed  a 
translation  of  the  Bible. 

Caber  B'illali,  Abu  Mansoor  Mohammed 
{d.  950),  nineteenth  caliph  of  the  Abassides, 
succeeded  his  brother  in  922,  but  after  two 
years  was  displaced  and  blinded,  and  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  great  want. 

Caiet,  Pierre  Victor  Palma  {b.  1525,  d. 
1610),  French  divine  and  author  of  historical 
and  controversial  works.  For  many  years 
a  Calvinistic  minister,  he  became  in  old 
age  a  convert  to  Roman  Catholicism,  and 
was  in  consequence  charged  with  immorality 
and  the  practice  of  magic. 

Caigniez,  Louis  Charles  {b.  1762,  d.  1842), 
French  dramatic   author.    Amons  his  best 


Cai 


(  178 


Caj 


works  are  Le  Jugement  de  Salomon  and  Za 
Fie  Voleuse. 

Cailliava  de  lEstendoux,  Jean  Frangois 
{h.  1731,  d.  I8I0),  French  writer  of  comedies, 
wiiose  best  piece  was  V Eijo'iame.  He  was 
an  admirer  and  imitator  of  Moli^re. 

Caillaxd,  Antoine  Bernard  {h.  1737,  d. 
1807),  French  diplomatist  and  man  of 
letters,  author  of  Memoires  sur  la  Eevolution 
de  Hollande, 

CaiUe,  Rene  {b.  1799,  d.  1838),  French 
traveller,  starting  from  Sierra  Leone  in 
April,  1827,  disguised  in  Arab  costume, 
made  his  way  through  unexplored  regions  to 
Timbuctoo,  and  thence  to  Fez,  which  he 
reached  in  August,  1828,  thus  obtaining  the 
prize  of  10,000  francs  offered  to  the  fii-st 
traveller  who  should  visit  Timbuctoo. 

Caillet,  Guillaimie,  French  peasant, 
headed  the  rising  of  La  Jacquerie  in  the 
south  of  France  in  1358,  and  was  captured 
by  Charles  of  Navarre  and  executed. 

Cailliaud,  Fr^d^ric  (J.  1787,  d.  1869), 
French  explorer  of  Upper  Egypt,  in  1815 
traced  the  course  of  the  Upper  Nile  into 
Nubia,  and  discovered  the  ancient  emerald 
mines  of  Moimt  Zabareh.  From  1820  to 
1823  he  explored  the  site  of  Meroe  and  the 
temple  of  Antmon,  and  has  written  on  the 
life  and  manners  of  the  ancient  and  modern 
inhabitants. 

Caillot,  Joseph  {b.  1732,  d.  1816),  French 
comic  actor;  he  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1772. 

Cain,  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve, 
and  the  murderer  of  his  brother  Abel. 

Caird,  The  Rev.  John  {b.  1820),  principal 
of  Glasgow  University,  an  eloquent  preacher 
of  the  Scotch  Established  Church,  has  pub- 
lished sermons  and  An  Introduction  to  the 
Philosophy  of  Religion  (1880),  which  shows 
the  influence  of  Hegel. 

Caimes,  John  Elliott  {b.  1824,  d. 
1875),  professor  of  political  economy  at 
Queen's  CoUege,  Galway,  and  afterwards 
at  University  College,  London,  wrote  The 
Logical  Method  of  Folitical  Economy,  and 
other  treatises  marked  by  severe  precision 
of  argument. 

Calms,  Hugh  MacCalmont,  Earl  (b.  1819, 
d.  I880),  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  Great 
Britain,  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, and  was  called  to  the  Enghsh  bar  in 
1844.  Elected  member  of  Parliament  for 
BeKast,  he  soon  became  known  as  a  ready 
and  eloquent  debater,  was  Solicitor-General 
in  Lord  Derby's  administration  of  1858,  and 
in  1866  Attorney-General.  The  following 
year  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 


Cairns  of  Garmoyle,  and  in  Mr.  Disraeli'i 
administration  (1868)  became  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. He  opposed  the  disestablishment  of 
the  Irish  Church  with  much  ability.  Ap- 
pointed leadei  of  the  opposition  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  he  originated  the  scheme 
for  the  fusion  of  law  and  equity,  after- 
wards canied  into  effect  by  Lord  Sel- 
borne;  and  to  him  are  also  due  the  Con- 
veyancing Bill  (1881)  and  the  Settled  Estates 
Bill  (1882).  He  was  again  Lord  Chancellor 
1874-80.  In  1878  he  was  created  Vis- 
count Garmoyle,  and  Earl  Cairns  in  the 
peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Cairo,  Cavaliere  Francesco  (b.  1598, 
d.  1674),  Italian  painter,  studied  at 
Milan,  Rome  and  Venice,  and  thus  had 
three  styles  at  his  command.  His  picture 
of  Saint  Theresa  at  Venice,  and  that  of  the 
Virgin  in  the  chapel  of  the  Chartreuse  at 
Pavia,  are  much  admired. 

Cairoli,  Benedetto  (b.  1826,  d.  1889),  Italian 
statesman,  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
revolution  of  1848,  and  also  agaiast  the 
Austrians  (1859-1866),  was  appointed  pre- 
mier in  1878,  and  was  subsequently  mioister 
of  the  interior.  In  1878  he  saved  the  king 
from  assassination.  Since  his  final  retire- 
ment in  1881  Cairoli  has  been  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  "  Historic  "  Left. 

Cait-Bey  (d.  1495),  seventeenth  sultan  of 
the  Circassian  dynasty  of  Mamelukes  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  originally  a  slave,  came 
to  the  throne  in  1457,  and  after  a  struggle  of 
six  years  secured  his  dominions  against  the 
Ottomans. 

Caius,  Csesar  (b.  b.c.  20,  d.  a.d.  4), 
Roman  general,  son  of  Marcus  Agrippa 
and  Julia,  daughter  of  Augustus,  served  in 
Germany  under  Tiberius,  and  afterwards 
fought  with  success  against  the  Arabians, 
Armenians,  and  Parthians,  but  died  when 
only  twenty -three. 

Caius,  John  Q>.  1510,  d.  1573),  studied  at 
Gonville  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  became 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  ;  was 
also  royal  physician,  and  bequeathed  his 
fortune  to  build  a  new  college  to  Gonville 
Hall,  which  then  became  Gonville  and 
Caius  College. 

Caius,  Saint  {d.  296) ,  native  of  Dahnatia, 
and  nephew  of  Diocletian,  became  pope  in 
283. 

Caius,  Thomas  {d.  1572),  master  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford,  translated  Euripides, 
Aristotle,  Erasmus,  etc.,  and  also  wrote  on 
the  antiquities  of  the  college. 

Cajetan,  Cardinal,  Thomas  de  Vio  (i. 
1469,  d.  1534),  ItaUan  ecclesiastic,  became 
general  of  the  Dominican  order  1508,  and 
papal  legate  in  Germany  1518,  when  Luther 


Cal 


(179) 


Cal 


was  summoned  before  him  at  Augsburg  to 
retract  his  opinion  on  indulgences. 

Calamis,  Greek  scidptor  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  left  a  Bacchus f  a  Fenus,  and 
many  other  works. 

Calamy,  Edmund  {b.  1600,  d.  1666), 
clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England,  in 
consequence  of  the  Book  of  Sports  became 
a  bitter  Nonconformist,  and  was  one  of  the 
Prssbyterian  representatives  at  the  Savoy 
Conference.  He  was  steadily  opposed  to 
the  death  of  Charles  I. 

Calancha,  Frey  Antonio  de  la,  Peruvian 
wiiter  of  the  early  half  of  the  17th  century, 
and  prior  of  a  convent  in  TruxiUo,  wrote 
on  the  antiquities  of  his  coimtry. 

Calandra,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  1568,  d. 
1644),  worker  in  mosaic,  employed  by 
Urban  VIIX  to  replace  with  mosaics  some 
paintings  in  St.  Peter's  which  were  injured 
by  damp. 

Calandrelli,  Ludovico  {b.  1817,  d.  1859), 
Italian  officer  of  artillery,  took  a  biilliant 
part  in  the  defence  of  Home  against  the 
French,  and  on  the  fall  of  that  city  retired 
to  Berlin. 

Calandrucci,  Giacinto  ib.  1646,  d.  1707), 
painter  of  note,  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratti  at 
Rome,  executed  some  valuable  works  for 
the  churches  and  convents  of  Palermo. 

Galas,  Jean  {b.  1698,  d.  1762),  Pro- 
testant citizen  of  Toulouse,  cruelly  put  to 
death  on  a  charge  of  strangling  his  son  to 
prevent  his  becoming  a  Roman  Catholic ; 
his  innocence  was  afterwards  estabhshed. 

Calcagnini,  Celio  {b.  Ferrara,  1479,  <^. 
1541),  learned  man  who  combined  with 
military  and  diplomatic  business  the  study 
of  literature  and  science,  and  forestalled 
GaHleo  in  discovering  the  earth's  motion. 

Calcar,  Johann  Stephan  von  {b.  1499,  d. 
1546),  pupil  of  Titian,  to  whom  many  of 
his  paintings  have  been  attributed.  He 
also  imitated  Raphael  with  considerable 
success. 

Calceolari,  Franqoie,  an  Italian  botanist 
and  apothecary  of  Verona  in  the  16th 
century,  left  a  treatise  on  the  flora  of  Moimt 
Baldo,  entitled  Iter  Baldi  Montis.  The 
calceolaria  was  named  in  his  honour. 

Calchi,  Tristan  (b.  1462,  d.  1516),  called 
the  "  Livy  of  Milan,"  wrote  a  history  of 
Milan  to  1323,  entitled  Historia  Patrice. 

Caldara,  Antonio  (b.  1678,  d.  1763), 
musical  composer  and  author  of  operas, 
went  to  Rome  and  to  Vienna,  where  he 
taught  the  emperor  Charles  VI. 

Caldas,  Francisco  Jose  de  (jb.  circa  1770, 
d.     1816),     American    scientifit,    measured 
h2 


the  heights  of  Chimborazo  and  Timgu- 
eragua,  and  was  director  of  the  observatory 
at  Bogota.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  in- 
dependence, and  was  executed  by  Morillo. 

Caldecott,  Randolph  (*.  1846,  d.  1886), 
artist  unrivalled  in  the  representation  of 
htimour  in  animals,  and  scenes  of  old- 
fashioned  country  life,  best  known  from 
his  illustrated  books  for  children.  In  1882 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
Painters  in' Water  Colours,  and  occasionally 
exhibited  in  the  Royal  Academy. 

Calder,  Sir  Robert  {b.  1745,  d.  1818), 
EngUsh  admu-al,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  battle  off  Cape  St.  Vincent.  In  1805  he 
encountered  the  French  and  Spanish  fleet 
with  a  greatly  inferior  force,  and  though 
he  took  two  of  the  enemy's  ships,  was 
reprimanded  for  not  continuing  the  combat. 

Calderon,  Don  Serafin  Estevan  {b. 
1801,  d.  1867),  Spanish  poet,  and  pro- 
fessor of  poetry  and  rhetoric  at  Granada, 
wrote  Poesias  del  Solitario,  Christianas  y 
Moriscos,  and  other  works. 

Calderon,  Philip  Hermogenes,  R.A.  (J. 
Poitiers,  1833),  historical  and  subject 
painter,  has  exhibited  By  Babylon^ s  Waters 
(1853),  Whither  (1868),  Home  they  brought 
her  Warrior  Dead  (1877),  St.  EUzabeth  oj 
Hungary  (1891),  and  many  other  pictures, 
in  the  Royal  Academy. 

Calderon  de  la  Barca,  Don  Pedro  {b.  1600, 
d.  1681),  Spanish  dramatist,  educated  at  the 
Jesuit  college  at  Madrid,  and  the  imiversity 
of  Salamanca.  His  mind  early  assumed  a 
religious  cast,  first  shown  in  the  drama  La 
Devocion  de  la  Cruz,  vrritten  at  the  age  of 
eighteen.  WhUe  serving  against  the  Mila- 
nese in  the  Low  Countries  he  wrote  the 
Siege  of  Breda,  and  on  the  death  of  Lope 
de  Vega,  in  1635,  became  the  leading  poet 
in  Spain.  In  1651  he  took  holy  orders,  and 
thenceforward  wrote  little  else  than  sacred 
dramas,  or  "autos."  His  position  as 
court  chaplain  enabled  him  to  give  full  rein 
to  his  imagination,  and  he  left  altogether 
170  dramas,  secular  and  sacred,  besides 
many  smaller  poems,  sonnets,  etc  His 
works,  which  received  a  rare  appreciation 
during  their  author's  hfe,  still  enjoy  a 
world-wide  reputation,  and  have  been 
translated  into  the  various  languages  of 
Europe. 

Calderwood,  Rev.  Henry  (J.  1830),  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  author  of  works 
on  ethics,  psychology,  and  metaphysics. 

Caldwell,  George  Chapman  {b.  1834), 
American  chemist,  and  authority  on 
chemistry  as  apphed  to  agriculture,  has 
written  on  chemical  analysis  and  kindred 
topics. 


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Calendario,  Filippo,  Italian  architect  of 
the  earh'  part  of  the  loth  century,  exe- 
cuted the  work  of  the  porticoes  around  the 
Piiizzo  San  Marco  at  Venice. 

Calepino,  Ambrogio  {b.  1435,  d.  1511), 
Italian  monk  and  pmlologist,  author  of  one 
of  the  earliest  Latin  dictionaries  (1502), 
-which  formed  the  groundwork  of  later 
collections. 

Camoun,  John  Caldwell  (b,  1782,  d. 
1850),  American  lawyer  and  statesman, 
effected  great  reforms  as  secretary  of 
waj  in  1817,  and  in  1825  became  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States.  He 
advocated  slavery  and  the  dissolution  of  the 
Union. 

Calidasa,  Hindoo  poet  of  the  1st  or  2nd 
century  B.C.  His  most  celebrated  tragedy 
SakunUxhi,  or  The  Fatal  Ring,  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  Professor  Monier 
Williams  (1855)  and  others. 

Caligula,  Cains  Caesar  Augustus  Ger- 
manicus  {b.  12,  d.  41),  Emperor  of  Rome, 
son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  suc- 
ceeded his  patron  Tiberius  in  37,  and 
for  a  few  months  set  himself  to  reform 
the  state  and  society.  Soon,  however, 
he  underwent  a  complete  change ;  he 
claimed  divine  honours ;  his  madness, 
cruelty,  and  extravagance  were  indescrib- 
able, and  he  was  murdered  by  the 
Praetorian  guards. 

Calkoen,  Johann  Frederik  van  Beek  (5. 
1772,  d.  1811),  Dutch  astronomer,  studied 
at  Amsterdam,  was  appointed  professor  of 
astronomy  and  mathematics  at  Leyden,  and 
regulated  the  weights  and  measures  in  com- 
mon use. 

CaU,  Sir  John  (i.  1732,  d.  1801),  chief 
military  engineer  at  Fort  St.  David,  and 
afterwards  at  Madras ;  also  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaign  against  Hyder 
Ali. 

CaUanan,  James  Joseph  (b.  Cork,  1795, 
d.  Lisbon,  1829),  Irish  poet,  leaving 
Trinity  College,  enlisted,  and  after  his 
release  gained  a  scanty  livelihood  by  teach- 
ing. He  wandered  through  Ireland  collect- 
ing its  legends,  and  afterwards  went  as 
private  tujfor  to  Portugal.  Besides  writing 
lyrics,  of  which  Gougane  Barra  is  the  most 
famous,  he  translated  some  Portuguese 
poetry. 

CaUcot^,  Sir  Augustus  Wall,  R.A.  {b. 
1779,  d.  1844),  at  first  a  chorister,  aban- 
doned music,  and  became  a  painter  of 
landscapes  and  sea-pieces;  some  of  his 
pictures  are  now  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum. 

Callcott,  John  WaU   (A.  1766,  d.  1821), 


brother  of  the  preceding,  organist  and 
musical  composer,  famous  for  his  glees, 
catches,  and  canons;  helped  to  form  the 
Glee  Club.    Died  insane. 

Callcott,  Maria,  Lady  {b.  1785,  d.  1842), 
daughter  of  Rear-Admiral  George  Dundas, 
and  wife  of  Sir  A.  W.  Callcott,  travelled  in 
India,  South  America,  and  Italy ;  wrote 
Three  Months  in  the  Environs  of  Rome,  a 
History  of  Spain,  etc. 

Callicrates,  Greek  architect  of  the  5th 
century  B.C.,  who,  with  Ictinus,  was 
employed  by  Pericles  to  construct  the 
Parthenon  of  Athens. 

Callicrates  {d.  149  b.c),  native  of  Leon- 
tiuiu  in  Achaia,  appointed  general  of  the 
Achaean  league,  always  subordinated  the 
interests  of  liis  country  to  those  of  Rome. 

Callicratidas  {d.  406  b.c),  Spartan 
general,  superseded  Lysander  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  tieet  at  Ephesus  ;  was  success- 
ful at  Delpliiuium,  Troas,  and  Methymna, 
but  was  drowned  the  same  year  in  an 
engagement  with  the  Athenians. 

Calli^res,  Francois  de  {b.  1645,  d.  1717), 
French  diplomatist  and  writer,  acted  as 
plenipotentiary  at  the  congress  of  Ryswick. 

Callimaclius  {d.  circa  240  b.c),  Greek 
grammarian  and  poet,  born  at  Cyrene,  tutor 
of  Apollonius  Rhodius,  against  whom  he 
wrote  the  Ibis,  imitated  by  Ovid.  Of  his 
works  only  a  few  hymns  and  epigrams 
remain. 

Callippus  {d.  351  b.c),  native  of  Athens, 
and  disciple  of  Plato  ;  went  to  Syracuse 
and  became  a  friend  of  Dion,  but  conspired 
against  him,  and  assumed  the  government. 
He  was  soon  afterwards  defeated  and 
assassinated  by  the  friends  of  Dion. 

Callippus  {b.  circa  330  B.C.),  Greek  as- 
tronomer, introduced  into  the  calendar 
the  "  Callippic  cycle,"  in  which  a  day  was 
to  be  subtracted  every  seventy-six  years, 
commencing  in  330  B.C. 

Callisthenes,  Olynthus  (5.  circa  365  B.C., 
d.  328  B.C.),  great-nephew  of  Aristotle, 
accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  to  Asia 
as  historian  of  the  expedition,  but  was 
accused  of  conspiring  against  him,  and 
executed.     His  works  have  perished. 

Callistus  I.  {d.  224),  pope,  bom  in 
slavery,  constructed  the  cemetery  on  the 
Appian  way. 

Callistus  IL  {d.  1124),  elected  pope 
during  the  controversy  respecting  investi- 
ture. The  E.nperor  Henry  V.  had  set  up 
the  anti-pope  Burdin,  but  Callistus  reduced 
Rome,  made  Burdin  prisoner,  and  con- 
cluded a  concordat  with  the  emperor,  who 


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relinquished  his  right  to  spiritual  investiture 
by  ring  and  crozier. 

Callistus  III.— 

(1)  An  anti-pope,  elected  1168,  through 
the  influence  of  Frederick  Barbarossa. 

(2)  CalUstus  ni.  {d.  1458),  pope,  of 
Spanish  birth,  noted  for  his  zeal  agaiost  the 
Tuiks. 

CaUoigne,  Jean  Robert  (jb.  1775,  d.  1830), 
Flemish  sculptor,  originally  a  potter. 

Callot,  Jacques  {b.  1592,  d.  163o),  French 
engraver,  studied  at  Rome  and  Florence, 
where  he  was  patronised  by  Cosmo  II. ; 
afterwards  safctled  at  Nancy.  Among  his 
best  engiuviugs  are  those  of  the  captiu'e  of 
Breda,  and  the  sieges  of  Rochelle  and  the 
Isle  of  Rh^. 

Calomarde,  Don  Francisco  Tadeo,  Duke 
(b.  1775,  d.  Toulouse,  1842),  Spanish  states- 
man, attempted  to  restore  absolutism  in 
Spain.  He  induced  Ferdinand  III.  to  change 
the  succession  while  on  his  death- bed,  and 
was  forced  to  flee  to  France. 

Calverley,  Charles  Stuart  (b.  1833,  d. 
1884),  won  a  high  reputation  as  a  scholar 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  wrote 
Verses  and  Translations  (1862),  Fly  Leaves 
(1872),  and  a  Verse- Translation  of  Theo- 
critus (1869).  His  parodies  are  facile  and 
humorous. 

Calvert,  Cecil  {d.  1676),  second  Lord 
Baltimore,  planted  the  colony  of  Maryland, 
but  does  not  seem  to  have  visited  it  himself. 
The  colonists  were  mostly  Roman  CathoHcs, 
but  all  Christians  were  tolerated. 

Calvert,  George  Henry  {b.  1803),  Ameri- 
can author,  descendant  of  the  Baltimore 
family,  studied  at  Harvard  and  Got- 
tingen,  edited  the  Baltimore  American, 
and  wrote  Count  Julian  (a  tragedy),  Scenes 
and  Thoughts  in  Europe,  etc. 

Calvert,  Sir  Harry,  General  {b.  circa  1763, 
d.  1826),  entered  the  army  1778,  became 
adjutant-general  1799 ;  served  in  America 
under  Clinton,  Howe,  and  Comwallis,  and  in 
Holland  under  the  Duke  of  York  ;  foimded 
military  colleges  and  the  miUtary  asylum 
at  Chelsea,  and  received  a  baronetcy  in 
1818. 

Calvert,  Leonard  {d.  1647),  brother  of 
Cecil,  second  Lord  Baltimore,  and  sent  out 
by  him  as  first  governor  of  Maryland  in 
1633. 

Calvl,  Lazzaro  {b.  1501,  d.  1606), 
Italian  artist,  pupil  of  Pierino  del  Vaga, 
worked  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
Pantaleo,  their  most  famous  painting  being 
The  Continence  of  Scipio.  He  poisoned 
Giacomo    Bargone,   and    through  jealousy 


of  Cambiaso  led  a  seafaring  life  for  twenty 
years. 

Calvin,  John  (*.  1509,  d.  1564),  bom  at 
Noyon,  educated  at  the  colleges  of  La 
Marche  and  Montaigu,  Paris,  held  some 
livings,  but  preferring  the  legal  profession 
did  not  proceed  to  priest's  orders.  While 
studying  law  at  Bouiges  he  learnt  Greek, 
and  on  reading  the  New  Testament  became 
a  Protestant.  He  removed  to  Paris,  and 
wrote  a  commentary  on  Seneca's  De 
dementia,  but  forced  by  persecution  to 
leave  France,  took  refuge  in  Basle.  In 
1536  appeared  his  Institutions  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion.  In  conjunction  with  Farel 
he  attempted  to  establish  a  kind  of  theo- 
cracy at  Geneva,  but  they  were  expelled  by 
the  council  in  1538,  and  retired  to  Zurich. 
Passing  on  to  Strasburg,  Calvin  became 
pastor  to  the  French  refugees,  married,  and 
published  his  Romans.  In  1541  Calvin  was 
invited  back  to  Geneva.  The  theocratic 
government  was  resumed,  and  here  he 
laboured  till  his  death.  Calvin  did  more 
than  any  other  man  towards  formulating 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Church.  The 
opinions  on  predestination  and  election 
called  "  Calvinistic  "  are  rather  those  of  his 
disciples  than  his  own. 

Calvisius,  Sethus  {b.  1556,  d.  1617), 
German  chronologist  and  musician,  director 
of  the  school  of  music,  Leipsic,  left 
numerous  works,  including  Opus  Chrono- 
logicum. 

Calvo,  Jean  Sauveur  de  (b.  1625,  d. 
1690),  joined  the  French  army,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  Flanders,  and 
afterwards  against  the  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
and  in  the  war  between  France  and  Spain. 

Cam,  Diego,  Portuguese  navigator  of 
the  15th  century,  explored  the  African 
coast,  and  discovered  the  Congo. 

Cambaceres,  The  Abbe  (b.  1722,  d.  1802), 
French  divine,  who  fearlessly  denounced 
the  irreligion  of  his  time. 

Cambaceres,  Jean  Jacques  Regis  de, 
Duke  of  Parma  [b.  1753,  d.  1824),  French 
jurist  and  statesman ;  minister  of  justice 
under  the  Directory,  and  also  during  the 
Himdi-ed  Days ;  second  consul  with  Na- 
poleon. 

Cambert,  Robert  {b.  circa  1628,  d.  1677), 
French  musician,  and  the  first  to  compose 
an  opera ;  went  to  England  in  1673,  and 
became  master  of  the  band  of  Charles  I. 

Cambiaso,  or  Cangiagio,  Luca  {b.  1527, 
d.  1585),  Italian  paiuter,  who,  on  the 
invitation  of  Philip  II.,  went  to  Spain, 
and  executed  several  paintings  in  fresco  and 
oil  for  the  Escurial.  Among  his  Genoese 
works  are  the  Martyrdom  of  St,  George^ 
and  the  Rape  of  the  Sabines. 


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Cambini,  Giuseppe  (5.  1746,  d.  circa 
1330),  musical  composer,  after  traveUing 
in  Italy  and  Germany  went  to  Paris  in 
1770,  and  there  composed  many  oratorios, 
concertos,  etc.  Died  in  the  hospital  of 
Bicetre,  a  ^'ictim  to  want  and  intemper- 
ance. 

Cambray-Digny,  Guglielmo,  Conte  di 
{b.  1823),  Italian  statesman,  minister  of 
fixiance  in  1867.  The  unpopularity  of  his 
measures  resulted  in  the  fall  of  the  govern- 
ment two  years  later. 

Cambridge,  H.R.H.  Adolphus  Frederick, 
Duke  of  (i.  1774,  d.  18.50),  seventh  and 
youngest  son  of  George  III.,  served  xm.der 
the  Duke  of  York  in  Flanders,  and  was 
Viceroy  of  Hanover  from  1813  to  1837. 

Cambridge,  H.R.H.  George  "William 
Frederick,  Duke  of  (J>.  1819),  son  of  the 
preceding,  succeeded  his  father  in  1850, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Crimea,  and 
was  nominated  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  army  in  1856. 

Cambridge,  Rev.  Octavius  Pickard  (Jb. 
1835),  uatm'aUst,  has  contributed  papers 
to  the  Zoologist  a.ui  Entomologist,  and  written 
works  on  the  Arachnida,  concerning  which  he 
is  considered  the  highest  living  authority. 

Cambronne,  Pierre  Jacques  Etienne, 
Baron  de  (*.  1770,  d.  1842),  French  gen- 
eral, served  under  Massena  in  Switzerland, 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Zmich,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  campaign  of  1812-13, 
accompanied  Napoleon  to  Elba,  and  com- 
manded a  division  at  Waterloo. 

Cambyses  {d.  521  B.C.),  King  of  Persia, 
succeeded  his  father  Cyrus  in  529,  con- 
quered Egypt  and  took  King  Psammetichus 
captive ;  died  from  the  effect  of  a  wound 
accidentally  inflicted  by  himself. 

Camden,  Charles  Pratt,  Earl  of  (b.  1713, 
d.  1794),  English  judge,  called  to  the  bar 
in  1738,  became  Attorney-General  under 
Pitt,  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas  in  1762,  and  in  that  capacity 
declared  general  warrants  illegal,  granting 
Wilkes  £1,000  damages,  a  course  which  ren- 
dered him  extremely  popular.  In  1765  he 
was  created  Lord  Camden,  and  was  Lord 
Chancellor  from  1766  to  1770.  He  disap- 
proved of  the  taxation  of  the  American 
colonies,  and  was  always  opposed  to  Lord 
North's  administration.  In  1782  he  was 
made  president  of  the  Council,  and  in  1786 
received  the  title  of  earl. 

Camden,  John  Jeffreys  Pratt,  Marquis  of 
(J).  1759,  d.  1840),  statesman,  son  of  the  first 
Earl  of  Camden,  entered  Parliament  in 
1730,  smd  became  a  follower  of  his  father 
and  Pitt ;  was  for  more  than  sixty  years  one 
of  the  tellers  of  the  Exchequer,  and  held 


office  as  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  (1795-8) 
and  Secretary  for  the  Colonies  (1804-5). 

Camden,  William  (b.  1551,  d.  1623),  be- 
came a  master  in  Westminster  school  in 
1575,  was  ten  years  writing  Britannia,  or  a 
Chorographical  description  of  England,  Scot' 
land,  and  Ireland  (1586),  which  established 
his  fame  ;  became  head-master  of  Westmin- 
ster in  1593,  and  in  1597  published  his  Greek 
grammar,  which  rapidly  passed  through 
forty  editions. 

Camelli,  or  Kamel,  George  Joseph, 
Jesuit  and  botanist  of  the  17th  century, 
while  occupied  as  a  missionary  in  the 
Philippine  Islands  made  some  valuable  ob- 
servations, published  in  Ray's  Universal 
History  of  Plants. 

Camerarius,  Joachim  {b.  1500,  d.  1574), 
scholar,  successively  rector  of  the  universi- 
ties of  Tubingen  and  Leipsic.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Melaucthon,  and  highly  esteemed 
by  the  Emperor  Maximilian. 

Camerarius,  Joachim  {b.  1534,  d.  1598), 
pliysician  and  botanist,  head  of  an  academy 
of  medicine  founded  at  Nuremberg  in  1592. 

Cameron,  John  {b.  1579,  d.  1625), 
Scottish  scholar  and  divine,  went  to  France, 
and  returning  in  1620,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  university  of  Glas- 
gow. 

Cameron,  John  (6.  circa  1579,  d.  1625), 
Scottish  divine,  principal  of  the  university  of 
Glasgow  in  1620,  which  office  he  resigned 
on  account  of  his  views  on  "  passive 
obedience." 

Cameron,  John  Alexander  (i.  1851,  d. 
1885),  war  correspondent;  was  in  Natal  in 
1380  ;  witnessed  the  bombardment  of  Alex- 
andria, and  perished  with  General  Stewart's 
column  on  the  Nile. 

Cameron,  Richard  (d.  1680),  Scottish  Pres- 
byterian, and  opponent  of  Charles  II.  ;  was 
executed  for  treason-rebellion  at  Edin- 
burgh. 

Camicia,  Chimenti,  Florentine  architect 
of  the  15th  century,  long  employed  at  the 
Hungarian  court. 

Camillo,  Francisco  {h.  1610,  d.  1671), 
Spanish  painter,  whose  works  are  to  be 
found  in  Madrid,  Toledo,  and  other  towns. 
His  picture  of  Our  Lady  in  the  church  of  St. 
John  at  Madrid  is  especially  admired. 

CamiUus,  Marcus  Furius  (d.  365  B.C.), 
Roman  general  ;  was  made  dictator  in 
396,  captured  Veil  and  Falerii ;  went  into 
voluntary  exile,  but  was  recalled  by  the 
Senate  on  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the 
Gauls,  whom  he  defeated.  He  was  five 
times  dictator. 


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Camoens,  or  Camoes,  Luis  de  (jb.  circa 
1524,  d.  1579),  Portuguese  poet,  bom 
at  Lisbon,  educated  at  the  university  of 
Coimbra,  remained  at  the  court  of  John 
HI.  till  driven  from  it  owing  to  his  pas- 
sion for  a  lady  of  rank,  perhaps  Catarina 
d'Atayde.  In  1550  he  joined  an  expedition 
to  Africa,  and  there  lost  his  right  eye  whilst 
boarding  a  Moorish  vessel.  He  returned  in 
1552,  but  iiuding  himself  neglected  sailed  to 
Goa,  whence,  after  many  adventures,  he 
was  banished  by  the  governor,  Francisco 
Ban-eto,  in  1556.  He  remained  for  three 
years  in  exile  at  Macao,  engaged  on  the 
Lmiad;  on  the  appointment  of  a  new 
governor  he  attempted  to  return  to  Goa, 
but  was  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  near 
Cochin,  and  lost  everything  but  his  poem, 
with  which  he  swam  to  land.  After  under- 
going an  imprisonment  for  debt,  Camoens 
returned  to  Portugal  in  1569,  and  published 
the  Lusiad  (a  beautiful  but  somewhat 
mythical  description  of  Vasco  de  Gama's 
expedition  to  India)  in  1572.  He  fell  into 
great  poverty,  and  is  said  to  have  died  in  an 
almshouse. 

Campan,  Jeanne  Louise  Henrietta  [b. 
1752,  d.  1822),  lady  of  the  bedchamber  to 
Marie  Antoinette,  after  the  Reign  of  Terror 
kept  a  school  at  St.  Germaiu :  was  made  by 
Napoleon  superintendent  of  the  imperial 
school  at  Ecouen  ;  wrote  Mimoires  sur  la 
Vie  Frivee  de  Marie  Antoinette. 

Campanella,  Tommaso  {b.  1568,  d.  1639), 
Italian  metaphysician  and  political  philoso- 
pher, attempted  to  substitute  an  inductive 
method  for  the  purely  deductive  reasoning 
of  the  schoolmen.  His  theory  that  all 
nations  would  at  last  become  united,  and 
evil  be  extinguished,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
germ  of  modem  socialism.  Persecuted  on 
account  of  his  political  and  religious  views, 
he  left  Italy  for  Paris,  where  he  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Richelieu. 

Campbell,  Andrew  {b.  1821),  American 
engineer,  invented  the  brush  -  drawer's 
vise  in  1837,  constructed  the  largest 
American  omnibus  in  1846,  and  the  longest 
single-span  wooden  bridge  over  Cedar 
river,  Iowa,  in  1850;  since  1851  has  made 
great  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
printing  presses. 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin.     {See  Clyde,  Lord.] 

Campbell,  Sir  George  {h.  1824,  d.  1892),  en- 
tered  the  Indian  Civil  Service  iu  1S42  ;  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1854.  Again  proceeding' 
to  India,  he  held  various  offices,  and  in  1871 
became  lieutenant-governor  of  Bengal.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1874,  and  was  elected 
M.P.  for  Kirkcaldy  in  the  Liberal  interest 
in  1875,  and  agaia  in  1880  and  1885. 

Campbell,    George    (J.    1719,   d.    1796), 


Scottish  divine,  principal  of  the  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  in  1759,  was  author  of 
the  Fhilosophy  of  Rhetoric  (1776). 

Campbell,  John,  Baron  (*.  1779,  d.  1861), 
English  judge,  son  of  a  Scottish  Presby- 
terian minister,  came  to  London  as  a  pri- 
vate tutor  iu  1798,  entered  Lincoln's  Inn 
in  1800,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  iu  1806. 
In  1821  he  married  the  daughter  of  Sir 
James  Scarlett  (afterwards  Lord  Abinger), 
and  continued  to  rise  steadily  in  his  profes- 
sion. He  entered  the  House  of  Commons 
(1830),  was  attorney-general  in  1834,  and 
in  1841  was  raised  to  the  peerage  and  made 
Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland.  In  1850  he 
became  chief  justice  of  the  Queen's  Bench, 
and  nine  years  later  Lord  Chancellor  of 
England.  To  the  statute-book  he  added 
the  Libel  Act,  allowing  a  person  to  plead 
justification,  and  the  Act  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  obscene  publications,  whilst  to 
literature  he  contributed  the  Lives  of  the 
Lord  Chancellors  (1845),  and  the  Lives  of 
the  Chief  Justices  (1849). 

CampbeU,  Thomas  {b.  1777,  d.  1844), 
poet,  educated  at  Glasgow  University, 
was  for  some  time  a  private  tutor,  went 
to  Edinburgh  in  his  twentieth  year, 
and  in  1790  published  The  Pleasures 
of  Hope,  which  at  once  established  his 
reputation  as  a  poet.  He  visited  Geiinany 
in  1800,  and  there  wrote  The  Battle  of 
Hohenlinden  and  other  popular  ballads.  In 
1803  he  married  and  settled  at  Sydenham, 
where  he  remained  twenty  years,  after 
which  he  lived  in  Middle  Scotland  Yard. 
He  edited  magazines,  and  wrote  other 
poems,  of  which  Gertrude  of  Wyoming 
(1809)  is  the  best  known. 

Campe,  Joachim  Heiurich  {b.  1746,  d. 
1818),  German  educationalist  and  author; 
his  Robinson  the  Yoimger  (1779),  a  pedagogic 
imitation  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  has  had  a  wide 
circulation  throughout  Europe. 

Campeggio,  Lorenzo,  Cardinal  {b.  1474, 
d.  1539),  was  sent  to  England  in  1519,  as 
legate  to  Germany  (1524)  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation,  and  again  to 
England  in  1529,  when,  with  Wolsey,  he 
presided  over  the  court  appointed  to  decide 
on  Henry  VIII.' s  claim  to  be  divorced  from 
Catherine  of  Aragon. 

Campen,  Jacob  van  {d.  1638),  Dutch  archi- 
tect, studied  in  Italy,  and  designed  several 
public  buildings,  including  the  town-hall  at 
Amsterdam. 

Camper,  Pierre  (*.  1722,  d.  1789), 
Dutch  anatomist,  filled  the  chairs  of  medi- 
cine and  surg-^ry  at  Franeker,  Amster- 
dam, and  Grijuingen  successively,  _  made 
important  discoveries  in  natural  history, 
and  left  many  valuable  works. 


Cam 


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Cauupliausen,  Ludolf  (b.  1803),  Prussian 
lioUtician,  president  of  the  council  and 
plenipotentiary  to  the  conference  at  Frank- 
fort in  1848,  remained  leader  of  the 
moderate  liberals  till  driven  into  private 
life  by  the  tide  of  reaction  in  1850. 

Campliuysen,  Dirk  Theodore  Eaphael  {b. 
1580,  d.  Iti2(j),  Dutch  painter  aud  theolo- 
gian, famous  for  his  pen-and-ink  sketches. 

Campi,  Bernardino  (b.  1522,  d.  15S4),  a 
painter  of  the  same  family,  pupil  of  Giulio 
Campi,  excelled  in  drawing  the  nude  figure. 
His  works  are  to  be  found  at  Cremona, 
Mantua,  and  Milan. 

Campi,  Galeazzo  {b.  1475,  d.  1536),  head 
of  a  family  of  painters,  of  whom  his  son 
Giulio  {b.  1500,  d.  1572)  is  the  best  known. 

Campion,  Edmund  {b.  1540,  d.  1581), 
English  Jesuit,  at  first  a  zealous  defender  of 
the  Church  of  England,  became  a  Roman 
Catholic,  studied  at  Douay,  and  was  sent  to 
England  by  Gregory  XIII.  He  was  appre- 
hended on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  and 
hung  at  Tyburn. 

Campo-Basso,  Nicola,  Count  di,  Italian 
condottiere  of  the  loth  century,  aided  the 
Duke  of  Anjou  against  the  Aragonese 
dynasty  in  Naples,  but  went  over  to 
Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  in  whose 
murder  he  is  supposed  to  have  had  a 
share. 

Campomanes,  Pedro  Rodriguez,  Count  de 
(b.  1723,  d.  1802),  Spanish  politician  and 
author,  president  of  the  Cortes  in  1788, 
became  director  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
History,  and  wrote  an  essay  on  the  Knights 
Templars,  aud  dissertations  on  law  and 
political  economy. 

Campos,  Arsenio  Martinez  {b.  1834), 
Spanish  general,  in  1874  proclaimed  Alfonso 
XII.  King  of  Spain,  extinguished  the 
Carlist  rebellion  (1876)  and  the  Cuban 
insun-ecdon  (1877),  and  was  afterwards 
minister  of  war. 

Campra,  Andre  {b.  1666,  d.  1744),  French 
musician  of  high  repute,  became  master  of 
the  chapel  royal,  and  wrote  several  operas. 

Camus,  Armand  Gaston  (*.  1740,  d.  1804), 
French  advocate,  deputy  to  the  States 
General  and  National  Convention,  and 
keeper  of  the  archives;  in  1796  was  presi- 
dent of  the  CouncU  of  Five  Hundred, 

__Camus,  Charles  Etienne  Louis  {b.  1699,  d. 
1768),  a  French  mathematician  and  as- 
tronomer. 

^Camus,  Francois  Joseph  de  (*.  1672,  d. 
1732),  French  mechanician,  wrote  Tralte 
des  Forces  Motivantes  (1722),  invented  auto- 
mata, and  introduced  many  improvements 


in  the  making  of  capstans,  guns,  coaches, 
etc.,  and  in  the  tempering  of  metals. 

Cauale,  Nicolas,  Venetian  admiral,  by 
the  burning  of  Eno  in  1469  provoked  the 
enmity  of  Mahomet  II.,  who  laid  waste 
Scyros  and  took  Negropont.  In  1470 
Canale  was  condemned  for  misconduct 
during  the  war  and  exiled. 

Canaletto,  Antonio  {b.  1697,  d.  1768), 
Italian  artist,  son  of  Bernardo  Canale,  under 
whom  he  studied  at  Venice,  went  to  Rome 
aud  painted  landscapes,  but  returned  to 
Venice  in  later  life,  and  is  best  knovra  by 
his  views  of  its  palaces,  churches,  and 
canals,  among  which  that  of  the  Great 
Canal  is  the  most  famous. 

Canani,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  1515,  d. 
1579),  anatomist,  physician  to  Julius  III., 
wrote  Itinectio  Picturata  Musculorum  Cor- 
poris Mumani,  etc. 

Cancrin,  Georg,  Count  of  {b.  1774,  d. 
1845),  Russian  statesman  of  German  origin, 
went  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1796,  was  general 
superintendent  of  the  army  in  1812,  and 
minister  of  finance  from  1823  to  1844.  He 
restored  the  national  credit  by  ruthless 
exactions  from  the  peasantry,  was  the  most 
trusted  minister  of  Alexander  I.  and 
Nicholas,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  Russian  system.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  political  economy. 

Candace,  Queen  of  Ethiopia  (a  country 
lying  in  the  south  of  Egypt  and  including 
the  modern  Abyssinia)  in  the  time  of 
Augustus. 

Candiano,  an  ancient  house  of  Venice,  to 
which   several  doges  of  the  early  republic 

belonged. 

Candiano  I.,  Pietro  {d.  887),  doge  in  886, 
was  slain  in  a  war  with  the  pirates  of  the 
Adriatic. 

Candiano  II.,  Pietro  {d.  939),  son  of  the 
preceding,  doge  in  932.  During  his  rule 
commenced  the  struggle  between  Venice 
and  Ravenna  for  the  possession  of  the  rich 
fishery  of  Comacchio. 

Candiano  III. ,  Pietro,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, doge  in  942,  was  chiefly  engaged  in 
vainly  endeavouring  to  repress  the  ambi- 
tious designs  of  his  son  Pietro. 

Candiano  IV.,  Pietro  {d.  976),  son  of  the 
preceding,  doge  in  959,  sought  to  render  the 
office  hereditary  in  his  family  by  allying 
himself  with  Otto  I.  of  Germany  and  the 
Marquis  of  Tuscany,  but  was  massacred  by 
the  Venetians. 

Candiano  V.,  Vitale,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, doge  in  977,  after  ruling  peaceably 
for    about   fourteen    months  gave  up  hu 


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dignity  to  the  tribune  Memo,  and  retired  to 
a  convent. 

Candlish,  Robert  Smith,  D.D.  {b.  1807, 
d.  1873),  leader  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland,  succeeded  Dr.  Cunningham  as 
principal     of     New    College,     Edinburgh 

(1862). 

Candolle,  Augustin  Pyramus  de  {b.  1778, 
d.  1841),  botanist,  pupil  of  Desfontaines, 
was  commissioued  in  1806  by  the  govern- 
ment to  observe  the  state  of  agriculture 
throughout  the  French  empire,  and  occu- 
pied successively  the  chairs  of  botany  at 
MontpelHer,  and  of  natural  histoiy  at 
Geneva.  He  completed  a  revised  edition  of 
Lamarck's  Flora  of  France  in  1815,  and 
wrote  among  other  works  an  Elementary 
Thtory  of  Botany,  in  which  he  developed 
his  new  classification  of  plants,  and  an  In- 
trodtution  to  the  Natural  System  of  the 
Vegetable  Kingdom,  containing  a  classifica- 
tion of  all  plants  by  orders,  genera,  and 
species. 

Canga-Arguelles,  Don  Jose  {b.  1770,  d. 
1843),  Spanish  statesman,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  revolution,  and  after  being 
exiled  in  1814  became  minister  of  finance 
in  1820. 

Canina,  Luigi  {b.  1793,  d.  1856),  Italian 
architect,  learned  in  Roman  archaeology, 
was  superintendent-general  of  the  excava- 
tions carried  on  in  Rome  and  its  neigh- 
bourhood, and  filled  the  chair  of  architec- 
ture at  Turin. 

Canning,  Charles  John,  Viscount  {b. 
1812,  d.  1862),  youngest  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, entered  the  House  of  Lords  iu  1836, 
was  under-secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs 
(1841-46),  Postmaster-General  (1852-55), 
and  Governor-General  of  India  (1855-62). 

Canning,  George  {b.  1770,  d.  1827), 
bom  in  London,  son  of  a  barrister  of  good 
family,  entered  Parliament  in  1793  as  a 
supporter  of  Pitt;  was  made  under-secre- 
tary of  State  in  1796,  and  started  The  Anti- 
Jacobin  ;  supported  a  motion  for  abolishing 
the  slave-trade  in  1798,  and  was  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  union  with  Ireland.  He  left 
ofiice  with  Pitt  in  ISOl,  and  returned  in 
1804,  becoming  Foreign  Secretary  imderthe 
Duke  of  Portland  in  1807,  an  of&ce  which 
he  again  held  from  1822  to  1827,  when  he 
became  Premier.  Canning  always  favoured 
Catholic  emancipation,  but  was  opposed  to 
parliamentary  reform.  He  showed  most 
ability  in  the  conduct  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
especially  in  his  detenniued  resistance  to 
Spain  during  the  years  182G  and  1827. 

Canning,  Stratford.  [See  Stratford  de 
Eedcliffe.] 

Cano,  Alonzo  (4.  1601,  d.  1665),  Spanish 


painter,  sculptor,  and  architect.  He  studied 
painting  at  beville  under  Pacheco  and  Cas- 
tillo :  in  consequence  of  a  duel  fled  to 
Madrid  and  became  painter  to  Phihp  IV.  ; 
was  charged  with  the  murder  of  his  wife  in 
1644,  but  acquitted  ;  in  1652  became  minor 
canon  in  the  cathedral  of  Granada.  He 
executed  many  works  for  Granada  cathe- 
dral and  the  churches  of  Madrid. 

Cano,  Juan  Sebastian  del  (d.  1526), 
native  of  Biscay,  sailed  with  Magellan  in 
1519,  and  returned  after  three  years,  having 
circumnavigated  the  world. 

Canonica,  Luigi  Delia  Qj.  1742,  d. 
1834),  Itahan  architect,  built  the  Carcano 
theatre,  and  the  amphitheatre  I)ella  Forta 
Vercellina  at  Milan. 

Canova,  Antonio  (6.  1757,  d.  1822),  bom 
at  Possaguo,  near  Treviso,  the  greatest 
follower  of  the  classic  style  iu  modern  sculp- 
ture, began  life  as  a  stonemason  ;  he  studied 
at  Venice  under  Toretti,  and  afterwards 
at  Rome  ;  was  much  befriended  by  Napo- 
leon, and  received  commissions  from  other 
potentates.  Among  his  best-known  works 
are  Hercules  and  Lycas  at  Rome,  Theseus 
and  the  Minotaur  at  Vienna,  the  Ft,yche  in 
the  Louvre,  and  the  mausoleums  for  the 
Popes  Clement  XIII.,  Clement  XIV.,  and 
Pius  VI.     He  died  at  Venice. 

Canovas  del  Castillo,  Antonio  {b.  1830}, 
Spanish  statesman,  president  of  the  mini- 
stry formed  on  the  return  of  Alfonso  XII, 
(1874),  an  office  which  he  held  intermittently 
tiU  1885. 

Canrobert,  Francois  Certain  {b.  1809), 
marshal  of  France,  served  for  many  years 
in  Algeria ;  attached  himself  to  Louis 
Napoleon  iu  1850.  During  the  Crimean  war 
was  appointed  successor  to  Saiut  Amaud, 
shortly  after  the  battle  of  Abna,  but  in  1855 
resigned  that  command  to  General  PeHssier, 
and  returned  to  France.  He  also  took 
part  iu  the  Italian  war  of  1859,  and  the 
Franco- German  war;  and  after  the  capitu- 
lation of  Metz  was  for  some  time  a  prisoner 
in  Germany. 

Cantacuzene,  John  V.  (b.  circa  1292), 
Emperor  of  the  East,  was  in  1328  prime 
minister  of  Audrouicus  the  Younger,  who 
left  him  governor  of  the  empire  and  guar- 
dian of  his  son.  He  was  crowned  by  the 
army  in  1341,  and  after  six  vears  recognised 
as  joint  ruler  with  John  "[Palasologus,  the 
rightful  heir.  Forced  to  resign  iu  1354,  he 
withdrew  to  a  monastery,  and  there  wrote  a 
history  of  the  empire  from  1320  to  13(50. 

Cantacuzene,  Serban  II.  {b.  circa  1640,  d. 
1688),  a  pretended  descendant  of  the  em- 
peror, made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the 
empire,  and  is  said  to  have  died  of  poison. 


Can 


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Cap 


Cantarini,  Simone  (J.  1612,  rf.  1648), 
Italian  jxiinter  and  engraver,  pupil  of  Guido, 
whose  st3'le  he  imitated. 

Cantemir,  Autiochus  {b.  1709,  d.  1744), 
fourth  sou  of  Demetrius  Cautemir,  was  an 
eminent  statesman  and  writer,  and  ifor  some 
time  ambassador  at  London  and  Paris. 

Cantemir,  Constantine  {d.  1693),  bom  in 
Moldavia,  and  descended  from  a  Tartar  who 
fled  thither  in  1.540,  served  in  Poland  under 
Ladislaus  and  Casimir ;  afterwards  held  a 
post  in  the  Turkish  army,  aud  was  made 
commander  of  the  Moldavian  forces. 

Canter,  Wilhelm  (b.  1542,  d.  1676),  author 
of  JVovce  Lectiones,  a  critical  ezaminatioa  of 
the  text  of  the  classics. 

Canterbury,  Charles  Manners  Sutton, 
Viscount  (i.  1780,  d.  1845),  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons  (1817-1835),  a 
post  which  he  held  with  distinction  and 
success. 

Canterzani,  Sebastian©  (b.  1734,  d.  1819), 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Bologna,  and 
afterwards  president  of  the  Institute. 

Canton,  John  {b.  1718,  d.  1772),  EngUsh 
electrician,  inventor  of  the  "pith-ball" 
electroscope,  and  other  scientific  apparatus. 

Cantii,  Cesare  (b.  1805,  d.  1881),  Italian 
historian,  a  liberal  and  yet  an  Ultramon- 
tane, has  written  a  Universal  History, 
Margherita  Fusterla  (a  novel),  and  some 
educational  works. 

Canute  I.,  son  of  Thyra  Danebod,  fomided 
the  kingdom  of  Denmark  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury, and  was  one  of  the  earliest  Danish 
invaders  of  England. 

Canute  II.,  sumamed  The  Great  {d. 
103ti),  succeeded  his  father  Sweyn  as  king  of 
Denmark  in  1014,  and  invaded  England, 
which  Sweyn  had  almost  entirely  con- 
quered, but  was  opposed  by  Edmund  Iron- 
sides, with  whom  he  divided  the  kingdom, 
till  the  death  of  that  prince  in  1016  left 
Canute  sole  ruler.  He  did  much  to  protect 
the  Uves  and  liberties  of  his  subjects,  and  at 
his  death  was  in  undisputed  possession  of 
England,  Denmark  and  Norway. 

Canute  III.,  sumamed  Hardi Canute  {d. 
1042),  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  king  of  Denmark.  He  became 
king  of  England  on  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Harold  Harefoot. 

Canute  IV.,  "The  Pious"  {d.  1026).  King 
of  Denmark,  succeeded  his  brother  Harold 
in  1080,  but  was  slain  at  Funen  six  years 
later  during  an  insurrection. 

Canute  V.  {d.  1157),  King  of  Denmark, 
attempted  to  gain  the  throne  on  the  death 


of  Eric,  but  was  assassinated  after  a  struggle 
of  ten  years. 

Canute  VI.  {b.  1162,  d.  1202),  King  of 
Denmark,  son  of  Waldemar  the  Great, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1 182,  subdued  Pome- 
rauia,  introduced  Christianity  into  Livonia 
and  Esthonia,  aud  encouraged  the  progress 
of  civilisation  and  letters. 

Canuti,  Domenico  Maria  {b.  1620,  d.  1684), 
Italian  artist,  pupil  of  Guido,  left  many 
works,  including  A  Descent  from  the  Cross 
by  Moonlight,  in  the  church  of  the  Olivet- 
ans  at  Bologna,  known  as  the  Notte  del 
Canuti. 

Canz,  Israel  Gottlieb  {b.  1690,  d.  1753), 
German  philosopher  and  Protestant  theo- 
logian, was  successively  professor  of  poetry, 
logic,  and  moral  theology  at  Tiibingen, 

Capece,  Conrad,  Marino,  and  Jacopo  (d. 
1268),  members  of  an  ancient  and  illustrioua 
Neapolitan  family,  beheaded  as  Ghibellinea 
by  Charles  of  Anjou. 

Capecelatro,  Giuseppe  (b.  1744,  d.  1836), 
a  reformer  of  ecclesiastical  abuses,  who, 
although  an  archbishop,  opposed  papal 
theocracy. 

Capeflgue,  Jean  Baptiste  Honor^  Ray- 
mond (6.  1802,  d.  1872),  French  historian 
and  journalist,  has  written  an  account  of 
Europe  during  the  first  empire,  and  other 
works. 

Capel,  Arthur  (b.  1600,  d.  1649),  sat  in 
the  Long  Parhament,  was  made  a  peer  in 
1641,  and  defended  Colchester  against  Fair- 
fax and  Ireton,  but  was  made  prisoner  and 
beheaded. 

Capel,  Arthur  {b.  1635,  d.  1683),  son  of  the 
preceding.  Earl  of  Essex,  Lord-Lieutenant 
of  Ireland  in  1672,  was  implicated  in  the 
Rye-House  plot,  and  committed  suicide  in 
the  Tower. 

Capel,  Right  Rev.  Monsignor  Thomas 
John  {b.  1836),  rector  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
university  in  Kensington  from  1874  to  1878, 
has  written  an  answer  to  Mr.  Gladstone's 
attack  on  the  Vatican  Decrees  (1874),  and 
other  works. 

Capell,  Edward  (b.  1713,  d.  1781),  an 
editor  and  critic  of  Shakespeare. 

Capella,  Martianus  Mineus  Felix,  Roman 
poet  and  philosopher,  lived  in  the  end  of 
the  4th  or  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century. 

Capellen,  Godard  Gerard,  Baron  van 
(i.  1778,  d.  1848),  Dutch  statesman,  was 
governor-general  oif  the  Dutch  colonies  in 
the  East  Indies  from  1819  to  1825. 

Capellen,  Theodor  Friedrich  {b.  1762,  d. 
1824),  Dutch  admiral,  commanded  the  fleet 


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Gar 


in  the  Mediterranean,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  attack  on  Algiers  made  by- 
Lord  Exmouth  ia  1816. 

Capet,  Hugh.     [See  Hugh.] 

;  Capistrano,  San  Giovanni  de  (b.  1385), 
Franciscan  friar,  bitterly  opposed  the  Hus- 
sites, and  by  his  preaching  animated  the 
defenders  of  Belgrade  agaiast  the  Turks. 

Capito,  Cains  Ateius  (5.  ci>-ca  37  B.C.,  d. 
22  A.D.),  Roman  jurist,  who  defended  the  old 
form  of  laws  against  the  attacks  of  Labeo. 

Capitoliuus,  Julius,  a  Roman  writer 
about  the  end  of  the  3rd  century,  con- 
tributed the  biographies  of  nine  emperors 
(119  to  284  A.D.)  to  the  Historia  Augusta, 

CapitoliQUS,  T.  Quinctus  Barbatus, 
Roman  patrician,  six  times  consul ;  vic- 
torious over  the  Volsci  and  ^qui ;  refused 
the  dictatorship  in  439  B.C. 

Capiton,  or  Koepstein,  Wolfgang  Fabricius 
(b.  147S,  d.  1542),  German  theologian  of  the 
reformed  faith ;  endeavoured  to  reconcile 
the  Lutherans  and  Calviuists,  and  took  part 
in  the  conferences  of  Zurich,  Augsburg, 
etc. 

Capmany  y  de  Montpalan,  Antonio  de 
{b.  1742,  d.  1813),  Spanish  historian  and 
philologist,  wrote  A  History  of  Barcelona, 
etc. 

Capo   d'lstria,  or   Capodistrias,  Comte 

de  {b.  1776,  d.  1831),  president  of  Greece, 
was  in  1803  appointed  secretary  of  state  to 
the  Ionian  republic,  but  wheu  the  islands 
fell  again  under  the  dominion  of  France, 
went  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  entered  the 
Russian  diijlomatic  service.  He  was  present 
at  the  treaty  of  Paris  (in  1814),  but  in  1820 
withdrew  to  Geneva,  where  he  lived  in  re- 
tirement till  his  election  (1827)  to  the  presi- 
dency of  Greece.  His  administration  was 
at  first  popular,  but  his  Russian  sympathies 
aroused  suspicion,  a  rebellion  broke  out  in 
1831,  and  Capo  d'lstria  was  assassinated. 

Cappellini,  Alfredo  Luigi  [h.  circa  1836, 
d.  l.-irtB),  Italian  naval  officer,  com- 
manded the  I'alestro  at  the  battle  of  Lissa. 
The  ship  took  fire,  and  Cappelliui  and  his 
crew  perished  with  her,  preferring  death  to 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Cappellus,  or  Cappel.  Louis  {b.  158o,  d. 
16o8),  French  Protestant  divine,  educated 
at  Oxford,  became  professor  of  Oriental 
■  languages  at  the  imiversity  of  Saumur.  He 
wrote  several  works,  including  Arcanum 
Functuationis  Revelatum  on  the  Hebrew 
vowel  points. 

Capponi,  Neri  di  Gino,  military  com- 
missary of  the  republic  of  Florence  during 
the  league  between   that  city  and  Venice 


against  the  Duke  of  Milan  (1440),  wrote  a 
chronicle  of  contemporary  events. 

Capponi,  Piero  di  Gmo  {d.  circa  1496), 
defended  the  Uberty  of  Florence  against  the 
ambitious  Medici,  and  is  noted  for  his 
answer  to  Charles  VIII.,  when,  on  his 
journey  through  Tuscany  to  Naples  (1493), 
he  sought  to  compel  the  allegiance  of 
Florence. 

Capranica,  Domenico,  Cardinal  {b.  1400, 
d.  1458),  a  supporter  of  the  Roman 
court,  mediated  successfully  between  the 
Pope  and  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  and  wrote 
Be  Contemptu  Mundi  and  other  works. 

Caprivi  de   Caprera   de  MontecucuUi, 

Georg  Leo  von  ib.  1831),  the  eldest  son  of 
Julius  Edward  von  Caprivi,  who  held  a  legal 
post  under  the  Prussian  government,  entered 
the  Prussian  army  in  1848,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaigns  of  1864  and  1866, 
commanded  a  division  at  Metz  in  1883,  and 
in  1884  was  transferred  to  the  naval  service, 
being  appointed  head  of  the  admiralty. 
Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  present 
reign  Caprivi  reorganised  the  navy,  and 
shortly  afterwards  became  commander  of 
the  10th  army  corps.  On  the  retirement 
of  Bismarck  he  was  appointed  Chancellor. 

Cara  Yazid,  Abdul  Halim  {d.  1602), 
headed  a  rebelUon  against  Mahomet  III., 
was  forced  to  capitulate,  but  was  afterwards 
assisted  by  the  governor  of  Bagdad  and 
completely  vanquished  the  Turkish  army. 
He  was  ultimately  conquered  and  fled  to  the 
mountains  on  the  border  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Cara    Yousouf   {d.    1420),   chief   of  the 

"  Black  Sheep,"  dwelt  at  the  foot  of  the 

Armenian  mountains,  and  harassed  the 
pilgrims  to  Mecca. 

Caracalla.the  simiame  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus  Bassianus  {h.  188,  d.  217),  Em- 
peror of  Rome.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
Severus,  in  211,  and  disgraced  his  reign  by 
wholesale  and  cold-blooded  murders. 

Caraccioli,  Francesco  {b.  1770,  d.  1799), 
NeapoUtan  admiral,  in  1793  commanded 
the  Neapolitan  fleet  before  Toulon,  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Parthenopean 
republic,  and  on  the  capture  of  Naples  by 
Ruffo  (1799)  was  executed,  in  violation  of 
the  terms  of  capitulation. 

Caradog,  or  Caractacus,  King  of  the  Silu- 
rians, a  British  tribe,  after  resisting  the 
Romans  for  niue  years,  was  overcome,  and 
took  refuge  with  Cartismandua,  Queen  of 
the  Brigantes,  by  whom  he  was  betrayed  to 
the  Romans  in  51.  He  was  released  by 
Claudius. 

Caradog  of  Llancawan  [d.  circa  1147), 
Welsh  ecclesiastic  and  chronicler,  wrote  in 


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Car 


Latin  a  history    of   the    Wekh  kings ;   a 
Welsh  translation  still  remains. 

Caxafa,  Michele  (b.  1785,  d.  1872),  Nea- 
politan musical  composer,  enjoyed  great 
popularity  during  his  lifetime,  and  wrote 
Ze  Solitaire,  La  Violette,  Masaniello,  and 
other  operas. 

Caraman,  Pierre  Paul  Riquet  de  Bon- 
repos.  Comte  de  (*.  1646,  d.  1730),  French 
general,  served  ia  Flanders  in  1702,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  defeat  of  the 
French  at  Gette. 

Caramuel  de  Lobkowitz,  Juan  (h. 
1606,  d.  1682),  Spanish  theologian,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Alcala,  renovrned  for 
his  eloquence  and  for  his  valour  at  the  siege 
of  Prague  in  1648. 

Caramuru,  or  Diego  Alvarez,  a  Portu- 
guese seaman  of  the  16th  century,  who  was 
wrecked  off  the  coast  of  Bahia,  in  South 
America,  and  overawing  the  natives  by  the 
use  of  firearms,  was  made  king  of  the 
country.  His  companions  were  put  to 
death. 

Carausius,  Marcus  Aurelius  Valerius  {b. 
circa  250,  d.  293),  a  native  of  Flanders,  put 
in  command  of  a  fleet  by  Maximian,  sailed 
to  Britaia  and  proclaimed  himself  emperor. 
He  was  acknowledged  by  Diocletian,  and 
reigned  till  murdered  by  AUectus,  who 
succeeded  him. 

Caravaggio,  Michael  Angelo  Amerigi  da 
(fi.  1569,  (/.  1609),  a  self-taught  Italian 
artist,  for  some  years  painted  portraits 
remarkable  for  their  fidelity,  and.  after 
studying  the  works  of  Giorgione.  lurmed 
the  style  of  chiaro-oscuro,  imitated  by 
many  subsequent  paiuters.  Among  his  best- 
known  works  are  the  Entombment  of  Christ 
and  the  Death  of  the  Virgin.  He  died  in 
poverty  and  obscurity. 

Caravaggio,  Polidoro  da  {b.  1495,  d. 
1543),  Italian  painter  of  humble  birth,  his 
genius  was  noticed  by  Raphael,  who  em- 
ployed him  to  paint  the  friezes  for  his  works 
at  the  Vatican.  Among  his  best  works  is  the 
Christ  led  to  Calvary  at  Messina. 

Carbajal,  Luis  de  (b.  1534,  d.  1591), 
Spanish  i  ..inter,  employed  by  Philip  II. 
in  the  Eseurial,  where  he  depicted  the  his- 
tory of  the  Virgin. 

Cardano,  Girolamo  (b.  1501,  d.  1575), 
bom  at  Pavia,  natural  philosopher  and 
mathematician,  to  some  extent  the  fore- 
runner of  Galileo  iu  scientific  observation. 
Visited  England  under  Edward  VI.,  and 
afterwards  taught  mathematics  at  Milan 
and  Bologna.  Was  renowned  as  a  physician. 

Cardi,    Ludovico    (*.    1559,    d.    1613), 


Italian  painter,  was  called  the  "  Florentine 
Correggio,"  on  account  of  his  close  imitation 
of  that  artist,  especially  observable  in  his 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen.  His  master- 
piece, St.  Peter  healing  the  Cripple,  has  been 
destroyed  by  damp. 

Cardigan,  James  Thomas  Brudenell,  Earl 
of,  K.C.B.  (h.  1797,  d.  1868),  led  the  Light 
Brigade  in  their  charge  at  Balaclava  (1854). 

Caxducci,  Bartolomeo  {b.  1560,  d.  1610), 
Italian  artist,  pupil  and  friend  of  Frederigo 
Zucchero,  whom  he  assisted  in  painting  the 
great  cupola  of  the  cathedral  at  Florence, 
Accompanying  Zucchero  to  Madrid,  he 
worked  with  him  in  the  Eseurial,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  Perugino,  Tibaldi 
and  Pellegrini,  painted  the  ceiling  of  the 
library  :  the  figures  of  Aristotle,  Euclid, 
Archimedes,  and  Cicero  are  the  work  of 
Carducci.  His  masterpiece  is  a  Descent  from 
the  Cross,  in  the  church  of  St.  Philip  elReal 
at  Madrid. 

Carducci,  Viocenzo  (b.  1568,  d.  1638), 
brother  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  whom 
he  followed  to  Spain.  He  painted  the 
history  of  Achilles  on  the  walls  of  the 
gallery  in  the  palace  of  the  Prado,  and  was 
painter  to  Philip  III.  and  Philip  IV. 

Card-well,  Edward  {b.  1787,  d.  1861), 
ecclesiastical  historian,  completed  part  of  a 
synodical  history  based  upon  Wilkins's  Con- 
cilia Magna  Britannicce. 

Cardwell,  Edward,  Viscount  (*.  1813, 
d.  1886),  was  President  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  (1852-5),  and  Secretary  for  War 
(1868-74),  in  which  capacity  he  effected  the 
abolition  of  purchase. 

Carew,  Bampfylde  Moore  (o.  lt)»3,  d.  circa 
1765),  king  of  the  gypsies. 

Carew,  Sir  George,  Earl  Totnes  (fi.  1557, 
d.  1629),  was  Lord  President  of  Munster  in 
1599,  and  reduced  the  Earl  of  Desmond. 

Carew,  Thomas  {b.  1589,  d.  1639),  a  writer 
of  lyrics  in  the  courtly  style  of  the  17th 
century. 

Carey,  Henry  (6.  1696,  d.  1743),  musical 
composer  and  author  of  songs,  of  which 
Sally  in  our  Alley  is  the  best  known. 

Carey,  Henry  Charies  (*.  1793,  d.  1879), 
an  American  political  economist,  wrote  The 
Past,  the  Present,  and  the  Future  (1848), 
Principles  of  Social  Science  (1859),  and  other 
works.  i 

Carey,  Matthew  (*.  1760,  d.  1839),  Irish    ' 
political  writer,  started  the  Freeman'' s  Jour-    • 
Hal,  the  violence  of  which  occasioned    his 
imprisonment.     He  fled  to  America,  where 
he  became    a    publisher,    and    amassed    a 
large    fortune.      Among    his    works    was 


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the  Vindiei(B  Hibemicce  (1818).      He  died 
at  Philadelphia. 

Carey,  WilUam  (b.  1761,  d.  1834),  Orien- 
talist  and  missionary,  founded  the  Baptist 
mission  at  Serampore  (1799),  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  Sanscrit,  Bengalee, 
and  Mahratta  at  Fort  William  (1801). 

Carissimi,  Giacomo  {b.  1582  or  1604,  d. 
1671),  musical  composer,  was  one  of  the  first  to 
compose  the  cantata,  and  brought  the  recita- 
tive to  perfection.  Jephtha  is  considered  his 
best  composition. 

Carlen,  EmiUe  (b.  1807,  d.  1883),  Swedish 
noveUst ;  has  in  her  books  depicted  various 
phases  of  Swedish  society. 

Carleton,  Sir  Guy  {b.  1724,  d.  1808), 
English  general,  governor  of  Quebec,  which 
town  he  defended  successfully  during  the 
American  war,  and  also  defeated  Arnold  in 
1776.  In  1781  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief in  America,  and  afterwards 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Dorchester. 

Carleton,  WilHam  (b.  1798,  d.  1869), 
Irish  novelist  and  graphic  delineator  of  Irish 
character,  wrote  Traits  and  Stories  of  the 
Irish  Feasantry,  The  Black  Prophet,  etc. 

Carli,  or  Carli  Rubbi,  Giovanni  Rinaldo, 
Coimt  de  {b.  1720,  d.  1795),  Italian 
scholar  and  author,  eminent  as  a  mathema- 
tician and  archaeologist,  was  in  1771  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  council  of  finance, 
at  Milan.  His  chief  work  is  Delle  Anti- 
chit  a  Italiche. 

Carlile,  Richard  (fi.  1790,  d.  1843), 
editor  of  pohtical  pamphlets,  whose  pub- 
lication continually  embroiled  him  with  the 
government. 

Carlingford,  Chichester- Fortescue,  Lord 
(b.  ISiy),  son  of  Colonel  Chichester- 
Fortescue,  in  1847  entered  Parliament  as 
Liberal  member  for  Louth,  and  retained  his 
seat  till  1874.  He  was  successively  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland,  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  Lord  Privy  Seal  (1881),  and 
Lord  President  of  the  Council  (1883),  but 
resigned  office  with  his  party  in  1885.  He 
became  Baron  Carlingford  in  1874,  and  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  carrying  the  Irish 
Land  Bill  through  the  House  of  Lords. 

Carloni,  Giovanni  (*.  1590,  d.  1630), 
Italian  fresco -painter,  pupil  of  Passignani 
at  Florence. 

Carloni,  Giovanni  Battista  (i.  1594,  d. 
1680),  brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he 
assisted  in  painting  in  the  cathedral  of  the 
Guastato  at  Genoa. 

Carlos,  Don  (b.  Valladolid,  1545,  d.  1568), 
eldest  son  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  Mary 
of  Portugal,    was    constantly  at   variance 


with  his  father,  who  finally  placed  him  in 
confinement,  where  he  died. 

Carlos,  Don  Luis  Maria  Fernando  da 
Bourbon,  Count  of  Montemolin  {b.  1818,  d. 
1861),  eldest  son  of  Carlos,  Count  of 
Molina,  and  first  cousin  to  Isabella  II..  on 
his  father's  abdication  (1845)  claimed  the 
title  of  Carlos  VI.  of  Spain.  In  1848 
Cabrera  and  others  carried  on  a  desultory 
war  in  his  favour  in  the  north  of  Spain. 

Carlos,  Don  Maria  de  los  Dolores,  Juan 
Isidore  Josef  Francesco  (Jb.  1848),  Duke 
of  Madrid,  son  of  Don  Juan,  brother 
of  Carlos,  Count  of  Molina,  began  active 
attempts  on  the  Spanish  crown  in  1869. 
In  1872  his  brother,  Don  Alfonso,  roused 
the  inhabitants  of  northern  Spain.  Don 
Carlos  himself  arrived  in  1873,  and  a 
desultory  warfare  ensued,  marked  on 
the  Carlist  side  by  continual  breaches 
of  military  honour.  The  proclamation 
of  Alfonso  XII.  (1874),  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  fortresses  of  Bilbao,  £stella  and 
Tolosa  (1876)  proved  fatal  to  his  cause. 
Don  Carlos  left  the  country,  and  after  visit- 
ing England  and  America  took  up  his  resi- 
dence on  the  Continent. 

Carlos,  Don  Maria  Isidor  of  Bourbon  {b. 
1788,  d.  1855),  Count  of  Molina,  called  by 
his  adherents  Carlos  V.  of  Spain,  was  the 
second  son  of  Carlos  IV.,  and  brother  and 
for  many  years  heir-apparent  to  Ferdinand 
yil.  Ferdinand  died  in  1833,  leaving  an 
infant  daughter,  and  though  the  repeal  of 
the  Salic  law  had  made  her  the  direct  heir, 
Carlos  insisted  upon  his  ovsTi  right  to  the 
throne.  For  six  years  the  war  between 
the  CarUsts  and  Christinos  (supporters  of 
the  Queen  Regent  Christina)  ravaged  the 
north  of  Spain,  but  in  1839  Don  Carlos  was 
driven  into  France,  and  in  1845  abdicated 
in  favour  of  his  son.  He  afterwards  with- 
drew to  Austria,  where  he  remained  tiU  his 
death. 

Carlyle,  Rev.  Joseph  Dacre  (b.  1759,  d. 
1804),  appointed  professor  of  Arabic  at 
Cambridge  in  1794,  travelled  extensively, 
and  wrote  Specimens  of  Arabic  Poetry,  etc. 

Carlyle,  Thomas  {b.  1795,  d.  1881), 
Scottish  historian  and  essayist,  was  the  son 
of  a  small  farmer  of  Ecclefechan,  Dum- 
friesshire, and  was  educated  at  the  parish 
school  of  Annan,  and  the  UuiversitT 
of  Edinburgh.  Instead  of  entering  the 
Church,  as  his  parents  had  intended,  he 
became  a  schoolmaster,  but  his  literary 
ambition  led  him  back  to  Ediuburgli.  In 
1823  he  wrote  the  Life  of  SchiUer,  and  going 
to  London  in  1824  as  tutor  to  Charles  Buller, 
translated  Goethe's  Wilhehn  Meister  for 
the  London  Magazine.  In  1826  he  married 
Jane  Bailhe  Welsh,  and  in  1828  went  with 
her    to    Craigenputtock,    a    Dumfriesshire 


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farmhouse,  and  during  six  years'  retirement 
there  composed  Sortor  Resartus,  containing 
his  philosophy  of  life,  which  appeared  first 
in  Frasei-''s  Magazine.  In  1834  Carlyle  left 
Scotland  for  Chelsea,  which  was  henceforth 
his  home.  Among  his  other  works  the  chief 
are  The  French  Ilevolidion  (1837),  Heroes 
and  Hero  JVurship  (1841),  Past  and  Present 
(1843),  Lattcr-l)ay  Pamphlets  (1850),  the 
Life  of  John  Sterling  (18ol),  and  the  History 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  concluded  in  1864. 

Caxmagnola,  Francesco  {b.  1390,  d.  1432), 
originally  a  swineherd,  entered  the  service 
of  Philip  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  hecame 
his  commander-in-chief,  and  won  much 
territory  for  him  from  the  Venetians,  to 
whom  he  afterwards  transferred  his  ser- 
vices, but  incurred  their  suspicion  and  was 
beheaded. 

Caxmichael,  James  {b.  1776,  d.  1853), 
practical  engineer,  invented  the  Tan-blowing 
machine,  and  made  improvements  in  the 
steam  engine. 

Carmicliael,  Richard  (*.  1779,  d.  1849), 
Irish  surgeon,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
"  Carmichael ' '  school  of  medicine  in  Dublin. 

Carmona,  Don  Salvador  {b.  1730,  d.  1807), 
Spanish  engraver,  pupil  of  Charles  Dupins  ; 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation. 

CarmonteUe  (A.  1717,  d.  1806),  French 
dramatic  writer,  author  of  Proverbes  Dra- 
matiques,  and  other  works. 

Carnarvon,  Henry  H.  M.  Herbert,  fourth 
Earl  of  {b.  1831,  d.  1890),  Colonial  Secre- 
tary under  Lord  Derby  (1866-7),  and  Dis- 
raeli (1874-8) ;  in  1885  became  Lord-Lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  but  was  compelled  by 
ill- health  to  resign  in  1886. 

Cameades  {b.  circa  213  e.g.,  d.  129  B.C.), 
Greek  philosopher,  founder  of  the  New 
Academy,  and  opponent  of  the  Stoics. 
Being  sent  to  Rome  on  a  diplomatic  mission, 
his  eloquence  provoked  the  anger  of  Cato, 
■who  persuaded  the  senate  to  expel  him  from 
the  city. 

Camot,  Lazare  Nicolas  Marguerite  (A. 
1753,  d.  1823),  French  statesman  and  mathe- 
matician, sat  in  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
and  as  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Pubuc 
Safety  directed  the  wars  of  the  republic 
with  great  ability.  Proscribed  in  1795,  he 
was  recalled  in  1799  by  Napoleon,  who 
made  him  minister  of  war. 

Camot,  Marie  Francois  Sadi  {b.  1837), 
President  of  the  French  republic,  1887. 

Caro,  Annibale  {b.  1507,  d.  1566),  Italian 
writer,  made  translations  from  the  Greek 
and  Latin,  and  left  letters. 

Carolan,  Turlough  O'  (J>.  1670,  d.  1738), 


famous  Irish  bard  and  musical  composer. 
At  an  early  age  he  lost  his  sight,  but  became 
extremely  skilful  on  the  harp,  and  wan- 
dered through  the  country  as  an  itinerant 
musician. 

Caroline  Amelia  Augusta  {b.  1768,  d. 
1821),  second  daughter  of  Charles  William, 
Duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenblittel,  was  mar- 
ried in  1795  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  after- 
wards George  IV.  The  marriage  was  un- 
happy, and  a  separation  took  place  soon 
after  the  birth  of  the  Princess  Charlotte.  A 
"  delicate  investigation  "  into  her  conduct 
was  undertaken  by  the  Privy  Council  in 
1806,  and  though  the  charges  against  her 
were  refuted,  she  withdi-ew  to  the  Continent 
in  1814.  In  1820  she  retmmed,  claiming 
her  rights  as  Queen  Consort,  whereupon  a 
Bill  to  dissolve  her  marriage  was  laid  before 
the  House  of  Lords,  but  withdrawn  after 
the  third  reading  owing  to  the  state  of 
public  feeling,  always  strongly  in  favour  of 
the  queen.  At  the  coronation  of  George 
IV.  (1821)  she  was  refused  admittance  to 
Westminster  Hall. 

Caroline  Matilda,  Queen  of  Denmark 
{b.  1751,  d.  1775),  daughter  of  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  wife  of  Christian  VII. 
of  Denmark,  was  of  an  amiable  disposition, 
but  excited  the  dislike  of  her  husband's 
grandmother  and  stepmother,  who  preju- 
diced the  king  against  her.  In  1773  her 
marriage  was  declared  void,  and  she  was 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Zell  till  her 
death. 

Caroline  Wilhelmina  Dorothea  (A.  1682, 
d.  1737),  daughter  of  John  Frederick,  Mar- 
quis of  Brandenburg,  was  married  in  1705 
to  George,  Electoral  Prince  of  Hanover,  and 
on  his  accession  in  1727  became  Queen  of 
England. 

Carolostadt,  Andreas  Bodenstein  {b.  1483, 
d.  1541),  reformer,  and  at  first  the  friend 
and  ally  of  Luther.  He  soon  developed 
ultra-Protestant  views,  which  he  afterwards 
retracted  pubUcly. 

Caron,  or  Carron,  Frans  [d.  1674),  was 
director  of  the  Dutch  commerce  vrith  Japan, 
and  afterwards  director- general  of  French 
commerce  in  India. 

Carove,  Friedrich  W.  (b.  1789,  d.  1852), 
German  lawyer,  pupil  of  Hegel,  wrote 
many  works  on  theologicjil  and  philoso- 
phical subjects. 

Carpenter,  Francis  Bicknell  (b.  1830), 
American  portrait-painter,  has  had  among 
his  sitters  President  Lincoln,  J.  R.  Lowell, 
and  other  distinguished  men.  He  painted 
the  large  historical  picture  of  President 
Lincoln  signing  the  proclamation  of  the 
emancipation  of  slaves,  which  now  hangs  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  Washington. 


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Carpenter,  George  W.  (b.  1802,  d.  1860), 
American  scientist,  and  recognised  autho- 
rity on  geology ;  has  left  numerous  papers 
on  scientific  subjects. 

Carpenter,  Dr.  Lant  (b.  1780,  d.  1840), 
Unitarian  divine,  became  minister  of  the 
Unitarian  Church  at  Exeter  in  1805,  whence 
he  removed  to  Bristol  in  1817. 

Carpenter,  Mary  {b.  1807,  d.  1877), 
daughter  of  the  preceding,  a  zealous  philan- 
thropist, took  an  active  interest  in  destitute 
children,  juvenile  crimiaals,  and  the  women 
of  India. 

Carpenter,  Margaret  {b.  1793,  d.  1872), 
portrait-painter,  daughter  of  Captain  Alex- 
ander Geddes.  Among  her  portraits  are 
those  of  Archbishop  Sumner  and  Dr. 
Whewell ;  others  are  in  the  National  Por- 
trait Gallery. 

Carpenter,  PhiUp  Pearsall  (b.  1819, 
d.  1877),  son  of  Dr.  Lant  Carpenter,  was 
for  many  years  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and 
also  interested  himself  in  philanthropic 
schemes,  but  from  1855  onwards  his  life  was 
almost  entirely  devoted  to  the  study  of  con- 
chology.  There  is  a  full  report  on  his  shells 
in  the  British  Association  Reports  for  1856, 
and  further  details  may  be  found  in  the 
Smithsonian  Reports  for  1860. 

Carpenter,  William  Benjamin  {b.  1813, 
d.  1885),  physiologist,  son  of  Dr.  Lant 
Carpenter,  wrote  Principles  of  General  and 
Comparative  Physiology,  etc.,  and  in  1861 
received  the  medal  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Carpenter,  The  Right  Rev.  William  Boyd 
{b.  1842),  Bishop  of  Ripon  (1884),  and  author 
of  several  works. 

Carpentier,  Pierre  {b.  1697,  d.  1767), 
French  antiquary,  wrote  Glossarium  ad 
Scriptores  Mediae  et  Infimce  Zatinitatis,  etc. 

Carpi,  Girolamo  da  (6.  1501,  d.  1556), 
Italian  painter,  and  admirer  of  Correggio, 
whose  style  he  successfully  imitated. 

Carpi,  Ugo  da  {b.  1486,  d.  1530),  artist, 
who  discovered  the  method  of  wood-en- 
graving called  chiaro-oscuro,  and  in  this 
manner  copied  many  of  Raphael's  cartou  .  ■•. 

Carpioni,  Giulio  {b.  1611,  d.  1674), 
Venetian  painter,  whose  works  are  extremely 
rare  and  valuable. 

Carpmael,  Charles  (b.  1846),  meteorologist, 
in  1870  was  a  member  of  the  British 
"EcUpse"  expedition  to  Spain.  Two  years 
later  he  went  to  Canada,  and  became  at- 
tached to  the  observatory  at  Toronto. 

Carpocrates  of  Alexandria,  foimder  of 
the  Gnostic  sect  of  the  Carpocratians  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian. 


Carr,  Sir  Robert  (d.  1667),  one  of 
the  four  commissioners  appointed  to  regu- 
late the  affairs  of  New  England  in  1664. 
They  encoimtered  much  resistance,  but 
succeeded  in  capturing  New  Amsterdam 
from  the  Dutch,  and  renamed  it  New 
York.     He  died  at  Bristol. 

Carracci,  Agostino  {b.  circa  1558,  d.  1601), 
Italian  artist,  born  at  Bologna,  painted  some 
of  the  frescoes  in  the  Farnesian  gallery  at 
Rome ;  The  Communion  of  St.  Jerome  in 
the  Bolognese  gallery  is  considered  his 
masterpiece. 

Carracci,  Annibale  {b.  1560,  d.  1609), 
brother  of  Agostino,  was  for  eight  years 
employed  by  Cardinal  Famese  in  painting 
his  palace. 

Ca,rracci,  Ludovico  (b.  1555,  d.  1619), 
studied  the  works  of  the  Lombard  and 
Venetian  schools,  especially  those  of  Cor- 
reggio. His  picture,  Susannah  and  the 
Elders,  is  in  the  National  Gallery. 

Carrara,  an  Italian  family,  lords  of 
Padua  in  the  14th  century. 

Carrenno  de  Miranda,  Don  Juan  {b.  1614, 
d.  1685) ,  a  Spanish  artist,  painter  to  Philip  IV. , 
who  employed  him  to  decorate  his  palace, 

Carriera,  Rosalba  (b.  circa  1672,  d.  1757), 
Italian  painter  of  portraits,  especially 
miniatures,  practised  crayon-painting  with 
much  success,  went  to  Paris  in  1721,  and 
afterwards  to  Vienna.  In  1746  she  became 
blind. 

Caxroll,  Lewis,  the  pseudonym  of  the 
Rev.  Charles  Lutwidge  Dodgson  (b.  circa 
1833),  hmnorist.  and  author  of  Alice  in 
Wonderland  (1865),  Through  the  Looking- 
glass  (1872),  The  Htmting  of  the  Snark 
(1876),  Rhyme  andReason  (1883),  A  Tangled 
Tale  (1886),  Sylvie  and  Bruno  (1889),  and 
other  works. 

Carruthers,  Robert  (*.  1799,  d.  1878), 
Scottish  miscellaneous  writer,  best  known  as 
editor  and  biographer  of  Pope. 

Carstairs,  William  {b.  1649,  d.  1715), 
Scottish  divine  and  politician,  was  accused  of 
participating  in  the  Rye  House  plot,  and 
withdrew  to  Holland,  but  returned  with 
William  III.,  and  exercised  great  influence 
at  his  court. 

Carstens,  Asmus  Jacab  (i.  1764,  d.  1798), 
Danish  painter,  of  humble  birth,  produced 
several  large  pictures  in  imitation  of 
Raphael. 

Carte,  Thomas  (*.  1686,  d.  1754),  an 
English  clergyman,  chaplain  to  Bishop 
Atterbury,  wrote  The  Life  ofJam^s,  Duke  of 
Ormond,  and  a  History  of  England,  to  which 
Hume  was  much  indebted. 


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Carter,  Elizabeth  (i.  1716,  d.  1806), 
learueii  English  lady,  very  proficient  iu 
Greek,  and  also  a  good  Latin  and  Hebrew 
scholar. 

Carteret,  John,  Earl  of  Granville  (J.  1690, 
d.  1763),  warm  supporter  of  the  Hano- 
verian succession,  was  Lord  Lieutenant  of 
Ireland  (1724-30),  and  became  Prime 
Minister  after  the  fall  of  Walpole,  but  was 
obliged  to  resign,  owing  to  his  Hanoverian 
tendencies. 

Cartier,  Jacques  (5.  1494),  French  navi- 
gator, discovered  the  estuary  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  sailed  up  the  river  as  far  as 
the  site  of  MontreaL 

Cartwright,  Edmund  {h.  1743,  d.  1823), 
the  inventor  of  the  power-loom. 

Cartwright,  Thomas  (*.  1535,  d.  1603), 

grofessor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  became 
ead  of  the  Puritans,  but  was  forced  to  take 
refuge  in  Holland. 

Cams,  Karl  Gustav  {h.  1789,  d.  1869), 
physician  and  physiologist,  professor  of 
medicine  at  Leipsic.  Hia  works  were 
numerous  and  valuable. 

Carus,  Marcus  Aurelius  {d.  283), 
Roman  emperor,  elected  by  the  army  in 
282,  repelled  the  Sarmatians,  and  carried  on 
a  successful  war  against  the  Persians. 

Carvalio  da  Costa,  Antonio  (5.  1650,  d. 
1715),  Portuguese  ecclesiastic,  author  of  a 
topographical  description  of  his  country, 
entitled  Chorographia  Portugueza. 

Carver,  John  {d.  1621),  sailed  in  the 
Mai(riower  from  Leyden  ;  became  first 
governor  of  Plymouth  colony,  and  acted 
with  discretion,  establishing  friendly  rela- 
tions with  the  Indians. 

Cary,  Alice  (i.  1820,  d.  1871),  American 
writer  of  prose  and  verse,  after  encountering 
various  difficulties,  came  with  her  sister  to 
New  York,  where  her  ability  soon  attracted 
attention. 

Cary,  Phoebe  {b.  1824,  d.  1871),  sister  of 
the  preceding,  wi'ote  Poems  and  Parodies, 
Poems  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Love,  and  other 
verses  marked  by  a    bright  and  cheerful 

tone. 

Cary,  Annie  Louise  {b.  1842),  singer,  of 
American  birth,  travelled  much  in  Europe, 
and  in  1870  returned  to  America,  where  she 
became  very  popular.  After  her  marriage 
(1832)  she  withdrew  from  public  life. 

Cary,  the  Picv.  Henry  Francis  (i. 
1772,  d.  1844),  poet  and  translator,  in 
1805  published  a  verse  translation  of  the 
Inferno.  His  translation  of  the  Livina 
Commedia  was  completed  in  1812.     He  also 


wrote  lives  of  the  later  English  poets,  and 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Coleridge  and 
Charles  Lamb.  He  was  from  1826  to  1838 
assistant  librarian  at  the  British  Museum. 

Casa,  Giovanni  deUa  {b.  1503,  d.  1556), 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  devoted  himself  wholly 
to  the  classics,  and  became  a  great  Italian 
and  Latin  scholar. 

Casanova,  Giovanni  Jacopo  {b.  1725,  d. 
1803),  Venetian  adventurer,  who  moved  in 
high  Ufe,  and  wrote  Memoirs  of  his  ex- 
perience at  various  European  towns. 

Casati,  Gaetano  (6.  1838),  Italian  ex- 
plorer, served  in  the  army  till  1879,  when 
he  resigned  and  set  out  for  Khartoum. 
After  visiting  Gessi  Pasha,  he  proceeded  to 
Kumbeck  (Oct.  1880).  No  more  was  heard 
of  him  till  Dec.  1881,  when  a  letter  arrived 
saying  that  he  had  been  made  prisoner  by  a 
chief  named  Azauga  and  had  j  ust  escaped. 
At  Lado  he  met  Emiu  Pasha  and  Junker, 
the  Russian  explorer,  and  here  the  three 
found  themselves  shut  in  by  the  forces  of 
the  Mahdi.  He  afterwards  went  as  resident 
to  the  territory  of  King  Kabba  Rega  of 
Unyoro,  who  condemned  him  to  death,  but 
he  escaped  to  Albert  Nyanza,  and  there 
received  succour  from  Emin  (March  1888). 
Casati,  with  his  companions,  reached 
Zanzibar  in  1889,  and  he  proceeded  thence 
to  Italy. 

Casaubon,  Isaac  (6.  1559,  d.  1614),  Greek 
scholar,  jprof  essor  at  Geneva  and  Montpellier 
successively,  became  royal  librarian  at 
Paris,  and  afterwards  went  to  London, 
where  he  was  well  received  by  James  I. 

Casiliar,  John  (6.  1811),  American 
painter  and  engraver,  and  member  of  the 
Academy. 

Casimir  L  (b.  1022,  d.  1058),  King  of 
Poland,  ascended  the  throne  in  1041,  and 
did  much  to  promote  the  civihsation  of  his 
people. 

Casimir  II.  {b.  1117,  d.  1194),  King  of 
Poland,  protected  the  peasants  against  the 
nobles,  and  was  sumamed  "  the  Just." 

Casimir  III.  (b.  1309,  d.  1370),  King  of 
Poland,  sumamed  "  the  Great,"  succeeded 
Vladislas  in  1333.  He  limited  the  authority 
of  the  Palatines  by  establishing  a  court  of 
appeal  at  Cracow. 

Casimir  IV.  {d.  1492),  King  of  Poland, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1447. 

Casimir  V.  (6.  1609,  d.  1672),  King  of 
Poland,  son  of  Sigismund  III.,  was  pre- 
viously a  cardinal. 

Casimir-Perier,  Auguste  Casimir  Victor 
Laurent  (6.  1811,  d.  1876),  French  states- 
man, elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 


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1849,  to  the  Chamber  in  1871,  and  the  same 
year  became  minister  of  the  interior.  Elected 
life  senator  in  1875. 

Cass,  Lewis  (b.  1782,  d.  1866),  American 
statesman  and  general,  appointed  governor 
of  Michigan  in  1813.  He  showed  great 
prudence  in  his  management  of  Indian 
affairs,  and  in  1831  became  secretary  of 
war  in  the  administration  of  President 
Jackson.  Whilst  representative  of  the 
United  States  in  France,  he  protested 
vigorously  and  effectually  against  the  terms 
of  the  quintuple  treaty,  and  returning  to 
America  was  elected  to  the  senate  in  1845. 
In  1857  he  became  secretary  of  state,  but 
about  five  years  later  withdrew  from  public 
life. 

Cassagnac,  Paul  Adolphe  Marie  Prosper 
de  Granier  de  (6.  1843),  French  journalist 
and  politician,  became  editor  of  the  Pays  in 
1866,  which  paper  has  been  several  times 
prosecuted,  and  in  1877  Cassagnac  was  im- 
prisoned. He  has  been  an  imtiring  enemy 
of  the  republic. 

Cassander,  King  of  Macedonia  (fi.  circa 
354  B.C.,  d.  297  B.C.),  son  of  Antipater, 
appointed  Chiliarch  under  Polysperchon  on 
his  father's  death,  with  the  assistance  of 
Ptolemy  and  Antigonus  defeated  both 
Polysperchon  and  Olympias,  mother  of 
Alexander.  He  afterwards  assumed  the 
title  of  king  and  by  the  victory  of  Ipsus, 
(301)  established  himself  firmly  on  the 
throne. 

Cassander,  George  (6.  1515,  d.  1566), 
Eoman  Catholic,  who  endeavoured  to  effect 
a  reconciliation  between  his  own  church  and 
the  Protestants. 

Cassard,  Jacques  {h.  1672,  d.  1740), 
French  naval  oificer,  served  with  distinction 
against  the  English,  but  was  neglected  by 
his  countrymen,  and  died  in  confinement  at 
Ham. 

Cassell,  John  {b.  1817,  d.  1865),  temper- 
ance refonner  and  publisher,  founder  of 
the  house  of  CasseU  and  Co. ,  was  of  humble 
birth,  first  interested  himself  in  temper- 
ance whilst  working  as  a  carpenter  at 
Manchester.  After  holding  an  appoint- 
ment as  travelling  temperance  lecturer,  he 
became  a  tea  and  coffee  merchant  in 
London.  He  always  retained  his  interest 
in  the  temperance  cause,  in  behalf  of  which 
he  printed  several  tracts,  and  started  a 
paper  called  the  Teetotal  Times,  thus  laying 
the  foundation  of  the  house  at  Ludgate 
Hill.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lord  Brougham, 
and  agitated  for  the  repeal  of  the  paper 
duty. 

Casserio,  Julius  (b.  1545,  d.  1616), 
Italian    anatomist,    professor    of    anatomy 

N 


at  Padua,  made  many  important  dis- 
coveries, and  wrote  Tabulae  Anatomicce, 
etc. 

Cassian,  John  {b.  351,  d.  448),  leader 
of  the  Semi-Pelagians,  wrote  a  book  on 
the  Incarnation  against  the  Nestorian 
heresy. 

Cassie,  James  {b.  1819,  d.  1879),  Scottish 
painter,  excelled  in  landscapes  and  sea- 
pieces. 

Cassin,  John  {b.  1813,  d.  1869),  American 
ornithologist,  who  has  described  and 
classified  many  birds  not  noticed  by 
Audukon  and  Wilson. 

Cassinl,  Jean  Dominique  (b.  1625,  d. 
1712),  appointed  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Bologna  in  1650,  went  to  France  at  the 
invitation  of  Colbert  in  1672,  and  was  in- 
stalled at  the  royal  observatory.  He 
discovered  four  new  satellites  of  Saturn, 
and  left  valuable  tables  on  the  motions  of 
those  of  Jufiiter. 

Cassini  de  Thary,  Cesar  rran9ois  {b. 
1714,  d.  1784),  French  mathematician, 
member  of  the  Academie  des  Sciences,  and 
famous  for  his  trigonometrical  survey  of 
France,  to  which  he  devoted  his  life. 

Cassiodorus,  Magnus  Aurelius  {b.  circa 
468,  d.  562),  was  made  governor  of  Sicily 
by  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
and  became  sole  consul  in  514.  Dismissed 
by  King  Vitiges  from  his  offices,  he 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  Viviers  in 
Calabria,  where  he  lived  many  years  in 
seclusion. 

Cassius,  Avidius  {d.  175),  general  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  against  whom  he  rebelled, 
but  was  shortly  afterwards  assassinated  by 
two  of  his  own  officers. 

Cassius,  Longinus  Caius  {d.  42  B.C.),  fol- 
lowed Crassus  as  quaestor  against  the  Par- 
thians,  and  saved  the  remnant  of  his  army. 
He  took  a  principal  part  in  Caesar's  mur- 
der, and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Philippi,  after  which  he  committed 
suicide. 

Cassivelaunus  or  Cassibelan,  a  British 
prince,  vigorously  but  unsuccessfully  op- 
posed Caesar's  invasion  (54  B.C.). 

Castagno,  Andrea  del,  painter  of  the  15th 
century,  son  of  a  Tuscan  peasant,  studied 
and  painted  at  Florence,  his  masterpieces 
being  the  Flagellation  in  Santa  Croce, 
and  the  paintings  in  Santa  Maria  Nuova. 
He  excelled  in  design  and  composition. 
On  his  deathbed  he  confessed  that  he  had 
murdered  his  rival,  Domenico  Veneziano. 

Castanos,  Don  Francis  Xavier  de,  Duke 
of  Baylen    (b.    1753,    d.    1852),   a    Spanish 


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general,  served  against  the  French,  distin- 
guishing himself  at  the  battle  of  Vittoria. 

Castel,  Rene  Louis  Richard  {b.  1758,  d. 
1832),  French  poet  and  naturalist. 

Castelar,  Emilio  {b.  1832),  Spanish 
statesman  and  writer,  condemned  to  death 
owing  to  his  attacks  on  the  government 
in  1868.  He  fled  to  France,  but  shortly 
returned,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Federal  republic ;  was  appointed  dictator 
on  the  resignation  of  Amadeus  (1873),  but 
resigned  a  few  months  later.  He  is  an 
eloquent  speaker,  and  has  vpritten  many 
works. 

CasteU,  Edmund  (*.  1606,  d.  1685)'  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  at  Cambridge,  and  author 
of  the  Lexicon  Heptaglotton,  or  dictionary  of 
seven  languages. 

eastern,  Benedetto  (*.  1577,  d.  1644), 
Italian  mathematician  and  disciple  of 
GaUleo,  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  hydrau- 
lics, on  which  he  left  a  treatise. 

eastern,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  1500, 
d.  circa  1570),  called  "II  Bergamasco," 
architect,  sculptor,  and  painter,  exe- 
cuted many  frescoes  in  the  churches  of 
Genoa,  his  masterpiece  being  Christ  re- 
ceiving the  Elect,  on  the  ceiling  of  the  church 
of  Portoria.  He  was  invited  by  Charles  V. 
to  Madrid,  and  assisted  in  decorating  the 
palace  of  the  Prado. 

eastern,  Valerio  (b.  1625,  d.  1659), 
Italian  painter,  whose  frescoes  in  the  cupola 
of  the  church  of  the  Annunziata  in  Genoa 
are  much  admired. 

eastelvetro,  Lodovico  {b.  1505,  d.  1571), 
a  learned  Italian,  who  devoted  his  life  to 
the  study  of  his  own  language. 

easti,  Giambattista  (*.  1721,  d.  1803), 
Italian  wit,  popular  amidst  Uterary  and 
courtly  circles  in  various  European  capitals, 
especially  at  Vienna,  author  of  6li  Animali 
Parlanti,  a  political  satire  on  monarchs  and 
diplomacy. 

eastiglione,  Baldassare  (Jb.  1478,  d.  1629), 
bom  at  Mantua,  accomplished  knight  and 
Bchoiar,  who  spent  much  time  in  the  various 
courts  of  Europe. 

Castimo,  Antonio  Felicianode  (b.  1800,  d. 
1875),  Portuguese  poet,  author  of  His- 
torical Pu  tures  of  Portugal  and  other  works. 

CastiUa,  Ramon  (b.  1797,  d.  1867),  a 
Peruvian  general,  in  1844  overthrew  the 
dictator  Vivanco,  was  president  from  1845  to 
1851,  overcame  his  successor  Echenique, 
and  was  again  supreme  ruler  in  1855.  He 
now  abolished  slavery,  and  in  1860  intro- 
duced universal  suffrage,  and  forbade  all 
religions  but  the  Roman  Catholic. 


Castillo,  Bernard-Diaz  del  (*.  1519,  d. 
156U) ,  Spanish  soldier,  accompanied  Cortes  to 
Mexico,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the  conquest. 

eastiUo  y  Saavedra,  Antomo  del  {b.  1603, 
d.  1667),  Spanish  painter,  whose  best  works 
are  in  the  cathedral  of  Cordova. 

eastlereagh,  Robert  Stewart,  Viscount, 
second  Marquis  of  Londondeny  {b.  1769, 
d.  1822),  statesman,  entered  political  life 
as  Chief  Secretary  of  the  Lord -Lieutenant 
of  Ireland  (1796),  and  has  been  charged 
with  cruelty  in  suppressing  the  rebellion 
of  1798,  but  without  due  cause.  He 
was  Secretary  for  War  in  1805,  and  from 
1807  to  1809,  and  fought  a  duel  with 
Canning,  which  led  to  his  retirement.    In 

1812  he  became  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons  and  Foreign  Secretary,  and  was 
accused  by  his  enemies  of  conspiring  against 
liberty  iu  both  capacities.  His  unpopu- 
larity and  iU-success  so  preyed  upon  his 
mind  as  to  unhinge  his  reason,  and  he  died 
by  his  own  hand. 

Castren,  Matthias  Alexander  {b.  1813,  d. 
1852),  professor  of  Scandinavian  languages 
in  the  imiversity  of  Helsingfors,  also  eminent 
as  a  Finnish  scholar. 

Castro,  Inez  de  {d.  1355),  married  Dom 
Pedro  of  Portugal  in  1354,  but  was  put  to 
death  by  his  father,  Alfonso  IV. 

Castro,  Joao  de  {b.  1500,  d.  1548),  Por- 
tuguese general,  viceroy  of  the  Indies  (1547). 

Castruccio,  Castracani  (b.  1284,  d.  1328), 
chief  of  the  Ghibelline  party  in  Tus- 
cany, became  supreme  in  Lucca  through 
his  military  exploits  and  political  talents. 
He  made  war  against  the  Florentines,  de- 
feating them  in  1328. 

Catalan!,  Angelica  (J.  1779,  d.  1849), 
Italian  singer,  made  her  debut  at  Milan  in 
1801;  spent  seven  years  in  England,  and 
was  enthusiastically  received  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe.  She  retired  to  Florence  in 
1830. 

Catesby,  Mark  (b.  1680,  d.  1749), 
naturalist,  travelled  in  America,  and  wrote 
and  illustrated  The  Natural  History  of 
Carolina,  Florida,  and  the  Bahama  Islands, 

Cathcart,  Hon.  Sir  George  {b.  1790, 
d.  1864),  general,  third  son  of  the  first  Earl 
of  Cathcart,   served  in  the  campaigns    of 

1813  and  1814,  was  present  as  aide-de-camp 
to  the  Duke  of  WeUington  at  Quatre-Bras 
and  Waterloo,  became  governor  at  the 
Cape  in  1852,  and  commanded  the  fourth 
division  in  the  Crimean  war,  but  was  mor- 
tally wounded  at  Inkermann. 

Cathcart,  William  Shaw,  first  Earl  of 
{Jb.  175,3,  d.  1843),  English  general,  served 


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in  the  American  war  of  Independence 
(1779),  commanded  the  expedition  to  the 
Baltic  in  1807,  and,  after  the  capitulation  of 
Copenhagen  and  the  surrender  of  the  Danish 
fleet,  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and  became 
an  earl  in  1814.  He  was  for  many  years 
ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Cathelineau,  Jacques  {b.  1759,  d.  1793), 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Vendeans,  took 
the  field  on  behalf  of  the  king  in  1793,  but 
was  mortally  wounded  in  an  attack  upon 
Nantes. 

Catherine  Howard  (6.  circa  1522,  d.  1542), 
fifth  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  was 
accused  of  immorality  by  Archbishop  Cran- 
mer,  found  guilty  by  a  commission,  and 
beheaded  on  Tower  HiU,  seventeen  months 
after  her  marriage. 

Catherine  Parr  {b.  1512,  d.  1548), 
daughter  of  Sir  T.  Parr,  was  married  fii-st  to 
Edward  Borough,  secondly  to  Lord  Latimer, 
and  in  1543  became  the  sixth  and  last  wife 
of  Henry  VLII.  She  was  learned  in  theology 
and  a  zealous  Protestant,  and,  according  to 
Foxe,  on  one  occasion  only  escaped  death  as 
a  heretic  by  timely  submission  to  the  king. 
She  survived  Henry,  and  in  1547  married 
Lord  Seymour  of  Sudeley,  who  was  accused 
of  hastening  her  death  (in  child-birth)  by 
poisoning. 

Catherine  of  Aragon,  Queen  of  Eng- 
land {b.  1483,  d.  1536),  daughter  of  Fer- 
dinand of  Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile, 
married  first  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  subsequently  his  brother,  afterwards 
Henry  VIII.  She  was  beautiful  and  vir- 
tuous, yet  the  king  in  1527  sought  a 
divorce  on  the  ground  that  the  marriage 
was  uncanonical.  After  much  temporising 
on  the  part  of  the  Pope,  the  marriage  was 
in  1533  pronounced  invalid  by  Cranmer, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  his  sentence 
was  ratified  by  Act  of  Parliament.  Catherine 
spent  the  rest  of  her  life  in  Kimbolton  castle. 

Catherine  of  Braganza  (^>.  1638,  d. 
1705),  Queen  of  England,  was  daughter 
of  John  IV.  of  Portugal,  and  in  1662  was 
married  to  Charles  II.  of  England,  bringing 
Tangiers  and  Bombay  as  i^art  of  her  dowry. 
She  returned  to  Portugal  in  1693,  acted 
as  regent  for  her  brother  Pedro,  and  dis- 
played much  wisdom  and  prudence. 

Catherine  de  Medicis  {b.  1519,  d.  1589), 
great  granddaughter  of  Lorenzo  the  Mag- 
nificent, niece  of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  and 
queen  to  Henri  II.  of  France,  acted  as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  second 
son,  Charles  IX. ;  her  policy  was  to  play  off 
the  parties  of  the  Guises  and  the  Cond^s 
against  one  another.  She  instigated  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Catherine  I.,  Empress  of  Eussia  (J.  circa 
N  2 


1685,  d.  1727),  was  the  outcast  infant  of  a 
Livonian  peasant-girl,  and  became  nurse  in 
the  family  of  the  Protestant  minister  of 
Marienburg.  In  1701  she  married  a  Swedish 
dragoon,  who  soon  afterwards  went  with 
his  regiment  to  Eiga,  and  never  returaed. 
After  the  capture  of  Marienburg  by  the 
Eussians,  Catherine  became  the  mistress 
first  of  General  Bauer,  with  whom  she  lived 
at  Moscow,  secondly,  of  Prince  Meuschikoif, 
and  finally,  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  married 
her  privately  near  Warsaw  in  1711,  and 
pubUcly  the  next  year  at  St.  Petersburg. 
She  then  embraced  the  Greek  religion,  and 
took  the  name  of  Catherine.  On  the  death 
of  Peter,  in  1725,  she  was  proclaimed 
Czarina.  Her  death  was  the  result  of 
intemperance. 

Catherine  II.,  Empress  of  Eussia  (b.  1729, 
d.  1796),  the  Princess  Sophia  Augusta, 
daughter  of  the  Prince  of  Anhalt-Zerbst, 
on  her  marriage  in  1745  with  Peter,  nephew 
and  heir  of  the  Empress  Ehzabeth,  assumed 
the  name  of  Catherine  Alexiovna.  Her 
refinement  and  love  of  study  contrasted 
with  her  husband's  vulgarity  and  intem- 
perance ;  neglected  by  him,  she  ingratiated 
herself  with  some  of  the  nobles ;  her 
intrigues  were  discovered  by  Peter,  and,  on 
ascending  the  throne  in  1762,  he  threatened 
to  repudiate  her,  whereupon  she  imprisoned 
him  and  had  him  strangled.  The  subsequent 
murder  of  Ivan,  the  next  heir,  left  Catherine 
in  undisputed  possession  of  the  throne.  As 
Empress  she  seized  the  Crimea,  and  took 
part  in  the  dismemberment  of  Poland.  She 
promoted  the  welfare  of  Eussia  by  en- 
couraging literature  and  commerce,  but  her 
reign  was  sullied  by  disgraceful  amours. 

Catilina,  Lucius  Sergius  {d.  62  B.C.),  a 
Eoman  patrician,  and  in  early  life  a  partisan 
of  Sulla,  after  failing  to  obtain  the  consulship 
in  63,  organised  a  conspiracy,  which  was  de- 
nounced by  Cicero  in  the  senate.  He  fled 
to  his  partisans  in  Etruria,  where  he  was 
defeated  and  slain  near  Pistoria. 

Catinat  de  la  Fauconnerie,  Nicolas  de 
{b.  1637,  d.  1712),  French  soldier,  became 
marshal  of  France  in  1693. 

Cato,  Dionysius,  author  of  Distkha  de 
Mortbus  ad  I'ilium,  a  collection  of  distichs  in 
hexameter  verse,  formerly  used  in  schools. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcius,  called  Cato  Major 
(b.  B.C.  234,  d.  B.C.  149),  after  holding 
the  offices  of  military  tribune  in  Sicily, 
qucestor  in  Africa,  under  Scipio  (204), 
and  praetor  in  Sardinia  (198),  became 
consul  in  195.  He  showed  gi-eat  ability  as 
proconsul  of  Spain,  distinguished  himself 
against  Antiochus  in  Greece,  and  in  184  B.C. 
was  elected  censor  with  L.  Valerius 
Flaccus.  This  office  he  discharged  with  a 
strictness  and  integrity  which  made   him 


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mauy  euemies.     He  was  one  of  the  chief 
instigators  of  the  third  Punic  war. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcius,  sumaraed  Uticensis 
(b.  B.C.  95,  d.  B.C.  46),  great-grandson  of  Cato 
Major,  was  early  marked  by  his  sternness 
and  force  of  character,  and  adopted  Stoic 
principles.  He  supported  Cicero  against  the 
Catilinariaus,  and  sided  with  Pompey 
against  Cffisar.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
he  retired  to  Utica ;  here  he  received  tidings 
of  the  defeat  of  his  party  at  Thapsus,  and, 
after  a  night  spent  in  studying  Plato's 
Fluedo,  died  by  his  own  hand. 

Cats,  Jacob  {b.  1577,  d.  1660),  Dutch 
poet,  author  of  Trouwring,  etc. 

Cattaneo,  Carlo  {b.  1803),  Italian  writer, 
founder  of  a  scientific  journal  called 
Folitecnico.  His  papers  embrace  a  wide 
range  of  subjects.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  insurrection  of  Milan  in  1848. 

Cattermcrte,  George  (i.  1800,  d.  1868), 
English  water-colour  artist  and  historical 
painter. 

Catullus,  Caius  Valerius  {b.  circa  87  B.C., 
d.  circa  47  B.C.),  Roman  poet,  went  with 
Memmius  to  Bithynia  as  praetor,  in  the 
vain  hope  of  repairing  the  fortune  he  had 
impaired  in  the  pursuit  of  pleasure.  Among 
his  poems  the  elegy  on  his  brother  is  the 
most  famous.    He  wrote  many  lyrics. 

Cauchy,  Augustin  Louis  {b.  1789,  d.  1857), 
French  mathematician,  whose  essay,  Sur 
la  Theorie  des  Glides,  gave  rise  to  the  undu- 
latorj-  theory  of  light ;  he  also  gave  much 
attention  to  the  integral  calculus. 

Caus,  Cauls,  or  Caux,  Salomon  de  (d.  circa 
1635),  French  architect  and  engineer, 
wrote  Les  Eaisons  des  Forces  Mouvantes, 
Institution  Harmonique,  etc. 

Caussin  de  Perceval,  Jean  Jacques  An- 
toine  {b.  1759,  d.  1835),  French  Orientalist, 
became  professor  of  Arabic  at  the  College  of 
France  (1783),  and  keeper  of  oriental 
manuscripts  in  the  royal  Hbrary  (1787). 

Cavagna,  Giovanni  Paolo  (J).  1560,  d. 
1627),  artist  who  excelled  in  painting  old 
men  and  children.  His  masterpiece  is  a 
Crucifixion,  in  the  church  of  Sta.  Lucia 
at  Venice.  His  style  resembles  that  of 
Paolo  Veronese. 

Cavagnari,  Major  Sir  Pierre  Louis 
Napoleon,  K.C.B.  {b.  1841,  d.  1879),  of 
French  descent,  but  educated  in  England, 
in  1858  joined  the  1st  Bengal  Fusiliers, 
served  in  the  Indian  mutiny,  held  several 
civil  appointments  in  India,  and  in  1879 
was  sent  with  a  small  escort  on  an  embassy  to 
Cabul,  where  he  was  attacked,  and,  after  a 
brave  resistance,  massacred  with  all  his 
companions. 


Cavaignac,  Louis  Eugene  (b.  1802,  d.  1857), 
French  general  and  politician,  appointed  go- 
vernor-general of  Algeria  by  the  provisional 
government  of  1848,  returned  to  Paris, 
became  dictator,  and  drove  the  insurgents 
from  the  barricades  (1851). 

Cavalcanti,  Guido  (d.  1300),  born  at 
Florence,  Italian  writer  of  lyrical  and  Icvo 
poems ;  was  a  leader  of  the  Bianchi  party 
in  Florence,  and  an  intimate  friend  of 
Dante. 

Cavalcaselle,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  circa 
1820),  art  student  and  critic,  well  known 
in  England  by  his  works  on  the  history  of 
Flemish  and  Italian  painting.  He  took  part 
in  the  Italian  revolution  (1848-9)  as  a 
follower  of  Garibaldi. 

Cavaliere,  Emilio  del  {b.  circa  1550,  d. 
1601),  ItaUan  nobleman,  one  of  the  first 
to  introduce  the  form  of  music  since  de- 
veloped into  the  opera  and  the  oratorio. 

Cavalieri,     Bonaventura     (5.     1598,  d. 

1647),     Italian    mathematician,     pupil  of 

Galileo,    and    author   of   a    Geometry  of 

Indivisibles. 

Cavalli,  Francesco  {b.  1610,  d.  1676), 
musician  and  composer  of  operas ;  was 
maestro  di  capella  at  the  cathedral  of 
St.  Mark,  in  Venice. 

Cavalli,  Giovanni,  General  (Jb.  circa 
1816),  distinguished  military  and  scientific 
man,  inventor  of  the  gun  called  by  his 
name. 

Cavallini,  Pietro  {b.  1279,  d.  1364), 
Italian  painter,  pupil  of  Giotto,  whom  he 
assisted  in  the  mosaic  over  the  grand  en- 
trance of  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  Most  of 
his  works  are  at  Rome.  His  masterpiece  is 
a  Grticifixion  at  Assisi. 

Cavanilles,  Antonio  Josef  {b.  1745,  _  d. 
1804),  Spanish  ecclesiastic  and  botanist, 
who  left  many  valuable  works. 

Cave,  Edward  {b.  1691,  d.  1754),  printer 
and  publisher,  founder  of  the  Gentleman'' s 
Maijaziiie,  and  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who 
wrote  his  biography. 

Cavedone,  Giacomo  [b.  1577,  <^.  1660), 
Italian  painter,  pupil  of  the  Carracci,  went 
to  Venice  to  study  Titian,  and  his  manner 
is  a  happy  compound  of  the  two  styles. 
Some  of  his  works  are  in  the  churches  of 
Bologna. 

Cavendish,  Lord  Frederick  Charles  (b. 
1836,  d.  1882),  second  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire;  succeeded  Mr.  W.  E.  Forster 
as  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  but  a  few 
days  later  was  murdered  in  Phoenix  Park, 
Dublin,  by  a  band  of  assassins  calling  them- 
selves "the  Invincibles." 


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Cavendish,  Henry  (i.  1731,  d.  1810), 
aatnral  philosopher,  was  son  of  Lord 
Charles  Cavendish,  and  nephew  of  the 
third  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Independently 
of  Watts  he  discovered  the  composition  of 
water  (1781),  at  the  same  time  showing  how 
it  may  be  synthetically  formed ;  determined 
the  composition  of  nitric  acid ;  but  gained 
most  renown  through  his  determination  of 
the  specific  gravity  and  therefore  the  weight 
of  the  earth. 

Cavendish  or  Candish,  Thomas  {b.  1564, 
d.  1593),  English  navigator,  passed  through 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  ravaged  the  coast- 
line of  ChiU  and  Peru,  taking  immense 
booty,  and  returned  to  England  by  way 
of  the  Pacific  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  after  circumnavigatiag  the  world  in 
little  more  than  two  years. 

Cavour,  Count  Camillo  Benso  di  {b.  1810, 
d.  1861),  Italian  statesman,  born  at  Turin, 
and  descended  from  an  ancient  Piedmoutese 
family,  began  life  as  an  ofiicer  in  the  Sardinian 
army,  but  soon  resigned  his  commission,  and 
sought  by  travel  in  England,  France,  andelse- 
where>  and  the  study  of  political  and  social  in- 
stitutions, as  well  as  of  finance  and  agricul- 
tm-e,  to  gain  a  mass  of  experience  which  he 
might  turn  to  the  advantage  of  his  country.  In 
1846  he  started  the  Risorgimento,  a  paper  of 
moderate  and  constitutional  views ;  in  1848, 
when  Charles  Albert  granted  a  constitution, 
took  his  seat  in  the  chamber  as  representa- 
tive of  one  of  the  Turin  constituencies,  was 
minister  of  agriculture  and  conmierce  from 
1850  to  1852,  and  prime  minister  from  1852 
onwards.  He  contrived  that  Sardinia  should 
co-operate  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  brought 
the  grievances  of  Italy  before  the  Congress 
of  Paris  (1856).  With  the  help  of  Louis 
Napoleon  a  successful  war  was  carried  on 
against  Austria,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
disappointing  peace  of  Villafranca  (1859), 
Cavour  was  able,  by  securing  the  annexa- 
tion of  Tuscany  and  Emilia,  and  by  effecting 
a  jimction  with  the  forces  of  Garibaldi,  to 
accomplish  the  aim  of  his  life,  and  see  Italy 
a  united  kingdom  under  the  rule  of  Victor 
Emmanuel. 

_  Cawton,  Thomas  {h.  1605,  d.  1659),  Eng- 
lish divine,  and  celebrated  linguist. 

Caxton,  William  \l>.  circu  1420,  d.  1491), 
the  earliest  English  printer,  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  the  art  whilst  in  the  Low 
Countries,  and  set  up  a  printing  press  at 
Westminster,  probably  in  1474. 

Cayley,  Arthur  {I:  1821),  mathematician, 
was  in  1863  api^ointed  first  Sadlerian  pro- 
fessor of  pure  mathematics  at  Cambridge, 
and  in  1883,  as  president  of  the  British 
Association,  delivered  an  address  on  the 
possibilities  and  present  limitations  of  mathe- 
matics, which  attracted  much  attention. 


Caylus,  Anne  Claude  Philippe,  Comte  de 
{b.  1692,  d.  1765),  French  archaeologist, 
wrote  A  Collection  of  Egyptian,  Etruscan, 
Greek,  Roman,  and  Gallic  Antiquities,  etc. 

Ca3rx,Eemi  Jean  Baptiste  Charles  {h.  1795, 
d.  1858),  French  historian,  inspector  of  the 
Academy  of  Paris  in  1837;  wrote  on  the 
history  of  his  own  country,  and  that  of  the 
Roman  empire. 

Cazales,  Jacques  Antoine  Marie  de  {b. 
1758,  d.  1805),  French  orator  and  poli- 
tician ;  was  a  member  of  the  first  Xational 
Assenibly,  but  left  France  on  the  fall  of  the 
constitutional  monarchy. 

Cazan  Khan  (d.  1304),  able  and  enlightened 
king  of  Persia  of  the  Mogul  dynasty. 

Gazes,  Pierre  Jacques  {b.  1676,  d. 
1754j,  French  artist,  was  director  (1744) 
and  afterwards  (1746)  chancellor  of  the 
Academy. 

Gazette,  Jacques  {b.  1720,  d.  1792), 
French  writer  of  romances  and  tales, 
chiefly  remembered  as  having  correctly 
prophesied  the  deaths  of  several  persons  ia 
the  coming  revolution.  He  himself  suffered 
by  the  guillotiue. 

Cazouyny  or  Cazwyny,  Zacharie  Ben 
Mohammed  Ben  Mahmoud  (b.  circa  1210, 
d.  1283),  celebrated  Arabian  naturalist, 
author  of  a  work  on  geography,  and  another 
on  celestial  and  terrestrial  phenomena. 

Cecco  d'Ascoli,  the  name  given  to  Fran- 
cesco StabiU  {b.  Viol,  d.  1327),  scientific  poet, 
author  of  the  Acerba,  a  sort  of  encyclopaedia 
in  verse ;  he  was  condemned  to  the  stake  by 
the  Inquisition. 

Cecil,  Richard  {b.  1748,  d.  1810),  Eng- 
lish evangelical  divine. 

Cecil,  Robert.     \_See  SaUsbury.] 

Cecil,  William,  Lord  Burleigh  [b.  1520, 
d.  159S),  minister  of  State,  son  of  Richard 
Cecil,  of  Burleigh,  in  Northamptonshire, 
rose  steadily  during  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI. ,  opposed  Lady  Jane  Grey,  found  favour 
with  Mary,  and  became  Elizabeth's  chief 
Secretarj'  of  State.  In  this  capacity  he  did 
more  than  any  other  man  to  promote  that 
feeling  of  national  unity  which  is  the  dis- 
tinctive mark  of  the  Elizabethan  period. 
Recognising  that  the  patiiotism  of  the 
country  centred  in  the  queen,  he  continually 
besought  her  to  marry,  and  thus  secure  for 
England  a  succession  of  Protestant  rulers. 
It  was  under  his  management  that  a  settled 
form  was  given  to  the  English  Church, 
and,  though  personally  disposed  to  favour 
the  Puritans,  his  political  sagacity  led  him 
to  adopt  in  all  matters  a  prudent  and  middle 
course.      Both  his    religious    and    political 


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views  led  him  to  urge  on  the  execution  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

Cecilia,  Saint,  the  patron  saint  of  music, 
a  Roman  virgin,  is  supposed  to  have  suf- 
fered martyrdom  about  the  beginning  of  the 
3rd  century. 

Cedd,  Saint  {d.  664),  brother  of  St.  Chad, 
and  bishop  of  the  East  Saxons. 

Celakowsky,  Frantisek  Ladislaw  (A.  1799, 
d.  1852),  philologist  and  author,  professor 
of  the  Bohemian  language  at  the  University 
of  Prague. 

C6leste,  Marie  (b.  1815,  d.  1882),  French 
actress  and  ballet  dancer,  very  popular  in 
England  and  America.  She  withdrew  from 
the  stage  in  1870. 

Celesti,  Cavaliere  Andrea  (b.  1637, i:^.  1706), 
Venetian  painter  of  landscapes  and  historical 
and  sacred  pieces,  some  of  whose  works  may 
still  be  seen  in  the  churches  of  Venice. 

Celestine  I.  (_d.  432),  pope  in  422,  con- 
tributed to  the  supremacy  of  the  pontifical 
see  by  exerting  his  authority  in  the  East 
with  reference  to  the  Nestorian  controversy. 

Celestine  IL  {d.  1144),  pope  in  1143, 
quarrelled  with  Boger,  the  Norman  king  of 
the  Two  Sicilies. 

Celestine  III.  (d.  1198),  pope  in  1191, 
aided  Henry  VI.  of  Germany  in  establish- 
ing his  power  in  Sicily. 

Celestine  rV.,  pope  in  1241,  reigned  only 
seventeen  days. 

Celestine  V.,  Pietro  Moroue  (b.  1215,  d. 
1296),  pope  in  1294,  was  previously  an 
anchorite,  near  Sulmona.  His  inexperience 
and  simplicity  made  him  a  mere  tool  in  the 
hands  of  Charles  II.  of  Anjou.  He  was 
persuaded  to  resign  his  office,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  days  in  confinement. 

Cellarius,  Christoph  (b.  1638,  d.  1707), 
German  teacher  and  writer  of  works  on 
Latin  and  Hebrew, 

Cellini, Beuveiiuto  (b.  1500,  d.  1571),  bom 
at  Florence,  sculptor  and  goldsmith,  led  an 
adventurous  life.  He  worked  for  Francis  I. 
of  France,  and  at  Florence  for  Cosmo  de 
Medici.  According  to  his  autobiography, 
an  Italian  classic,  he  killed  the  Constable  de 
Bourbon  at  the  siege  of  Rome. 

Celsius,  Andreas  {b.  1701,  d.  1744), 
Swedish  astronomer,  introduced  the  "  centi- 
grade scale  "  for  thermometers. 

Celsixs,  Aulus  (or  Aurelius)  Cornelius, 
philosopher,  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Rome 
in  the  1st  century,  wrote  De  Medicina. 

Celtes,  Protucius    Conrad    (J>.    1459,    d. 


1508),  German  poet,  whose  real  name  was 
Meissel.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
the  imiversity  of  Vienna,  and  librarian  to 
Maximilian  I. 

Cenci,  Beatrice  {d.  1599),  Roman  lady, 
who  with  lier  stepmother  Lucretia,  and  her 
brother  Giacomo,  compassed  the  death  of 
her  cruel  and  incestuous  father,  Count 
Francesco  Cenci.  The  three  murderers 
were  seized  and  executed  at  Rome.  There 
is  a  doubtful  portrait  of  Beatrice  by  Guido 
in  the  Colonna  Palace  at  Rome,  aud  her 
story  is  the  subject  of  a  drama  by  Shelley. 

Censorinus,  Appius  Claudius  {d.  269), 
was  saluted  emperor  in  269,  and  assassinated 
seven  days  afterwards. 

Centlivre,  Susannah  {b.  circa  1667,  d. 
1723),  English  dramatist,  wrote  The  TFoti' 
der,  The  Busybody,  etc.  In  1706  she  was 
married  to  Joseph  Centlivre,  chief  cook  to 
Queen  Anne. 

Ceo,  Violante  do  (6.  1601,  d.  1693), 
Portuguese  poetess,  early  entered  the  order 
of  the  Dominicans. 

Ceolfrid  or  Ceolfirth  (A.  642,  d.  716), 
Saxon,  founder  of  the  Abbey  of  Wear- 
mouth  :  amongst  his  pupils  was  the  Vener- 
able Bede. 

CepMsodotus,  Athenian  sculptor  of  the 
4th  century  B.C.,  executed  a  group  in 
marble  for  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Soter  at 
Megalopolis. 

Cephisodotus   the  Younger,   a   son    of 

the  great  Praxiteles,  lived  about  300  B.o. 
Amongst  his  works  was  a  statue  in  wood 
of  Lycurgus. 

CeraccM,  Giuseppi  {b.  circa  1760,  d.  1802), 
Corsican  sculptor,  who  with  three  others 
was  executed  in  1801  for  attempting  to  as- 
sassinate Napoleon. 

Cerdic  {d.  534),  Saxon  chieftain,  founder 
of  the  kingdom  of  Wessex. 

Cerintlius,  heresiarch  of  the  1st  century, 
said  to  have  been  educated  at  Alexandria. 
Some  have  supposed  that  the  Gospel  of 
St.  John  was  written  in  refutation  of  his 
doctrines. 

Cerquozzi,  Michelangelo  {b.  1602,  (^.  1660), 
Roman  artist,  called  Michelangelo  delle 
Battaglie  from  the  excellence  of  his  battle 
pieces.  One  of  his  pieces,  representing  a 
mob  cheering  Masaniello,  is  in  the  Palazzo 
Spada  at  Rome. 

Cervantes  de  Saavedra,  Miguel  de  (5. 
1547,  d.  1616),  Spanish  author,  bom 
at  Alcala  de  Henares,  belonged  to  an 
ancient  Galician  family,  and  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Salamanca,  where  ha 


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spent  his  time  chiefly  in  writing  verses. 
After  following  Cardinal  Aquaviva  as 
chamberlain  into  Italy,  he  enlisted  under 
Marc  Antonio  Colonna,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571), 
where  he  lost  his  left  hand;  in  1575  was 
captured  by  a  corsair,  and  spent  five  years 
in  slavery  "at  Algiers.  In  158S  he  settled  at 
Seville,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  devoted 
his  time  mainly  to  writing  dramas.  In  1605 
the  first  part  of  Do7i  Quixote  apjjeared,  and 
the  second  followed  ten  years  later.  Among 
the  other  works  of  Cervantes  are  Kovelds 
Exemplares,  Tiage  al  Farnaso,  and  Galatea. 

Cervolle,  Arnaud  de  {b.  circa  1300,  d. 
1366),  sumamed  i'Archipretre,  chief  of  one 
of  the  "companies"  which  devastated 
France  in  the  14th  century. 

Cesalpino  or  Csesalpinus,  Andrea  {b. 
1519,  d.  1603),  eminent  Italian  botanist, 
was  one  of  the  first  to  attempt  a  scien- 
tific method  in  the  study  of  botany  and 
mineralogy. 

Cesare,  Giuseppe.    {See  Arpino.] 

Cesari,  Antonio  {b.  1760,  d.  1828),  ecclesi- 
astic, sought  to  restore  ItaUan  to  its  early 
puritj'  through  the  study  of  writers  of  the 
14th  century. 

Cesarotti,  Melchiore  {b.  1730,  d.  1808), 
Italian  poet,  and  professor  of  Greek  and 
Hebrew  at  Padua,  wrote  an  Essay  on  the 
Philosophy  of  Language,  translated  Homer, 
.SJschylus,  Demosthenes,  etc.,  and  was  very 
successful  in  rendering  Ossian  in  Italian 
blank  verse, 

Cesi,  Bartolommeo  {b.  1550,  d.  1629), 
Italian  artist,  friend  and  rival  of  the 
Caracci.  Among  his  works  are  The 
Descent  of  the  Hohj  Ghost,  in  the  Certosa, 
and  the  frescoes,  illustrating  the  life  of 
.ffineas,  in  the  Palazzo  Favi. 

Cesi,  Cario  (b.  1626,  d.  1686),  histori- 
cal painter  and  engraver;  one  of  his  best 
works  is  The  Judgment  of  Solomon,  in  Sta. 
Maria  Maggiore. 

Cesi  or  Csesius,  Frederico,  Prince  of 
{b.  1585,  d.  1636),  patron  of  science,  was  the 
founder  of  the  Academy  "de'  Lincei"  in 
Borne. 

Cesnola,  Coimt  Luigi  Palma  di  (6.  1832), 
Italian  explorer,  bom  at  Turin,  whilst 
American  consul  at  Lamn'':i  in  Cyprus  in 
1865  began  a  series  of  excavations,  which 
he  continued  for  about  ten  years.  The 
statuettes,  vases,  and  coins  he  discovered 
are  now  in  the  Museum  of  Art  at  New 
York.  He  pubhshed  an  account  of  his 
labours  in  1878. 

Cespedes,   Pablo  de  {b.  1533,   d.   1608), 


Spanish  painter,  sculptor,  scholar,  and 
writer,  visited  Eome,  where  he  painted 
some  frescoes  in  the  church  of  the  Trinity. 
His  chief  works  are  at  Cordova. 

Cesti,  Marc  Antonio  {b.  circa  1620,  d. 
1681),  ItaUan  musician,  maestro  di  capella 
at  Florence  in  1646. 

Cetewayo,  King  of  Zululand  {b.  1821,  d. 
1884),  became  regent  for  his  father  Panda 
in  1856,  and  succeeded  him  iu  1873.  His 
poUcy  towards  Natal  was  at  first  couciha- 
tory,  but  harassed  by  aggressions  of  the  Boers, 
for  whose  conduct  Britain  became  respon- 
sible on  annexing  the  Transvaal,  he  became 
tyrannical  and  suspicious,  and  the  British 
declared  war  in  1879.  The  war  ended  in  the 
burning  of  Cetewayo's  kraal  at  Ulimdi; 
he  fled,  but  was  captured  and  sent  as  a 
prisoner  to  Cape  Town,  his  coimtry  being 
divided  among  thirteen  petty  chieftains.  In 
1882  the  British  Government  determined 
to  restore  Cetewayo,  and  after  visiting 
England  he  returned  to  Zululand,  January, 
1883.  Internal  troubles  and  wars  broke 
out ;  Cetewayo  failed  to  drive  out  Usibepu, 
and  after  surrendering  to  the  British  re- 
sident, he  died  suddenly  in  1884. 

Chabanon,  Michael  Paul  Gui  de  (*. 
1730,  d.  1792),  French  poet  and  musician 
of  note,  bom  at  St.  Domingo  ;  left  several 
dramas  and  poems. 

Chabert,  Joseph  Bernard,  Marquis  de  {b. 
1724,  d.  1805),  French  admii-al  and  man  of 
science,  went  on  several  voyages  to  correct 
the  naval  charts  then  in  use  ;  served  in  the 
American  war;  during  the  French  revo- 
lution retired  to  England ;  returned  in  1802, 
and  was  well  received  by  Bonaparte. 

Cliabot,  Francois  (b.  1759,  d.  1794), 
French  Capuchin  friar,  who  was  guillotined 
as  an  accomplice  of  Danton. 

Chabrol  de  Crouzol,  Andre  Jean,  Count 
(b.  1771,  d.  1836),  French  statesman,  who 
as  minister  of  marine  (1824)  and  of  finance 
(1829)  rendered  great  public  services. 

Chabrol  de  Volvic,  Gilbert  Joseph  Gas- 
pard.  Count  {b.  1773,  d.  1843),  brother  of 
the  preceding,  accompanied  the  Egyptian 
expedition  in  a  scientific  capacity.  He  was 
appointed  prefect  of  the  Seine  in  1812,  and 
retained  the  office  after  the  restoration. 

Chad  or  Ceadda,  Saint  (d.  672),  Bishop  of 
York,  and  afterwards  of  Lichfield. 

Chahyn  Gherai,  last  Khan  of  the  Crimea, 
was  in  1783  compelled  by  the  Russians  to 
abdicate. 

Chaillu,  Paul  Belloni  du  {b.  1835),  African 
explorer,  autlior  of  Explorations  and  Ad- 
ventures in  Equatorial  Africa  (1861),  and 
The  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun  (1881). 


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Cliaka  or  Charka  {d.  1829),  King  of  the 
Zulus,  assassinated  by  his  brothers. 

Chalcondylas,  Demetrius  {b.  circa  1424,  d. 
1510K  Greek  grammarian,  who  taught  at 
Florence  and  Milan. 

Chalcondylas,  Laouicos  {d.  circa  1464), 
Bj-zautine  liistoriau,  wrote  in  Greek  a  His- 
tory of  the  Turks  from  1298  to  1462. 

Challemel-Lacour,  Paul  Amaud  (b.  1827), 
French  politician  and  writer,  was  asso- 
ciated with  Gambetta  in  establishing  the 
Revue  Tolitique  (1808),  and  the  llcpuhlique 
Franqaise  (l^ill).  His  proceedings  as  pre- 
fect of  the  Rhone  in  1870  gave  rise  to 
much  unfavourable  comment.  He  was 
foreign  secretary  iu  1883. 

Chalmers,  Alexander  (*.  1759,^.  1834), mis- 
cellaneous writer,  edited  the  Morning  Herald, 
and  wrote  a  General  Biographical  Dictionary. 

Chalmers,  Thomas  {fi.  1780,  d.  1847), 
Scottish  divine,  educated  at  St.  Andrews, 
where  he  taught  mathematics  after  his 
ordination.  In  1815  he  became  a  minister 
at  Glasgow,  and  at  once  attracted  attention 
by  his  eloquence.  He  was  subsequently 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  St. 
Andrews  (1823)  and  of  theology  at  Edin- 
burgh (1828).  On  the  disruption  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  (1843)  he  joined  the 
Free  Church  party,  and  became  moderator 
of  its  assembly  and  principal  of  its  college. 
His  writings  embrace  a  wide  range  of  sub- 
jects, including  natural  science  and  political 
economy. 

Chaloner,  Sir  Thomas,  the  elder  {b.  1521, 
d.  1565),  diplomatist  and  author,  was  sent 
by  Elizabeth  as  ambassador  to  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  and  to  Philip  II.,  and  resided  in 
Spain  from  1561  to  1564.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  Of  the  Right  Ordering  of  the  English 
RepubUc. 

Chaloner,  Sir  Thomas,  the  younger  {b. 
1561,  d.  1615),  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
much  esteemed  by  James  I.,  and  became 
tutor  to  his  son  Henry. 

Chalybseus,  Heinrich  Moritz  {b.  1796, 
d.  1862),  professor  of  philosophy  at  Kiel 
(1839-52),  vrrote  a  History  of  Speculative 
Philosophy  from  Kant  to  Hegel,  a  System  of 
Speculative  Ethics,  etc. 

Cham,  the  pseudonym  of  Amedde  de 
Noe  {b.  1819,  d.  1879),  caricatiurist  and 
humorist,  connected  with  the  Charitiari  for 
about  thirty  years.  Douze  Annies  Comiques 
(1880)  and  Les  Folies  Parisiennes  (1883)  are 
collections  of  his  contributions  to  comic 
journals. 

cnamberlain,  Rt.  Hon.  Joseph  {b.  1836), 
politician,    was     educated    at    University 


College  school,  and  entered  his  father's  busi- 
ness as  a  manufacturer  of  wood-screws  at 
Birmingham.  He  acquired  local  celebrity  as 
an  exponent  of  Radical  views,  tinged  with 
repubUcauism,  was  mayor  of  Birmingham  in 
1873  and  the  two  following  years,  in  1876 
was  returned  as  member  for  that  town,  and 
in  1880  obtained  a  seat  in  Mr.  Gladstone's 
Cabinet  as  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
To  him  arc  owing  the  Bankruptcy  BiU . 
(1883),  the  Married  Women's  Property  Bill, 
and  the  Patent  Law  Amendment  Bill.  In 
1883  he  advocated  manhood  suffrage,  equal 
electoral  districts,  and  paid  members  ;  and 
from  1885  onwards  his  proposals  showed 
the  influence  of  State  Socialism,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  land.  His  views  were 
fully  develoi^ed  in  I'he  Radical  Programme, 
published  by  the  Liberal  Federation  in  1885. 
In  1886  he  became  president  of  the  Local 
Government  Board,  but  resigned  owing  to 
his  disapproval  of  the  Home  Rule  Bill.  Siuce 
then  he  has  been  one  of  the  supporters  of 
the  Unionist  party,  but  has  not  otherwise 
taken  a  conspicuous  part  in  political  life. 
In  1887  he  was  one  of  the  conunissioners 
appointed  to  settle  the  fisheries  disputes 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Chambers,  Ephraim  {b.  circa  1680,  d, 
1740),  wrote  a  well-known  encyclopeedia, 
the  first  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1728. 

Chambers,  Robert  (b.  1802,  d.  1871),  bro- 
ther of  William,  in  1832  joined  him  ia 
estabUshiug  a  publishing  house ;  besides  his 
contributions  on  social,  philosophical,  and 
humorous  subjects  to  Chambers''s  Journal, 
wrote  on  geology  and  Scottish  history  and 
romance,  and  was  the  author  of  Vestiges  of 
the  Natural  History  of  Creation.  Among  his 
best  works  are  his  Life  of  Burns  and  the 
Book  of  Days. 

Chambers,  William  {b.  1800,  d.  1883), 
Scottish  publisher  and  author,  vdth  his 
brother  Robert  established  Chambers'' s  Jour- 
nal in  1832.  Henceforward  they  took 
an  active  part  in  the  popularisation  of 
knowledge.  William  was  also  interested  in 
schemes  of  sanitary  improvement,  and  in 
1865  was  elected  lord  provost  of  Edinburgh. 

Chambers,    Sir    William    (6.    Stockholm 
1726,  d.  1796),  architect,  of  Scottish  parent 
age,  designed  the  gardens  at  Kew,  and  built 
Somerset  House  and  other  mansions. 

Chambord,  Henri  Charles  Dieudonne, 
Comte  de  {h.  1820,  d.  1883),  the  last  of  the 
elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  was  the  son 
of  the  Due  de  Berry.  Charles  X.  resigned 
in  his  favour,  but  he  was  compelled  to  Hve 
abroad. 

Chamier,  Daniel  {b.  circa  1570,  d.  1621), 
French  divine,  professor  of  theology  at 
Montauban,   and    a   vigorous  defender  of 


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Protestantism,  was  slain  during  the  siege 
of  Moutauban  by  Louis  XIII. 

Chammaxd,  Michel  de  {b.  1651,  d.  1721), 
French  statesman,  whose  maladministration 
of  the  finances  (1699-1708)  nearly  ruined  his 
country. 

Chamilly,  Noel  Bouton,  Comte  de  (b. 
1636,  d.  1715),  French  marshal,  who  gal- 
lantly defended  Grave  against  the  Prince  of 
Orange. 

Cbamisso,  Adalbert  von  {b.  1781,  d. 
1838),  German  poet  and  botanist,  of  French 
descent,  entered  the  Prussian  army  in  1798, 
but,  caring  more  for  hterature,  and  becom- 
ing connected  with  the  young  romantic 
school,  left  it  in  1807.  In  1815  he  joined  a 
Russian  exploring  expedition  to  Behring's 
Straits,  and  returning  in  1817  became  cus- 
todian of  the  botanical  gardens  iu  Berlin. 
He  wrote  Peter  Schlemihl  (a  novel),  and 
many  ballads  and  lyrics. 

Chamousset,  Claude  Humbert  Piarzon  de 
(b.  1717,  d.  1773),  French  philanthropist, 
introduced  many  reforms  into  the  hospitals 
of  Paris. 

Champagne  or  Champaigne,  Philippe  de 
[b.  1602,  d.  1674),  Belgian  artist,  employed 
with  Poussin  in  the  Luxembourg. 

Championnet,  Jean  Etienne  (*.  1762,  d. 
1800),  French  general,  took  part  in  the 
revolution,  and  was  employed  against  the 
Girondists;  captured  Naples  in  1799,  and 
commanded  the  army  of  the  Alps,  but  re- 
signed on  the  coup  d'etat  of  Napoleon. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de  (*.  1570,  d. 
1635),  the  first  French  governor  of  Canada; 
founded  Quebec  in  1608,  and  gave  his  name 
to  Lake  Champlain. 

Champollion,  Jean  Francois  (*.  1790, 
d.  1832),  French  Orientalist,  in  1822  an- 
nounced to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  his 
discovery  of  the  key  to  the  hieroglj-phics. 
In  1828  he  was  sent  to  Eg}^pt  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  published  the  result  of  his  re- 
searches on  his  return. 

Chancellor,  Richard  {d.  1556),  navigator, 
joined  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby's  expedition 
in  1553,  made  his  way  to  the  White  Sea, 
visited  Moscow,  and  was  weU  received  by 
Ivan  IV.  On  his  return  in  1554  formed 
the  Muscovy  Company. 

Chandler,  Edward,  D.D.  {b.  1671,  d. 
1750),  Bishop  of  Lichfield,  wrote  a  Defence 
of  Christianity,  praised  by  Leland. 

Chandler,  Richard,  D.D.  {h.  1738,  d. 
1810),  scholar  and  writer,  travelled  in 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and  wrote  Ionian 
Antiquities,  etc. 

Chandler,    Samuel,    D.D.    {b.    1693,    d. 


1766),  Presbyterian  divine,  wrote  many 
works  defending  Christian  rationalism,  and 
attackiiig  Deism. 

Chan -OS,  Sir  John  {d.  1370),  English 
captain,  served  iu  France  under  Edward 
III.,  and  was  Ueutenant-general  of  the 
Enghsh  forces  in  Guienne.  He  was  slain 
near  Poitiers. 

Changarnier,  Nicolas  Theodule  [b.  1793, 
d.  1877),  French  general,  governor  of 
Algiers  in  1848,  crushed  the  Parisian 
outbreak  in  1849,  but  was  arrested  and 
exiled  by  Louis  Napoleon. 

Channing,  "William  EUery  (b.  1780,  d. 
1842),  American  preacher  and  writer,  was 
educated  at  Harvard  College,  and  in  1803 
became  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  Boston, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death.  From 
1835  onward  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
anti-slavery  movement,  and  suggested 
many  schemes  for  the  improvement  of 
the  poor.  His  sermons  are  eloquent  and 
show  breadth  of  view.  He  also  wrote  on 
literary  subjects. 

Chantrey,  Sir  Francis  Legatt,  R.A.  (b.  1781, 
d.  1841),  son  of  a  carpenter,  became  eminent 
as  a  sculptor  of  busts,  notably  one  of  Scott. 
Some  of  his  larger  works  are  also  famous, 
especially  the  group  of  The  Sleeping  Children 
in  Lichfield  cathedral. 

Chanzy,  Antoine  Eugene  {b.  1823,  d.  1883), 
French  soldier,  was  apjjointed  general  of 
division  by  the  government  of  the  National 
Defence  during  the  Franco-German  war, 
and  in  January,  1871,  fought  a  six  days' 
battle  with  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  while 
retreating  from  Le  Mans  ;  was  afterwards 
governor  of  Algeria  and  ambassador  to  St. 
Petersburg. 

Chapman,  George  (*.  1557,  d.  1634), 
English  dramatist,  educated  at  Oxford,  wrote 
many  plaj's,  but  is  best  known  by  his  trans- 
lation of  Homer.  He  also  translated  Hesiod, 
Ovid,  etc. 

Chapone,  Hester  (^.  1727,  d.  1801),  daugh- 
ter of  Thomas  Mulso,  married  a  barrister 
named  Chapone.  She  wrote  Letters  on  the 
Improvement  of  the  3£ind  (1773). 

Chappe,  Claude  (b.  1763,  d.  1806),  French 
mechanician,  inventor  of  a  system  of 
telegraphy  used  iu  France  for  some  years. 

Chappe  d'Auteroche,  Jean  {b.  1722,  d. 
1769),  French  astronomer,  commissioned 
by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  to  observe 
from  Tobolsk  a  transit  of  Venus  (1761).  On 
his  return  to  France  he  published  the 
Voi/age  en  Slberie. 

ChappeU,  William  (b.  1582,  d.  1649), 
Bishop  of  Cork  (1638),  wrote  Methodus 
Concwnandi,  and  other  works. 


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Chaptal,  Jean  Antoine  Claude,  Comte  de 
Chanteloup  (Ik  17o6,  d.  1832),  French  chemist 
and  statesman  ;  Napoleon  made  him  mini- 
ster of  the  interior,  a  post  which  he  re- 
signed iu  1804,  after  doing  much  to  improve 
French  trade.  In  1815  he  was  made  director 
of  commerce  and  manufactures  by  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  became  a  peer  of  FraoQce.  He 
left  several  works  ®n  chemistry. 

Chardia,  Jean  {b.  1643,  d.  1713),  French 
traveller,  went  to  the  East  Indies  in  search 
of  diamonds,  and  resided  six  years  at 
Ispahan.     He  left  an  account  of  his  travels. 

Chares  {b.  circa  400  B.C.,  d.  circa  330 B.C.), 
Athenian  general,  was  entrusted  with  the 
conduct  of  the  Social  war,  and  rendered  some 
service  in  the  Olynthian.  He  was  one  of  the 
commanders  at  Chaeronea. 

Charette  de  la  Contrie,  Francois  Athanase 
{b.  1763,  d.  1796),  Vend^an  general,  in  1793 
headed  the  peasant  insurgents  of  his  neigh- 
bourhood, and  obtained  several  successes  in 
conjunction  with  Cathelineau,  but  was 
finally  defeated,  captured,  and  executed. 

Charlemagne  (Charles  the  Great)  {b.  742, 
d.  814),  King  of  the  Franks  and  Emperor  of 
the  West,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Pepin, 
in  768,  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Neustria, 
Austrasia,  and  part  of  Germany,  and  on  that 
of  his  brother,  Carloman,  in  771,  became 
sole  monarch  of  a  territory  embracing 
France  and  about  half  of  Germany.  He 
immediately  attacked  the  Saxons,  whom  he 
subdued  after  a  war  of  thii-ty  years.  A 
descent  into  Italy  in  774,  undertaken  at  the 
request  of  Pope  Adriau,  residted  in  the 
capture  of  Pavia,  and  defeat  of  Desiderius, 
king  of  the  Lougobardi.  He  assumed  the 
crown  of  Lombardy  himself,  and  was  recog- 
nised by  the  pope  as  patrician  of  Rome  and 
suzerain  of  Italy.  In  778  he  marched  against 
the  Saracens  in  Spain,  and  drove  them 
beyond  the  Ebro,  but  on  his  return  home  his 
rear  guard  was  defeated  at  Koncesvalles,  and 
his  follower,  Roland,  slain.  On  Christmas 
day,  SCO,  he  was  crowned  Emperor  of  the 
West  in  Rome,  by  Leo  III.,  and  assumed 
the  titles  of  Csesar  and  Augustus.  He  was 
acknowledged  by  Nicephorus,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  two 
empii-es  were  determined.  Charlemagne  de- 
voted himself  to  the  advancement  of  learn- 
ing and  religion,  and  publishedthe  Capitti- 
laries,  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
regulations. 

Charles  I.,  King  of  England  (b.  1600,  d. 
1649),  second  son  of  James  I.,  succeeded  his 
father  in  1625,  and  was  almost  immediately 
involved  in  disputes  with  the  Parliament, 
first  about  his  favourite  Buckingham,  and 
then  respecting  the  redress  of  grievances. 
After  reluctantly  granting  the  Petition 
of  Right  (1628),  he  ruled  for  eleven  years 


without  a  parliament,  under  the  influence 
of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  and  Archbishop 
Laud.  During  this  period  he  resorted  to 
various  unconstitutional  methods  of  filling 
his  exchequer,  the  exaction  of  ship-money 
being  the  most  famous,  and  caused  a  re- 
belUon  in  Scotland  by  attempting  to  force 
episcopacy  upon  the  people.  In  1640  the 
Long  ParUament  met,  Strafford  was  im- 
peached and  executed,  and  Laud  imprisoned. 
After  his  failure  to  arrest  the  five  members, 
Charles  raised  his  standard  at  Nottingham, 
and  the  Civil  war  began.  The  parlia- 
mentary victories  at  Marston  Moor  (1644), 
Naseby  (1645),  and  elsewhere  induced 
Charles  to  surrender  himself  to  the  Scots, 
by  whom  he  was  delivered  to  the  English 
ParUament.  After  some  months  of  confine- 
ment iu  various  places  he  was  tried  and  con- 
demned by  a  self-created  tribunal  in  West- 
minster Hall,  and  executed  at  Whitehall, 
Jan.  30th. 

Charles  II.,  King  of  England  (*.  1630,  d. 
1685),  son  of  the  preceding,  after  Naseby 
joined  the  queen  at  Paris  ;  iu  1650  landed  in 
Scotland,  took  the  covenant,  and  was 
crowned  at  Scone,  Jan.  1,  1651,  but  his  defeat 
at  Worcester  (Sept.  3rd)  necessitated  his 
return  to  the  Continent.  He  there  led  a 
wandering  life  till  recalled  by  the  ParHament 
in  May,  1660.  On  his  restoration  every- 
thing in  Chui-ch  and  State  was  restored  to  its 
former  footing.  Wars  with  the  Dutch  broke 
out,  and  after  the  Triple  Alliance  between 
England,  Holland,  and  Sweden  had  been 
formed  in  1668,  it  was  found  that  Charles,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  ministry  called  the 
"  Cabal,"  had  secretly  become  the  pensioner 
of  the  French  king.  This  he  had  done  in 
the  hope  of  rendering  himself  absolute,  and 
from  1681  he  ruled  iu  an  arbitrary  man- 
ner without  a  parliament,  in  consequence  of 
which  there  were  many  plots  to  overthrow 
the  government. 

Charles  Edward  Louis  Philip  Casimir 
Stuart  {b.  1720,  d.  1788),  the  "Young 
Pretender,"  was  grandson  of  James  II.  of 
England,  and  son  of  James,  the  "  Old  Pre- 
tender." In  1745  he  made  an  attempt  to 
gain  the  throne  in  his  father's  name,  landed 
iu  Inverness- shire,  and,  after  a  victory  at 
Prestonpans,  marched  into  England  as  far 
as  Derby,  but  was  forced  to  retrace  his  steps  ; 
was  again  victorious  at  Falkirk  (Feb.,  1746), 
but  defeated  at  Culloden  in  April,  and  after 
months  of  privation  and  disguise,  escaped  to 
France.  Compelled  to  leave  that  country  by 
the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Aix-la-ChapeUe 
(1748),  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  chiefiy  in 
Italy,  where  for  many  years  he  was  known 
as  Count  d' Albany.    He  died  at  Rome. 

Charles  I.,  of  France,  "  the  Bald  "  {b.  823, 
d.  877),  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  on  the 
death  of  his  father  joined  his  step-brother, 


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Louis,  against  their  eldest  brother,  Lothaire, 
■who  was  conquered  at  Fontenai.  An 
arrangement  was  then  made  by  which 
Charles  became  king  of  France  in  843.  In 
87o  Charles  became  Emperor  of  the  "West, 
and  was  on  his  way  to  the  pope  when  news 
arrived  that  his  nephew,  Carloman,  was 
advancing  against  him.  The  tidings  are 
supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death,  which 
has  also  been  attributed  to  poison. 

Charles  II.,  of  France,  "le  Gros."  [See 
Charles  III.,  of  Germany.] 

Charles  III.,  of  France,  "  the  Simple  "  {b. 
879,  d.  929),  sou  of  Louis  the  Stammerer, 
was  a  posthumous  child.  The  throne  was 
successively  occupied  by  Charles  the  Fat 
and  Eudes,  Count  of  Paris,  but  on  the  death 
of  the  latter  (898)  Charles  became  king. 
Unable  to  resist  the  Normans,  he  gave  his 
daughter,  Gisele,  in  marriage  to  RoUo,  their 
leader,  whom  he  created  Duke  of  Normandy. 
In  922  Charles  was  deposed  and  imprisoned 
by  Robert,  brother  of  Eudes,  but  finally 
jjermitted  to  reside  in  the  castle  of  Peronne 
till  his  death. 

Charles  IV.,  of  France,  "the  Fair"  (b. 
1294,  d.  1328),  Count  of  La  Marche  and 
King  of  Navarre,  succeeded  his  brother, 
Philip  the  Tall,  on  the  throne  of  France 
in  1322.  A  war  with  Edward  II.  of  England 
was  terminated  in  1326. 

Charles  v.,  of  France,  "theWise"  (b.  1337, 
d.  1380),  son  of  John,  acted  as  regent  during 
the  eight  years  of  his  father's  captivity,  and 
succeeded  him  in  1364.  The  disorder  in  Eng- 
land which  followed  the  death  of  Edward 
III.,  and  his  own  crafty  method  of  warfare 
enabled  him  to  regain  most  of  the  territory 
lost  by  his  predecessors.  He  founded  the  Bib- 
liotheque  Royale  in  Paris,  and  the  BastiUe. 

Charles  VI.,  of  France,  "the  Silly" 
{b.  1368,  d.  1422),  son  of  the  preceding, 
succeeded  his  father  in  1380,  and  was 
led  by  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
against  PhiUp  van  Artevelde,  leader  of  the 
Flemish  insurgents,  whom  he  defeated  at 
Rosbecque  in  1382.  In  1388  he  took  the 
government  into  his  own  hands,  but  shortly 
afterwards  lost  his  reason.  His  reign  was 
most  disastrous.  Agincourtwas  lost  iu  141.5, 
and  by  the  treaty  of  Troyes  iu  1420  Henry  V. 
became  virtually  Kiug  of  France. 

Charles  VII., of  France,  "the  Victorious" 
{').  111)3,  d.  1461),  son  of  the  preceding, 
assumed  the  title  of  king  on  the  death  of  his 
father  (1122),  but  remained  inactive, 
owdug  to  his  indolence,  till  aroused  by 
Joan  of  Arc.  The  relief  of  Orleans  (1429) 
was  followed  by  the  coronation  of  Charles 
at  Rheims.  Paris  submitted  to  him  in  1436, 
and  he  pur.sued  his  career  of  victory  till  in 
1456    uothmg  but  Calais  was  left   to  the 


English.  Such  was  his  dread  of  being  poi- 
soned by  his  son  Louis,  that  he  submitted  to  a 
fast  of  seven  days,  which  resulted  in  his  death. 

Charles  VIIL,  of  France,  "the  Affable" 
{b.  1470,  d.  14!j8),  son  of  Louis  XI.,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  1483  under  the 
guardianship  of  his  sister,  Anne  of  Beaujeu. 
A  war  with  Germany,  and  her  allies  Eng- 
land and  Spain,  was  concluded  by  the  treaty 
of  Senlis  (1493).  In  1495  Charles  marched 
on  Naples,  to  which  he  laid  claim,  and  seized 
the  town,  but  hearing  that  his  retreat  was 
being  cut  off,  was  obliged  to  return.  He 
met  and  defeated  his  foes  at  Fomovo,  but 
lost  Naples,  and  never  reconquered  it. 

Charles  IX.,  of  France  {b.  1550,  d.  1574), 
succeeded  his  brother,  Francis  II.  in  1560. 
The  government  was  conducted  by  his 
mother,  Catherine  de  Medici.  The  king- 
dom was  desolated  by  a  religious  war ; 
a  peace  made  in  1570  was  followed  in  1572 
by  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  to 
which  the  king  assented,  but  is  said  to  have 
afterwards  felt  remorse. 

Charles  X.,  or  more  properly  Charles  of 
Bourbon-Vendome  (b.  1517,  d.  1590),  fifth 
son  of  Charles  de  Bourbon,  entered  the 
Church,  and  was  a  cardinal  and  Archbishop 
of  Rouen,  when,  on  the  assassination  of 
Henri  III.,  Mayeune  declared  him  king  in 
opposition  to  the  claims  of  his  nephew, 
Henri  IV.  Charles,  however,  was  iu  prison 
at  the  time,  and  languished  there  till  his 
death  a  few  months  later. 

Charles  X.,  of  France  (/-.  1757,  d.  1836), 
Comte  d'Artois,  youngest  son  of  the 
Dauphin,  and  grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  left 
France  on  the  destruction  of  the  Bastille 
(1789),  but  on  the  abdication  of  Napoleon 
(1814)  was  appointed  regent  for  his  brother, 
Louis  XVIII.  On  the  death  of  Louis  in 
1824  he  ascended  the  throne,  but  after 
the  disturbances  of  July,  1830,  abdicated  in 
favour  of  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux. 

Charles  Martel  (6.  circa  689,  d.  741),  King 
of  the  Franks.  Defeated  the  Saracens  at 
Tours  (732)-. 

Charles  the  Bold  {b.  1433,  d.  1477),  Duke 
of  Burgundy  and  Count  of  Charolais,  suc- 
ceeded in  1467.  He  was  for  most  of  his  reign 
at  enmity  with  Louis  XI.  of  France,  on  one 
occasion  taking  him  prisoner  and  releasing 
him  ouly  on  his  own  terms  He  was  unsuc- 
cessful in  his  expedition  against  the  Swiss, 
and  was  slain  whilst  endeavouring  to  regain 
the  town  of  Nancy. 

Charles  de  Blois  {b.  1320,  d.  1364),  or  de 
Chatillon,  on  the  death  of  John  III.  of 
Bretagne,  claimed  the  dukedom  in  right  of 
his  wife,  Jeanne  de  Peuthievre,  daughter  of 
Gui  de  Bretagne,  but  was  opposed  by  Joha 
de  Montfort,  half-brother  of  the  late  king, 


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who  was  supported  by  the  English.    Charles 
was  defeated  aud  slain  at  Auray. 

Charles  I.,  '•leBou"{h. circa  1084,  d.  1127), 
Count  of  Flanders,  son  of  Canute  IV.  of 
Denmark,  succeeded  Baldwin  VII.  of  Flan- 
ders in  1119.  He  was  offered  the  crowns  of 
Jerusalem  and  Germany,  both  of  which  he 
refused. 

Charles  of  Artois  (b.  1393,  d.  1472),  Count 
of  Eu,  was  allied  to  the  Orleans  faction  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  VI.  He  was  made 
prisoner  at  Agiucourt,  and  confined  for 
twenty- three  years  in  the  Tower  of  London. 

Charles  of  Valois  (3.  1270,  d.  1325),  third 
son  of  Philip  le  Hardi,  received  Maine  and 
Aujou  in  right  of  his  wife  Marguerite.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  war  with 
Edward  II.  of  England. 

Charles  I.,  of  Germany.  [See  Charle- 
magne.] 

Charles  II.,  of  Germany.  [See  Charles  I., 
of  France.] 

Charles  III.,  of  Germany  (b.  832,  d.  888), 
younger  son  of  Louis  the  Germanic, 
elected  emperor  881,  accepted  the  throne 
of  France  884.  Instead  of  making  an 
attempt  to  consolidate  his  dominions,  he 
signed  an  infamous  treaty  with  the  Nor- 
mans, and  was  deposed  in  887. 

Charles  IV.,  of  Germany  {b.  1316,  d.  1378), 
son  of  John,  King  of  Bohemia,  was  elected 
emperor  in  1347,  and  annexed  Brandenburg 
and  Silesia  to  Bohemia.  He  held  his  court 
at  Prague,  and  in  1353  issued  the  "golden 
bull,"  since  regarded  as  the  basis  of  the 
Germanic  constitution. 

Charles  V.,  of  Gei-many  (b.  1500,  d.  1558), 
son  of  the  Archduke  Philip  of  Austria,  and 
Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon, 
inherited  the  Netherlands  on  the  death  of 
his  father  in  1506:  became  sovereign  of 
Castile  and  Aragon,  Naples,  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Spanish  America,  on  the  death  of  Fer- 
dinand in  1516  ;  aud  in  1519  was  electee  em- 
peror in  succession  to  his  paternal  grand- 
father, Maximilian.  In  1521  Luther  ap- 
peared before  him  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 
He  was  constantly  at  variance  with 
Francis  I.  of  France,  ivhom  he  took  prisoner 
at  Pavia  in  1525.  The  Pope  sided  with 
Francis  after  his  liberation,  whereupon 
Charles  attacked  aud  took  Rome.  A  tem- 
porary peace  was  effected  by  the  treaty  of 
Cambray  in  1529.  Charles  made  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  against  Tunis  in  1535,  but 
failed  in  an  attack  on  Algiers  in  1541.  He 
strove  unsuccessfully  against  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  being  forced  in  1552 
to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Passau,  confirmed 
at  Augsburg  in  1555.  In  the  same  year 
he  resigned  the  crown  of   Spain  and  the 


Netherlands  to  his  son  Philip,  and  in  1556 
that  of  Germany  to  his  brother  Ferdinand. 
He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  a  monastery 
in  Estremadura. 

Charles  VI.,  of  Germany  (b.  1685,  d.  1740), 
second  son  of  Leopold  I.,  engaged,  with  the 
assistance  of  England,  Holland,  and  Por- 
tugal, in  a  struggle  with  Philip  V.  for  the 
throne  of  Spain,  but  by  the  treaty  of  Rastadt 
(1714)  renounced  his  claim.  On  the  death 
of  his  brother  Joseph  in  1711,  he  succeeded 
to  the  dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
and  was  elected  emperor.  He  engaged  in 
wars  with  the  Turks,  to  whom  he  ceded 
Servia  and  Wallachia  at  the  peace  of  Bel- 
grade (1739). 

Charles  VII.,  of  Germany  (b.  1697,  d. 
1745),  eldest  son  of  Maximilian,  Elector  of 
Bavaria,  claimed  the  imperial  throne,  as  a 
desceud.ant  of  Ferdinand  I.,  on  the  death  of 
Charles  VI.,  in  opposition  to  his  daughter, 
Maria  Theresa.  Through  the  assistance 
given  him  by  France  aud  Prussia  he  was 
crowned  at  Frankfort  in  1742  ;  but  Frederic 
of  Prussia  was  won  over  by  Maria  Theresa, 
and  the  French  defeated  at  Dettingen  by 
George  II.  of  England  (1743).  Thus  the 
struggle  was  decided  in  favour  of  Maria 
Theresa. 

Charles  Louis,  Archduke  of  Austi-ia  (b. 
1771,  d.  1847),  son  of  Leopold  II.,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  conducted  the  campaigns 
against  the  French  republic  and  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon,  being  appointed  in  1796 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  armies. 
He  was  successful  against  Jourdan  in  1797 
and  1799,  and  in  1800  opposed  Massena 
with  skill  in  Switzerland,  but  was  forced 
through  ill-health  to  give  up  his  post.  He 
afterwards  became  minister  of  war,  and  de- 
feated Massena  at  Caldiero  in  1805.  In 
1809  he  again  checked  the  French  at  Aspern 
and  Essling,  but  Napoleon  crossed  the 
Danube  and  defeated  him  at  Wagram. 

Charles  I.,  of  Spain.  [-See  Charles  V.,  of 
Germany.] 

Charles  II.,  of  Spain  {b.  1661,  d.  1700),  son 
of  Philip  IV.,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1665,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother.  Don 
John  of  Austria  gained  the  control  of  the 
government,  aud  protected  the  interests  of 
the  country ;  after  his  death,  Charles  was 
prevented  bj^  his  weakness  of  body  and  mind 
from  maintaining  his  position.  Portugal 
secured  her  independence,  and  Louis  XIV. 
endeavoured  to  annex  the  Low  Countries, 
and  to  secure  a  Bourbon  successor  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  but  was  prevented  by  the 
interposition  of  England,  Germany,  and 
Holland.  The  wars  which  followed  lasted 
till  the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697). 

Charles  III,  of  Spain  (b.  1716,  d.  1788), 


Cha 


(  205  ) 


Cha 


younger  son  of  Philip  V. ,  received  from  his 
father  the  crown  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  on 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Ferdinand  VI.,  in 
1759,  became  king  of  Spain.  The  Bourbon 
league  involved  him  in  a  war  with  England, 
during  which  he  lost  Manilla  and  other 
colonies.  He  joined  with  France  in  aiding 
the  American  colonies  ;  at  the  close  of  the 
war  Florida  and  Minorca  were  ceded  to 
Spain. 

Charles  IV.,  of  Spain  (J).  1784,  d.  1819), 
son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1788,  was  a  capricious  and  in- 
capable ruler.  In  1795  he  allied  himself 
with  France,  but  his  fleet  was  destroyed  by 
Nelson  at  Trafalgar.  He  fled  before  the 
advance  of  Murat,  and  was  forced  to  ab- 
dicate in  favour  of  Napoleon  (1808). 

Charles  VII.,  of  Sweden  (the  six  preceding 
of  the  name  being  fabulous)  was  assassinated 
in  1168. 

Charles  VIII.  {d.  1470),  first  regent,  and 
from  1448  King  of  Sweden,  drove  the  de- 
posed king  Eric  from  the  isle  of  Gothland, 
and  in  1449  was  elected  kiug  of  Norway, 
but  was  obliged  to  yield  the  throne  to  his 
rival,  Christian,  Eang  of  Denmark. 

Charles  IX.,  of  Sweden  {b.  1550,  d.  1611), 
created  a  regular  standing  army,  and  was 
occupied  in  constant  wars  with  Denmark, 
Poland,  and  Russia. 

Charles  X.,  of  Sweden  {b.  1622,  d.  1660), 
was  cousin  to  Queen  Christina,  who  abdi- 
cated in  his  favour  in  16.:  4.  He  carried 
on  successful  wars  against  Poland  and 
Denmark. 

Charles  XI.,  of  Sweden  (b.  1655,  d.  1697), 
succeeded  his  father  in  1660. 

Charles  XII.,  of  Sweden  (*.  1682,  d. 
1718),  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  160".  In  1700,  Denmark,  Poland, 
and  Russia  alhed  themselves  against  him,  but 
he  defeated  the  Danish  fleet,  routed  the 
Russians  at  Narva  with  a  much  smaller 
army,  and  then  proceeded  against  Augustus, 
Kiug  of  Poland,  who  was  defeated  and 
deposed,  Charles  compelliug  the  PoHsh  Diet 
to  choose  Stanislaus  Leczinsky  in  his  place 
(1704).  In  1708  he  imdertook  a  campaign 
into  Russia,  but  the  inclemency  of  the 
climate  and  the  scarcity  of  provisions 
greatly  reduced  his  forces,  and  brought 
about  his  overthrow  by  Peter  the  Great  at 
Pultowa.  He  took  refuge  with  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  who  allowed  liim  to  reside  at 
Bender,  but  afterwards  removed  him  to 
Adrianople.  He  returned  to  Sweden  in 
1714,  and  in  1718  invaded  Norway,  but  was 
killed  by  a  cannon-ball  at  the  siege  of 
Friedrichshall. 

Charles  XIU.,  of  Sweden  {b.  1743,  i.  1813), 


was  proclaimed  Mug  in  1809,  upon  the  pro- 
scription of  his  nephew,  Gustavus  IV.,  for 
whom  he  had  acted  as  regent  since  1792. 
In  this  reign  (1814)  Norway  was  annexed 
to  Sweden. 

Charles  XIV.,  of  Sweden  {b.  1764,  d.  1844), 
Jean  Baptiste  Jules  Bemadotte,  son  of  a 
lawj^er  of  Pau,  entered  the  French  army  as 
a  private  soldier,  and  had  become  general  of 
division  by  1794  ;  fought  under  Jourdau  in 
1796,  and  by  his  skill  in  tlie  Italian  campaign 
won  the  favour  of  Bonaparte,  who,  however, 
suspecting  his  designs,  gave  him  the  post  of 
minister  at  Vienna.  He  was  minister  of 
war  in  1799,  and  in  1804,  on  the  creation  of 
the  empire,  became  marshal  of  France. 
After  breaking  the  Russian  centre  at 
Austerlitz,  he  received  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Ponte-Corvo  (1806).  In  1810  he  was 
elected  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  adopted 
the  name  of  Karl  Johann,  and  as  regent 
had  no  small  share  in  the  overtlirow  of 
Napoleon.  He  effected  the  annexation  of 
Norway  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel 
(1814).     In  1818  he  succeeded  Charles  XIII. 

Charles  I.,  of  Navarre.  [See  Charles  IV., 
of  France.] 

Charles  II.,  "  the  Bad,"  King  of  Navarre, 
Count  d'Evreux  {b.  1332,  d.  1387),  crowned 
at  Pampeluna  (1350),  joined  the  English 
against  the  Dauphin  (afterwards  Charles  V.) , 
and  also  fought  against  Castile. 

Charles  III.,  "the  Noble,"  King  of 
Navarre  {b.  1361,  d.  1425),  son  and  successor 
of  the  preceding ;  by  a  treaty  with 
Charles  VI.  of  France  obtained  the  duchy 
of  Nemours. 

Charles  IV.,  of  Navarre,  Prince  of  Viane, 
Count  of  Barcelona  {b.  1421,  d.  1461),  son  of 
John  II.,  inherited  the  kingdom  in  right  of 
his  mother,  daughter  of  Charles  III.  On 
her  death,  his  father,  John,  retained  the 
throne,  and  married  Joanna  of  Castile, 
He  attempted  to  assert  his  I'ight,  but  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  ;  was  released, 
but  after  his  father's  death  fell  iuto  the 
power  of  Joanna,  and  died  ia  prison  at 
Barcelona. 

Charles  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples  and 
Sicily  {b.  circa  1225,  d.  1285),  youngest 
son  of  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  received 
the  crown  of  the  Two  Sicilies  from 
Pope  Urban.  He  defeated  and  slew 
the  usurper  Manfred.  The  cruelty  of 
his  rule  provoked  the  massacre  of  French- 
men called  the  Sicilian  Vespers.  Don  Pedro 
of  Aragon  obtained  Sicily,  and  his  admiral 
burned  Charles's  fleet.  His  preparations  to 
recover  it  were  broken  off  by  his  death, 

Charles  II.,  of  Naples  (6.  1248,  d.  1309), 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  crowned  kiug  of 


Cha 


(206  ) 


Cha 


Naples,  Apulia,  and  Jerusalem  iu  1280,  and 
acquired  the  crown  of  Hungary  in  right  of 
his  ■vrife. 

Charles  m.,  "the  Little,"  King  of 
Naples  and  Hungary  (4.  1345,  d.  1387), 
sou  of  the  Count  of  Ciravina,  was  at  first 
adopted  by  Joan  I.  of  Naples,  but  being 
rejected  in  favour  of  Louis  of  Anjou, 
seized  the  kingdom,  and  put  Joan  to  death. 
In  1385  he  accepted  the  throne  of  Hungary, 
in  place  of  the  regent,  Elizabeth,  who 
caused  his  assassination. 

Chaxles  Emmanuel  III.,  King  of  Sardinia 
(b.  1701,  d.  1773),  ascended  the  throne  on  the 
abdication  of  his  father,  Victor  Amadeus ; 
at  first  joined  France  and  Spain  against 
Austria,  but  afterwards  sided  with  Hungary 
against  his  former  allies.  He  increased  the 
prosperity  of  his  kingdom,  and  published 
the  code  of  laws  known  as  Corpus  Caro- 
linum. 

Charles-Felix,  Giuseppe  Mario,  King  of 
Sardinia  (b.  1798,  d.  1831),  fourth  son  of 
Victor  Amadeus  III.,  succeeded  his  brother, 
Victor  Emmanuel,  in  1821. 

Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia  (*. 
1798,  d.  1849),  son  of  Charles  Emmanuel, 
Prince  of  Savoy-Carignano,  as  regent  for 
Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  in  1821,  introduced 
reforms  which  were  declared  null  by  his 
successor,  Charles  Felix.  He  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  1831.  In  1848  he  gave  his 
subjects  a  Liberal  constitution,  and  joined 
the  insurgents  in  Lombardy  and  Venetia 
against  Austria.  At  first  he  was  successful, 
but  was  beaten  at  Custozza,  forced  to  yield 
Milan,  and  finally  overthrown  at  Novara; 
in  1849  he  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son, 
Victor  Emmanuel,  hoping  thus  to  obtain 
less  onerous  conditions  of  peace. 

Charles,  Elizabeth  Bundle,  Mrs.  (i.  circa 
1826),  wrote  the  Chronieles  of  the  Schonberg- 
Cotta  Famihj,  and  other  tales. 

Charles,  Jacques  Alexandre  Cesar  (b.  1746, 
d.  1823),  French  physicist,  used  hydrogen 
gas  instead  of  heated  air  in  his  balloon 
experiment  of  1783. 

Charlotte  Caroline  Augusta,  Princess  of 
Saxe-Coburg  (b.  1796,  d.  1817),  daughter 
of  George  IV.  and  wife  of  Prince  Leopold, 
afterwards  King  of  the  Belgians.  Her 
premature  death  caused  general  grief. 

Chamock,  Job  (d.  1693),  one  of  the  early 
servants  of  the  East  India  Company,  second 
governor  of  the  Bengal  presidency,  founded 
Calcutta  in  1690. 

Chamock,  Stephen  (*.  1628,  d.  1680), 
Nonconformist  minister,  was  chaplain  to 
Henry  Cromwell  in  Dublin,  where  his 
preaching    drew   large    crowds.      He   was 


afterwards  attached  to  a  congregation  in 
London.  His  most  celebrated  treatise  is  his 
Discourse  on  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of 
God. 

Charpentier,  Francois  Philippe  {b.  1734, 
d.  1817),  French  mechanician,  was  ap- 
prenticed to  an  engraver,  and  invented  a 
method  of  taking  coloured  copies  of  pictures. 

Charron,  Pierre  {b.  1541,  d.  1603), 
French  ecclesiastic  and  philosopher,  a  friend 
of  Montaigne,  who  died  in  his  arms.  His 
chief  work  is  his  Traite  de  la  Sagesse. 

Chartier,  Alain  (b.  1390,  d.  1458), 
the  greatest  French  writer  of  the  15th 
century,  sought  by  his  compositions  iu 
prose  and  verse  to  arouse  a  patriotic  spirit, 
as  for  example  in  Quadrilogue  Invectif,  and 
Le  Laij  dts  Qiiatre  Dames,  directed  against 
the  English. 

Chartres,  Eobert  Philippe  d'Orleans,  Due 
de  {b.  1840),  younger  brother  of  the  Comte 
de  Paris,  was  educated  in  Germany :  went  to 
America  and  served  as  a  volunteer  for  the 
Northerners  (1860-1863),  and  in  1S70  served 
under  General  Chauzy,  being  known  as 
"  Eobert  le  Fort." 

Chase,  Pliny  Earle  {b.  1820),  American 
scientist,  whose  discoveries  and  verifications 
of  physical  laws  are  numerous  and  impor- 
tant. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland  (*.  1808,  d. 
1873),  American  politician,  early  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  opposition  to 
slavery.  As  secretary  of  the  treasury 
under  President  Lincoln  (1861)  he  succeeded 
in  raising  money  for  the  war,  having  re- 
course, among  other  expedients,  to  the 
invention  of  "greenbacks."  From  1864  to 
his  death  he  was  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States. 

Chasles,  Michel  (*.  1793,  d.  1880), 
French  mathematician,  regarded  as  founder 
of  the  new,  or  higher  geometry. 

Chass6,  David  Heurik,  Baron  {b.  1765, 
d.  1849),  Dutch  general,  defended  Antwerp 
against  the  French  in  1830  and  1832. 

Chassepot,  Antoine  Alphonse  {b.  1833,  d. 
1886),  inventor  of  the  gun  known  by  his  name, 
was  the  son  of  a  gunsmith,  became  principal 
of  the  government  works  of  St.  Thomas 
at  Paris  in  1864,  and  was  afterwards 
superintendent  of  the  factory  of  arms  at 
Chatellerault. 

Chastelain,  Georges,  called  *'  I'Aventu- 
reux  "  {b.  1403,  d.  1475),  soldier  and  writer, 
quitted  the  army  in  1443,  and  entered  the 
service  of  Philippe  le  Bon,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. 

Chastelard,  Pierre   de   Boscosel  de    {b. 


Cha 


(207) 


Che 


1540,  d.  1563),  French  poet,  was  enamoured 
of  Maiy,  Queen  of  Scots,  and,  being  twice 
found  in  her  chamher  without  permission, 
was  tried  and  executed. 

Chateaubriand,  Fran(jois  Auguste,  Vi- 
comte  de  {b.  1768,  d.  1848),  was  intended  for 
the  navy,  studied  for  the  Church,  and 
finally  entered  the  army.  He  i  was  in  Paris 
during  the  early  part  of  the  revolution,  but 
in  1791  sailed  to  America,  where  he 
wandered  among  the  Indians.  Returning 
the  following  year,  he  joined  the  first 
emigration  and  took  refuge  in  London, 
remaminif  there  till  1800.  In  1806  and  1807 
he  travelled  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. He  was  devoted  to  the  Bourbon 
dynasty,  under  which  he  was  ambassador 
toBerhn  (1820),  to  London  (1822),  and  to 
Rome  (1828),  and  in  1824  was  foreign 
minister.  He  refused  to  take  the  oath  to 
Louis  PhiUppe,  and  was  imprisoned  in  1832. 
His  chief  works  were  Atala  (1801),  Rene 
(1802),  Le  Genie  du  Ghristiamsme  (1803), 
and  memoirs. 

Chatel,  Francois  du  {b.  1626,  d.  circa 
1680),  Flemish  painter,  the  favourite  pupil 
of  David  Teniers. 

Chatliain,  William  Pitt,  Eaxl  of  {b.  1708, 
d.  1778),  English  statesman,  son  of  Robert 
Pitt ;  became  member  of  parliament  in  1735, 
attaching  himself  to  the  so-called  patriotic 
party  under  the  Prince  of  Wales ;  he 
attacked  Walpole  and  Carteret  successively, 
and  after  the  retirement  of  the  latter  in 
1744,  supported  the  ministries  of  Pelham 
and  Newcastle,  and  was  made  paymaster  of 
the  forces,  a  post  which  he  lost  owing  to  his 
anti-Hanoverian  speeches.  As  Secretary  of 
State  in  1756,  and  agaiu  in  1757,  under 
Newcastle,  he  carried  on  the  war  against 
France  with  great  vigour  and  success,  but 
on  the  accession  of  George  III.  had  to  give 

§lace  to  his  favourite,  the  Earl  of  Bute. 
itt's  health  was  now  shattered,  but  he  was 
carried  down  to  the  House  to  speak  against 
the  peace  of  Paris  in  1762,  and  after- 
wards supported  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp 
Act,  an  Act  which  led  to  the  revolt  of  the 
American  colonies.  In  1766  he  was  created 
Earl  of  Chatham,  and  from  his  place  in  the 
House  of  Lords  continued  to  urge  a  policy 
of  conciliation  towards  America.  It  was 
while  thus  engaged  that  he  sank  down  in 
the  fit  of  apoplexy  from  which  he  never 
recovered. 

Chatterton,  Thomas  (*.  1752,  d.  1770), 
son  of  a  schoolmaster  at  Bristol,  early 
displayed  a  taste  for  antiquities  and  poetry, 
which  he  indulged  by  fabricating  the  literary 
forgeries,  of  which  the  Foems  of  Rowley  are 
the  most  celebrated ;  these  he  pretended  to 
have  discovered  in  some  chests  in  the  muni- 
ment room  of  St.  Mary  RedclifEe  at  Bristol. 


He  was  apprenticed  to  an  attorney,  but  dis- 
missed, and  coming  to  Loudon,  sought  to 
gaiu  a  Uvelihood  by  writing  for  the  news- 
papers and  magazines,  but  found  himself 
reduced  to  a  state  of  starvation,  and  died 
by  his  own  hand. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey  (i.  circa  1340,  d.  1400), 
poet,  son  of  a  London  vintner,  became  in 
1357  a  page  in  the  household  of  Prince 
Lionel,  and  served  in  the  French  war,  being 
taken  prisoner  in  1359.  He  married 
Philippa,  sister  of  Katherine,  mistress  and 
afterwards  wife  of  John  of  Gaimt,  wfth 
whom  he  thereby  established  a  connection 
which  lasted  till  the  latter's  death.  In  1372 
he  was  sent  on  a  commercial  mission  to 
Italy,  and  it  is  probable  from  allusions  in 
the  Clerk'' s  Tale  that  he  there  met  Petrarch. 
After  his  return  he  held  a  number  of  public 
posts,  which  secured  him  a  competence  till 
his  death ;  he  was  also  occasionally  sent 
abroad  on  the  royal  service.  He  wrote  the 
Assembly  of  Foich,  Troilus  and  Cressida,  the 
House  of  Fame,  the  Legend  of  Good  Women, 
and  numerous  other  poems,  but  his  great 
work  is  the  Canterbury  Tales,  and  especially 
the  prologue  thereto,  with  its  vivid  picture 
of  contemporary  English  Uf  e. 

Chaudet,  Antoine  Denis  {b.  1763,  d.  1810), 
eminent  French  sculptor,  who  executed 
groups  for  the  Pantheon. 

Chauncey,  Charles  {b.  1592,  d.  1672), 
Nonconformist  divine  and  distinguished 
Orientalist. 

Chauveau-Lagarde,  Claude  Francois  (*. 
1756,  d.  1841),  French  lawyer,  eminent  as 
the  advocate  of  Marie  Antoinette,  Madame 
Elisabeth,  General  Miranda,  Charlotte  Cor- 
day,  Brissot,  and  others. 

Cheke,  Sir  John  (i.  1514,  d.  1557), 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
was  professor  of  Greek  in  that  uni- 
versity from  1540  to  1551,  and  tutor  to 
Prince  Edward  and  probably  to  the  Prin- 
cess Elizabeth.  He  supported  Lady  Jane 
Grey  and  was  imprisoned  by  Mary  in 
the  Tower,  but  afterwards  allowed  to 
settle  in  Strasbuig.  He  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who  sent  him 
to  London,  where  he  was  forced  to  recant 
his  opinions,  and  soon  afterwards  died  of 
remorse. 

Chelmsford,  Frederick  Thesiger,  Baron 
{b.  1794,  d.  1878),  called  to  the  bar  in 
1818,  became  attorney- general  (1845),  and 
was  twice  lord  chancellor  (1858  and  1866). 

Chenery,  Thomas  (*.  1826,  d.  1884), 
oriental  scholar  and  editor  of  the  Times; 
after  being  called  to  the  bar,  was  corre- 
spondent to  the  Times  at  Constantiuople 
till  the  close  of  the  Crimean  war,  and  while 


Che 


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CM 


there  acquired  his  proficiency  in  oriental 
languages.  He  was  professor  of  Arabic  at 
Oxford  from  1868  to  1877,  and  assisted  in 
the  revision  of  the  Old  Testament.  At  the 
same  time  he  continued  his  connection  with 
the  Times,  becoming  editor  iu  1677. 

Chenier,  Andre-Marie  de  (b.  1762,  d.  1794), 
French  poet,  spent  his  early  youth  in  Lan- 
guedoc  ;  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Navarre;  travelled  in  Europe  in  1784-6; 
opposed  the  extreme  revolutionists,  and 
was  guillotined.  He  wrote  Le  Mendiant, 
VAvengle,  U Invention,  etc. 

Chenier,  Marie  Joseph  Blai.e  de  (i.  1764, 
d.  1811).  French  poet,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. His  lyrical  pieces  were  very  popular 
during  the  revolution. 

Cherubini,   Maria   Luigi   Carlo   Zenobio 

Salvatore  {b.  1760,  d.  1842),  Italian  composer, 
after  visiting  Loudon  in  1785,  settled  in  Paris, 
and  there  wrote  many  operas,  Les  I)eux 
Journks  (1800)  being  the  most  famous. 

Ciiesney,  Francis  Eawdon  {h.  1789,  d. 
1872),  an  officer  of  the  Eoyal  ArtUlery,  in 
1829  surveyed  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  and 
pronounced  the  canal  a  feasible  entei-prise; 
afterwards^  journeyed  four  times  to  the 
East,  hoping  to  open  up  a  route  to 
India  by  way  of  Syria  and  the  Euphrates. 
He  wrote  a  Narrative  of  the  Euphrates 
Expedition  (1868),  etc. 

Chesney,  George  Tomkyns,  General  {b. 
1830).  famous  as  the  author  of  the  Battle  of 
Borkntg  (1871),  a  realistic  account  of  a 
supposed  German  invasion  of  England. 

Chesterfield,  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope, 
Earl  of  {h.  1694,  d.  1773),  gained  some  pro- 
ficiency in  classics,  mathematics,  and  philo- 
sophy at  Cambridge,  and  on  his  return  from 
the  European  tour  in  1715  became  recognised 
as  the  beau-ideal  of  a  gentleman.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title  in  1726,  and  attached 
himself  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  whom  he 
undertook  to  polish.  In  1728  he  went  as 
ambassador  to  the  Hague,  and  on  his  return 
opposed  Walpole,  but  failed  to  obtain  office 
on  his  fall.  In  1 745  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
Viceroy,  and  in  1 746  was  made  Secretary  of 
State,  but  ill -health  soon  necessitated  his 
retirement.  He  is  now  best  remembered  by 
his  Letters  to  his  son. 

Chevreul,  Michel  Eugene  {h.  1786,  d. 
1889),  French  chemist,  paid  much  attention 
to  colour,  and  published  many  scientific 
works. 

Cheyne,  George  {h.  1671,  d.  1743), 
physician  of  considerable  reputation,  both 
as  a  practitioner  and  writer. 

Cheyne,  James  {d.  1602),  Scottish  mathe- 
matician   and    philosopher,    remained    in 


France  during  the  Reformation,  and  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Douay. 

Cheyne,  John  {h.  1777,  d.  1836),  phy- 
sician, directed  his  attention  chiefly  to 
diseases  of  children,  acute  diseases,  and  epi- 
demics, and  left  some  medical  works. 

Ch^zy,  Antoine  Leonard  de  {h.  1773,  d, 
1832),  Orientalist,  left  nmnerous  works  of 
great  value  and  interest. 

Ch^zy.Wilhebnvon  (A.  1806, «?.  1865),  Ger- 
man novelist,  son  of  the  preceding,  wrote 
Wanda,  Wielopolska  (a  romance),  Camoens 
(a  tragedj^),  etc. 

Chiabrera,  GabrieUo  {b.  1552,  d.  1637), 
Italian  poet,  abandoned  the  habitual  imita- 
tion of  Petrarch  and  sought  to  write  lyrics 
in  the  Pindaric  style. 

Chichester,  Sir  Arthur  {b.  1563,  d.  1625), 
soldier  and  statesman,  was  sent  by  Eliza- 
beth to  Ireland,  where  the  success  of  his 
measures  as  lord-deputy,  particularly  the 
plantation  of  Ulster,  caused  him  to  be 
created  Baron  Chichester  of  Belfast.  In 
1615  he  became  Lord  High  Treasurer. 

Child,  Lydia  Maria  {b.  1802,  d.  1880), 
American  authoress,  whose  anti- slavery 
writings  contributed  largely  to  the  forma- 
tion of  public  opinion  on  that  subject. 

CMldebert  I.,  King  of  the  Franks  {b.  circa 
495,  d.  558),  third  son  of  Clovis  I.,  at  whose 
death  he  received  the  central  division  of 
the  FranMsh  monarchy. 

ChUdebert  II.,  King  of  the  Franks  (6. 
circa  570,  d.  596),  son  of  Sigebertand  Brune- 
haut,  and  king  of  Austrasia,  afterwards  in- 
herited Burgimdy  from  his  uncle  Guntram. 

Childebert  III.,  "  the  Just "  {b.  circa  683, 
d.  711),  succeeded  Clovis  III.  in  695. 

Childeric  I.  (*.  circa  436,  d.  481),  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Merowig  in  458. 

Childeric  II.  {b.  649,  d.  673),  son  of  Clovis 
II.,  became  sovereign  of  all  the  Frank 
dominions  in  670.     He  was  assassinated, 

ChUderic  III.,  "the  Idiot"  {d.  Ibb),  the 
last  of  the  Merovingian  kings,  ascended  the 
throne  in  742,  and  was  deposed  by  Pepin 
in  752. 

Childers,  Rt.  Hon.  Hugh  Culling  Eardley 
(t.  1827),  educated  at  Cambridge,  emigrated 
to  Victoria  in  1850,  where  he  became  Com- 
missioner of  Trade  and  Customs ;  returned  as 
agent-general  for  Victoria  in  1857 ;  entered 
Parliament  in  1859;  held  office  as  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty  (1868-71),  Secretary  for 
War  (1880-82),  and  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer (1882-85).  In  1885  he  was  defeated 
on  the  budget  resolutions. 


Chi 


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Chr 


Climinffwortli,  WiUiam  (b.  1602,  d.  1644), 
theologian,  educated  at  Oxford,  was  per- 
suaded by  the  Jesuit  Fisher  to  abjure 
Protestantism  and  join  the  College  at 
Douay.  Induced  by  Laud  to  come  back  in 
1631,  he  gradually  returned  to  his  former 
faith,  publishing  the  Religion  of  Protestants 
in  1637.  He  joined  the  Royal  army,  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Parliamentarians, 
and  died  in  captivity  at  Chichester. 

CMn  Kilich  Khan,  "  Nizam-ool-MooIk  " 
{b.  1644,  d.  1748),  au  officer  of  the  Mogul 
empire,  rose  to  eminence  imder  Aurung- 
zebe,  was  appointed  soubadar  of  the  Deccan 
in  1713,  and  under  the  title  of  Xizam-ool- 
Moolk  founded  in  1720  the  iudepeudent 
state  now  held  by  his  descendant  called  the 
Nizam. 

Chirac,  "Pierre  {b.  1650,  d.  1732),  French 
physician,  appointed  professor  of  niediciue 
at  Montpellier  in  1687,  accompanied  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  in  his  Italian  and  Spanish 
campaigns,  and  became  physician  to  Louis 
XV. 

Chlapowski,  Desiderius  (b.  1788,  d.  1879), 
Polish  general,  served  under  Napoleon,  and 
took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  gaining 
several  victories.  When  the  Polish  army 
retreated,  he  was  allowed  by  the  king  of 
Prussia  to  settle  on  his  estates  in  that 
country. 

ChlopicM,  Joseph  (i.  1772,  d.  1854),  Polish 
general,  fought  under  Kosciusko,  served 
in  the  French  army  duiing  the  Penin- 
sular war,  and  followed  Napoleon  in  his 
Russian  campaign.  When  the  revolution 
of  1830  broke  out  he  was  proclaimed  dicta- 
tor, but  counselling  submission  to  Russia, 
was  deposed  in  1831,  and  soon  afterwards 
retired  to  Cracow. 

Chmelnitzky,  Nicholas  Ivanovitsch  {b. 
1789,  d.  1846),  Russian  comic  poet,  was 
governor  of  Smolensk,  and  afterwards  of 
Archangel,  devoted  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
to  literature,  and  translated  Le  Tartufe  and 
VEcole  des  Femmes  into  Russian. 

Chodowiecki,  Daniel  Nicholas  {b.  1726,  d. 
1801),  painter  and  engraver,  who  settled  at 
Berlin  in  1743. 

Choiseul,  !l6tienne  Francois,  Due  de  {b. 
1719,  d.  1785),  French  politician,  gained  an 
ascendency  over  Louis  XV.  through  the 
friendship  of  Mdrae.  de  Pompadour,  and 
held  high  posts  in  the  government,  but  fell 
from  power  on  her  death,  and  was  banished 
to  his  estates  in  1770. 

Chopin,  Frederic  Francois    (i.    Warsaw, 

1810,  d.  Paris,  1849),  studied  the  piano  under 

Zwyny,  and  composition  under  Eisner;  he 

took  refuge  in  Paris  in  1831,  and  there  won 

o 


renown    as  a  writer   of   concertos,   songs, 
noctumfs,  and  mazurkas. 

Choron,  Alexandre  Etienne  {b.  1771, 
d.  1834),  French  musician,  founder  of  the 
Institution  Royale  de  Musique  Classique  et 
Religieuse. 

Christian  I.  {b.  circa  142.5,  d.  1481),  King 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  Count 
of  Oldenburg,  ascended  the  throne  of  Den- 
mark in  1449,  and  that  of  Sweden  in  1458, 
and  in  1459  was  elected  Duke  of  Schleswig 
and  Count  of  Holstein.  His  claim  to  Sweden 
was  disputed  by  Carl  Knutson,  and  after- 
wards by  Carl's  nephew,  Steen  Sture,  who 
defeated  him  at  Brunkebjerg,  and  drove 
him  from  the  country. 

Christian  II.  (A.  1481,  d.  1559),  King  of 
Denmark,  Norway,  ana  Sweden,  grandson 
of  Christian  I.,  ascended  the  throne  in  1513, 
attacked  Sweden,  and  was  crowned  at 
Stockholm  in  1520,  did  much  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  the  people,  but  was 
dethroned  by  the  nobles  and  clergy  in  1522. 
After  nine  years  of  exile  he  returned  to 
Norway,  but  was  made  prisoner,  and  died 
in  the  castle  of  Kallundborg. 

Christian  III.,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway  (b.  1502,  d.  155U),  on  becoming  king 
in  1536  made  Lutheranism  the  State 
religion,  and  had  the  Bible  translated  into 
Danish.     He  acquireil  Courland  and  Q3sel. 

Christian  IV.,   King  of   Denmark  and 

Norway  {b.  loll,  d.  1648),  crowned  in  1596, 
reigned  peaceably  for  15  years,  founded  the 
towns  of  Christiauia  and  Christiausuud,  fitted 
out  a  magnificent  fleet,  and  established  the 
academy  of  Soroe.  Taking  part  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  war,  lie  was  defeated  by  Tilly  in 
1626;  he  also  suffered  some  losses  at  the 
hands  of  the  Swedes. 

Christian  V. ,  King  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way {b.  1646,  d.  1699),  was  the  first  hereditary 
king,  the  monarchy  having  always  been 
elective. 

Christian  VI.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way (/'.  1699,  d.  1746),  ascended  the  throne  in 
1730,  and  enjoyed  a  peaceful  and  prosperous 
reign. 

Christian  VII.,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway  {b,  1749,  d.  1808),  crowned  in 
1766,  married  Caroline  Matilda,  sister  of 
George  III.  of  England,  but  was  divorced 
from  her  in  1773.  He  afterwards  became 
imbecile,  and  the  government  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  queen -dowager. 

Christian  VIII.,  King  of  Denmark  {b.  1736, 
d.  18 IS),  was  elected  king  of  Norway  in 
1814,  but  forced  to  cede  it  to  Sweden  after  a 
few  months.  In  1839  he  succeeded  his  cousin, 
Frederic  VI.,  on  the  throne  of  Denmark. 


Chr 


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Chu 


Christie,  William  Henry  Mahouey, 
F.R.S.  (h.  lS4o),  astronomer,  educated  at 
Cambridge,  was  in  1870  appointed  chief 
assistant  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Green- 
wich. In  1881  he  succeeded  Sir  G.  B.  Airy 
as  astronomer  royal. 

Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden  {b.  1626, 
d.  1689),  succeeded  her  father,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  in  1632.  After  her  coronation 
in  1650  she  fell  under  the  influence  of 
favourites,  and  ceased  to  interest  herself 
in  state  affairs.  She  resigned  the  crown  to 
her  cousia,  Charles  Gustavus,  in  1654,  was 
baptised  by  the  Pope,  and  lived  for  some 
time  at  Paris.  On  the  death  of  Charles 
Gustavus,  in  1660,  she  vainly  endeavoured  to 
regain  the  throne.     She  died  at  Rome. 

Christina,  Maria,  Regent  of  Spain  (h.  1806, 
d.  1878),  daughter  of  Francis  I.,  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  on  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band, Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1833,  became 
regent  for  her  infant  daughter,  Isabella. 
For  six  years  she  was  unable  to  suppress 
the  Carlist  rebellion,  and  was  driven  from 
Spain  by  a  revolution  headed  by  Espartero 
(1840).  She  returned  in  1843,  but  was 
forced  to  leave  the  country  permanently 
in  1854. 

Christina,  Maria  Henrietta,  Queen-Regent 
of  Spain  {b.  1858),  married  in  1879  Alfonso 
XI.,  of  Spain.  On  his  death  in  1885  she 
was  appointed  regent. 

Christophe,  Henri  (b.  1767,  d.  1820), 
negro  King  of  Hayti,  fought  with  courage 
in  the  war  of  1790,  became  ruler  over  the 
northern  part  of  Hayti  in  1806,  and  was 
crowned  as  Henri  I.  in  1811,  but  became 
unpopular  through  his  cruelty,  and  com- 
mitted suicide. 

Christopoulous,  Athanasius  (b.  1772, 
d.  1847),  Greek  poet  and  grammarian. 

Chrysippus  {b.  circa  280  B.C.,  d.20S  B.C.), 
a  stoic  philosopher  of  Cilicia,  disciple  of 
Cleanthes. 

Chrysostom,  St.  John,  one  of  the  Greek 
fathers  {b.  circa  344,  d.  407),  gave  himself, 
from  an  early  age,  to  a  life  of  prayer  and 
asceticism,  and  in  397  was  made  Bishop 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Emperor  Ar- 
cadius.  He  was  renowned  for  his  elo- 
quence and  almsgiving,  and  his  zeal  as  a 
reformer  made  him  many  enemies,  amongst 
them  the  Empress  Eudoxia.  He  was 
summoned  before  a  synod  at  Chalcedon, 
deposed,  and  banished,  but  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  people  led  to  his  immediate 
recall.  He  was  soon  afterwards  deposed 
again,  and  conveyed  to  the  Taurus  moun- 
tains, whence  he  was  ordered  to  proceed 
to  Pityus,  on  the  Euxine,  but  died  on  the 
journey  at  Comana. 


Chrzanowski,  Adalbert  {b.  1789,  d.  1861), 
Polish  general,  served  in  the  French  army, 
and  afterwards  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1829  against  the 
Turks.  He  took  part  in  the  revolution  of 
1830,  became  governor  of  Warsaw,  and  was 
allowed  by  the  Russians  to  retire  to  Paris. 
In  1840  he  was  entrusted  by  Charles 
Albert  of  Sardinia  with  the  reorganisation 
of  his  army,  but  after  Novara  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  died. 

Chubb,  Thomas  {b.  1679,  d.  1746),  deist, 
assistant  to  a  tallow-chandler,  wrote  The 
Supremacy  of  the  Father  Asserted,  On 
Future  Judgment,  etc. 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin  (6.  1826), 
American  landscape  painter  ;  he  excelled 
in  representing  the  mountain  scenery  of 
America. 

Church,  Sir  Richard  {b.  circa  1785,  d.  1873), 
English  general,  joined  the  Greek  patriots 
(1827),  and  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  land  forces  imder  King  Otho, 
He  became  councillor  of  state  and  after- 
wards senator. 

Church,  Very  Rev.  Richard  WilHam  {b. 
1815,  d.  1890),  became  fellow  of  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  in  1836;  and  in  1871  was 
appointed  Dean  of  St.  Paul's.  His  chief 
works  were  Essays  and  Reviews  (1854),  St, 
Anse/m  (1870),  the  Beginning  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (1874),  Spenser  (1878),  and  Bacon 
(1884). 

ChurchiU,  Charles  {b.  1731,  d.  1764), 
poet,  was  ordained,  and  in  1758  succeeded 
his  father  in  his  London  cure,  but  con- 
ducted himself  as  a  man  of  fashion  and  a 
rake  ;  was  the  friend  of  Wilkes,  whom  he 
assisted  in  the  North  Briton,  wrote  the 
Rosciad,  The  Prophecy  of  Famine,  Night, 
and  other  satirical  poems. 

Churchill,  John.     [See  Maelboeottgh.] 

Churchill,  Lord  Randolph  Spencer  ( J.  1 849), 
second  son  of  the  6th  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
entered  Parliament  in  1874,  and  in  1880 
became  leader  of  the  knot  of  Conservatives 
known  as  the  "  Fourth  Party,"  who  gave 
a  general  support  to  Sir  S.  Northcote,  but 
advocated  a  more  vigorous  policy,  and  fre- 
quently attacked  their  own  side.  During 
the  next  session  Lord  Randolph  formulated 
the  political  creed  known  as  Tory  I)emo- 
cracy.  On  the  formation  of  Lord  Salisbury's 
ministry  in  1885,  he  became  Chief  Secretary 
for  India,  and  in  1886  accepted  the 
Chancellorship  of  the  Exchequer  and 
leadership  of  the  House  of  Conunons ;  but 
resigned  the  position  at  the  close  of  the 
year,  ovdng  to  what  he  considered  the 
excessive  expenditure  of  the  government 
In  1891  he  visited  South  Africa. 


Cia 


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Cir 


_  CiaJduu,  Enrico  {b.  1811),  Italian  general 
joined  in  the  revolution  of  1831,  took 
retuge  in  Spain,  where  he  served  under 
Queen  Isabella,  returned  in  1848  and  fought 
under  Charles  Albert  in  1848  and  1849  :  was 
again  prominent  in  the  campaign  of  1859- 
66,  defeatmg  the  papal  army  at  Castel- 
naardo  in  1860  ;  was  appointed  commander- 
m-chief  of  the  army  of  Central  Italy  in 
1«6/,  and  m  1870  accompanied  the  Due 
d  Aosta  to  Spam.  He  was  subsequently 
Italian  ambassador  in  Paris,  but  resigned  in 

„  T"}^^'  5°?^^  (*•  ^^71'  '^^  1757),  actor 
^ft^^'^^^%^'^''^^  ^'>'  Careless  Emhand 
V'^cf'l  ^''^  Nonjuror  (1717),  etc.,  and  in 
l/JO  became  poet  laureate.  In  1740  ap- 
peared his  Apology  for  his  Life. 

Gibber,  Susannah  Maria  (b.  1714,  d.  1766) 
singer  and    actress,   was  educated  by  her 
father-m-law,  Colley  Cibber,  for  tragedy 
and  met  with  great  success. 

Cibrario.Luigi  {b.  1802,  d.  1870),  a  student 
of  medieval  antiquity,  author  of  Econ- 
omy of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  other  works. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius  {b.  106  B.C.,  d.  43 
BC.),  bom  at  Arpinum,  Roman  orator  and 
statesman,  studied  rhetoric  under  Milo  and 
others ;  commenced  pleading  at  the  age  of 
twenty-six,  and  offending  Sulla  by  his  suc- 
cessful defence  of  Eoscius  Amerinus,  retired 
A°  ^^t^*^^.      ^liere     he     studied     under 
Antiochus  ;  went  as  quaestor  to  Sicily  in  76 
and  on  his    return    impeached    Verres,  a 
former  governor;  was  sedile  in  69,  praetor 
m  66,  and  m  64  was  elected  consul  in  oppo- 
sition to  CatiKne.     His   vigour  in  putting 
down  the  conspiracy  of  the  latter  gained  for 
him  the  title  of  "father  of  his  country  " 
rhe  measures  passed  by  his  enemy,  the  tri- 
bune  Clodius,  obhged  him  to  withdraw  to 
Orreece.    After  about  sixteen  months  he  was 
recalled  by  the  senate,  and  in  52  went  as 
governor    to   Cihcia.      He  sided  with  the 
senate  and  afterwards  ^vith  Pompey  against 
Caesar,    but   submitted  to  the  latter  after 
Pharsaha,   and    retiring    to    his    Tusculan 
villa,   wrote  his  Be  hatura  Deorum,   and 
other    philosophical    works.      His   defence 
ot  Lsesar  s  murderers  and  the  "philippic" 
orations_  directed  against  Marcus  Antonius 
led  to  his  proscription  on  the  formation  of 
the  second  triumvirate.     He  was  murdered 
by  Antonius'  emissaries. 

Cicognara,  Leopoldo   (*.  1767,  d   18.34) 
wrote  a  vaXnahU  History  of  Italian  Sculpture'. 

Cid  Campeador,  Ruy,  or  Rodrigo  Bias  de 
iT?'"'.  ,®''°  °*  Spanish  fiction,  aided  Sancho 
ot  Castile  against  his  brother  Alfonso,  King 
of  Aragon,  but  on  the  death  of  Sancho 
acknowledged  Alfonso  as  king  of  Castile 
He    lost     the     favour    of    Alfonso,    and 


retired  from  liis  court,  but  obtained  some 
aid  from    hmi  m    capturing    the    city  of 

SiS&elS."''^""  "-''"'^^  -^^^  ^« 

.rl^S^f^^'  ?^'^°x  ^^  1^28,  d.  1719),  ItaHan 
ffnVni  '^'^""  "i!  ^}^  Clementine  school  at 
Bologna,      excelled     in    the     painting    of 

?hp  P,l^"  *  t'  ™a?ei-piece  is  the  fresco  in 
the  cupola  of  La  Madonna  del  Fuoco  in  Porli. 

CignaroU,  Giambettino  {h.  1706,  d.  1770) 
Itahan  painter  in  oils,  studied  in  Venice 
and  belonged  to  that  school.  ' 

Cimabue,  Giovanni  (b.  1240  d  1300^ 
Italian  artist,  founder  \f  the'llorenSe 
Itf '  f'^^  ^^'^^  f^ee  from  the  t?a^! 
tions  of  Bj-zantme  art,  and  by  foUowing 
nature  and  the  impulses  of  his  own  geniuf 
prepared  the  way  for  the  future  greltaess 

hi'Sle°o?Vf '  ^^"  •  T^^  exlifhi'tton  o1 
chLif  •  I  ^t'  l''-9^n  for  the  Eucellai 
chapel  m  Santa  Maria  Novella  was  the 
occasion  of  a  public  festival.  Except  the 
Madonna,  httle  of  his  work  remains. 

Cimarosa,  Domenico  {h.  1749  d  1801) 
Cpiooably)  Italian  musical  composer. 'visited' 
bt.  Petersbui-g  in  1789;  became  director  of 
the  court  opera  at  Vienna  in  1792,  and  was 

r^S^ofu'^S.^'^^^  ^  *^^  *^^^^^«'"- 

Cimon  (*.  oIOb.c,  d.  449  b.c),  son  of 
Miltiades  Athenian  general,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  gained 
many  other  victories  over  the  Persians,  in 
466  defeatmg  their  fleet  and  army  in  one 
day  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eur\-medon.  In 
461  he  was  ostracised  through  the  influence 
of  Pencil!,  but  recalled  in  457,  and  died 
whilst  besiegmg  Citium  in  Cyprus. 

Cincinnatus.  Lucius  Quintius  {h.  circa 
■■jZO  B.C.,  d.  area  435  B.C.),  after  being  twice 
consul,  was  summoned  from  the  plough  to 
take  office  as  dictator ;  subjugated  the  ^qui. 
and  returned  to  his  farm ;  was  again 
dictator  for  a  short  time  in  his  old  age. 

Cinna,  Lucius  Cornelius  {d.  84  b.c),  four 
times  consul  (86-83),  was  expelled  from 
Rome  m  86,  but,  returning  with  an  army, 
attached  himself  to  Marius  ;  was  assassinated 
whilst  preparing  to  march  against  Sulla. 

Cinthio,  Giovanni  Battista  Giraldi  (rf. 
15/3),  Itahan  novelist,  wrote  Eecatotnithi, 
or  Uento  Novelli. 

Cipriani,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  1727  d 
1/85),  Italian  painter,  studied  in  Rome* 
came  to  London,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Circignano  (*.  1560,  d.  1620),Xicolo  (called 
Pomarancio,  from  his  birthplace),  Italian 


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painter.    His  masterpiece  is  the  Martyrdom 
of  St.  Stephen,  at  Rome. 

Cittadlni,  Pier  Francesco  {b.  1616,  d. 
16S1).  a  pupil  of  Guido.  Several  of  his 
paintings  are  in  the  churches  of  Milan. 

Clairaut,  Alexis  Claude  {b.  1713,  d.  1765), 
French  mathematician,  wrote  on  the  Figure 

of  the  Earth,  etc. 

Clapperton,  Hugh  {b.  1788,  d.  1827), 
African  explorer,  in  1822  started  on  an 
expedition  to  the  Lower  Niger  and  reached 
Saccatoo,  obtaining  information  about  Lake 
Tchad.  In  1826  went  again  to  Saccatoo, 
but  died  at  Chungary  from  an  attack  of 
dysentery. 

Clare,  John  (*.  1793,  d.  1864),  poet,  son 
of  a  labourer,  wrote  Poems  Descriptive  of 
Rural  Life  and  Scenery  (1820),  etc. 

Clare,  John  Fitzgibbon,  Earl  of  {b.  1749, 
d.  1802).  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1789, 
was  mainly  instrumental  in  bringing  about 
the  Act  of  Union  (1801). 

Clarence,  Duke  of.     [See  Albert  Victor.] 

Clarence,  George,  Duke  of  {d.  1478), 
brother  of  Edward  IV.,  Lord-Lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  1462,  was  secretly  executed. 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  {b. 
1608,  d.  1674),  as  a  member  of  the 
Long  Parliament  opposed  the  arbitrary 
government  of  Charles  I.,  but  afterwards 
attached  himself  to  his  cause :  went  to  Jersey 
in  1646,  and  there  commenced  his  History 
of  the  Rebellion  ;  followed  Prince  Charles  in 
his  wanderings,  and  returning  with  him  in 
1660,  became  Lord  Chancellor.  In  1661 
he  was  made  a  peer.  In  1667  he  withdrew 
to  the  Continent  to  avoid  impeachment,  and 
died  at  Rouen. 

Clarendon,  George  William  Villiera  {b. 
1800,  d.  1870),  politician  and  diplomatist, 
supported  Queen  Isabella  as  minister  at 
Madrid  in  1833  ;  was  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  in  1846,  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
from  1847  to  1852,  and  Foreign  Secretary 
from  1853  to  1858,  in  1865-66,  and  under 
Mr.  Gladstone  in  1868. 

Claretie,  Arsene  Amaud  (Jules)  {b.  1840), 
French  journalist  and  writer,  has  contri- 
buted to  the  leading  French  journals, 
written  Madeleine  Bertin  (1868),  and  other 
novels,  an  Ristoire  de  la  Revolution  de  1870- 
71,  and  several  dramas. 

Clark,  Sir  Andrew,  Bart.,  M.D.  {b.  1826), 
educated  at  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh,  com- 
menced practice  in  London  in  1854,  and  has 
made  _  his  speciality  the  diseases  of  the 
digestive  and  respiratory  organs.  He  has 
written  several  medical  works. 

Clark,  Sir  James,  Bart.  (*.  1788,  d.  1870), 


a  Scottish  physician  who  practised  for  some 
years  in  Rome,  and  returning  to  England 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  Queen. 

Clark,  WilHam  Tierney  {b.  1783,  d.  1852), 
English  engineer,  constructed  the  suspension 
bridge  over  the  Danube  between  Pesth  and 
BuJa. 

Clarke,  Adam  {b.  1762,  d.  1832),  was 
brought  up  as  a  Methodist,  and  became 
an  itinerant  preacher  in  1782,  wrote  the 
Commentary  on  the  Bible  (1820-26),  a  Biblio- 
yraphical  dictionary  (1802),  etc. 

Clarke,  Edward  Daniel  (b.  1769,  d.  1822), 
wrote  an  account  of  his  travels  through 
Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt. 

Clarke,  Henry  Jacques  Guillaume,  Due  de 
Feltre  {b.  1765,  d.  1818),  entered  the  French 
service  in  1782,  served  in  the  Republican 
army,  and  afterwards  attached  himself  to 
Bonaparte,  who  made  him  minister  of  war 
in  l.Si>7.  He  was  again  minister  of  war 
in  1815  under  Louis  XVIII. 

Clarke,  Hyde  {b.  1815),  an  English  philo- 
logist, engineer,  and  diplomatist,  has  es- 
pecially studied  the  languages  of  the  New 
World,  and  their  relation  to  those  of  the  Old. 

Clarke,  Jeremiah  (d.  1707),  a  musician, 
was  organist  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and 
the  Chapel  Royal. 

Clarke,  John  (b.  1770,  d.  1836),  musical 
composer,  was  in  1820  appointed  organist  at 
Hereford  cathedral. 

Clarke,  Mrs.  Mary  Cowden  {b.  1809), 
wrote  a  Complete  Concordance  to  Shakespeare 
(1845),  besides  novels  and  other  works,  and 
in  conjunction  with  her  husband  edited  and 
annotated  CasseWs  Illustrated  Shakespeare. 

Clarke,  Samuel  {b.  1675,  d.  1729),  divine, 
was  Boyle  lecturer  in  1704  and  1705,  and 
chose  as  his  subjects,  The  Being  and  Attri- 
bntes  of  God,  and  The  Evidences  ofJS'ataral 
and  Revealed  Religion  ;  in  the  latter  he  bases 
morality  on  the  fitness  of  things. 

Clarkson,  Thomas  {b.  1760,  d.  1846),  phil- 
anthropist, associated  himself  with  Sharp, 
Dillwyn,  and  others ;  formed  his  first  com- 
mittee for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  members  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  in  1787,  and  went  about  to  English 
ports  collecting  evidense. 

Clauberg,  Jean  {b.  1622,  d.  1665),  philo- 
sopher of  the  school  of  Descartes. 

Claude,  Jean  {b.  1619,  d.  1687),  French 
Protestant  divine  and  political  writer,  was 
banished  in  1685,  and  received  with  kindness 
by  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

Claude  Lorraine,  or  Claude   Gel6e  (b. 

1600,  d.    1682)   landscape  painter,  a  ohM 


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of  poor  parents,  apprenticed  to  a  pastry- 
cook, went  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
servant  and  pupil  to  the  painter  Tassi, 
under  whom  he  became  proficient  in  the 
art.  He  painted  for  Pope  Urban  VIII.  and 
other  princes,  and  left  upwards  of  400  land- 
scapes. 

Claudianus,  Claudius,  Latin  poet,  of 
Greek  parentage ;  wrote  chiefly  panegyrics 
and  satires. 

Claudius,  Appius  Caecus,  Roman  states- 
man, censor  in  312  B.C.,  and  consul  in  296. 

Claudius,  Appius  Crassus,  consul  and 
decemvir  451  B.C. 

Claudius,  Marcus  Aurelius  Flavins  Gothi- 
cus  {b.  214,  d.  270),  Emperor  of  Rome, 
succeeded  GalUenus  in  268,  defeated  the 
Alemanni  and  the  Goths,  and  instituted 
reforms. 

Claudius,  Matthias  (b.  1743,  d.  1815),  a 
German  poet,  author  of  the  Rhein-wein-lied. 

Claudius,  Tiberius  Drusus  Nero  Germani- 
cus.  Emperor  of  Rome  (i.  10  B.C.,  d.  a.d. 
64),  son  of  Drusus,  the  brother  of  Tiberius, 
and  of  Antonia,  niece  of  Augustus,  suc- 
ceeded Caligula  in  a.d.  40  ;  became  tyran- 
nical through  the  influence  of  his  wife, 
MessaUna ;  afterwards  married  his  niece, 
Agrippina,  who  poisoned  him.  Britain  be- 
came a  Roman  province  in  his  reign. 

Clausen,  Henri  Nicolas  {b.  1793,  d.  1877), 
Danish  theologian  and  politician,  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen  in 
1821,  and  in  1825  published  the  Constitution 
of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  Churches.  As 
councillor  of  state  and  minister  of  worship, 
he  had  a  large  share  in  drawing  up  the 
Constitution  of  1849. 

Clavigero,  Francisco  Saverio  (b.  circa 
1720,  d.  circa  1793),  Mexican  Jesuit  of 
Spanish  descent,  worked  as  a  missionary 
among  the  Indians,  and  wrote  a  well-known 
History  of  Mexico. 

Clay,  Henry  {b.  1777,  d.  1852),  American 
orator  and  statesman,  was  educated  for  the 
law,  and  in  1811  entered  the  House  of  Re- 
presentatives, of  which  he  was  seven  times 
elected  Speaker ;  supported  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  on  the  right  of  search  in  1812, 
and  acted  as  plenipotentiary  in  the  negotia- 
tions preceding  the  treaty  of  Ghent  (1814)  ; 
was  author  of  the  Missouri  compromise, 
restricting  slavery  to  the  southern  states 
(1821),  and  of  the  Omnibus  Bill,  which 
postponed  the  Civil  war  for  ten  years. 

Cleanthes,  Greek  Stoic  philosopher,  dis- 
ciple and  successor  of  Zeno,  lived  about 
300  B.C. ;  of  his  writings  only  the  Hymn  to 

Jupiter  remains. 


Cleef,  or  Cleeve,  John  van  (Jb.  1646,  d. 
1716),  Flemish  painter,  excelled  in  drapery 
and  the  heads  of  women  and  children.  His 
pictures  and  altar-pieces  may  be  seen  in  the 
churches  of  Ghent. 

Clemenceau,  Eugene  {b.  1841),  French 
politician,  elected  to  the  National  Assembly 
as  an  extreme  Republican  in  1876,  sided 
with  Gambetta  in  resisting  the  designs  of 
the  Monarchists  ;  afterwards  diverged  from 
him,  and  became  leader  of  the  Radicals,  as 
opposed  to  the  Opportunists. 

Clement  I.  (Clemens  Romanus)  {d.  100), 
thud  Bishop  of  Rome,  said  to  have  been 
converted  from  heathenism  by  St.  Peter, 
succeeded  Linus  in  67,  and  is  "supposed  to 
have  written  the  so-called  epistles  to  the 
Corinthians  in  the  Alexandrian  MS. 

Clement  II.  {d.  1047),  previously  Bishop 
of  Bamberg,  was  elected  pope  in  1046, 
through  the  influence  of  Henry  III.  of  Ger- 
many. 

Clement  III.  [d.  1191),  previously  Bishop 
of  Palestina,  became  pope  in  1187,  and 
urged  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  to  under- 
take a  crusade. 

Clement  IV.  {d.  1268),  previously  Arch- 
bishop of  Narbonne ;  assisted  Charles  of 
Anjou  in  the  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples. 

Clement  V.  {b.  1264,  d.  1314),  Berirand 
de  Goth,  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  elected 
pope  in  1305  through  the  influence  of  PhiUp 
the  Fail',  made  the  papacy  subservient  to 
French  policy,  and  transferred  the  pontifical 
chair  to  Avignon. 

Clement  VI.  {b.  1292,  d.  1352),  Peter 
Roger,  Archbishop  of  Rome,  elected  pope  in 
1342,  excommunicated  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
and  deposed  him  in  favour  of  Charles  of 
Bohemia.   He  maintained  a  luxurious  court. 

Clement  VII.  {d.  1534),  Giulio  de'  Medici, 
became  pope  in  1523 ;  sought  to  make  his 
family  supreme  in  Florence ;  sided  alter- 
nately with  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V. ,  till 
the  ransacking  of  Rome  by  the  Constable  of 
Bourbon  (1827)  compelled  him  to  make 
terms  with  the  latter.  The  pope  ceased  to 
exercise  authority  in  England  on  the  passing 
of  the  Act  of  Supremacy  (1534). 

Clement  VIII.  {b.  1536,  d.  1605),  Ippolito 
Aldobrandiui,  became  pope  in  1592,  and 
assisted  the  League  in  France  against  Henri 
IV.,  who  submitted  to  Rome  in  1593. 

Clement  IX.  {b.  1600,  d.  1669),  Giulio 
Rospigliosi,  aided  the  Venetians  against  the 
Turks. 

Clement  X.  {b.  1590,  d.  1676),  Emilio 
Altieri,  became  pope  in  1670. 


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Clement  XI.  (b.  1649,  d.  1720),  Gian  Fran- 
cesco Albaui,  became  pope  in  1700;  roused 
the  Christian  powers  against  the  Turks, 
who  were  defeated  at  Peterwaradin ;  sup- 
ported the  cause  of  the  Pretender,  and 
issued  the  bull  "Unigenitus"  against  the 
Jauseuists. 

Clement  XII.  {b.  1652,  d.  1740),  Lorenzo 
CorsLui,  became  pope  in  1730. 

Clement  XIII.  {b.  1693,  d.  1769),  Carlo 
Eezzouico,  became  pope  in  1758.  His  sup- 
port of  the  Jesuits  led  to  their  expulsion 
from  Portugal,  Spain,  France,  and  Naples. 

Clement  Xrv.  {b.  1705,  d.  1774),  Lorenzo 
Gangauelli,  pope  in  1769,  supported  the 
party  called  Regalisti,  and  suppressed  the 
order  of  Jesuits  in  1773. 

Clement,  Jacques  {b.  1567,  d.  1589),  a 
French  Dominican;  assassinated  Henri  III. 
at  St.  Cloud, 

Clement,  Joseph  (b.  1779,  d.  1844),  me- 
chanician, pupil  of  Bramah ;  invented  several 
kinds  of  lathes  and  screw  tools,  including 
the  headless  tap. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  Titus  Flavius 
Clemens,  presbyter  of  the  church  of  Alex- 
andria, a  famous  Christian  teacher  of  the 
2nd  and  3rd  centuries. 

Clementi,  Muzio  {b.  1752,  d.  1832), 
Italian  composer  and  pianist  ;  came  to 
London  in  1766,  and  after  visiting  most  of 
the  European  capitals,  settled  there  in  1810. 
He  published  a  collection  of  studies  for  the 
piano,  called  Gradus  ad  Farnassum. 

Clennell,  Luke  {b.  1781,  d.  1840), 
English  artist,  was  apprenticed  to  Bewick, 
the  wood-engraver,  but  showed  more 
talent  for  painting,  and  coming  to  London 
in  1804,  painted  the  Decisive  Charge  of 
the  British  Life  Guards  at  Waterloo.  He 
died  in  a  lunatic  asylum. 

Cleomedes,  a  Greek  astronomer  of  un- 
known date. 

Cleomenes  I.,  King  of  Sparta  {d.  circa 
490  B.C.),  son  of  Auaxandrides,  ascended  the 
throne  circa  519  B.C. 

Cleomenes  III.,  King  of  Sparta  {d.  220 
B.C.),  sou  of  Leonidas  II.,  was  long  suc- 
cessful against  the  Achseans,  but  at  last  was 
defeated,  and  forced  to  flee  to  Egypt,  where 
he  committed  suicide. 

Cleon  (d.  422  B.C.),  Athenian  demagogue, 
son  of  Cieaenetus,  a  tanner,  became  promi- 
nent after  the  death  of  Pericles,  and  won 
popularity  by  his  successful  expedition 
against  the  Spartan  encampment  on  Sphac- 
teria  ;  was  slain  whilst  leading  an  expedition 
against  Amphipolis. 


Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt  [b.  69  B.C., 
d.  30  B.C.),  celebrated  for  her  beauty, 
was  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes, 
by  whose  will  she  was  left  joint  sovereign 
with  her  brother  Ptolemy  (b.c.  51).  Ex- 
pelled by  the  latter,  she  sought  the  assist- 
ance of  Julius  CtEsar,  who  restored  her  to 
the  throne  in  conjunction  with  a  younger 
brother.  She  afterwards  followed  Caesar 
to  Rome,  and  in  41  captivated  M.  Antonius, 
who  rejected  Octavia  for  her  sake.  A  quar- 
rel with  Octavius  ensued ;  the  fleet  of 
Antonius  and  Cleopatra  was  defeated  at 
Actium,  and  they  fled  together  to  Egypt, 
where  they  both  committed  suicide. 

Clery,  or  O'Cleary,  Michael  (b.  circa 
1575,  d.  circa  1645),  Irish  historian,  lay 
brother  of  the  Franciscan  order,  wrote  ji 
Catalogue  of  the  Kings  of  Ireland,  the  Book 
of  Conquests,  and  The  Annals  of  Ireland. 

Cleveland,  Grover  (*.  1837),  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
Buffalo,  and  in  1882  elected  Governor  of 
New  York  state  ;  obtained  the  presidency 
in  1884,  being  the  first  Democratic  president 
since  the  war.  In  1888  he  was  defeated  by 
the  Republican  candidate.  General  Harri- 
son. 

Cliflford,  William  Kingdon,  F.R.S.  (i. 
1845,  d.  1879),  mathematician  and  physi- 
cist, was  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  appointed 
professor  of  applied  mathematics  at  Univer- 
sity College,  London,  in  1871 ;  wrote  Seeing 
and  Thinking,  Lectures  and  Essays,  and 
scientific  works. 

CUnton,  De  Witt  {b.  1769,  d.  1828), 
American  statesman,  was  mayor  of  New 
York  almost  continuously  from  1803  to 
1815.  Owing  to  his  exertions  the  Erie 
Canal  was  constructed  in  1825. 

Clinton,  George  (b.  1739,  d.  1812), 
American  general,  served  under  Amherst ; 
was  governor  of  New  York  for  eighteen 
years,  and  twice  vice-president. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  G.C.B.  {b.  1771,  d. 
1829),  English  officer,  entered  the  army  in 
1787,  served  with  the  Duke  of  York  in  the 
Netherlands,  with  Lord  Lake  at  Agra,  and 
with  Sir  John  Moore  in  Spain ;  distmguished 
himself  at  Salamanca,  and  commanded  a 
division  at  Waterloo. 

Clinton,  Henry  Fynes  (b.  1781,  d.  1852), 
classical  scholar  and  chronologist,  author  of 
the  Fasti  Hellenici  and  Fasti  liomani. 

CUssold.  Rev.  Augustus  (b.  1797,  d.  1882), 
Swedenborgian,  translated  Swedenborg's 
works,  and  wrote  many  treatises  in  support 
of  his  doctrines. 

Clisson,  Olivier  de  {d.  1407),  French 
soldier,  Constable  of  France  in  1380. 


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Clive,  Robert,  Lord  (b.  Styche,  Shi-opshire, 
1725,  d.  1774),  obtained  in  1743  a  writership 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  at 
Madras,  assisted  in  resisting  the  French 
attacks,  and  in  1746  resigned  his  civil  post 
to  enter  the  army ;  distinguished  himself  as 
a  subaltern  in  the  attack  upon  Devicotta, 
and  successfully  defended  Arcot  in  1751. 
He  visited  England  in  1753,  and  retm-ned 
as  Ueutenant-governor  of  Fort  St.  David ; 
but  in  1756  was  dispatched  to  Bengal  against 
Suraj-oo-Doula,  retook  Calcutta,  and  on 
the  outbreak  of  war  with  France  captured 
the  French  settlement  of  Chandernagore  ; 
gained  a  brilUant  victory  over  Suraj-oo- 
Doula  at  Plassey  (1757),  penetrated  to  his 
capital  and  installed  Meer  Jaffier  in  his 
stead.  CUve  came  to  England  in  1763  ;  but 
resumed  his  government  in  1765,  to  check 
the  corruption  prevalent  in  the  East  India 
Company,  and  introduce  order  into  what, 
through  his  efforts,  had  become  a  British 
colony.  He  returned  to  England  in  1767, 
where  the  attacks  on  his  administration 
drove  him  out  of  his  mind,  and  he  com- 
mitted suicide. 

Clodius,  Publius  {d.  52  B.C.),  Roman 
pati'ician  of  the  Claudian  family,  conceived 
a  hatred  for  Cicero,  and,  to  effect  his  banish- 
ment, gave  up  his  patrician  rank  in  58,  and 
as  tribune  procured  the  passing  of  a  law 
against  anyone  who  took  the  Hf  e  of  a  citizen 
uncondemned.  He  perished  iu  a  street  en- 
counter with  Milo. 

Clootz,  Johann  Baptiste,  Baron  (b.  1755, 
d.  1794),  travelled  through  Europe  under 
the  name  of  Anacharsis,  and  was  a  promi- 
nent figure  in  the  French  revolution,  and 
was  guillotined. 

Clotaire  I.  (b.  497,  d.  561),  youngest  son 
of  Clovis  and  Clotilde,  became  King  of 
Soissons  iu  511,  and  in  558  vmited  all  the 
Prankish  dominions  under  his  rule. 

Clotaire  II.  {b.  584,  d.  628),  son  of  Childeric 
I.,  succeeded  as  an  infant  to  the  throne  of 
Neustria,  under  the  guardianship  of  his 
mother,  Fredegonde ;  and,  after  the  de- 
thronement and  death  of  Brunehaut,  Queen 
of  Austrasia,  in  613,  became  ruler  over  all  the 
Frank  dominions. 

Clotaire  III.,  son  of  Clovis  II.,  com- 
menced to  reign  over  Neustria  and  Bur- 
gundy in  655,  under  the  care  of  Ebroin, 
mayor  of  the  place. 

Clotaire  IV.,  nominal  King  of  Austrasia 
under  Charles  Martel  from  717  to  720. 

Clotilda,  Saint  (b.  circa  475,  d.  543), 
daughter  of  Chilperic,  king  of  IBurguudy, 
and  wife  of  Clovis  I.  ;  converted  her  hus- 
band to  Christianity,  and  after  hia  death 
retired  to  a  monastery. 


Clougli,  Arthur  Hugh  (b.  1819,  d.  1861), 
poet  and  essajdst,  born  at  Liverpool,  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  Oxford,  where  he 
became  feUow  and  tutor  of  Oriel  College, 
published  Ambarvalia,  a  Long  Vacation 
Pastoral  (1848),  and  Dipsychus  (1850). 
He  travelled  much  on  the  Continent, 
was  head  of  University  Hall,  London,  from 
1849  to  1852,  and  an  examiner  under  the 
Education  department  from  1853  to  his 
death. 

Clovio,  Giulio  Georgio  {b.  1498,  d. 
1578),  miniature  painter,  went  to  Italy 
and  lived  in  the  household  of  Cardinal 
Farnese,  for  whom  he  executed  a  beautifully 
illuminated  missal. 

Clovis  I.  {b.  465,  d.  511),  succeeded  his 
father  Chilperic  I.  as  king  of  the  Franks  in 
481 ;  defeated  the  Romans  at  Soissons ;  sub- 
dued the  Alemanni,  and  other  tribes;  but 
was  defeated  by  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Goths,  in  509.  In  496  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity. 

Clovis  II.,  second  son  of  Dagobert, 
whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of 
Neustria  and  Burgundy  (638). 

Clovis  III.  {b.  681,  «?.  695),  succeeded  his 
father  Thierry  III.,  and  ruled  over  Neustria 
and  Bvirgundy  imder  the  direction  of  Pepin 
le  Gros. 

Cluvier,  Philip  {b.  1580,  d.  1623),  geo- 
grapher, wrote  Ger mania  Antiqua,  Italia 
Antiqiia,  etc. 

Clyde,  Lord,  Sir  Colin  Campbell  (J>.  1792, 
d.  1863),  of  Highland  descent,  educated  at 
Glasgow ;  served  in  Spain  under  Sir  John 
Moore  and  Wellington,  was  wounded  iu  the 
assault  of  San  Sebastian  and  the  passage  of 
the  Bidassoa ;  served  vdth  distinction  in  the 
American  war  (1814-15),  in  Demerara 
(1823),  China  (1832),  and  in  the  Sikh  war 
(1848),  receiving  tlie  thanks  of  Parlia- 
ment and  the  East  India  Company.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Crimean  war, 
especially  at  the  Alma ;  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Indian  Mutiny  was  hurriedly  sent  out 
as  commander-in-chief,  relieved  Havelock 
at  Lucknow  and  Windham  at  Cawnpore, 
utterly  defeated  the  enemy,  and  by  his  sub- 
sequent manoeuvres  re-established  the 
British  power  in  India.  For  these  services 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  and  made  a 
field-marshal. 

Cobbe,  Frances  Power  {b.  1822),  a  well- 
known  contributor  to  periodical  literatme, 
and  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  "  Women's 
Rights  movement." 

Cobbett,  William  {b.  1762,  d.  1835), 
farmer  and  political  critic,  bom  at  Famham, 
Surrey,  worked  iu  the  king's  garden  at 
Kew;    enlisted    iu    1784,    and    served    in 


Cob 


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Cof 


America  from  1785  to  1791,  devoting  his 
leisure  to  the  improvement  of  his  education. 
After  obtaining  his  discharge  returned  to 
America  in  1792,  opened  a  bookseller's  shop 
in  Philadelphia,  and  conducted  a  journal 
under  the  name  of  "  Peter  Porcupine." 
Returning  to  England  in  1801  he  started 
The  Weekly  Foiitical  Itegister,  in  which  he 
at  first  supported  Pitt,  but  about  1804  his 
views  suddenly  changed,  and  he  became  a 
champion  of  popular  rights.  He  spent 
much  time  on  his  farms  in  Hampshire  and 
Surrey,  and  after  1S32  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  as  member  for  Oldham. 

Cotobold,  Thomas  Spencer  {b.  1828,  d. 
18SG),  man  of  science,  has  made  a  special 
study  of  helminthology,  and  is  considered 
the  first  authority  on  the  subject  of 
entozoa. 

Cobden,  Richard  (*.  1804,  d.  1865),  states- 
man, son  of  a  Sussex  farmer,  educated  at 
an  obscure  school  in  Yorkshire  ;  was  after- 
wards a  commercial  traveller,  and  in  1831 
joined  in  establishing  a  cotton-printing 
business  near  Manchester.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1835,  and  in  1836-37 
travelled  in  Turkey  and  the  Levant.  The 
pamphlet  England,  Ireland,  and  America 
appeared  in  1835,  and  Russia  in  1836.  In 
1838  he  joined  Mr.  Bright  and  others  in 
establishing  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League,  and 
earnestly  advocated  a  policy  of  Free  Trade, 
at  first  in  lectures  delivered  throughout  the 
country,  and  afterwards  in  Parliament, 
which  he  entered  as  member  for  Stockport 
in  1841.  The  pressure  of  the  Irish  famine 
convinced  Peel  of  the  soundness  of  his 
views,  and  the  corn  laws  were  repealed  in 
1846.  Cobden  represented  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire  from  1846  to  1857,  in  which 
year  he  lost  his  seat,  owing  to  his  opposition 
to  Lord  Palmerston's  Chinese  policy.  In 
1859,  whilst  absent  in  America,  he  was 
elected  member  for  Rochdale,  and  early  in 
the  following  year  was  appointed  pleni- 
potentiary for  arranging  the  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  France. 

CocMseus,  Johan  (b.  1749,  d.  1552),  Ger- 
man theologian,  bitterly  opposed  Luther  and 
the  other  leaders  of  the  Reformation. 

Cochrane,  Sir  Alexander  Fon-ester  Inglis, 
G.C.B.  (*.  1758,  d.  1832),  admiral,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  war  with  France 
in  1799,  and  in  1806  earned  the  thanks  of 
Parliament  by  his  victory  over  the  French 
fleet. 

Cockbum,  Sir  Alexander  James  Edmund, 
Bart.,  G.C.B.  {b.  1802,  d.  1880),  dis- 
tinguished English  judge,  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1829,  entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal 
in  1847,  in  1850  supported  Lord  Palmer- 
ston's poHc^  in  the  matter  of  Don  Pacifico  ; 
became  Solicitor- General  the    same  year, 


Attorney- General  in  1851,  Chief  Justice  of 
the  Common  Pleas  in  1856,  and  Lord  Chief 
Justice  in  1859.  At  the  Geneva  arbitration 
of  1871,  imder  the  "Washington  treaty,  in 
the  Alabama  case,  he  acted  as  representative 
of  England. 

Cockburn,  Sir  George  (*.  1772,  d.  1853), 
admiral,  served  with  distinction  in  the 
French  war,  and  was  present  at  St.  Vin- 
cent ;  in  1812  sailed  to  America  and  co- 
operated with  General  Ross  against  the 
attack  upon  Washington.  He  conveyed 
Napoleon  to  St.  Helena. 

Cockburn,  Henry  Dundas,  Lord  {b.  1779, 
d.  1854),  Scottish  judge,  a  diUgent  legal 
reformer,  wrote  the  Life  of  Lord  Jeffrey, 

Memorials  of  his  Time,  etc. 

Cockerell,  Charles  Robert,  R.A.  (^>.  1788, 
d.  I860),  architect  and  antiquarian,  devoted 
himself  to  classical  architecture,  during  his 
travels  (1810-17)  discovered  the  ^ginetan 
marbles  now  at  Munich,  and  the  PhigaUan 
marbles  in  the  British  Museum.  He  designed 
many  pubUc  buildings,  including  the  Tay- 
lorian  Museum  at  Oxford  (1840),  and  wrote 
several  treatises  on  architecture,  the  chief 
being  on  the  Temples  of  Jupiter  Panhelleniiis 
in  JEffina,  and  of  Apollo  Epicurius  near 
Fhigaleia  (i860). 

Cockerill,  William  {b.  1757,  d.  1832),  in- 
ventor, went  to  Russia  on  the  invitation  of 
the  Empress  Catherine,  was  imprisoned 
by  her  successor,  Paul ;  fled  to  Sweden,  and 
thence  proceeded  to  Holland,  where  he 
established  the  great  iron  foundry  for  which 
his  name  is  famous. 

Coddington,  William  (b.  1601,  d.  1678), 
one  of  the  founders  and  first  governor  of 
Rhode  Island,  New  England. 

Codrington,  Sir  Edward  {b.  1770,  d.  1851), 
admiral,  was  engaged  in  the  victory  off 
Ushant  in  1 794,  commanded  a  vessel  at  Tra- 
falgar, shared  in  the  Walcheren  expedition, 
and  in  1826  was  sent  to  restrain  Ibrahim 
Pacha  from  attacking  the  Greeks.  Ibrahim 
resisted,  and  was  defeated  by  Codrington  at 
Navarino. 

Codrington,  Sir  William  John  (fi.  1804, 
d.  1884),  son  of  the  preceding,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Crimean  war  ;  he  conducted 
the  grand  attack  on  the  Redan. 

Coello,  Claudio  {b.  1621,  d.  1693),  Spanish 
painter,  pupil  of  the  younger  Rizi ;  his 
greatest  work  is  the  altar-piece  of  the  Santa 
Forma  at  the  Escurial. 

Coeln,  Wilhekn  von,  a  famous  German 
painter  of  the  14th  century. 

Coffinhal,  Jean  Baptiste  {b.  1754,  d.  1794), 
French  revolutionist,  took  part  in  the 
attack  on  the  Tuileries,  and  was  afterwards 


Coll 


(217) 


Col 


•vice-president  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal. 
He  was  executed. 

Cohn,  Ferdinand  Julius  (b.  1828),  German 
botanist,  author  of  several  works  on  botany, 
and  an  important  treatise  on  bacteria. 

nnhnhftim,  Julius  Friedrich  (J.  1839), 
German  pathologist,  has  made  original 
researches  and  experiments  in  connection 
with  the  blood,  inflammatory  processes, 
etc. 

Coimtora,  Don  Pedro,  Duke  of,  sumamed 

Alfarrobeira  {b.  13',»2,  d.  1449),  son  of 
John  I.  of  Portugal,  commanded  the  fleet 
in  the  first  expedition  against  Ceuta ;  in 
1439  became  regent  for  his  nephew,  Al- 
phonso  V.  ;  was  deposed  by  the  Duke  of 
Braganza  in  1446,  and  died  whilst  fighting 
against  him. 

Colter,  Volcher  {b.  1534),  Dutch  physician, 
author  of  valuable  anatomical  works;  was 
physician  to  the  French  army. 

Coke,  Sir  Edward  (^1.  1552,  d.  1634),  judge 
and  law  writer,  educated  at  Norwich  gram- 
mar school  and  Cambridge,  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1578 ;  early  acquired  a  high 
reputation,  and  becam«  Solicitor- Geneiul  in 
1592,  and  Attorney- General  in  1594.  He 
showed  much  harshness  in  his  prosecution 
of  Essex,  Ealeigh,  and  others  ;  but  his 
loyalty  gained  him  the  chief  justiceship  of 
the  Common  Pleas  in  1606.  In  this  position 
and  that  of  Chief  Justice  of  the  King's 
Bench  (1613)  he  opposed  James  I.'s  claim 
to  exercise  prerogatives  and  was  tempo- 
rarily deprived  in  1616.  Entering  Par- 
liament in  1621,  he  there  resisted  the  king's 
encroachments ;  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  in  1622,  and  in  1628  took  the  chief 
part  in  drawing  up  the  Petition  of  Eight. 
The  remainder  of  his  Uf  e  was  spent  in  com- 
piling his  Commentaries  upon  Littleton. 

Coke,  Thomas  {b.  1747,  d.  1814),  English 
clergyman,  adopted  the  opinions  of  John 
Wesley,  and  went  as  missionary  to  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies. 

Colbert,  Jean  Baptiste  (b.  1619,  d. 
1683),  French  statesman,  attracted  the 
attention  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  became 
comptroller-general  and  afterwards  prime 
minister  of  Louis  XIV.  He  pursued  a 
Liberal  policy,  tolerating  the  Protestants  and 
encouraging  commercial  and  manufacturiug 
enterprise,  especially  the  Lyonnese  silk 
trade  and  the  manufacture  of  French  lace. 
To  him  France  owes  her  navy.  By  his  skill 
as  a  financier  he  averted  national  bank- 
ruptcy, but  his  economy  and  aversion  to 
loans  becoming  distasteful  to  the  king,  he 
was  disgraced  and  soon  afterwards  died. 

Colby,  Major-General  Thomas  (b.  1784, 
d.    1852),    rendered    beneficial    services  in 


coimection  with   the  ordnance  survey,  of 
which  he  became  director  in  1820. 

Colden,  Cadwallader  {b.  1688,  d.  1776), 
Scottish  physician,  settled  in  New  York,  of 
which  he  became  lieutenant-governor  in 
1761.  He  wrote  a  Histori/  of  the  Five 
Indian  Nations,  etc. ,  and  contributed  to  the 
jlcta  Upsaliensa  of  Linnseus. 

Cole,  Sir  Henry,  K.C.B.  {b.  1808,  rf.  1882), 
became  assistant  keeper  of  the  records,  and 
was  mainly  instrumental  in  establishing  the 
Record  Office  :  was  also  founder  of  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  of  which  he  became 
director  in  1860.  He  worked  on  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Exhibition  of  1852,  and  was 
commissioner  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of 
1855,  and  secretary  of  the  Royal  Conmiission 
at  that  of  1867. 

Cole,  Vicat  {b.  1833),  English  landscape 
painter,  elected  R.A-  in  1880. 

Cole,  WUliam  (J.  1714,  d.  1782),  EngUsh 
clergyman  and  antiquary,  left  a  large  col- 
lection of  MSS.  to  the  British  Museum. 

Colebrooke,  Henry  Thomas  {b.  1765, 
d.  1837),  English  Orientalist,  became  a  chief 
justice  and  member  of  the  Supreme  Council 
at  Bengal ;  wrote  a  Sanscrit  grammar,  a 
Sanscrit  lexicon,  etc.,  and  contributed  to 
Asiatic  Researches. 

Colenso,  John  William  (J.  1814,  d. 
1883),  Bishop  of  Natal,  master  at  Harrow 
(1838-42),  and  rector  of  Fomcett  St. 
Mary,  Norfolk  (1846-53),  was  in  1853 
appointed  to  the  new  bishopric  of  Natal. 
In  1862  appeared  the  first  portion  of  The 
Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua  Critically 
Examined,  a  work  which  excited  the 
keenest  controversy,  and  was  condemned  as 
heretical  by  both  Houses  of  Convocation  in 
1864.  Attempts  to  depose  the  bishop  and 
to  withhold  his  salary  were,  after  a  long 
contest,  declared  illegal  by  the  Master  of 
the  Rolls  ;  nevertheless,  a  rival  bishop  was 
established  at  Maritzburg  in  1869.  Bishop 
Coleuso  was  also  the  author  of  an  Arithmetic 
(184(1),  an  Algebra  (1841),  and  other  works. 

Colepeper,  John,  Lord  {d.  1 660) ,  as  member 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  supported  the  king, 
who  made  him  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
(1642)  and  Master  of  the  Rolls  (1G43). 
After  1646  he  shared  the  fortunes  of  Prince 
Charles  ;  he  died  soon  after  the  Restoration. 

Coleridge,  Rev.  Derwent  (b.  1800,  d. 
1883),  son  of  the  poet,  was  principal  of  St. 
Mark's  College,  Chelsea,  from  1841  to 
1864;  wrote  The  Scriptural  Character  of  the 
English.  Church,  etc. 

Coleridge.  Hartley  (*.  1796,  d.  1849), 
son  of  the  poet,  passed  his  early  years 
in  the  Lake  District,   whence  he  went  to 


Col 


(21S) 


Col 


Oxford,  anil  became  fellow  of  Oriel,  but  left 
withiu  a  jear.  He  then  lived  a  wandering 
life,  wi'itiiig  much  poetry,  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  sonnets  and  lyrics,  and  contributing 
to  Blackwoodh  Muffaziiie.  The  Worthies  of 
Yorkshire  appeared  in  1S32. 

Coleridg-e,  Henry  Nelson  (6.  1800,  d. 
18-13).  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  the  poet, 
was  chief  editor  of  his  Table  Talk  and  Liter- 
ary Remains,  and  wrote  an  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Greek  Classic  Poets,  etc. 

Coleridge,  John  Duke,  Baron  (b.  1821), 
eldest  sou  of  Sir  J.  T.  Coleridge,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1846,  entered  ParUameut  as  a 
Liberal  in  1865,  was  Solicitor-General  in 
1868,  and  becoming  Attorney- General  in 
1871,  undertook  the  Crown  prosecution  of 
the  Tichborne  claimant.  In  1873  he  was 
appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas 
and  raised  to  the  peerage,  and  in  1880  suc- 
ceeded Sir  A.  Cockburn  as  Lord  Chief  Justice 
of  England. 

Coleridge,  Sir  John  Taylor  (b.  1790,  d. 

1876),  nephew  of  the  poet,  was  judge  of  the 
King's  Bench,  and  a  friend  of  Keble  and 
Dr.  Arnold.  His  Memoir  of  Keble  appeared 
in  1869. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor  (fi.  1772,  d.  1834), 

Eoet,  critic  and  philosopher,  bom  at  Ottery 
t.  Mary,  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Coleridge, 
passed  from  Christ's  Hospital  to  Cambridge, 
but  left  it  suddenly  and  mysteriously  to 
enlist  in  a  dragoon  regiment,  from  which  his 
family  procured  his  discharge.  He  was  at 
this  time  an  ardent  republican.  Visiting 
Southey  at  Bristol  in  1794,  he  there  met 
Robert  Lo veil,  a  Quaker.  The  three  "pan- 
tisocrats"  married  three  sisters,  and  formed 
the  scheme  of  founding  a  communistic 
society  on  the  banks  of  the  Susquehannah. 
In  1796  he  started  a  short-lived  periodical, 
the  Watchman,  and  made  a  tour  of  the 
country  to  canvass  for  subscribers.  After 
living  for  a  time  at  Clevedon,  he  settled  at 
Nether  Stowey,  where  he  wrote  The  Ancient 
Manner,  and  the  first  part  of  Christabel. 
The  former  appeared  in  Lyrical  Ballads, 
published  in  conjunction  with  Wordsworth 
in  1798.  After  a  visit  to  Germany  he  re- 
moved to  Keswick  in  1800,  but  in  1804  was 
obliged  by  ill-health  to  accept  the  post  of 
secretary  to  Sir  Alexander  Ball,  governor 
of  Malta,  where  he  remained  a  year.  Re- 
turning to  Cumberland,  he  started  a  peri- 
odical, the  Friend,  and,  on  its  failure,  came 
to  Loudon,  and  wrote  for  the  Cotirier  and 
Morning  Post.  In  1816  his  practice  of  in- 
dulging in  opium  compelled  him  to  put  him- 
self under  the  care  of  Mr.  Gillman,  of  High- 
gate,  with  whom  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  Among  his  prose  works  the  Biographia 
Literaria  QM\l),Aids  to  Reflection  (182.5),  and 
Lecturei  on  Shakespeare  are  the  best  known. 


Coleridge,  Sara  {b.  1803,  d.  1852),  only 
daughter  of  the  preceding,  and  wife  of 
Henry  Nelson  Coleridge,  whom  she  assisted 
in  his  literary  labours,  besides  publishing 
in  1837  an  original  work  entitled  Phan- 
tasmion. 

Colet,  Cowper  Phipps  (fi.  1819,  d.  1870), 
a  sailor  and  inventor,  whose  early  plan  for 
the  construction  of  shot-proof  rafts  was 
developed  in  1862  into  the  turret-system. 

Colet,  Dr.  John  {b.  1466,  d.  1519),  divine, 
educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
travelled  abroad,  and  became  acquainted 
with  Erasmus  and  other  scholars.  He  was 
made  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  in  1505,  and 
founded  St.  Paul's  school  in  1512. 

Coligny,  Gaspard  de  {b.  1517,  d.  1572), 
Huguenot  leader,  of  noble  bii-th,  fought 
vmder  Francis  I.  and  Henri  XL,  and  became 
Admiral  of  France  in  1552.  Having  adopted 
the  Protestant  faith,  Coligny  was  defeated 
at  Dreux  (1562),  St.  Denys,  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour,  but  in  1570  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded, and  he  came  to  Court,  where  he  was 
received  with  favour.  In  1572,  however, 
he  was  wounded  in  a  street  in  Paris,  and 
perished  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew two  days  afterwards. 

CoU6,  Charles  {b.  1709,  d.  1783),  French 
dramatist  and  song-writer,  secretary  to  the 
Diike  of  Orleans,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Caveau. 

Collenuccio,  Pandolfo  (d.  1504),  writer 
and  politician,  after  filling  several  diplo- 
matic posts,  retmned  to  Pesaro,  where  he 
was  executed  by  Giovanni  Sforza.  His 
chief  work  is  a  History  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples. 

CoUetet,  GuiUaume  (b.  1598,  d.  1659), 
French  poet,  wrote  for  the  theatre,  and 
left  Cynuncle  (a  drama),  Des  Espoirs  Amou- 
reux,  etc. 

CoUetta,  Pietro  {b.  \llb,  d.  1833),  began 
life  as  a  military  engineer,  was  exiled  by 
the  Bourbons  after  the  revolution  of  1820, 
but  afterwards  allowed  to  settle  at  Florence, 
where  he  wrote  his  History  of  Naples  from 
17S4  to  1825. 

Colley,  Sir  George  Pomeroy  (b.  1835,  d. 
1881),  soldier,  served  in  the  Kaffir  war  of 
1858,  in  China  (1860).  and  in  Ashautee, 
and  in  1880  succeeded  Lord  Wolseley  as 
Governor  of  Natal  and  High  Commissioner 
of  South-East  Africa.  He  was  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Majuba  Hill. 

Corner,  Arthur  {b.  1680,  d.  1732), 
English  divine  and  metaphysician,  inde- 
pendently of  Berkeley  formed  the  same 
views  as  to  the  non-existence  of  a  material 
world,  set  forth  in  his  Clavis  Universalis. 


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Collier,  Jeremy  (b.  1650,  d.  1726),  non- 
juror, was  imprisoued,  and  afterwards  out- 
lawed, but  continued  to  live  in  London.  He 
wrote  many  works,  including  an  Ecclesi- 
astical History  of  Britain,  but  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  his  attacks  on  the  immo- 
rality and  profaneuess  of  the  stage. 

Collier,  John  Payne  {b.  1789,  d.  1883), 
man  of  letters,  noted  as  a  student  of  EUza- 
bethau  literature,  and  especially  of  Shake- 
speare, wrote  The  Poetical  Decameron,  a 
History  of  Dramatic  Poetry,  New  Facts 
Eegarding  the  Life  of  Shakespeare,  etc.,  and 
edited  Dodsley''s  Old  Plays. 

Collingwood,  Cuthbert,  Lord  {b.  1750, 
d.  1810),  admiial,  entered  the  navy  in 
1761,  and  served  in  the  American  war  in 
1774  and  1775 ;  proceeded  to  the  West 
Indies  in  1776,  where  he  formed  a  lasting 
friendship  with  Nelson ;  took  part  in  Lord 
Howe's  victory  (1794)  ;  commanded  a  vessel 
at  St.  Vincent ;  was  second  in  command  at 
Trafalgar,  and  on  Nelson's  death  became 
commander-in-chief. 

Collins,  John  (b.  1676,  d.  1729),  deist,  wrote 
a  Discourse  on  Freethinldng,  Grounds  and 
Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion,  and  other 
works,  which  excited  much  controversy. 

Collins,  William  {b.  1721,  d.  1759),  poet, 
son  of  a  hatter,  educated  at  Winchester  and 
Oxford,  spent  his  after  life  in  London  in 
poor  circumstances,  and  at  last  became  almost 
insane.  He  wrote  a  number  of  odes  and  some 
pastoral  poems  entitled  Oriental  Eclogues. 

Collins,  William  (b.  1788,  d.  1847),  artist, 
pupil  of  George  Morland,  studied  at  the 
Academy  under  Etty,  and  excelled  in  land- 
scapes, especially  coast  scenes. 

Collins,  William  Wilkie  (b.  1824,  d.  1889), 
novelist,  wrote  The  Woman  in  White  (1859), 
The  Moonstone  (1868),  and  other  novels. 

CoUinson,  Peter  (*.  1694,  d.  1768),  bo- 
tanist and  antiquary,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

Collinson,  Admiral  Sir  Richard  {b.  1811, 
d.  1833),  surveyor  and  Arctic  explorer,  com- 
manded the  Enterprise,  sent  out  in  1850  to 
search  for  Franklin,  and  returned  in  1854, 
after  exploring  some  five  thousand  miles  of 
coast,  and  proving  the  existence  of  a  pas- 
sage from  Behring  Straits  lo  King  WiUiara'a 
Land. 

Collot  d'Herbois,  Jean  Marie  {b.  1750,  d. 
1796),  French  revolutionist,  obtained  a  seat 
in  the  Convention,  and  attached  himself  to 
Robespierre ;  displayed  great  cruelty,  espe- 
cially in  punishing  the  revolt  at  Lyons  in 
1793;  was  president  of  the  Convention  at 
the  time  of  the  fall  of  Robespierre;  was 
transported  to  Guiana  in  1795. 


Colman,  George  (b.  1732,  d.  1794),  dra- 
matist, became  manager  of  the  Haymarket 
theatre,  and  wrote  Polly  Honeycombe,  The 
Jealous  Wife,  etc. 

Colman,  George,  the  Younger  {b.  1762, 
d.  1836),  dramatist,  son  of  the  preceding, 
whom  he  succeeded  at  the  Haymarket, 
wrote  The  Iron  Chest,  The  Heir-at-Laiv, 
John  Bull,  etc. 

Colonna,  an  ancient  and  noble  family  of 
Rome,  for  many  ceutm-ies  leaders  of  the 
Ghibelline  party  in  Southern  Italy.  The 
most  celebrated  member  of  the  house  was 
Marcantonio  Colonna,  Duke  of  CagUano 
{d.  1584),  who  distinguished  himself  in 
naval  warfare  against  the  Turks,  especially 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto. 

Colonna,  ^gidius.     [See  ^gidius.] 

Colonna,  Francesco  (Jb.  circa  1449,  (/.  1527), 
bom  at  Venice,  Dominican,  author  of  the 
Poliphili  Hypnerotomachia  (1499),  a  rare 
book,  illustrated  with  numerous  woodcuts 
by  Giovanni  BeUiui. 

Colonna,  Vittoria,  Marchesa  di  Pescara 
(b.  1490,  (/.  1547),  Italian  poetess,  daughter 
of  Fabrizio,  Duke  of  Paliano,  and  wife  of 
Ferdinand,  Marquis  of  Pescara,  on  the 
death  of  her  husband  in  1525  devoted  her- 
self to  works  of  charity  and  intellectual 
pursuits.  She  was  the  friend  of  Cou- 
tarini,  Ariosto,  and  especially  of  Michael 
Angelo. 

Colqulioun,  Archibald  Ross  (Jb.  circa  1848), 
the  explorer  of  Chryse  or  Indo-China, 
started  from  Canton  in  1881,  and  made  his 
way  along  the  Chu-Kiang  to  the  country  of 
the  Shaus,  and  thence  north-west  to  Bhamo. 
In  1883  he  ijublished  Across  Chryse. 

Colt,  Samuel  {b.  1814,  d.  1862),  inventor 
of  the  revolver  bearing  his  name. 

Colton,  Charles  Caleb  (Jb.  1780,  d.  1832), 
wrote  a  remarkable  collection  of  aphorisms 
called  Lacon ;  or,  Many  Things  in  Few 
Words. 

Columban  {b.  543,  d.  615),  Irish  saint 
and  missionary,  after  visiting  England 
went  to  Gaul  about  585,  and  founded  the 
monastery  at  Luxeuil  near  Besantjon. 
Banished  twenty  years  later,  he  founded 
the  Abbey  of  Bobio  near  Naples. 

ColumbkUle,  or  Columba  (b.  521,  d.  597), 
Irish  saint  of  princely  birth,  for  sixteen 
years  journeyed  through  IroJaud,  preaching 
and  building  churches  and  religious  houses  ; 
in  563  crossed  with  twelve  attendants  to  the 
west  of  Scotland,  and  was  assigned  the 
island  of  lona  by  his  kinsman.  King  Conal ; 
here  he  built  a  monastery  and  church. 

Columbus,  Chriatopher  (b.  circa  1435,  d. 


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ISOG"*.   born  at   Genoa,    the    discoverer   of  ] 
America,  was  educated  at  Pavia,  and  after  I 
many  years  of  seafaiing  life,  settled  at  Lis- 
bon in  1470  as  a  maker  and  seller  of  maps. 
Becoming  convinced  of  the  existence  of  laud 
beyond  the  Atlantic,  he  vainly  sought  assist-  j 
ance    from    Portugal    and    England,     but  i 
finally  set  sail  from  Palos  with  three  ships 
under  the  auspices  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon, 
and  after  two  mouths  of  despair  and  mutiny  | 
on  the  part  of  the  sailors,  on  October  12th,   i 
1492,  sighted  Guanahani,  or  San  Salvador, 
one  of  the  Bahama  islands.     Sailing  on,  he  | 
discovered    several    of    the    West    Indian 
islands,  including  Hispauiola  (St.  Domingo) , 
where  he  planted  a  colony.     On  his  return 
he  was  received  with  honour  at  the  courts 
of  Portugal  and  Spain.     He  made  several 
other  voyages    of    discovery,   but  through 
the  calumnies  of  his  enemies  was  deprived 
of  the  government  of  Hispauiola  and  sent 
back  to  Spain  in  chains.     He  died  in  poverty 
at  Valladolid. 

Columbus,  Diego  {b.  circa  1474,  d.  1526), 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was  appointed 
second  admiral  of  the  West  Indies  in  1509,  , 
but     being     accused     of     misgoverument  [ 
returned    to    Spain    in    1515,    where    he 
remained  till  his  death. 

Columbus,  Fernando  {b.  1488,  d.   1539),  j 
brother  of  the  preceding,  sailed  to  America 
with  his  father  in  1492,  and  seems  to  have 
twice  revisited  it.     He  left  a  Life  of    his 
father. 

Columella,  Lucius  Junius  Moderatus,  a 
native  of  Cadiz  in  the  1st  century,  wrote  a 
work  De  He  liustica. 

Colvin,  Sir  Auckland  {b.  1838),  son  of  J.  R.  | 
Colvin,  was  the  English  representative  in  ; 
Egypt  under  the  scheme  of  Anglo-French 
control,  and  the  guiding  counsellor  of  the  ; 
Khedive  throughout  the  Arabi  insurrec-  j 
tion.  From  1883  to  1885  he  was  his  financial 
adviser. 

Colvin,  John  E.  {b.  1807,  d.  1857), 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  North- West 
Provinces  of  India  during  the  Mutiny, 

Colvin,  Sidney  {b.  1845),  was  elected 
Slade  professor  at  Cambridge  in  1873,  and 
was  appointed  keeper  of  the  prints  at  the 
British  Museum. 

Combe,  Andrew  {b.  1797,  d.  1847),  physi- 
cian, wrote  several  works  on  physiology. 

Combe,  George  {b.  1788,  d.  1858),  phreno- 
logist, brother  of  the  preceding,  wrote  The 
Consiitution  of  Man  considered  in  Relation  to 
External  Objects  (1828),  etc. 

Combermere,  Stapleton  Cotton,  Viscount 
{b.  1773,  d.  1865),  soldier,  served  under  the 
Duke  of  York  in  Flanders  and  in  India 


agaiust  Tippoo  Sahib ;  in  1808  went  to 
Spain  in  command  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry 
and  distinguished  himself  at  Salamanca  and 
Orthes ;  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1814, 
and  in  1826,  as  commander-in-chief  in 
India,  concluded  the  Burmese  war  by  the 
capture  of  Bhurtpore. 

Comenius,  Johann  Amos  (Komenski), 
{b.  1592,  d.  1671),  Protestant  divine  and 
writer  on  education,  compelled  by  per- 
secution to  leave  Fulnek,  of  which  he 
was  pastor,  fled  to  Lesna  in  Poland 
(1621),  where  he  taught  Latin  and  pub- 
lished his  Janua  Llmjuarum  Eeserata.  He 
spent  many  years  in  Sweden  and  other 
countries,  remodelling  schools  and  com- 
pleting a  scheme  of  education,  and  finally 
settled  at  Amsterdam. 

Comines,  Phihppe  de  (b.  1445,  d.  1509), 
French  historian  of  Flemish  descent,  at 
first  a  follower  of  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy,  transferred  his  services  to  Louis 
XI.  of  France,  who  made  him  Lord  of 
Argentou.  His  Memoires  are  the  most  valu- 
able history  of  the  time. 

Commodus,  Lucius  Aurelius  {b.  161,  d. 
192),  Emperor  of  Rome,  succeeded  his 
father  Marcus  Aurelius  in  180,  and  aban- 
doned himself  to  every  form  of  cruelty  and 
vice.  He  was  poisoned  and  strangled, 
probably  by  the  order  of  his  mistress, 
Marcia. 

Common,  Andrew  Ainslie  {b.  1841), 
astronomer,  celebrated  for  his  construction 
of  telescopes  and  photographs  of  celestial 
phenomena. 

Comonfort,  Ignacio  {b.  1810,  d.  1863), 
Mexican  general,  elected  president  in  1857, 
was  driven  into  exile  in  1858,  and  murdered 
by  brigands  shortly  after  his  return  in  1863. 

Compton,  Hem-y  {b.  1632,  d.  1713), 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  and  afterwards  of 
London  ;  was  entrusted  with  the  education 
of  the  princesses  Mary  and  Anne. 

Comte,  Auguste  {b.  1798,  d.  1857),  bom  at 
Montpellier,  French  philosopher,  founder  of 
the  system  of  Positive  Philosophy,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Lycee  of  MoiitpelUer  and  the 
£cole  Polytechuique,  Paris,  where  he  made 
great  progress  in  mathematics,  but  after 
two  years  was  expelled  for  insubordination ; 
made  the  acquaintance  of  St.  Simon  in 
1818,  and  for  six  years  remained  his  friend 
and  disciple.  In  1826  he  conceived  in 
outline  his  famous  synthetic  system,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  mental  strain  involved 
became  temporarily  insane.  The  first 
volume  of  the  Fhilosophie  Fositive  a^jpeared 
in  1830,  the  sixth  and  last  in  1842;  while 
engaged  on  it  he  was  also  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Seville,  and  teacher  and 
examiner  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.     He 


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lost  the  latter  post  in  1S44,  and  spent  his 
later  days  in  great  poverty.  The  Positive 
Polity  occupied  >iiTn  from  1846  to  1854. 

Comyns,  Sir  John  {b.  1667,  d.  1740), 
created  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer  in 
1738,  wrote  a  well-known  Digest  of  the 
Laws  of  England. 

Concha,  Don  Manuel  de  la  {h.  1794, 
d.  1874),  Spanish  general  and  supporter  of 
Isabella,  served  throughout  the  first  CarUst 
war,  and  in  that  of  1874  commanded  the 
army  of  the  North,  but  was  slain  in  battle 
near  Vittoria. 

Concini,  Concino,  Mar^chal  d'Ancre 
(d.  1617),  Florentiae,  accompanied  Mary 
de  Medici,  queen  of  Henry  IV. ,  to  France 
in  1600  ;  rose  to  power  through  his  wife's 
influence  over  her  during  the  minority  of 
Louis  XIII.,  by  whose  order  he  was 
assassinated. 

Conde,  Jose  Antonio  {b.  1765,  d.  1820), 
learned  Spaniard,  wrote  a  History  of  the 
Dominion  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain. 

Conde,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Prince  of  {b. 
1530,  d.  1569),  joiued  the  Hugueuots  after 
the  death  of  Henri  II.,  and,  together  with 
Coligny,  became  their  leader  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  IX.  He  was  wounded  at 
Dreux  (1562),  lost  the  battle  of  St.  Denys 
(1567),  and  was  killed  at  Jamac. 

Conde,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Prince  of 
(b.  1621,  rf.  1686),  known  prior  to  his  father's 
death  in  1646  as  the  Due  d'Enghien. 
Routed  the  Spaniards  at  Eocroi,  1643 ; 
distinguished  himself  at  Fribourg,  at  the 
capture  of  Philipsburg  and  other  places,  at 
Nordlingen  and  ta  Catalonia;  in  1648 
attacked  the  Archduke  Leopold  in  the  Low 
Coimtries,  took  Ypres,  and  defeated  the 
Imperial  army  at  Lens ;  returning  to  Paris, 
suppressed  the  revolt  provoked  by  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  and  secured  his  return  and  that  of 
the  royal  family.  To  gratify  the  jealousy  of 
Mazarin,  he  was  in  1650  imprisoned  in  the 
castle  of  Vincennes  ;  released  after  a  year's 
confinement,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  revolt,  but  was  forced  to  retire  to  Flan- 
ders. He  now  served  in  the  armies  of 
Spain,  sometimes  leading  them  against  his 
own  country,  to  which  he  was  restored  by 
the  peace  of  1659.  In  166S  he  aided  in  the 
conquest  of  Franche-Conite,  in  1674  defeated 
the  Prince  of  Orange  at  Senef,  aud  in  1675 
succeeded  Turenne  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  French  forces. 

Condillac,  fitienne  Bonnot  de  {b.  1715, 
d.  17»0),  French  philosopher,  of  the  school 
of  Berkeley  and  Locke,  wrote  Essai  sur 
VOrigine  des  Connaissances  Humaines  (1746), 
Traiti  des  Systimes  (1749),  Traiti  des  Sen- 
tations  (1754),  etc. 


Condorcet,  Marie  Jean  Antoiae  Nicolas 
de  Caritat,  Marquis  de  {b.  1743,  d.  1794), 
French  mathematician,  philosopher,  and 
political  writer,  educated  at  the  Jesuit  Col- 
lege in  Rheims  and  the  college  of  Navarre 
in  Paris,  won  high  distiaction  as  a  mathe- 
matician, and  in  1774  pubHshed  his  fii-st 
polemical  work,  the  Lettres  d'un  Theologien. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
vention ;  he  held  aloof  from  the  struggle 
between  the  Girondists  and  the  Mountain, 
but,  becoming  identified  with  the  former, 
was  proscribed  by  the  Convention ;  was 
sheltered  by  Madame  Vemet  in  an  attic, 
where  he  wrote  his  chief  work,  the  Esquisse 
des  ProgrSs  de  V Esprit  Huniain^  but,  ven- 
turing outside  Paris,  was  seized  in  a  cottage, 
and  took  poison  to  escape  the  guillotine. 

Confucius,  or  Con-foo-tse  (b.  551  b.c, 
d.  479  B.C.),  Chinese  philosopher,  said  to 
have  been  descended  from  the  imperial 
family  of  the  Shan  dynasty  of  the  king- 
dom of  Loo,  after  eight  years  spent  in 
travelling  through  what  is  now  the  em- 
pire of  China,  preaching  virtue  and  social 
order,  returned  to  Loo,  became  prime 
minister  twelve  years  later,  and  effected 
moral  and  physical  improvements,  freeing 
the  poor  from  oppression,  and  employing 
the  revenues  to  advance  commerce.  Banished 
through  the  intrigues  of  neighbouring 
princes,  he  retired  to  a  remote  valley,  and 
devoted  his  last  days  to  the  completion  ajid 
revision  of  his  works.  These,  which  consist 
of  the  Four  Books  and  the  Five  Canonical 
Books,  deal  mainly  with  morality  and  social 
order. 

Congreve,  Richard  {b.  1818),  Positivist 
thinker,  besides  his  edition  of  Aristotle's 
Politics  (1855)  and  his  pamphlets  on  Gib- 
raltar and  India  (1857),  has  written  Eliza- 
beth of  England  (1862),  Human  Catholicism 
(1876).  etc. 

Congreve,  William  {b.  1670,  d.  1729), 
dramatist,  educated  at  Kilkenny  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  entered  the  Middle  Temple, 
where  he  devoted  his  time  to  literature, 
and  mixed  in  the  gay  society  of  the  town. 
His  chief  plays  were  Love  for  Love  (1695), 
The  Moicrning  Bride  (1697),  and  The  Way 
of  the  World  (1700).  In  1714  he  obtained 
the  post  of  Secretary  for  Jamaica. 

Congreve,  Sir  WUham  {b.  1772,  d.  1828), 
inventor  of  the  rocket  which  bears  his 
name. 

Conington,  John  {b.  1825,  d.  1869),  clas- 
sical scholar,  educated  at  Rugby  and  Oxford, 
where  he  became  first  Corpus  Professor  of 
Latin  in  1854.  His  chief  work  is  his  edition 
of  Virgil,  published  between  1861  to  1868. 

Conkling,   Roscoe    (J.    1828,   d.    1838), 


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Americau  politician,  oue   of  the  most  pro- 
niineut  members  of  the  Republican  party. 

Connauglit,  H.R.H.  Arthur  "William 
Patrick  Albert,  Duke  of  (h.  18.50),  third  son 
of  Queen  Victoria,  received  his  military 
education  at  Woolw'ich,  and  was  made 
major-general  in  1880;  he  accompanied  the 
Egj'ptian  expedition  of  1882.  In  1874  he 
was  created  Duke  of  Connaught,  and  in 
1879  married  Margaret  Louise,  daughter  of 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia. 

ConoUy,  John  {b.  1794,  d.  1866),  phy- 
sician,  chief  director  to  the  Hanwell  asylum, 
and  author  of  several  works  on  lunacy. 

Conon  (d.  circa  388  B.C.),  Athenian 
geueial  and  admiral,  superseded  Alcibiades 
in  his  command  against  the  Spartans,  was 
defeated  by  Callicratidas  at  Mitylene  (406) 
and  Lysander  at  ^gospotamus  (405) ;  re- 
tired to  Cyprus ;  in  394,  at  the  head  of  a 
Persian  fleet  supplied  by  Artaxerxes,  de- 
feated the  Spartans  at  Cnidus. 

Conrad  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  elected 
emperor  in  911,  took  Thuringia  from  the 
Duke  of  Saxony,  and  Alsatia  from  Charles 
the  Simple  of  France. 

Conrad  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany  {d.  1039), 
Duke  of  Franconia,  was  elected  king  of  the 
Geimans  in  1024,  and  crowned  emperor  by 
the  Pope  in  1027.  He  succeeded  his  uncle  as 
King  of  Bm'gvmdyin  1033. 

Conrad  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany  {b.  1093, 
d.  1152),  son  of  Frederick,  Duke  of  Suabia, 
was  elected  emperor  1138.  During  his  con- 
test with  Welf,  Duke  of  Saxony,  the  party 
names  of  "  Guelph"  and  "Ghibelline"  first 
arose.  He  undertook  a  fruitless  and  dis- 
astrous crusade  (1146-49). 

Conrad  rv.,  Emperor  of  Germany  {b.  1228, 
d.  1254),  Duke  of  Suabia,  elected  king  of  the 
Romans  in  1237,  assumed  the  title  of  emperor 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  Frederick  II. ,  ia 
1250.  The  Pope  contesting  his  claim,  he 
invaded  Italy  and  took  Naples,  but  died 
suddenly. 

Conrad  V.,  or  Conradin  (*.  1252,  d.  1268), 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  an  infant  at  his 
father's  death,  and  fell  into  the  power  of  his 
uncle,  Manfred.  Charles  of  Anjou,  with  the 
aid  of  the  Pope,  wrested  the  crown  of  Naples 
from  Manfred,  and  afterwards  defeated  Con- 
radin (1268)  and  beheaded  him  at  Naples. 

Conrart,  Valentin  {b.  1603,  d.  1675),  the 
first  secretary  of  the  French  Academy, 
which  originated  from  a  meeting  of  literary 
friends  at  his  house. 

Conring,  Hermann  {b.  1606,  d.  1681), 
scholar  and  statesman,  appointed  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Helmstadt  in  1 632,  left  many 
works  on  philosophy,  law,  and  medicine. 


Conscience,  Hendrik  {b.  1812,  d.  1883), 
Flemish  poet  and  novelist,  appointed 
assistant  professor  at  Ghent  m  1845,  and 
in  1868  keeper  of  the  Mus^e  Wiertz  in 
Brussels ;  vn'ote  The  Year  of  Miracles 
(1837),  The  Lion  of  Flanders  (1838),  etc. 

Constable,  John  (h.  1776,  d.  1837),  land- 
scape painter,  son  of  a  Suffolk  miller,  at  first 
followed  his  father's  trade,  but  attracted  the 
notice  of  Sir  George  Beamnont,  and  in  1799 
became  a  student  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
His  best-known  picture  is  the  Valley  Farm 
in  the  National  Gallery. 

Constans  I.,  Flavins  Julius  {b.  320,  d.  350), 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  Constantine  the 
Great,  in  337,  obtained  Italy,  Africa,  and 
Western  Illyiicum,  and  on  that  of  his  elder 
brother,  Constantine,  became  ruler  over  the 
whole  western  empire.  He  was  slain  in 
Spain  by  the  followers  of  Magnentius. 

Constans  II.,  Flavius  Heraclius  {b.  630, 
d.  GG8),  eldest  son  of  Constantine  III., 
succeeded  to  the  empire  of  the  East  in  641. 

Constant,  Benjamin  {b.  1767,  d.  1830), 
French  politician  and  orator,  tribune  under 
the  Dii-ectory,  was  banished  by  the  First 
Consul  ia  1801,  and  retired  to  Germany. 
Returning  in  1814,  he  at  first  attacked 
Napoleon,  but  accepted  a  post  under  him 
during  the  Hundred  Days.  After  the  second 
restoration  he  joined  the  Liberal  opposition. 

Constant,  Benjamin  {b.  1845),  French 
painter ;  amongst  his  works  are  The  Harem, 
Samson  and  JJelilah,  and  Mahomet  II. 

Constantine  I.,  Caius  Flavius  Valerius 
Aurehus,  the  Great  ip.  Tl\,  d.  337),  son  of 
Constantius,  was  in  Britain  at  the  time  of 
his  father's  death,  and  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  army  there.  After  defeat- 
ing Maxentius  near  Rome  in  312  was 
acknowledged  by  the  Senate  as  emperor  of 
the  West,  Licinius  obtaining  the  empire  of 
the  East.  A  war  broke  out  between  the 
two  princes,  Licinius  was  slain  in  324,  and 
Constantine  became  emperor  of  the  East 
also.  In  330  he  removed  the  seat  of 
government  to  Byzantium,  which  he 
re-named  Constantinople.  His  conversion 
to  Christianity  is  said  to  have  been  due  to  a 
vision  he  beheld  whilst  marching  against 
Maxentius.  He  made  laws  both  for  the 
East  and  West  in  favour  of  Christianity, 
and  in  325  assembled  the  first  general 
council  of  Nicsea. 

Constantine  II.  {b.  316,  d.  340),  son  of 
the  preceding,  succeeded  to  Gaul,  Spain, 
and  Britain,  but  was  slain  whilst  waging 
war  against  his  brother  Constans. 

Constantine  III.  (d.  411),  a  Roman  soldier 
in  Britain,  elected  emperor  in  407,  con- 
quered Gaul  and  Spain ;  was  besieged  in 


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Aries  by  the  general  of  Honorius,  and  put 
to  death. 

Constantine  III.  (b.  612,  d.  641),  son  of 
the  emperor  Heraclius,  died  after  reigning  a 
few  days. 

Constantine  IV.  {b.  648,  d.  685),  sur- 
named  "the  Bearded,"  succeeded  his 
father,  Constans  II.,  in  668.  He  convened 
a  council  at  Constantinople  (680)  which 
condemned  the  Monothehte  doctrine. 

Constantine  V.  {b.  718,  d.  775),  sur- 
named  "  Kopronj-mos,"  succeeded  his  father, 
Leo  III.,  in  741,  and  fought  valiantly 
against  the  Saracens.  He  was  cruel  and 
dissolute. 

Constantine  VL  (*.  771,  d.  circa  800), 
succeeded  his  father,  Leo  IV.,  in  780,  but 
was  in  797  deprived  of  the  empire  by  his 
mother  Irene,  who  put  out  his  eyes  and 
reigned  in  his  stead. 

Constantine  VII.,  sumamed  "Porphyro- 
genitus"  {b.  905,  d.  959),  son  of  Leo  VI.,  a 
slothful  and  self-indulgent  prince,  said  to 
have  been  poisoned  by  his  son  Romanus. 

Constantine  VIII.,  son  of  Romanus 
Lecapenos,  shared  the  imperial  power 
during  the  nominal  reign  of  his  grandfather, 
Constantine  VII.,  but  was  deported  to  an 
island  in  the  Propontis. 

Constantine  IX.  (A.  961,  d.  1028),  son  of 
Romanus,  and  grandson  of  Constantine  VII. , 
succeeded  to  the  throne  with  his  brother, 
Basil  II.,  in  976. 

Constantine  X.  {b.  circa  1000,  d.  1054), 
a  dissolute  prince,  ascended  the  throne  in 
1042,  as  third  husband  of  Zoe,  daughter  of 
Constantine  IX. 

Constantine  XI.,  Ducas  (b.  1007,  d.  1067), 
became  emperor  in  1059.  During  his  reign 
the  Uxians,  a  Scythian  tribe,  overran  the 
empire. 

Constantine  XII.,  Ducas,  youngest  son  of 
Constantine  XI.,  shared  the  empire  with 
his  brothers  Michael  and  Andronicus  from 
1067  to  1078,  when  he  became  a  monk. 

Constantine  XIIL,  Palseologus  (b.  1394, 
d.  1453),  succeeded  his  brother  John  VII.  in 
1448,  and  perished  at  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople by  Mahomet  II. 

Constantine,  Romanoff  {b.  1827,  d.  1892), 
Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  second  son  of  the 
Czar  Nicholas,  as  a  leader  of  the  Muscovite 
or  National  party  did  much  to  promote  the 
Crimean  war ;  became  president  of  the 
Grand  Council  of  the  empire  in  1865,  but 
was  dismissed  from  his  dignities  in  1881  on 
suspicion  of  intriguing  with  the  revolu- 
tionary party. 


Constantine,  Paulovich  {b.  1779,  d.  1831), 
second  son  of  the  Emperor  Paul  I.,  was 
commander-in-chief  in  Poland,  which  he 
governed  with  much  cruelty.  On  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  Alexander,  in 
1825,  he  renounced  his  claim  to  the  throne 
in  favour  of  his  younger  brother  Nicholas. 

Constantius,  Chlorus  (d.  York,  306),  son 
of  Eutropius,  won  the  title  of  Caesar  by  his 
victories  in  Britain  and  Germany,  was  asso- 
ciated with  Galerius  on  the  abdication  of 
Diocletian  in  304. 

Constantius  II.,  Plavius  Julius  (b.  317, 
d.  361),  second  son  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
succeeded  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
empire  ;  after  defeating  Magneutius  at 
Mursa,  became  sole  emperor  in  358 ;  he 
died  whilst  marching  against  Julian,  son  of 
Constantius,  whom  he  had  created  Caesar. 

Contarini,  Gaspare,  Cardinal  {b.  1483, 
d.  1542),  member  of  a  rich  Venetian 
family,  went  as  ambassador  to  Charles  V. 
and  Clement  VII.,  and  was  made  cardinal 
by  Paul  III.  He  belonged  to  the  moderate 
party  and  endeavoured  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  Protestants ;  his  views  on 
the  necessity  of  reform  are  expressed  in  his 
Relation  to  Paul  III. 

Conway,  Moncure  Daniel  (b.  1832),  man 
of  letters,  at  first  a  Methodist  minister,  fell 
under  the  influence  of  Emerson,  and  after 
stud3dng  at  Harvard,  opened  a  lecture-hall 
at  Cincinnati  in  1860.  He  afterwards  came 
to  England,  and  became  intimate  with 
Carlyle.  Besides  memoirs  of  Carlyle  and 
Emerson,  he  has  written  Idols  and  Ideals, 
liepublican  Superstitions,  etc. 

Conybeare,  Rev.  WilUam  Daniel  {b.  1787, 
d.  1857),  Dean  of  Llandaff,  an  eminent 
geologist,  wrote  Outlines  of  the  Geology  of 
England  and  Wales,  and  a  valuable  paper 
(1821)  on  the  structure  of  the  Plesiosaurus. 

Conybeare,  Rev.  "William  John  {b.  1815, 
d.  1857),  divine,  principal  of  the  Collegiate 
Institution,  Liverpool,  collaborator  with  the 
Rev.  J.  S.  Howson,  Dean  of  Chester,  in  T/ie 
Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Faul. 

Cook,  Eliza  (6.  1818,  d.  1889),  minor 
English  poetess. 

Cook,  James,  Captain  {b.  1728,  d. 
1779),  navigator,  son  of  an  agricultural 
labourer,  was  apprenticed  to  a  shop- 
keeper near  Whitby,  but  obtained  employ- 
ment in  the  coal-carrying  trade,  visited 
the  Baltic,  and  volunteered  into  the  royal 
navy  in  1755 ;  was  present,  as  master 
of  a  sloop,  at  the  capture  of  Quebec :  in 
1767  became  lieutenant,  and  in  1768  sailed 
to  the  South  Pacific  in  the  Endeavour,  on  a 
voyage  of  scientific  observation.  After  re- 
discovering   New    Zealand    and    exploring 


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part  of  New  ITolland,  which  he  called  New- 
South  Wales,  he  returned  in  1771,  and  was 
made  commander.  In  his  second  voyage 
(1772-1775),  with  the  Resolution  and  Adven- 
ture, he  discovered  New  Caledonia  and 
Sandwich  Land,  and  sailed  round  the  globe. 
In  1776  he  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
with  the  Eesolution  and  Discover>/,  dis- 
covered the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  pene- 
trated as  far  north  as  Icy  Cape.  He  was 
murdered  by  the  natives  of  Hawaii. 

Cooke,  Benjamin  (b.  1734,  d.  1793), 
musical  composer,  author  of  many  popular 
glees. 

Cooke,  George  Frederick  (5.  1756,  d. 
1811),  actor,  educated  at  Berwick,  first 
appeared  in  Loudou  at  the  Haymarket  in 
1778,  but  attracted  no  attention  till  his 
appearance  at  Covent  Garden  as  Richard 
III.  in  1800.     He  died  in  America. 

Cooke,  Mordecai  Cubitt  {b.  1825),  English 
botanist,  author  of  treatises  on  fungi  and 
fresh-water  algae,  etc. 

Cooke,  Sir  WilHam  FothergiU  (b.  1806, 
d.  1879),  electrician,  began  to  study  the 
electric  telegraph  in  1836,  and  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Professor  Wheatstone  and  J.  L. 
Ricardo  founded  the  first  telegraph  company 
in  1838. 

Cooper,  Abraham,  R.A.  {b.  1787,  d.  1868), 
battle  and  animal  painter,  of  humble  birth, 
exhibited  The  Battle  of  Marston  Moor,  etc. 

Cooper,  Anthony  Ashley.  \_See  Shaftes- 
bury.] 

Cooper,  Sir  Astley  Paston  (b.  1768.  d. 
1841).  surgeon  to  George  IV.,  had  a 
large  practice  in  London.  His  medical 
works  include  an  important  treatise  on 
hernia. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore  (b.  1789,  d. 
1851),  American  novelist;  after  six  years' 
service  in  the  United  States  navy,  retired 
in  1811 :  wrote  The  Spy  (1821),  The  Pilot 
(1823),  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  (1826),  and 
other  novels. 

Cooper,  Samuel  (b.  1600,  d.  1672), 
English  painter  of  miniatures;  painted 
Cromwell  several  times,  also  Milton,  Hamp- 
den, Ireland,  Charles  II.,  Catherine  of 
Braganza,  and  many  other  celebrities  of 
the  period. 

Cooper,  Thomas  (b.  1805,  d.  1892),  was 
a  shoemaker,  a  schoolmaster,  and  a  jour- 
nahst,  in  1840  settled  in  Leicester  and 
became  leader  of  the  Chartists  there. 
Arrested  while  lecturing  in  the  potteries  in 
1841,  he  passed  two  years  in  Stafford  gaol, 
where  he  wrote  an  epic  poem.  The  Purgatory 
of  Suiades.     He  wrote   other   WM-ks,   and 


in   later  Ufe  was  known  in  London  as  S 
political  and  historical  lecturer. 

Cooper,  Thomas  Sidney,  R.A.  {b.  1803), 
bom  at  Canterbury,  a  self-taught  animal 
painter,  has  exhibited  largely  in  the  Royal 
Academy. 

Coote,  Sir  Charles  {d.  1642),  military  com- 
mander  in  Ireland,  sent  to  oppose  the  rebels 
in  1641.  His  most  brilliant  exploit  was  the 
masterly  relief  of  Birr.  He  was  slain 
while  routing  the  Irish  who  had  surprised 
Trim. 

Coote,  Sir  Eyre  {b.  1726,  d.  1783),  general, 
served  in  the  rebellion  of  1745 ;  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  India  at  Chander- 
nagore,  Plassey,  and  Pondicherry,  and 
routed  Hyder  Ali  at  Porto  Novo  in  1781. 
He  died  at  Madras. 

Cope,  diaries  West,  R.A.  (b.  1811,  d. 
1890),  painter.  His  subjects  were  usually 
either  historical,  as  in  the  eight  frescoes  in 
the  Peers'  Comdor  at  Westminster,  or  drawn 
from  scenes  described  by  English  poets. 

Cope,  Edward  Drinker  (b.  1840),  Ameri- 
can naturalist  and  comparative  anatomist, 
made  a  valuable  collection  of  extinct  verte- 
brates, many  of  which  were  before  unknown, 
and  wrote  a  Report  upon  the  Extinct 
Vertebrata  obtained  in  New  Mexico  in  1874, 
etc. 

Copelaad,  Ralph  {b.  1837),  Anglo- 
German  astronomer,  after  being  volun- 
teer assistant  in  Gottingen  observatory 
(1867-9),  accompanied  the  second  Ger- 
man Arctic  expedition  (1869-70),  observed 
two  transits  of  Venus  (1874-82),  detected 
iron  in  the  spectrum  of  the  comet  of  1882, 
and  made  other  astronomical  discoveries. 

Copernicus,  Nicolas  [b.  1473,  d.  1543),  bom 
at  Thorn,  Prussia,  founder  of  the  modem 
system  of  astronomy,  studied  at  Cracow  and 
Bologna,  and  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Rome.  Obtaining  a  canonry  in  the 
chapter  of  Frauenberg,  he  there  wrote  his 
work  in  Latin  On  the  Revolution  of  the 
Celestial  Orbs,  which  he  deferred  publishing 
imtil  a  little  before  his  death,  aware  of  the 
opposition  it  would  arouse. 

Copley,  John  Singleton  (6.  1737,  d.  1815), 
bom  at  Boston,  U.S.,  painter,  after  visiting 
Rome  in  1774,  settled  in  England  in  1775.  He 
painted  numerous  historical  pictures,  in- 
cluding the  famous  Death  of  Chatham. 

Coquelin,  Benolt  Constant  {b.  1841), 
French  actor,  first  appeared  at  the  Theatre 
Frangais  in  1860,  and  is  a  favourite  in 
London  and  in  the  United  States. 

Coques,  Gonzales  {b.  1618,  d.  1684), 
Dutch    painter,    followed    Vandyck,    and 


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painted  for  Charles  I.  of  England  and  other  [ 
princes. 

Coram,  Thomas  (6.  circa  1668,  d.  1751),  \ 
English    philanthropist,    originator  of    the 
Foundling  Hospital.  I 

Corbould,  Edward  Henry  {b.  1815),  his- 
torical painter,  usually  chooses  his  themes 
from  mediffival  history  and  literature ;  has  i 
illustrated  Percy's  £eliqms,  the  Canterbury 
Tales  (1878),  etc. 

Corday  D'Armans,  Marie  Charlotte  {b.  ! 
1768,  d.  1793),  bom  at  St.  Satumin,  Nor- 
mandy, of  a  noble  Norman  family,  sym- 
pathised with  the  ideas  of  the  French  re- 
volution, but  was  horrified  at  its  excesses ; 
visited  Paris  in  July,  1793,  with  the  purpose, 
it  is  said,  of  assassinating  Marat,  or  Robes- 
pierre ;  obtaining  an  interview  with  the  for- 
mer whUe  in  his  bath,  she  stabbed  him  with 
a  knife ;  was  immediately  apprehended  and 
executed  four  days  afterwards. 

Corelli,  Archangelo  (b.  1653,  d.  1713), 
Italian  violinist  and  composer,  settled  in 
Kome,  and  had  many  distinguished  pupils. 

Corinna,  a  Greek  poetess  of  the  5th 
century  B.C.,  bom  at  Tanagra  in  Boeotia, 
was  a  rival  of  Pindar ;  only  fragments  of 
her  works  remain. 

Coriolanus,  Caius  Marcius,  semi-mythical 
Roman  hero,  in  a  war  against  the  Volscians 
captured  their  capital,  CorioU  (493  B.C.), 
whence  his  name ;  owing  to  his  contempt 
for  the  plebeians,  was  banished  from  Rome ; 
joined  the  Volsci,  whom  he  led  against  Rome, 
but  was  induced  by  his  wife  and  mother  to 
refrain  from  attaclang  it.  His  after-history 
is  unknown. 

Cormenin,  Louis  Marie  de  la  Haie,  Vi- 

comte  de  (b.  1778,  d.  1866),  French  political 
writer,  imder  the  name  of  "Timon"  at- 
tacked Louis  Philippe's  government ;  wrote 
Ze  Livre  des  Orateurs^  etc. 

Comeille,  Pierre  (5. 1606,  d.  1684),  French 
dramatist,  bom  at  Rouen,  was  educated  for 
the  law,  but  the  success  of  his  first  comedy, 
Melite,  induced  him  to  devote  himself  to 
literature.  It  was  followed  by  other  come- 
dies, but  from  1636  he  preferred  tragedy, 
producing  Medee  (1636),  Le  Cid  (which 
established  his  fame),  Horace,  Cinna,  Poly- 
eucte,  La  Mort  de  Pompee,  etc.  Le  Menteur 
(1642)  was  another  successful  comedy. 

Comeille,  Thomas  (b.  1625,  d.  1709),  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  wrote  Ariane  and 
other  plays. 

Cornelia  {b.  circa  189  B.C.,  d.  circa  110 
B.C.),  daughter  of  P.  Scipio  Africanus  the 
elder,  married  T.  Sempronius  Gracchus  in 
169,  and  was  mother  of  Tiberius  Gracchus 
and  Caius  Gracchus. 


Cornelius,  Peter  von  {b.  1783,  d.  1867). 
German  painter,  bom  at  Diisseldorf,  pub- 
lished his  designs  for  Faust  at  Frankfort 
(1806),  Uvedat  Rome  from  1811  to  1819,  and 
there  illustrated  the  Nibelungenlied,  Dante, 
andTasso:  in  1819  was  made  director  of  the 
Diisseldorf  academy,  and  went  to  Munich, 
where  is  his  painting  of  the  Last  Judgment 
in  the  church  of  St.  Louis. 

ComeU,  Ezra  {b.  1807,  d.  1874),  bom  at 
New  York,  improved  the  magnetic  tele- 
graph, and  founded  the  ComeU  university 
at  Ithaca,  New  York  (1868). 

Cornwall,  Barry,  the  pseudonym  of  Bryan 
Waller  Procter  {b.  1787,  d.  1874),  poet 
and  dramatist,  best  known  as  a  writer 
of  songs  and  short  lyrics;  he  wrote  also 
Mirandola  (1821),  A  Sicilian  Story,  a 
Memoir  of  Charles  Lamb  (1866),  etc. 

Comwallis,  Charles,  Marquis  (*.  1738,  d. 
1805),  entered  the  army  in  1756;  while  ia 
command  of  the  British  forces  in  South 
Carolina  won  the  battles  of  Camden  (1780) 
and  Guildford  (1781).  As  Governor-General 
of  India,  reduced  Tippoo  Sahib  (1791),  and 
as  Viceroy  of  Ireland  brought  the  rebellion 
there  to  a  close  ;  was  also  employed  to  nego- 
tiate the  peace  of  Amiens  (1803),  and  shortly 
before  his  death  again  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  India. 

Corot,  Jean  Baptiste  CamiUe  {b.  1796,  d. 
1875),  French  painter,  bom  at  Paris,  pupil 
of  Michallon  and  Bertin,  and  founder  of  the 
impressionist  school,  began  to  exhibit  in 
1827,  but  did  not  produce  his  masterpieces, 
Dante  and  Virgil,  and  Macbeth  meeting  tJie 
Witches,  till  1859. 

Corradi,  Domenico  {b.  1449,  d.  1493). 
[6'«e  Ghirlandajo.] 

Correa  de  la  Serra,  Jose  Francisco  de 
U>.  1750,  d.  1823),  one  of  the  founders  and 
first  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Lisbon. 

Correggio,  Antonio  Allegri  da  (b.  1494, 
d.  1534),  Italian  painter  of  humble  birth, 
bom  at  Correggio,  near  Parma,  entirely 
self-educated,  passed  his  Hfe  in  obscurity, 
Anuibale  Caracci  and  Titian  being  the  first 
to  recognise  his  genius.  In  the  Duomo 
of  Parma  is  his  fresco  of  The  Assumption. 
Among  his  most  famous  oil-paintings  are 
The  Night  at  Dresden,  and  the  Holy  Family 
in  London. 

Corsini,  Eduardo  {b.  1702,  d.  1765),  a 
leamed  ItaUan  writer,  professor  of  logic, 
and  afterwards  of  metaphysics  and  moral 
philosophy,  at  Pisa,  wrote  Institutiones  Phi- 
losophicce,  etc. 

Cort,  Cornelia     {b.    1636,     d.    1578),    a 


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Dutch  engraver,   lived  in  Italy,   and    en- 
graved many  of  Titian's  pictures. 

Cort,  Henry  {b.  1740,  d.  1800),  iron- 
master and  first  manufacturer  of  bar-iron, 
at  first  a  navy  agent,  started  a  forge  and 
iron  mill  near  Fareham  in  1775,  and  pa- 
tented the  process  called  "puddling"  in 
1 784.  He  was  ruined  through  the  defalca- 
tions of  his  partner. 

Cortes,  Hernando  (b.  1485,  d.  1547), 
conqueror  of  Mexico,  sailed  to  the  New 
World  in  1504 ;  aided  Velasquez  in  the  con- 
quest of  Cuha  in  1511 ;  sent  in  command  of 
an  expedition  to  Yucatan  in  1518,  reduced 
the  Indians  there,  and  sailed  on  to  San 
Juan  d'Ulloa,  where  he  founded  the  town 
of  Vera  Cruz,  and,  on  a  mutiny  breaking 
out,  burnt  his  ships  to  prevent  his  men 
from  returning.  After  reducing  the  Indian 
republic  of  Tlascala,  marched  to  the  city  of 
Mexico,  and  compelled  the  Emperor  Monte- 
zuma to  acknowledge  himself  a  vassal  of 
Spain.  He  next  took  Narvaez  prisoner,  who 
had  been  sent  to  supersede  him  by  Velas- 
quez ;  during  his  absence  the  Spaniards  were 
attacked  and  Montezuma  slain.  Cortes  with 
difficulty  quelled  the  disturbance,  taking 
the  city,  defeating  the  new  emperor,  and 
becoming  captain-general  of  New  Spain 
(1521).  He  was  recalled  in  1526,  but  well 
received  by  Charles  V.  ;  he  subsequently 
discovered  California,  but  suffered  much 
neglect  in  Spain  during  his  later  years. 

Corti,  Luigi,  Count  {b.  1826,  d.  1888),  after 
holding  diplomatic  posts  at  various  Euro- 
pean courts,  represented  Italy  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Berlin  in  1878,  and  in  1885  suc- 
ceeded Count  Nigra  as  Italian  ambassador 
in  London. 

Cosel,  Countess  of  (*.  1679,  d.  1759), 
a  favourite  of  Augustus  II.  of  Poland,  was 
exiled  in  1716. 

Costa,  Lorenzo  (b.  circa  1450,  d.  1530), 
ItaHan  painter,  pupil  of  Era  FUippo  Lippi ; 
his  best  works  are  at  Ferrara. 

Costa,  Sir  Michael  (*.  1810,  d.  1884),  bom 
at  Naples,  musical  composer  and  conductor, 
of  Spanish  descent.  After  various  appoint- 
ments as  conductor,  became  leader  of  the 
Handel  festival  in  1859.  He  WTote  Don 
Carlos,  Malek  Adhel,  and  other  operas, 
besides  two  oratorios,  Naaman  and  Eli. 

Coster,  Laurens  Janszoon  (b.  1370,  d. 
1440),  a  native  of  Haarlem,  said  by  the 
Dutch  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  printing. 

Cosway,  Eichard  {b.  1740,  d.  1821),  axtist, 
celebrated  for  his  miniatures ;  also  painted 
in  oils. 

Cotes,  Eoger  (fi.  1682,  d.  1716),  a  mathe- 
matician   of  great  promise,  first  Plumian 


professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge,  edited 
Newton's  Frimipia,  and  left  valuable 
mathematical  papers,  afterwards  published 
with  the  title  Harmonia  Mensurarum. 

Cotman,  John  Sell  (6.  1782,  d.  1842), 
artist,  and  well-known  etcher  of  architec- 
tural subjects. 

Cotta,  Bernhard  von  (*.  1808,  d.  1879), 
German  geologist,  became  professor  of 
geology  at  Freiberg  in  1841. 

Cotta,  Johann  Friedrich,  Baron  Cotten- 
dorf  {b.  1764,  d.  1832),  head  of  a  publishing 
business  at  Tiibingen,  and  afterwards  at 
Stuttgart;  was  the  friend  and  publisher  of 
Schiller,  Goethe,  Richter,  etc. 

Cottenliani,  Charles  Christopher  Pepys, 
Earl  of  {b.  1781,  d.  1851),  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Whig  in  1831,  became  Solicitor- 
General  and  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  1834, 
was  Lord  Chancellor  from  1836  to  1841  and 
1846  to  1850. 

Cottin,  Sophie  Ristaud  (*.  1773,  d.  1807), 
French  novelist,  wrote  Elisabeth,  ou  les 
Exiles  de  Siberie,  and  other  novels. 

Cottle,  Joseph  (6.  1770,  d.  1853),  book- 
seller and  author,  lived  at  Bristol,  published 
the  Lyrical  Ballads  (1798)  for  Wordsworth 
and  Coleridge,  etc. 

Cotton,  Charles  {b.  1630,  d.  1687),  English 
poet  and  translator,  wrote  Virgil  Travestied, 
a  translation  of  Montaigne's  Essays,  etc. 

Cotton,  Sir  Robert  Bruce  (b.  1571,  d.  1631), 
antiquary,  was  created  a  baronet  by  James 
I. ;  his  valuable  library  of  MSS.  and  records 
was  placed  in  the  British  Museum  in  1753. 

Coulomb,  Charles  Augustinde  (b.  1736,  d. 
1806),  French  physicist,  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  public  instruction  in  1802. 

Courbet,  Gustave  (J).  1819,  d.  1877),  a 
French  painter  of  peasant  parentage,  worked 
and  lived  in  his  native  village;  but  after 
the  revolution  of  1870  became  director  of 
fine  arts,  and  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Com- 
mune. 

Courbet,  Jean  (*.  1827,  d.  1885),  French 
naval  officer  and  man  of  science,  commanded 
the  naval  division  at  Tonquin  in  the  war 
with  Annam  (1883),  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  that  with  China. 

Courier,  Paul  Louis  (i.  1773,  d.  1825), 
French  pamphleteer,  originally  an  officer  in 
the  army  (1792-1809).  His  views  were 
liberal.    He  was  murdered  by  his  servants. 

Court  de  Gebelin,  Antoine  (b.  1725,  d. 
1784),  French  scholar,  vrrote  Le  Monde 
Frimitif  analyse  et  compare  avec  Le  Monde 
Moderne,  etc. 


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Cousin,  Victor  (*.  1792,  d.  1867),  French 
philosopher  aud  man  of  letters,  educateji  at 
the  Lyc^e  Charlemagne,  entered  the  Ecole 
Normale  in  1811  ;  turned  his  attention  to 
metaphysics,  and  in  1815  became  professor 
of  the  history  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne. 
His  liberal  opinions  subjected  him  to  much 
persecution  at  the  hands  of  the  Bourbons. 
In  1840  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France,  and 
appointed  minister  of  public  instruction. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Thiers  ministry  he 
lived  mostly  in  retirement,  but  retained  his 
influence  over  pubUc  opinion.  His  last 
years  were  devoted  to  French  history  in  the 
17th  century.  Besides  his  eleven  volumes 
on  that  subj  ect,  he  translated  the  whole  of 
Plato  (1826-40),  and  wrote  a  General  History 
of  Philonophy  (1828),  an  Examination  of  the 
Fhtlosophy  of  Locke  (1829),  a  treatise  Du 
Vrai,  du  Beau,  et  du  Bien  (1854),  etc. 

Cousins,  Samuel,  E.A.  {b.  1801,  d.  1881), 
mezzotint  engraver  of  works  by  Lawrence, 
Landseer,  Millais,  etc. 

Coustou,  a  French  family  of  sculptors. 
Nicolas  (^.  1658,  d.  1733)  left  a  Deacent 
from  the  Cross.  The  groups  at  the  entrance 
to  the  great  avenue  of  the  Champs  Elys^es 
were  the  work  of  his  brother  GruiUaume 
(1678-1746). 

Coverdale,  MOes  (i.  1488,  d.  1568),  in 
1535  produced  his  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  English ;  also  assisted  in  the  Great  Bible 
(1539),  and  edited  Cranmer^s  Bible  (1640) ; 
became  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1551,  was  im- 
prisoned by  Mary  for  two  years ;  after  his 
release  lived  at  Geneva,  and  returned  to 
England  under  Elizabeth. 

Cowen,  Frederick  Hymen  (b.  1852),  Eng- 
lish composer  of  oratorios,  cantatas,  and 
songs. 

Cowley,  Abraham  {b.  1618,  d.  1667),  poet, 
eon  of  a  London  grocer,  educated  at  West- 
minster and  Cambridge,  removed  to  Oxford 
in  1643  ;  on  its  surrender  followed  the  queen 
to  Paris ;  was  employed  on  secret  missions 
by  the  king ;  after  the  Restoration  was  neg- 
lected by  Charles  II. ,  and  retired  to  Barn- 
elms,  and  afterwaxds  to  Chertsey.  His  best 
known  works  are  the  collection  of  poems 
called  The  Mistress  (1647),  and  his  Essays. 

Cowley,  Henry  R.  C.  "Wellesley,  Earl  (i. 
1804,  d.  1884),  diplomatist,  was  ambassador 
at  Paris  from  1853  to  1867.  In  1860  he  was 
appointed  joint  plenipotentiary  with  Cobden 
to  negotiate  the  French  treaty  of  commerce. 

Cowper,  Thomas  de  Gray,  Earl,  K.G. 
(J.  1884),  was  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
under  Mr.  Gladstone  from  1880  to  1882. 

Cowper,  William  {b.  1731,  d.  1800),  poet, 
son  of  Rev.  John  Cowper,  rector  of  Berkhamp- 
Btead,  educated  at  Westminster,  was  called 
f  2 


to  the  bar  in  1754,  and  lived  in  the  Temple 
till  1763,  devoting  his  energies  to  literature, 
and  associating  with  wits  and  scholars.  He 
was  subject  to  fits  of  religious  depression, 
and  after  an  attempt  at  suicide  in  1763,  was 
removed  to  a  private  madhouse,  where  he 
remained  for  more  than  a  year.  He  next 
found  a  happy  home  with  the  Unwin  family 
at  Huntingdon  ;  and  in  1767  removed  with 
Mrs.  Unwin  to  Olney,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  John  Newton.  He  was 
stiU  subject  to  fits  of  melancholy,  especially 
after  the  death  of  his  friends.  His  chief 
work  was  TIw  Task  (1785). 

Cowper,  William  {b.  1666,  d.  1709),  snr> 
geon,  made  discoveries  in  anatomy,  and 
wrote  The  Anatomy  of  Humane  Bodies. 

Cowper,  William,  Earl,  sat  in  Parliament 
as  a  Whig  1695-1700,  was  Lord  Keeper 
1705-7,  and  Lord  Chancellor  1714-18. 

Cox,  David  {b.  1783,  d.  1859),  landscape 
painter;  came  to  London  in  1804,  and 
worked  as  a  painter  in  water-colours.  His 
love  of  Welsh  scenery  attracted  him  to  Here- 
ford, where  he  Uved  from  1814  to  1827.  In 
1841  he  removed  from  Loudon  to  Birming- 
ham, aud  there  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 

Cox,  Richard  (*.  1600,  d.  1581),  was 
master  of  Eton,  and  a  favourite  with 
Cranmer  and  Edward  VI. ;  left  England 
during  Mary's  reign ;  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Ely  by  Elizabeth.  He  was  one  of  the 
translators  of  the  Bishops'  Bible. 

Coxe,  Rev.  WUUam  (Jb.  1747,  d.  1828), 
wrote  a  History  of  the  House  of  Austria, 
Memoirs  of  the  Bourbon  Kings  of  Spain, 
Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborotigh,  etc. 

Coxwell, Henry  Tracey  (J).  1819),  balloon- 
ist, editor  of  the  Balloon  and  the  Aerostatie 
Magazine,  has  made  many  daring  ascents. 

Coyne,  Joseph  SterUng  {b.  1806,  d.  1868), 
dramatic  author  and  critic,  wrote  How  to 
settle  Accounts  with  your  laundress  (1847), 
and  other  farces,  and  was  one  of  the  projec- 
tors and  original  proprietors  of  Bunch. 

Crabbe,  George  (b.  1754,  d.  1832),  poet, 
bom  at  Aldebmgh,  Suffolk,  after  failing  as 
a  surgeon  at  Aldeburgh,  came  to  London  in 
1780,  and  was  introduced  by  Burke  to 
Dodsley,  who  pubhshed  The  Library  (1781), 
followed  by  The  Village  in  1783.  Having 
taken  orders,  he  was  successively  curate  at 
Aldeburgh,  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of 
Rutland,  curate  at  Stathem,  rector  of 
Muston  (1789),  and  of  Trowbridge  (1814). 
His  other  works  were  The  Newspaper  (1785), 
The  Farish  Register  (1807),  The  Borough 
(1810),  and  Tales  of  the  Hall  (1819). 

Craig,  Sir  James  Henrv  (6.  1748,  d. 
1812),  general,  distinguished  himself  in  the 


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American  war;  took  part  in  the  capture 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1795),  and  be- 
came its  first  governor. 

Cralk,  Dinah  Maria  {b.  1826,  d.  1887), 
daughter  of  Mr.  Muloch,  a  clergyman ; 
besides  poems  and  essays,  wrote  many 
novels,  of  which  John  Halifax,  Gentleman 
(1856),  is  the  best  known. 

Craik,  George  Lillie  {b.  1798,  d.  1866),  man 
of  letters,  wrote  The  Pursuit  of  Knowledge 
under  D'lficulties  (1831),  and  other  works; 
and  in  1849  was  appointed  professor  of  Eng- 
lish literature  at  Queen's  College,  Belfast. 

Cramer,  Johann  Baptiste  (^.  1771,  d.  1858), 
came  to  England  in  early  childhood.  He 
composed  concertos,  fanta,sias,  sonatas,  etc. 

Cranach,  Lucas  {h.  1472,  d.  1553),  painter 
and  engraver,  excelled  in  portraits,  those  of 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  being  especially 
valuable. 

Cranbrook,  Gathome  Gathome-Hardy, 
Viscount  (i.  1814),  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1840  ;  entered  Parliament  as  a  Conservative 
in  1856 ;  was  Home  Secretary  (1867-8) ; 
gained  a  reputation  as  a  debater;  in  1874 
became  Secretary  of  State  for  War ;  in  1878 
succeeded  Lord  Salisbury  as  Indian  Secre- 
tary, and  in  1885-86  was  appointed  Lord 
President  of  the  Council. 

Crane,  "Walter  (5.  1845),  allegorical  and 
decorative  painter,  was  a  constant  contri- 
butor to  the  Grosvenor  Gallery. 

Cranmer,  Thomas  {h.  1489,  d.  1556), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  obtained  the 
favour  of  Henry  VIII.  by  furthering  his 
divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  and  was 
appointed  primate  in  1533.  He  favoured 
the  Eeformed  doctrines  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  in  that  of  Edward  VI. 
Protestantism  was  thoroughly  established, 
and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  compiled 
(1549)  imder  his  guidance.  He  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower  on  the  accession  of 
Mary,  condemned  at  Oxford  for  heresy  in 
1554,  and  after  two  years'  imprisonment 
burnt  there,  openly  rejecting  the  recantation 
of  Protestantism  which  he  had  been  induced 
to  sign. 

Cranworth,  Robert  Monsey  Rolfe,  Lord 
{h.  1790,  d.  1868),  lawyer,  was  Lord  Chan- 
cellor in  Lord  Aberdeen's  ministry  from 
1852  to  1858,  and  again  from  1865  to  1867. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1850. 

Crashaw,  Richard  {b.  circa  1613,  d.  1649), 
religious  poet,  expelled  by  the  Parliamentary 
army  in  1644,  went  to  France,  where  he 
became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  to  Italy,  and 
died  a  canon  in  the  church  of  Our  Lady 
of  Loretto  at  Rome.  He  wrote  Steps  to  the 
Temple,  etc. 


Crassus,  Lucius  Licinius  (b.  140  B.C., 
d.  91  B.C.),  a  Roman  orator,  censor  in  92 
B.C. 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinus  {d.  53  B.C.),  the 
triumvir,  defeated  the  insurgent  gladiators 
under  Spartacus  (b.o.  72),  and  in  71  was 
elected  consul  with  Pompey.  In  63  he 
undertook  an  expedition  against  the  Par- 
thians,  and  was  slain  near  Carrhae. 

Crawford,  Francis  Marion  {b.  1854),  Ame- 
rican novehst,  has  written  Mr.  Isaacs  (1882), 
JDr.  Claudius  {188S),  A  Roman  Singer  (1884), 
Zoroaster  (1885),  and  numerous  other  novels. 

Crawford  and  Balcarres,  Alexander 
WiUiam  Crawford  Lindsay,  Earl  of  (b.  1812, 
d.  1880),  wrote  Progression  by  Antagonism 
!  (1846),  Sketches  of  Christian  Art  (1847), 
i  Th^  Zives  of  the  Lindsays,  etc.  His  library 
at  Haigh  Hall,  near  Wigan,  was  unrivalled 
among  private  collections. 

i  Crawshay,  Richard  {b.  1741,  d.  1799) ,  iron- 
'  master,  son  of  a  farmer  near  Leeds, 
popidarly  known  as  the  "  Iron  King," 
;  began  life  in  an  ironmonger's  warehouse  in 
London ;  afterwards  leased  ironworks  at 
Merthyr  Tydvil,  where,  by  adopting  the 
inventions  of  Henry  Cort,  he  enormously 
extended  his  sphere  of  operations,  and 
opened  out  the  great  iron  district  of  South 
Wales. 

Grayer,  Gaspard  de  (b.  1582,  d.  1669), 
Flemish  artist,  whose  works  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  chief  cities  of  Flanders. 

Creasy,  Sir  Edward  Shepherd  {b.  1812, 
d.  1878),  appointed  professor  of  history  at 
University  College,  London,  in  1840, 
chief  justice  of  Ceylon  from  1860  to  1869, 
wrote  The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  British 
Constitution,  The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles 
of  the  World,  The  Mistory  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks,  etc. 

Cr^billon,  Prosper  Jolyot  de  (6.  1674,  d. 
1762),  French  dramatist,  wrote  Idomenee, 
Xerxes,  Catilina,  and  other  tragedies. 

Credi,  Lorenzo  di  {b.  Florence,  1454,  d.  circa 
1535),  ItaUan  painter,  admirer  and  imitator  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  worked  chiefly  at 
Florence.  His  best  work  is  the  Madonna 
with  Saints  in  the  chapel  of  CesteUo. 

Creech,  Thomas  {h.  1659,  d.  1701),  trans- 
lator of  Lucretius,  Horace,  and  Theocritus. 

Cremieux,  Isaac  Adolphe  {b.  1796, 
d.  1880),  French  lawyer  and  legislator,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  was  minister  of  justice 
in  the  provisional  government  of  1848,  and 
in  the  government  of  national  defence 
(1870) ;  in  1875  was  elected  senator  for  life 
of  the  National  Assembly.  He  was  one 
of  the  authors  of  the  Code  des  Codes. 


Cre 


(  229) 


Cro 


Crescimbeni,  Giovanni  Maria  {b.  1663, 
d.  1728),  Italian  poet,  founder  of  the 
academy  of  Arcadia  for  improving  taste 
and  reviving  learning,  wrote  a  history  of 
Italian  poetry,  etc. 

CresweU,  Sir  CresweU  (b.  1794,  d.  1863), 
lawyer,  became  justice  of  the  King's  Bench 
in  1842,  and  created  the  Divorce  Court,  over 
which  he  was  appointed  to  preside  (1858). 

Creswick,  Thomas,  R.A.  (A.  1811,  d.  1869), 
landscape  painter,  depicted  quiet  EngUsh 
Bcenes,  and  excelled  in  the  representation  of 
foliage. 

Cricliton,  James  {b.  1560,  d.  circa  1585), 
called  "  the  Admirable,"  a  Scotsman  of 
good  family,  visited  Paris,  Rome,  Venice, 
and  Padua,  everywhere  exciting  admiration 
by  his  extraordinary  memory  and  powers  of 
argument  and  composition.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  murdered  by  the  son  of  the  Duke 
of  Mantua,  to  whom  he  was  tutor. 

Crispi,  Francesco  (fi.  1819),  Italian  states- 
man, joined  in  the  conspiracies  which  led 
to  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Two  SicUies  (1848) ;  planned  the  second 
SicOian  revolt  of  1859-60;  fought  under 
Garibaldi ;  became  a  minister  of  state ; 
represented  Palermo  in  the  first  ItaHan 
ParHament,  in  which  he  was  leader  of  the 
constitutional  opposition.  In  1877  he  was 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  in  1887 
president  of  the  council  and  premier,  and 
resigned  in  1891. 

Croesus,  last  king  of  Lydia,  came  to  the 
throne  in  560  B.C.,  and  conquered  the  Greek 
cities  in  Asia  Minor,  but  was  deprived  of 
his  throne  by  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  in 
646  B.C. 

Croft,  "William  {b.  1677,  d.  1727),  musical 
composer,  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and 
afterwards  of  Westminster  Abbey.  His 
Musica  Sacra  appeared  in  1724. 

Crofts,  Ernest,  A.E.A.  (J.  1847),  pain- 
ter, studied  ia  Berlin  and  imder  E.  Hiin- 
ten  at  Dusseldorf ;  has  exhibited  the 
Morning  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo  (1876), 
Oliver  Cromwell  at  Marston  Moor  (1877), 
and  other  battle-pieces. 

Croke,  Sir  George  (//.  1560,  d.  1642),  law 
reporter,  became  justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas  in  1625:  transferred  to  the  King's 
Bench  in  1628,  he  withstood  the  king's 
attempt  to  control  the  action  of  his  judges, 
and  gave  judgment  for  Hampden  against 
the  king,  though  at  the  cost  of  hia  own 
impeachment. 

Croke,  Sir  John  (h.  1553,  d.  1620),  brother 
of  the  preceding,  became  a  bencher  in  1591, 
waa  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1601,  and  was  made  a  justice  of  the  King's 
Bench  in  1607. 


Croke,  Rev.  Thomas  W.  {b.  1824),  Roman 
Catholic  Archbishop  of  Cashel,  was  pre- 
viously Bishop  of  Auckland;  his  name  ia 
coimected  with  the  Land  League  and  Irish 
NationaUst  movement. 

Croker,  John  Wilson  (b.  1780,  d.  1857), 
politician  and  essayist,  entered  Parha- 
ment  in  1807;  held  office  as  secretary  to 
the  Admiralty  from  1809  to  1830 ;  was  a 
staunch  Tory,  and  never  re-entered  Par- 
liament after  the  passing  of  the  Reform 
BUI.  Contributed  to  the  Quarterly  Review 
from  1810  to  1853,  and  edited  Boswell's 
Life  of  Johnson,  Lord  Hervey^s  Memoirs,  the 
Suffolk  Papers,  etc. 

Croker,  Thomas  Crofton  {b.  1798,  d.  1854), 
antiquary,  devoted  himself  to  collecting  the 
legends  and  songs  of  the  Irish  peasantry, 
and  published  Fairy  Legends  and  Traditions 
of  the  South  of  Lreland  (1825),  My  Village 
(1832),  etc. 

Crome,  John  (*.  1768,  d.  1821),  landscape 
painter,  formed  his  style  chiefly  on  the 
Dutch,  especially  Hobbema.  He  gained  a 
livelihood  by  teaching  drawing. 

Crompton,  Samuel  (b.  1753,  d.  1827), 
inventor  of  the  spinning  mule  (1770). 

CromweU,  Henry  (b.  1628,  d.  1674), 
youngest  son  of  the  Protector,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Irish  campaign,  became  Lord 
Deputy  of  Ireland  in  1654,  and  governed 
well,  but  was  recalled  by  Parliament  in  1659. 

Cromwell,  Oliver  (*.  1599,  d.  1658),  the 
Protector,   son  of   Robert   Cromwell,   bom 
at  Huntingdon  and  educated  at  the  free 
school  and  at  Cambridge,   where    he   did 
not  graduate ;  represented  Huntingdon  in 
the  Parliament  of  1628  ;  always  an  advocate 
of  puritanical  views,  first  became  seriously 
religious  himself  about  1638 ;  was  member 
for  Cambridge  in  the  Short  and  Long  Par- 
liaments, and  soon  made  himself  prominent 
by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  liberty  ;  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  raised  a  troop  of 
horse    for    the    Parliament ;    distinguished 
himself  in  the  battles  which  followed,  and 
was    specially    exempted    from    the     Self- 
denying  Ordinance  (1645) ;  joined  the  Inde- 
pendent party  iu  opposition  to  the  Presby- 
terians,  and  by  the  ejection  of  members 
known  as   "  Pride's    Purge "   secured  the 
condemnation  and  execution  of  Charles  I. 
(1649).      After    reducing    Ireland  to    sub- 
mission, he  attacked  the  Scottish  RoyaUsts, 
defeating    them    at    Dimbar    (165U)    and 
Worcester  (1651).     He  dissolved  the  Long 
Parliament    in    1653,   and,   after   an    un- 
successful attempt  at  constitutional  govern- 
ment, assumed  the  title  of  Protectwr,  and 
ruled  as  a  military  despot,  enforcing  order 
at  home,  and  winning  the  respect  oi  foreign 
countriei 


Cro 


(230) 


Cru 


CromweU,  Ridiard  (b.  162G,  d.  1712), 
third  sou  (if  tlie  Protector,  held  several  im- 
portaut  offices  during  his  father's  protec- 
torate, aud  ou  his  death  iu  16;58  succeeded 
to  his  title :  showed  himself  uuiit  for  pubUc 
affairs,  aud  abdicated  by  the  advice  of  his 
uucle  Desborough  (16o9).  After  residing  in 
France  and  Switzerlaud,  he  returned  to 
England  in  1680,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
days  at  Cheshunt  in  Hertfordshire. 

Cromwell,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Essex  {b.  circa 
1485,  d.  1540),  after  spending  some  time  on 
the  Continent  in  a  mercantile  capacity, 
entered  Cardinal  Wolsey's  service  in  1524, 
and  by  his  defence  of  his  master  in  Parlia- 
ment after  his  fall,  attracted  the  notice  of 
Henry  VIII. ;  became  his  trusted  minister, 
strengthened  the  royal  authority,  and  as  the 
king's  vicegerent  in  ecclesiastical  matters 
suppressed  the  monasteries  and  furthered 
the  Reformed  doctrines.  In  1539  he  was 
made  Earl  of  Essex,  but  his  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  unite  Henry  in  an  alliance  vrith 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  resulted 
in  his  condemnation  by  bill  of  attainder  and 
execution  on  Tower  HLU. 

Cronaca,  Simone  {b.  1454,  d.  1509),  archi- 
tect, whose  masterpiece  is  the  great  hall 
in  the  Palazzo  della  Signoria.  He  also 
devised  and  executed  the  ornamentation  of 
the  Strozzi  palace,  and  other  buildings 
in  Florence.  He  was  a  friend  and  suppor- 
ter of  Savonarola. 

Crookes,  William,  F.R.S.  (*.  1832),  man 
of  science,  was  in  1854  appointed  to  super- 
intend the  meteorological  department  of  the 
EadcUfFe  Observatory,  Oxford ;  accompanied 
the  scientific  expedition  to  Oran  in  1871, 
and  has  made  valuable  scientific  discoveries, 
including  those  of  the  metal  thalliuni  and 
its  atomic  weight,  and  of  the  sodium  amal- 
gamation process  of  separating  gold  and 
silver  from  their  ores.  To  his  experiments  on 
repulsion  resulting  from  radiation  the  radio- 
meter is  due. 

Cropper,  James  (b.  1773,  d.  1841),  a  Liver- 
pool merchant,  who  exerted  himself  in  the 
cause  of  anti-slavery. 

Cross,  Mary  Ann.     [See  EUot,  George.] 

Cross,  Richard  Assheton,  Viscount,  G.C.B. 
{b.  1823),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1849  ;  re- 
presented Preston  in  Parliament  from  1857 
to  1862,  and  was  afterwards  member  for 
south-west  Lancashire ;  was  appointed 
Home  Secretary  by  Mr.  Disraeli  in  1874, 
carried  an  Artisans'  Dwellings  Bill  (1875) 
and  other  measures  through  the  House, 
and  in  1884  sat  on  the  Commission  of 
Inquiry  into  the  Housing  of  the  Poor.  In 
1886  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and 
appointed  Secretary  of  State  for  Indm. 


Crosse,  Andrew  {b.  1784,  d.  1855),  electri- 
cian, made  several  important  discoveries. 

Crotcll,William  (6. 1775,  <?.  1847), composer, 
son  of  a  Norwich  carpenter,  performed  in 
public  in  London  when  he  was  five  years 
old,  and  composed  an  oratorio ;  performed 
at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  when  he  was 
fifteen.  Removing  to  Oxford,  he  became 
organist  of  Christ  Church  (1790)  and  St. 
John's  College,  and  professor  of  music  in 
the  University  (1797).  In  1822  he  was  ap- 
pointed principal  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music.  He  composed  Palestine,  The  Cap- 
tivity of  Judah,  and  other  oratorios. 

Crowe,  Mrs.  Catherine  {b.  1800,  d. 
1876),  novelist,  wrote  The  Night  Side  of 
JSature,  a  collection  of  supernatural  stories 
(1848),  also  Lily  Dawson  (1847),  and  other 
novels. 

Crowe,  Eyre,  A.R.A.  (b.  1824),  historical 
painter,  pupil  of  Delaroche,  has  exhibited 
French  Savants  in  Egypt  (1876),  Sanctuary 
(1877),  Marat  (1879),  etc. 

Crowther,  Samuel  Adjai  (i.  1812,  <;.  1891), 
Bishop  of  the  Niger  Territory,  a  native  of 
Africa,  was  sold  as  a  slave  in  1819,  but 
rescued  by  a  British  ship  and  lauded  at 
Sierra  Leone  (1822) ;  was  baptized  (1825), 
placed  in  charge  of  the  mission  school  at 
Regent's  Town,  and,  after  passing  through 
the  missionary  college  at  Islington,  ordained 
by  the  Bishop  of  London.  In  1864  he  was 
consecrated  first  Bishop  of  Niger  Territory. 
He  accompanied  the  Niger  expeditions  of 
1841  and  1854. 

Cruden,  Alexander  {b.  1701,  d.  1770), 
published  in  1737  a  Complete  Concordance  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures. 

CruikshanlE.  George  (b.  1792,  d.  1878), 
artist  and  caricaturist,  son  of  Isaac  Cruik- 
shank,  engraver  and  caricaturist,  after 
painting  scenes  for  a  theatre,  began  to 
design  poHtical  caricatures,  which  appeared 
in  the  windows  of  William  Hone,  the 
publisher,  and  attracted  much  attention. 
He  illustrated  a  large  number  of  works, 
including  Grimm's  Fairy  Tales  (1823),  The 
Ingoldsby  Legends,  Oliver  Twist,  etc.,  and 
designed  the  Bottle  (1847)  and  other  plates 
in  furtherance  of  the  temperance  cause. 

Cruikshank,  William  Cumberland  {b. 
1745,  d.  1800),  anatomist,  assistant  and 
successor  of  Dr.  Hunter,  wrote  a  treatise 
on  The  Anatomy  of  the  Absorbent  Vessels  in 
the  Muma'H  Body. 

Crum,  Walter  {b.  1793,  d.  1867),  a  Scottish 
chemist  and  analyst,  author  of  a  treatise  on 
indigo. 

Crusentolpe,  Magnus  Jacob  (b.  1795, 
d.    1865),    Swedish   politician  and    writer, 


Cso 


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Cuu 


caused  great  excitement  in  Sweden  by  his 
Politieal  Views,  Paintings  from  the  History 
of  the  Bay,  Positions  and  Relations,  and 
other  vigorous  pamphlets. 

Csoma  de  Kords,  Alexander  {b.  1784, 
d.  1842),  philologist  and  traveller,  educated 
at  Gottingeu,  travelled  in  the  East,  re- 
mained four  years  in  Thibet  studying  its 
language  and  literature,  and  became  libra- 
rian to  the  Asiatic  Society  at  Calcutta.  He 
wrote  a  Thibetan  grammar,  etc. 

Cubbon,  Sir  Mark  (*.  1784,  d.  1861),  Com- 
missioner of  Mysore  from  1834  to  1861,  did 
much  to  promote  the  prosperity  and  welfare 
of  the  province. 

Cubitt,  Sir  W.  (b.  1785,  d.  1861),  civil 
engineer,  effected  improvements  in  the 
navigation  and  drainage  of  the  coimtry,  and 
invented  the  treadmill.  He  was  knighted 
for  his  services  in  connection  with  the  build- 
ing of  the  International  Exhibition  of  1851. 

Cudworth,  Ralph  {b.  1617,  d.  1688), 
divine,  one  of  the  school  of  philosophers 
known  as  the  "Cambridge  Platonists," 
became  Master  of  Clare  Hall  (1644)  and 
Christ's  College  (1654),  Cambridge,  and 
regius  professor  of  Hebrew  (1645).  He 
wrote  The  True  Intellectual  System  of  the 
Universe  (1678),  and  a  Treatise  on  Eternal 
and  Immutable  Morality. 

Cujas,  Jacques  (b.  1522,  d.  1590),  French 
jurist,  studied  at  the  university  of  Toulouse, 
and  became  professor  of  law  at  Cahors, 
Bourges,  and  Valence  successively.  He  left 
many  works. 

CuUen,  Paul,  Cardinal,  D.D.  (b.  1803,  d. 
1878),  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of 
Dublin,  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Armagh 
and  Primate  of  Ireland  in  1850,  and  trans- 
ferred to  Dublin  in  1852,  was  distinguished 
as  a  theologian  and  a  defender  of  the 
Church's  rights  and  dignities.  He  estab- 
lished the  diocesan  college  of  ClonlifEe  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  university. 

Cullen,  Wilham  {b.  1712,  d.  1790),  physi- 
cian, professor  of  chemistry  at  Glasgow, 
and  afterwards  at  Edinburgh,  wrote  a 
Treatise  on  Materia  Medica,  etc. 

Culpeper,  Nicolas  (h.  1616,  d.  1654),  a 
writer  an  astrology  and  medicine. 

Cumberland,  Richard  {b.  1632,  d.  1718), 
Bishop  of  Peterborough,  wrote  in  opposition 
to  Hobbes  a  treatise  I)e  Leyibus  Natures. 

Cumberland,  Richard  (Jb.  1732,  d.  1811), 
dramatist,  author  of  The  West  Indian,  The 
Brothers,  etc. 

Cumberland,  William  Augustus,  Duke  of 
(b.  1721,  d.  1765),  second  son  of  George  II., 
was  distinguished  for  his  courage,  but  was 


defeated  at  Ponteuoy,  Lawfield,  and  Hasten- 
beck.  He  behaved  with  great  cruelty  at  the 
battle  of  Culloden,  where  he  defeated  the 
Young  Pretender  (1746). 

Cuming,  Hugh  {b.  1791,  d.  1865),  natu- 
ralist, devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
conchology,  and  made  a  large  collection  of 
shells  and  plants  from  the  west  coast  of 
America,  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands. 

Gumming,  John,  D.D.  (b.  1810,  d.  1881), 
minister  of  the  Scotch  church,  Covent  Gar- 
den (1832),  was  a  well-known  exponent  of 
prophecy,  and  wrote  The  Great  Tribulation, 
etc. 

Gumming,  RoualejTi  Gordon  {b.  1820, 
d.  1866),  the  African  lion-hunter,  after 
serving  in  the  Indian  army  joined  the  Cape 
Rifles  in  1843,  and  for  five  years  lived  in  the 
bush.  His  experiences  there  are  recorded  in 
Five  Years  of  a  Hunter's  Life  (1850),  and 
Tlie  Lion-Hunter  of  South  Africa  (1856). 

Cummins,  Maria  Susanna  {b.  1827,  d. 
1866),  American  novelist,  wrote  The  Lamp- 
lighter (1854),  Haunted  Hearts  (1841),  and 
other  novels. 

Cunard,  Sir  Samuel  {b.  1787,  d.  1865), 
bom  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  founder  of 
the  Cunard  line  of  Atlantic  steamers,  which 
in  1840  was  started  in  accordance  with  a, 
Government  contract. 

Cunningham,  Allan  {b.  1791,  d.  1839), 
botanist,  collected  specimens  from  South 
America,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  for 
the  gardens  at  Kew. 

Cunningham,  AUan  (b.  1784,  d.  1842), 
Scottish  man  of  letters,  of  peasant  paren- 
tage, after  serving  an  apprenticeship  to  a 
stonemason,  and  palming  off  some  literary 
forgeries  on  Croniek,  published  in  Nithsdale 
and  Galloway  Song,  came  to  London  in 
1810,  and  in  1814  was  engaged  by  Chantrey 
as  clerk  and  overseer  in  his  studio.  Be- 
sides ballads  and  lyrics,  he  wrote  Lives  oj 
the  English  Painters,  etc. 

Cunningham,  Rev.  John  (5.  1819),  di- 
vine, studied  under  Sir  W.  Hamilton, 
Dr.  Chalmers,  and  others;  m  1845  was 
ordained  minister  of  the  parish  of  Crieff  ; 
has  written  The  Church  History  of  Scotland, 
etc.,  and  contributed  articles  to  the  Edin- 
burgh Review,  and  other  periodicals.  In 
1886  he  was  appointed  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly. 

Cunningham,  Peter  (b.  1816,  d.  1869),  man 
of  letters,  was  chief  clerk  in  the  Audit 
Office-  wrote  a  Handbook  of  London  {\M9), 
Life  of  Imgo  Jones  (1848),  Memoir  of  Tur- 
fier  (1852),  etc. 


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Cza 


Cureton,  William,  F.E.S.  (4.  1808,  d. 
1864),  diviue  aud  Orieutalist,  sub-librarian 
of  the  Bodleian  library,  and  afterwards 
assistant-keeper  of  mauuscripts  in  the  Bri- 
tish Museum;  published  the  Syriac  versions 
of  The  J'.pistles  of  Ignatius,  which  excited  a 
warm  controversy  in  England  and  Germany. 

CurU,  Edmund  {b.  1675,  d.  1747),  book- 
seller and  publisher,  famous  through  his 
connection  with  Pope,  who  ridiculed  him  in 
the  Dunciad. 

Curran,  John  Philpot  (b.  1750,  d.  1817), 
Irish  politician,  of  humble  birth,  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  in  1775 
called  to  the  Irish  bar,  where  he  won  a 
high  reputation  as  an  orator  ;  opposed  the 
Union  in  the  Irish  parliament;  in  1808 
was  made  Master  of  the  Eolls  in  Ireland. 

Curtius,  Ernst  {b.  1814),  Greek  scholar 
and  historian  :  studied  at  Bonn,  Got- 
tingen,  and  Berlin,  and  was  professor  at 
Gottingen  (1856)  and  Berlin.  He  first 
visited  Greece  in  1837  ;  in  1864  he  began 
his  excavations  at  Oljnnpia,  resulting  in  the 
discovery  of  the  Hermes  and  Dionysius 
by  Praxiteles  (1877).  Among  his  works  are 
The  Acropolis  of  Athens  (1844),  Attic 
Studies  (1862),  The  Discovery  of  Olympia 
(1882),  and  his  History  of  Greece. 

Curtius,  George  {b.  1820,  d.  1885),  philolo- 
gist, brother  of  the  preceding,  studied  at 
Bonn  and  Berlin;  became  professor  of 
classical  philology  at  Prague  in  1849;  has 
written  Comparative  Grammar  in  its  Mela- 
Hon  to  Classical  Philology  (1845),  etc. 

Curwen,  John  {b.  1816,  d.  1880),  writer 
on  music  and  advocate  of  the  Tonic  Sol-fa 
system. 

Cusa,  Nicolas  de  (b.  1401,  d.  1464),  divine, 
employed  by  Eugenius  IV.  in  his  efforts  to 
imite  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  was 
afterwards  made  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of 
Brixen. 

Cushing,  Caleb  {b.  1800,  d.  1879),  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  diplomatist,  in  1843  nego- 
tiated the  first  treaty  of  the  United  States 
with  China ;  was  attorney- general  from 
1853  to  1857,  and  one  of  three  jurists 
entrusted  with  the  revision  of  the  laws  of 
Congress  (1866) ;  in  1872  he  was  one  of  the 
counsel  for  the  settlement  of  the  Alabama 
claims. 

Cuthbert,  St.  (d.  687),  originally  a 
shepherd  boy,  became  a  monk  at  Melrose, 
and  was  prior  of  that  monastery,  and  af ter- 
wa,rds  (664-76)  of  that  of  Lindisf ame.  After 
living  for  some  time  as  a  hermit  on  Fame 
Island,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lindis- 
f  ame  in  684,  but  returned  to  the  island  in  686. 

Cuvier,  Georges,  Baron  (i.  1769,  d.  1832). 


French  naturalist,  bom  at  Montbeliard, 
patronised  by  Charles,  Duke  of  Wiirtembeig, 
who  sent  him  to  the  academy  of  Stuttgart 
(1784)  ;  from  1788  to  1794  studied  zoology 
while  holding  a  tutorship  near  Caen,  and 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  new  classification  of 
animals  based  on  a  comparison  of  fossils 
with  living  species.  By  the  advice  of  the 
Abbe  Tenier  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
held  various  professorships,  and  wrote 
Memoires  sur  une  Nouvelle  Division  des 
Manimiferes  (conjointly  with  Saint -Hilaire), 
Tableau  Elementaire  de  PHistoire  Naturelle 
des  Animaux  (1798),  etc.  He  was  much 
employed  by  Napoleon,  especially  in  pro- 
moting education  ;  Louis  XVIII.  made  him 
grand-master  of  the  faculties  of  Protes- 
tant theology.  Just  before  his  death  he 
bicame  minister  of  the  interior. 

Cuyp,  Albert  {b.  1605,  d.  1691),  son  of 
Jacob,  also  a  well-known  painter. 

Cuyp,  Jacol)  Gemtee  {b.  1575,  d.  1649), 
Dutch  portrait  and  genre  painter. 

Cyprian,  St.  {b.  circa  200,  d.  258),  saint 
and  theologian,  was  baptized  in  246,  and  in 
248  became  Bishop  of  Carthage  and  Primate 
of  Africa.  He  hid  himself  during  the  Decian 
persecution,  but  was  beheaded  in  that  under 
Valerian.  He  held  many  councils,  and  de- 
cided against  the  validity  of  baptism  ad- 
ministered by  heretics. 

Cj^ril,  St.  (d.  444),  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
(412),  was  a  violent  and  headstrong  man, 
whose  rule  was  marked  by  the  persecution 
of  the  Novatians,  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews, 
the  murder  of  Hypatia,  and  the  condemna- 
tion of  Nestorius,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
was  imprisoned  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius. 

Cyrus  the  Great  {b.  circa  590  b.c,  d. 
529  B.C.),  founder  of  the  Persian  empire, 
was  the  son  of  Cambyses  and  Mandane, 
daughter  of  Astyages,  king  of  Media.  His 
early  history  is  probably  mythical;  in  B.C. 
559  he  excited  the  Persians  against  the 
Medes,  defeated  Astyages,  and  usurped  his 
throne.  He  subsequently  conquered  Lydia 
and  Babylon,  and  marched  against  the 
Massegatse,  governed  by  Queen  Tomyris, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Cyrus  the  Younger  (b,  424  b.c.,  d.  401), 
eon  of  Darius,  and  governor  of  the  western 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor ;  after  unsuccessfully 
plotting  against  his  elder  brother  Artaxerxes, 
raised  a  large  army,  including  about  12,000 
Greek  soldiers,  with  which  he  marched 
against  him,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Cunaxa.  Xenophon  then  conducted  the 
retreat  of  the  10,000  surviving  Greeks. 

CzacM,  Tadeusz  (fi.  1765,  d.  1813),  a  Pole, 
minister  of  King  Stanislas  Poniatowski, 
wrote  on  history,  law,  and  politics,  ana 
made  educational  reforms. 


Cza 


(  233) 


Dag 


CzamiecM,  Stephen  (b.  1599,  d.  1665),  a 
Polish  soldier,  distinguished  himself  agamst 
the  Cossacks  (1648-51),  defended  Cracow 
against  the  Swedes  (1655),  commanded  the 
army  sent  to  assist  the  King  of  Denmark 
against  Sweden,  and  drove  the  Lithuanians 
from  Russia  in  1660  and  1661. 

CzaxtorysM,  Adam  Casimir  (Jb.  1734,  d. 
1823),  a  Pole  who,  as  president  of  the 
Diet  of  Warsaw,  was  mainly  instrumental 
in  procuring  the  election  of  King  Stanislaus 
Augustus ;  he  was  named  marshal  of  the 
Diet  of  1812,  but  the  following  year  with- 
drew into  private  life. 

CzartorysM,  Adam  George  {fi.  1110,  d. 


1861),  son  of  the  preceding;  joined  the 
force  of  Kosciusko  against  the  Russians  in 
1792  ;  was  sent  as  hostage  to  Russia  in  1795, 
and  won  the  favour  of  Duke  Alexander, 
who,  on  his  accession,  made  him  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  Taking  the  popular  side 
in  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  provisional  government, 
and  placed  at  the  head  of  the  national 
government  (1831).  In  1832  he  fled  to 
Paris. 

Czemy,  Karl  {b.  1791,  d.  1857),  Austrian 
pianist  and  composer,  taught  music  at 
Vienna,  numbering  Liszt  and  Dohler 
among  his  pupila. 


D. 


Dabelow,  Christopher  Christian  (J.  1768, 
d.  1830),  German  jurisconsult,  professor  of 
civil  law  at  the  imiversity  of  Dierpt.  His 
treatises  on  law  are  valuable. 

Dach,  JoTm  (i.  1566,  d.  1650),  German 
painter,  a  proteg^  of  Rudolph  11. 

Dacier,  Andre  {h.  1651,  d.  1722),  French 
classical  writer  of  eminence,  was  made  per- 
petual secretary  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1713,  and  had  the  care  of  the  cabinet  of  the 
Louvre  entrusted  to  him.  He  translated 
many  of  the  classics  into  French. 

Dacier,  Anne  (Lefevre)  (S.  1654,  d.  1720), 
wife  of  the  foregoing,  was  distinguished  for 
her  love  of  classical  literature,  in  which  she 
obtained  great  proficiency  at  an  early  age. 

Da  Costa,  Isaac  {b.  1798,  d.  1860),  Dutch 
poet  of  Je\yish  nationality,  studied  at 
Leyden,  and  after  he  had  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  he  embraced 
Christianity.  He  is  considered  to  hold  a 
foremost  place  among  the  poets  of  Holland. 

Dade,  WilUam  {b.  1740,  d.  1790),  York- 
shire antiquary,  whose  father  and  grand- 
father were  clergymen,  was  himself  in 
holy  orders.  He  published  many  works  on 
antiquarian  subjects,  principally  connected 
with  the  county  of  York. 

Daendels,  Hermann  Wilhehn  {b.  1762,  d. 
1818),  Dutch  general  ;  having  taken  part 
in  revolutionary  disturbances  in  Holland 
in  1787,  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in 
France,  where  for  important  military  ser- 
vices he  was  made  general  of  brigade.  In 
1799  he  commanded  one  of  the  two  divisions 
of  the  army  of  the  Batavian  republic,  and  in 
1806  he  took  service  under  Louis  Bonaparte, 


king  of  Holland.  From  1808  till  1811  was 
Governor- General  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian 
possessions.  After  the  overthrow  of  Bona- 
parte the  new  King  of  Holland  entrusted 
hi-m  veith  the  organisation  of  the  Dutch 
colonies  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  where  he 
died. 

Daffome,  James  {d.  1880),  for  thirty-five 
years  a  voluminous  art-writer. 

D' Agar,  Jacques  (6.  1640,  d.  1716),  painter, 
of  French  nationality,  spent  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  in  Copenhagen,  where  he  died. 
He  was  for  some  years  in  London,  and  re- 
ceived much  aristocratic  patronage  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

D'Agincourt,  Jean  Baptiste  Louis  George 
Sereux  {b.  1730,  d.  1814),  French  antiquary 
and  art  historian. 

Dagobert  I.,  son  of  Clothaire  II.  {b.  602, 
d.  638) ,  succeeded  him  ia  628  in  the  Frankish 
monarchy.  He  sustained  war  against  the 
Saxons  from  England,  the  Vascones  of  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Sclavonians,  and  the  Bretons. 
He  obliged  the  prince  of  Brittany  to  give 
him  satisfaction  for  incursions,  and  he 
granted  refuge  to  the  Bulgarians,  who  were 
flying  before  the  Huns ;  but  soon  after, 
fearing  that  these  guests  might  become  too 
powerful  for  him,  he  gave  orders  to  have 
them  all  massacred,  when  in  one  night  ten 
thousand  families  were  put  to  the  sword. 

Dagobert  U.,  son  of  Siegbert  n.  and 
grandson  of  Dagobert  I.,  was  shut  up  in  a 
convent  after  his  father's  death  in  656  by  the 
maire  of  the  palace,  who  gave  the  crown  to 
his  own  son.  Dagobert  was  sent  to  Scot- 
land, and  the  report  of  his  death  was 
spread.     He  married   Matilda,   a  Scottish 


Dag 


(234) 


Dal 


princesa,  and  was  eventually  acknowledged 
king  of  Austrasia.  In  679  he  was  assassi- 
nated by  the  Grimwald  faction. 

Dagobert  in.  {b.  699,  d.  715)  succeeded 
his  father,  Childebert  III.,  in  711  as  king  of 
France. 

Dagoumer,  Guillaume  {d.  1745),  rector 
of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  author  of 

philosophical  works. 

Daguerre,  Louis  Jacques  Mande  {b.  1789, 
d.  1S5I),  the  inventor  of  photography  by  the 
daguerreotype  process,  by  which  the  por- 
trait was  fixed  on  a  plate  of  copper  thinly 
coated  with  silver  by  the  successive  action 
of  the  vapours  of  iodine,  bromine  and  mer- 
cury, in  which  invention  he  was  associated 
with  M.  Niepce  Daguerre.  He  was  also 
celebrated  as  a  dioramic  painter,  was  named 
by  the  French  G-ovemment  as  an  ofRcer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  granted  a  pen- 
sion of  six  thousand  francs. 

Daguesseau.     \_See  Aguesseau.] 

Dahl,  Johann  Christian  Claude  (5.  1788, 
d.  1857),  Norwegian  landscape  painter,  and 
professor  of  painting  at  Dresden. 

Dahl,  Michael  {b.  1656,  d.  1743),  Swedish 
portrait  painter,  who  settled  in  London,  and 
obtained  the  patronage  of  royalty  and  many 
members  of  the  aristocracy. 

Dahlberg,  Eric,  Count  de  (b.  1625,  d. 
1703),  general  in  the  German  army,  called 
the  Vauban  of  Sweden  for  his  skill  in  forti- 
fication. 

Dahlgren,  John  Adolph  {b.  1809,  d.  1870), 
American  naval  officer,  whose  father  was 
Swedish  consul  at  Philadelphia.  The  son 
worked  his  way  up  by  extraordinary 
zeal  and  energy  till  he  became  chief 
of  ordnance,  and  he  received  the  world's 
recognition  as  a  man  of  science  and 
inventive  genius.  He  was  the  author  of 
m.iny  works  on  the  practice  of  gunnery. 
Ee  was  the  inventor  of  the  Dahlgren  gun, 
bionze  howitzers  for  boats,  and  Hght  iron 
field  carriages  to  make  them  available  on 
land. 

Dahlgren,  Karl  Fredrik  Q>.  1794,  d.  1844), 
Swedish  poet  and  humorist,  from  1815 
acted  as  preacher  at  Stockholm.  His  works 
fiU  five  volumes  (1847-52),  and  consist  of 
novels,  humorous  tales,  poems,  and  dramas. 

Dahlmann,  Friedrich  Christoph  (A.  1785, 
d.  1860),  German  historian  and  politician. 
Though  of  Swedish  nationality,  he  directed 
the  whole  influence  of  his  life  towards  Ger- 
many. After  spending  some  years  in  poli- 
tical pursuits  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  which 
brought  him  much  trouble,  he  lived  in 
Gottingen  and  Bonn,  taking  a  large  share 
in  the  political  affairs  of  the  time. 


Dahomey,  Kings  of — 

(1)  Ukzo  {d.  1858),  succeeded  Gaze,  his 
brother,  who  abdicated  in  1818.  He  was 
warlike,  but  not  unfavourable  to  Euro- 
peans. Was  visited  by  Commander  Forbes 
in  1849,  and  again  in  1851.  He  left  behind 
him  some  renown  for  bravery,  though  he 
was  defeated  by  the  people  of  the  indepen- 
dent settlement  of  Abeokuta. 

(2)  Gelele  (b.  1820),  succeeded  his  father 
in  1858.  At  the  "grand  customs"  in 
honour  of  his  father  he  massacred  about 
five  hundred  men.  In  1862  he  is  said  to 
have  crucified  Doherty,  a  Scripture  reader. 
He,  too,  was  defeated  by  the  Abeokutans. 
In  1876  he  severely  treated  some  European 
traders,  which  caused  a  rupture  with  Eng- 
land, but  in  1877  he  made  concessions. 

Daill6,  Pierre  (fi.  1649,  d.  1715),  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  who  emigrated  to 
America.  He  wrote  several  important 
works,  which  were  translated  into  Latin 
and  English. 

Daintree,  Richard  {b.  1831,  d.  1878), 
geologist,  who  spent  his  whole  life  in  the 
exploration  of  various  parts  of  Australia,  of 
which  he  published  complete  and  valuable 
results. 

Dakins,  "WUliam  (d.  1607),  one  of  the 
divines  employed  in  the  authorised  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible. 

Dalberg,  Carl  Theodore  Anton  Maria  von 
{b.  1744,  d.  1817),  Elector  and  Archbishop  of 
Mayence,  Prince-primate  of  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  grand-duke  of  Frank- 
fort, and  Archbishop  of  Ratisbon.  He  was 
distinguished  for  great  industry  and  an  in- 
corruptible love  of  justice.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  works  on  various  subjects, 
and  finally,  in  1813,  resigned  all  his  offices, 
with  the  exception  of  his  ecclesiastical 
dignity,  and  retired  into  private  life. 

D'Albert,  Eugene  {b.  1861),  son  of  Charles 
D'Albert  (J.  1815),  educated  at  the  National 
Training  School,  South  Kensington,  widely 
known  as  a  pianist  and  composer. 

D'Albret,  Jeanne,  Queen  of  Navarre  {b. 
1528,  d.  1572),  who  became  a  Protestant, 
and  died  suddenly  before  the  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned. 

Dalby,  Isaac  {b.  1744,  d.  1824),  a  self- 
taught  mathematician,  employed  on  the 
trigonometrical  survey  of  England,  and  in 
1799  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  Royal 
Military  College,  High  Wycombe. 

Dale,  David  (*.  1739,  d.  1806),  Scottish 
merchant  and  philanthropist. 

Dale,  Thomas  {b.  1797,  d.  1870),  poet  and 
divine,    was  Dean  of  Rochester,  held  the 


Dal 


(235) 


Dal 


chair  of  English  language  and  literature  in 
the  University  of  London,  and  afterwards 
at  King's  College.  He  was  for  several 
years  vicar  of  St.  Bride's,  Fleet  Street,  and 
afterwards  of  St.  Pancras.  He  published 
some  volumes  of  poetry,  a  translation  of 
Sophocles'  sennons,  and  an  edition  of  the 
works  of  Cowper. 

Dalechamp,  Jacques  (b.  1513,  d.  1588), 
French  physician  and  writer  on  botany. 

D'Alembert,  Jean  le  Eond.  [See  Alem- 
bert.] 

Dalhousie,  George  Eamsay,  Earl  of  {b. 
1770,  d.  1838),  served  in  Egypt  and  Spain, 
and  was  created  a  peer  of  the  United  King- 
dom in  1815,  became  captain -general  of 
British  North  America  till  1828,  and  then 
served  in  India  as  commander-in-chief. 

Dalhousie,  James  Andrew  Brown-Ram- 
say, third  son  of  the  above,  and  first  Mar- 
quis {b.  1812,  d.  1860),  vice-president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  1843,  president  1845,  Gover- 
nor-General of  India  1848.  He  success- 
fully conducted  the  Sikh  war,  which  was 
terminated  by  the  battle  of  Gujerat,  and 
the  annexation  of  the  Pimjab  (1849).  He 
directed  the  second  Burmese  war  (1852)  and 
added  Pegu  to  British  India.  He  also 
annexed  Nagpore  (1853),  Berar  and  Sattara, 
and  Oudh  (1856).  He  threw  open  the  Civil 
Service  to  Hindoos,  instituted  great  public 
works,  introduced  railways  and  telegraphs, 
opened  out  canals  and  roads,  created  a 
legislative  council  and  the  lieutenant- 
governorshrp  of  Bengal.  Ill-health  and 
^ief  caused  by  his  wife's  death  (1853) 
induced  him  to  return  to  England  in  1856. 
He  was  the  last  governor-general  under  the 
Company. 

Dalin,  Olaf  von  (b.  1708,  d.  1763),  his- 
torian and  poet,  is  reckoned  the  father 
of  Swedish  poetry.  He  died  chancellor  to 
the  court  of  Sweden.  Author  of  The 
Liberty  of  Sweden  and  Brunhilda. 

Dallamano,  Giuseppe  {b.  1679,  d.  1758), 
Italian  painter. 

Dallas,  Alexander  James  (d.  1759,  d. 
1817),  American  lawyer  and  statesman, 
was  the  son  of  a  Scottish  physician 
who  emigrated  to  Jamaica  about  1750. 
He  served  the  United  States  in  various 
ways,  his  principal  office  being  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  in  which  he  was 
of  great  service.  He  was  considered  by  his 
abilities  to  have  extricated  the  United  States 
Government  from  very  serious  difficulty 
and  debt,  caused  by  the  war  with  the  Bri- 
tish Government.  He  published  various 
works,  and  left  unfinished  a  History  of 
Fennsylvania. 

Dallas.  Sir  George,   Bart.    (*.    1758,    d. 


1833),  in  the  civil  service  of  the  East 
India  Company ;  was  a  voluminous  poUtical 
writer,  and  was  much  distinguished  by  his 
able  defence  of  Warren  Hastings. 

Dallas,  George  Mifflin  {b.  1792,  d.  1864), 
president  of  the  United  States  1844,  and 
American  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born 
at  Philadelphia,  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
in  1831.  In  1846,  as  President  of  the 
Senate,  he  gave  a  casting  vote  against  a 
measure  opposed  to  Free  Trade.  He  waa 
minister  at  St.  Petersburg  1837-1841,  to  the 
court  of  St.  James's  1856-1861,  and  retired 
from  public  life  on  the  election  of  President 
Lincoln. 

Dallas,  Robert  Charles,  brother  of  Alexan- 
der James  (b.  1754,  d.  1824),  author  of  Recol. 
lections  of  Lord  Byron  and  other  works, 
and  a  friend  and  counsellor  of  Lord  Byron, 
whose  uncle,  Captain  Byron,  married  his 
sister. 

Dallaway,  James  {b.  1763,  d.  1834), 
divine,  chaplain  to  the  British  Embassy  at 
Constantinople,  and  subsequently  held  two 
vicarages  in  England,  and  the  post  of 
secretary  to  the  Earl  Marshal.  He  is 
chiefly  known  as  an  author. 

DaUing  and  Bulwer.     [See  Bulwer.] 

Dal  11  Tiger,  WilUam  Henry,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.  {b.  1841),  English  biologist,  en- 
tered the  Wesleyan  ministry  in  1861.  He 
worked  out,  by  microscopical  research,  the 
Ufe  histories  of  the  minute  forms  of  life. 
His  earliest  work  was  rewarded  by  a  grant 
of  £100  from  the  Royal  Society  for  further 
research. 

Dallison,  Sir  William  (d.  1558-9),  English 
lawyer,  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  the  Queen'a 
Bench  under  Queen  Mary  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. 

Dalmatius,  Saint,  archimandrite  of  the 
monastery  of  Constantinople,  took  part  in 
the  CouncU  of  Ephesus  in  430. 

Dalrymple.     [See  Stair.] 

Dalrymple,  Alexander  (*.  1737,  d.  1808), 
hydrographer  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1779,  and  to  the  Admiralty  in 
1795,  was  author  of  works  on  geography  and 
hydrography,  and  was  a  f eUow  of  the  Royal 
Society. 

Dalrymple,  Sir  David.     [See  Hailes.] 

Dalrymple,  Sir  Hew  Whiteford  (b.  1750, 
d.  1830),  served  under  the  Duke  of  York  in 
1793.  Commanded  in  Guernsey  in  1806, 
and  took  the  command  in  Portugal  in  1808. 
His  convention  with  Junot  was  much 
censured. 

Dalrymple,  Sir  John  (S.  1726,  d.  1810),  a 


Dal 


(  236  ) 


Dan 


baron  of  exchequer  in  Scotland  in  1776.  He 
was  author  of  several  works,  the  chief  of 
which  was  the  Memoirs  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland. 

Dalrymple,  John,  F.R.S.  (b.  1803,  d.  1852), 
ocohst,  now  chiefly  known  as  the  author  of 
a  valuable  Essay  on  the  Anatomy  of  the 
Sitmun  Eye, 

Dalton,  John,  D.D.  (b.  1709,  d.  1763), 
many  years  rector  of  St.  Mary-at-Hill, 
London,  in  his  earlier  years  was  tutor 
to  Lord  Beauchamp,  with  whom  he 
travelled  tiU  his  lordship  died  in  Italy.  He 
adapted  Comus  for  the  stage,  and  wrote 
songs  in  it,  and  it  was  performed  for 
the  benefit  of  Milton's  granddaughter.  He 
was  also  author  of  some  poems  and  a  volume 
of  sermons. 

Dalton,  John,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  {b.  1766, 
d.  1844),  natural  philosopher,  one  of  the 
founders  of  modem  chemistry,  early  in 
life  settled  in  Manchester.  His  scientific 
discoveries,  notably  his  Atomic  Theory, 
brought  him  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society.  A  Life  of  Dalton,  by  Lonsdale, 
appeared  in  1874.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends. 

Daly,  Augustin  (b.  1838),  American 
dramatist  and  editor,  has  written  many 
successful  plays,  and  for  several  seasons 
managed  the  Grand  Opera  in  New  York. 
His  company  of  comedians  has  more  than 
once  travelled  with  him  to  England,  Ger- 
many, and  France. 

Dalzell,  Andrew  (5.  1742,  d.  1806),  clas- 
sical scholar,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  one  of  its 
secretaries.     His  works  are  volimiinous. 

Damasus  L  (d.  384),  the  son  of  a  pres- 
byter, was  elected  Bishop  of  Rome  after  the 
death  of  Liberius  in  366.  Great  disorders 
prevailed  during  the  greater  part  of  his  rule. 
He  held  several  councils  for  the  purpose  of 
condemning  heretics  ;  and  St.  Jerome  is 
said  to  have  acted  as  his  secretary. 

Damasus  II.,  Poppo,  Bishop  of  Brixen, 
was  elected  pope  in  the  year  1048,  in  the 
room  of  Benedict  IX.,  who  had  been 
deposed  by  the  council  of  Sutri  for  his  mis- 
conduct. He  died  at  Palestrina,  only 
twenty-three  days  after  his  election,  Leo  IX. 
succeeding. 

D'Amboise.     \See  Amboise.J 

Darner,  the  Hon.  Anne  Seymour  [b.  1748, 
d.  1828),  sculptress,  daughter  of  Field- 
Marshal  Conway.  She  was  married  to  the 
Hon.  John  Damer,  who  left  her  a  widow 
wdt^iout  chUda-en.  Amongst  the  best-known 
of  her  works  is  a  bust  of  Lord  Nelson 
in    the    Guildhall,    London,    a   statue    of 


George  III.  in  the  Register  Ofiice  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  a  bust  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  in 
the  British  Museum. 

Damin,  Christian  Tobias  (b.  1699,  d.  1778), 
scholar  and  theologian,  rector  of  the  aca- 
demy of  Berlin,  and  compiler  of  a  lexicon  to 
Homer  and  Pindar.  He  was  displaced  in 
1764  on  a  charge  of  Socinianism,  founded 
on  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 

Damini,  Pietro  (6.  1592,  d.  1630),  Italian 
painter. 

Damon,  a  distinguished  physician  of 
Athens,  celebrated  also  as  a  Sophist.  Late 
in  life  he  was  banished  from  Athens  for  his 
political  opinions. 

Dampier,  "William  (J.  1652,  d.  1715), 
English  navigator  and  hydrographer ;  in 
1679  he  joined  a  party  of  buccaneers,  who 
crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  captured 
several  Spanish  vessels,  and  molested  the 
settlements.  In  1684  he  made  a  voyage  to 
the  East  Indies,  from  which  he  returned  to 
England  in  1691,  and  pubUshed  A  Voyage 
Round  the  World.  In  the  service  of  the 
government  he  conducted  in  1669  an  expe- 
dition to  the  South  Seas,  exploring  the 
western  coast  of  Australia,  and  other  parts 
of  the  southern  hemisphere.  He  retirmed 
home  in  1701,  and  the  rest  of  his  life  was 
passed  in  obscurity. 

Dana,  Francis,  LL.D.  (b.  1743,  d.  1811), 
American  statesman  and  jurist.  He  was 
the  father  of  the  poet. 

Dana,  James  Dwight,  LL.D.  (6.  1813), 
American  naturalist  and  geologist,  pub- 
lished many  valuable  works,  extending 
from  1837  to  1872. 

Dana,  Richard  Henry  {b.  1787,  d.  1879), 
American  poet  and  novelist,  author  of  The 
Buccaneer  and  other  works. 

Dana,  Richard  Henry  {h.  1815,  d.  1882), 
American  lawyer  and  author,  son  of  the 
preceding,  entered  Harvard  College  in 
1832,  but  suspended  his  studies  in  1834 
from  weakness  of  the  eyes,  and  then 
performed  as  a  common  sailor  a  voy- 
age to  CaUfomia,  of  which  he  wrote  an 
interesting  and  popular  narrative,  entitled 
Two  Years  Before  the  Mast  (1840).  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1837,  studied  law 
under  Judge  Story,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  He  pubUshed  works  on  seamanship 
and  international  law.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Free  Soil  party  iu  1848,  and 
an  orator  of  the  Republican  party. 

Danby,    Francis,    A.R.A.     {b.     1793,   d. 

1861),  landscape  painter,  produced  many 
works  of  high  character.  His  Opening  of 
the  Seventh  Seal,  exhibited  ia  1828  at  the 
British  Institution,  brought  him  a  prize  of 


Dan 


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Daoi 


£200.  In  1829  a  difference  with  the 
Academy  and  other  reasons  led  to  his  leaving 
England  for  eleven  years,  during  which  he 
painted  little.  On  his  return  he  took  up  his 
residence  at  Exmouth,  where  he  died, 
leaving  three  sons,  aU  landscape  painters. 

Danby,  Henry  Danvers,  first  Earl  of  (b. 
1573,  d.  1643-4),  served  iu  the  Low  Countries 
under  Maurice  Prince  of  Orange,  and  after- 
wards in  France,  where  he  was  knighted  hy 
Henry  IV.,  and  next  in  Ireland  as 
lieutenant-general.  He  was  made  a  peer  by 
James  I.,  and  appointed  Lord  President 
of  Mimster  and  Governor  of  Gruemsey. 
Charles  I.  made  him  Earl  of  Danby  and 
Knight  of  the  Garter.  He  gave  land  to 
the  University  of  Oxford  for  a  botanical 
garden,  and  at  Malmesbury  to  establish  an 
almshouse  and  free  school. 

Danby,  John  (d.  1798),  English  composer 
of  glees  which  attained  great  popularity. 

Danby,  Thomas  Osborne,  Earl  of.  [See 
Leeds.] 

Dance,  Charles  (b.  1794,  d.  1863),  a  writer 
of  burlesques  and  farces. 

Dance,  George  (b.  1700,  d.  1768),  archi- 
tect, designer  of  the  Mansion  House  (1739) 
and  many  other  pubUc  buildings. 

Dance,  George,  R.A.  (*.  1741,  d.  1825), 
son  of  the  preceding,  rebuilt  Newgate 
(1770-83) ,  and  waa  one  of  the  original  Eoyal 
Academicians. 

Dancer,  Daniel  (b.  1716,  d.  1794),  miser, 
of  whom  many  extraordinary  stories  are 
related.  He  bequeathed  the  whole  of 
his  property  to  Lady  Tempest,  who  had 
relieved  him  imder  apparent  necessity. 

Dancbet,  Antoine  (6.  1671,  d.  1748), 
French  poet, 

Danckerts,  a  family  of  Dutch  artists. 
ComeHus  {b.  1561)  was  a  celebrated  engraver 
at  Antwerp.  His  son,  Danckert  Danckerts 
{b.  1600),  excelled  his  father.  John  Danc- 
kerts, a  member  of  the  family,  came  to 
England  and  designed  plates  for  Juvenal, 
which  were  engraved  by  Hollar.  Henry 
Danckerts,  his  brother,  came  to  England  as 
engraver  and  landscape  painter,  and  was 
employed  by  King  Charles  II.  Justus 
Danckerts  was  a  designer  and  engraver,  at 
Amsterdam  ;  and  Cornelius  Danckerts  was 
an  esteemed  architect.  His  son,  Peter,  was 
a  painter. 

Dancourt,  Floreut  Carton  (b.  1661, 
d.  1726),  brought  up  to  the  bar,  which  he 
abandoned  for  the  stage,  for  which  he  was 
a  prolific  writer. 

Dandini,  Caesar  {b.  1595,  d.  1658),  a  Floren- 
tine painter.    Vincent  Dandini  (6. 1607),  his 


brother,  was  held  in  great  estunation  as  an 
historical  painter.  Pietro  Dandini  {b.  1646, 
d.  1712),  a  nephew,  was  also  a  painter. 

Dandini,  Jerome  (*.  1554,  d.  1634),  an 
Italian  Jesuit  of  note  in  the  time  of 
Clement  VUI. 

Dandolo,  Andrea  (*.  1310,  d.  1354),  Doge 
of  Venice,  lost  his  life  in  a  war  between 
the  Venetians  and  the  Genoese.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Petrarch,  and  wrote  the 
Chronicles  of  Venice. 

Dandolo,  Enrico  {b.  1108,  d.  1205),  was 
elected  Doge  of  Venice  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
four.  He  undertook  with  the  Crusaders  the 
siege  of  Constantinople  in  1203,  at  which, 
notwithstanding  age  and  infirmity,  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself. 

Daneau,  Lambert  (*.  1530,  d.  1596),  a 
French  Protestant  divine,  who  fled  in  1572 
to  Geneva,  where  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  theology.  He  filled  a  similar  post 
at  Leyden,  and  in  1593  was  called  as  minister 
to  Castres. 

Danes,  Pierre  {b.  1497,  d.  1577),  French 
scholar  and  divine,  professor  of  Greek  at  the 
Royal  College,  represented  France  at  the 
council  of  Trent  in  1545. 

Danet,  Pierre  {b.  1640,  d.  1709),  a  rector 
of  Paris,  presented  in  1674  to  the  abbacy  of 
St.  Nicholas,  in  Verdim.  He  is  known 
principally  by  his  Latin  and  French  Dic- 
tionary, and  a  French  dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  antiquities,  and  was  one  of  the 
persons  selected  to  prepare  the  Delphin 
editions  of  the  classics. 

Dangeau,  Louis  de  Courcillon  de  {b.  1643, 
d.  1723),  French  ecclesiastic  and  man  of 
letters,  son  of  the  Marquis  de  Dangeau.  His 
works  were  numerous  on  the  subjects  of 
history,  grammar,  and  geography,  and  he 
also  wrote  Dialogues  on  the  Immortality  of 
the  Soul. 

Dangeau,  Philippe  de  Courcillon,  Mar- 
quis de  (*.  1638,  d.  1720),  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of 
Louis  XIV.  for  his  many  accomplishmeuts, 
and  his  taste  for  literature  procured  him  a 
seat  in  the  French  Academy  and  in  that  of 
the  sciences.  He  left  a  voluminous  diary, 
the  Journal  de  Dangeau. 

Danican,  Francois  Andr€  (b.  1727,  d.  1795), 
better  known  as  Philidor,  musician,  com- 
poser, and  noted  chess-player. 

Daniel,  Amaud  {d.  circa  1189),  Pro- 
ven(jal  poet  and  troubadour.  His  poems 
were  imitated  by  Petrarch,  and  Dante 
speaks  favourably  of  him. 

Daniel,  Edward,  D.D.  {d.  1657),  the  first 
scholar  sent  out  from  Douay.     For  six  years 


Dan 


(238) 


Dan 


was  president  of  tlie  Euglish  College  at 
Lisbou.  Author  of  Aleditations  and  a  folio 
volume  of  controversies. 

Daniel,  Gabriel  (b.  1649,  d.  1728), 
French  liistorian  and  Jesuit.  Louis  XIV. 
appointed  him  historiographer  of  the 
kingdom,  mth  a  pension  of  2,000  francs. 

Daniel,  Pierre  {b.  1530,  d.  1603), 
French  antiquary  and  advocate,  in  1562, 
when  the  abbey  of  St.  Benoit-sur-Loire  was 
pillaged,  he  saved  valuable  MSS.,  some  of 
which  he  published,  and  he  prepared  an 
edition  of  I'etroniits,  but  it  was  not  brought 
out  in  his  lifetime. 

Daniel,  Robert  Mackenzie  (b.  1814, 
d.  1847),  litterateur,  wrote  The  Scottish 
Heiress,  The  Gravedigger,  The  Young  TFidow, 
The  Yotmg  Baronet,  and  The  Cardinal's 
Daughter. 

Daniel,  Samuel  {b.  1562,  d.  1619), 
EngUsh  poet  and  historian.  His  fame 
stands  higher  as  an  historian  of  the  Civil 
Wars  of  the  Roses  than  as  a  poet. 

Daniel,  William  Barker  {b.  1787,  d.  1833), 
author  and  divine,  who  died  within  the 
rules  of  the  King's  Bench,  where  he  had 
been  coniined  for  twenty  years.  He  was 
author  of  Rural  Sports  (four  volumes) ,  and 
Plain  Thoughts  of  Former  Years  upon  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  with  Bcfcrence  addressed  to 
Christians  at  the  Present  Period. 

DanieU,  John  Frederick,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

(b.  1790,  d.  1845),  natural  philosopher, 
his  greatest  work.  Meteorological  Essays, 
appeared  in  1823  ;  he  also  published 
an  Introduction  to  Chemical  Philosophy, 
and  supplied  a  number  of  contributions 
to  scientific  journals.  He  was  appointed  in 
1821  professor  of  chemistry  in  King's  Col- 
lege, London,  and  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  the  study  of  voltaic  electricity. 

Daniell,  Samuel  {d.  1811),  English  scenic 
artist. 

Daniell,  Thomas  {b.  1750,  d.  1840), 
English  artist.  His  works  were  published 
in  six  folio  volumes. 

Daniell,  William,  R.A.  (6.  1769,  d. 
1857),  English  artist,  nephew  of  above. 
Many  of  his  works  were  in  the  six  volumes 
pubUshed  by  his  uncle.  He  published  a 
number  of  other  works  between  1814  and 
1825. 

Damlo  I.,  Pietrovitch  Niegosch  {b.  1826, 
d.  1860_),  Prince  of  Montenegro,  succeeded 
his  uncle  in  1851.  He  effected  various 
reforms,  but  was  checked  by  a  war 
with  Turkey.  He  was  assassinated  at 
Cattaro,  leaving  his  throne  to  his  nephew 
Nicholas. 


Dannecker,  Johann  Heinrich  (6.  1758,  d. 
1841),  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modem 
sculptors,  was  the  son  of  an  ostler  at 
Stuttgart.  In  1775  he  gained  the  friend- 
ship of  Schiller,  whose  bust  in  the  Weimar 
mut-eum  is  his  best-remembered  work.  In 
17^5  he  visited  Rome,  and  in  1790  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  sculpture  at  Stuttgart. 
In  1816  he  produced  his  celebrated  Ariadne 
on  the  Pantlier. 

Dante  Alighieri  (J.  1265,  d.  1321),  Italian 
poet,  was  born  at  Florence.  Of  his  early 
days  httle  is  known,  till,  as  related  in  his 
^'lta  Nuova,  he  first  met  "the  lady  of  his 
heart,  Beatrice."  According  to  Boccaccio, 
she  was  the  daughter  of  Folco  Portinari, 
and  married  Simone  de  Bardi,  and  to  her 
Dante  was  passionately  but  platonically 
attached.  She  died  in  1290,  and  shortly 
afterwards  Dante  married  Gemma  Donati, 
a  daughter  of  one  of  the  "Guelph" 
families.  In  1289  he  fought  at  Campaldino, 
and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Caprona. 
After  filling  various  minor  offices,  in  1300 
he  became  one  of  the  six  priors  of  Florence. 
In  1301  he  went  as  arubassador  to  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.,  and  never  returned  to  his 
native  town.  Charles  of  Valois  aided  the 
Neri  or  Black  Guelphs  against  their  op- 
ponents, the  Whites,  of  whom  Dante  was  a 
supporter,  and  in  1302  he  was  banished. 
He  made  many  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
return,  and  spent  the  remainiug  years  of  his 
life  wandering  from  town  to  town,  finally 
settling  in  Ravenna,  where  he  died.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  the  Divina  Commedia, 
and  others  are  the  Vita  Ifuova,  the  Convito, 
and  the  Canzoniere. 

Danton,  George  Jacques  {h.  1759,  d.  1794), 
French  revolutionist,  was  educated  for  the 
bar,  and  became  a  follower  of  Mirabeau. 
With  Marat  and  Camille  Desmoulins  he 
foimded  the  cordeliers'  club.  In  1791  he 
headed  the  meeting  at  the  Champ  de  Mars 
advocating  the  dethronement  of  Louis,  and 
after  the  king's  fall  became  minister  of  jus- 
tice. With  Marat  and  Robespierre,  he  was 
at  the  head  of  the  Jacobinical  party  in  the 
National  Convention.  In  1793  he  set  up 
the  "  extraordinary  criminal  tribunal,"  and 
as  president  of  the  "Committee  of  Public 
Safety  "  tried  to  crush  the  Girondists.  He 
lost  ground  through  his  opposition  to  the 
guillotine,  quarrelled  with  Robespierre,  and 
was  brought  before  the  revolutionary  tri- 
bunal and  sentenced  to  death. 

Dantz,  Johann  Andreas  {b.  1654,  d.  1727), 
Orientalist,  and  a  divine  of  the  Lutheran 
church,  author  of  a  Hebrew  grammar,  a 
Chaldee  grammar,  and  several  works  on 
biblical  subjects. 

Dantzi,  Franz  (*.  1763,  d.  1826),  com- 
poser  and  performer  on  the  violoncello.    He 


Dau 


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Dar 


produced  several  operas,  including  the  Mid- 
night Sour  and  Iphigenia.  He  also  pro- 
duced a  great  quantity  of  instrumental 
music,  and  some  compositions  for  the  service 
of  the  Church. 

Danvers,  Henry.     [See  Danby.] 

D'Anville.     {See  Anville.] 

Daoud  Pacha  (d.  1623),  a  celebrated  grand- 
vizier,  brother-in-law  of  Mustaphal.,  whom 
he  replaced  on  the  throne  of  Constantinople 
in  1622,  deposing  and  killing  Othman  II., 
the  usurper.  He  himself  was  executed  a 
twelvemonth  later. 

D'Arblay,  Francesca  Bumey  (i.  1762, 
d.  1840),  English  novelist,  was  the  third 
child  of  Dr.  Charles  Bumey.  From  the  age 
of  eighteen  to  twenty- six  she  worked  at 
Evelina,  which  appeared  anonymously  in 
1778,  and  won  her  fame,  and  the  admiration 
and  friendship  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Cecilia 
(1782)  was  not  so  successful ;  but  her  works 
gained  her  a  position  at  the  court  in  1786, 
and  in  her  Diary  she  gives  a  graphic  de- 
scription of  its  decorous  dulness.  In  1793 
she  married  General  D'Arblay,  a  French 
refugee.  Her  later  works  are  Camille  (1796), 
The  Wanderer  (1814),  and  the  Memoirs  of 
her  father. 

Darboy,  Georges  {b.  1813,  d.  1871), 
French  ecclesiastic.  Bishop  of  Nancy  1859, 
Archbishop  of  Paris  1863,  was  an  opposer  of 
the  doctrine  of  Papal  infallibility.  He  was 
shot  by  the  Commune. 

D'Atc,  Jeanne.     [See  Joan  of  Arc] 

Darcet,  Jean  {b.  1727,  d.  1801),  French 
chemist  and  physician,  befriended  by  Mon- 
tesquieu. He  contributed  greatly  to  the 
progress  of  chemical  science. 

Darcet,  John  Peter  Joseph  {b.  1787), 
French  chemist,  bom  in  Paris.  His  father 
(the  above)  held  the  oiiice  of  director-general 
of  the  porcelain  manufactory  at  Sevres,  and 
his  grandfather  was  the  celebrated  Eouelle, 
the  restorer  of  chemistry  in  France.  In  his 
twenty-fourth  year  he  was  made  assayer 
of  the  mint ;  and  introduced,  among  other 
discoveries,  a  new  process  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  powder  on  a  large  scale.  His  ex- 
periments led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
manxifacture  of  artificial  natron.  He  ex- 
tracted alkali  from  chestnuts,  and  he  in- 
troduced a  process  for  bleaching  linen. 
One  discovery  of  great  importance  obtained 
hinf\  the  prize  of  3,000  francs  which  had 
been  provided  for  the  discovery  of  the  means 
of  protection  against  the  fine  dust  of  quick- 
silver, which  had  been  so  unhealthy  to  the 
gilders. 

Darcy,  Patrick  (b.  1603,  d.  1668),  an  active 
member  of  the  parliament  assembled  in 
DubUn  in  1640. 


P'Arcy,  Patrick,  Count  (*.  1726,  d.  1779); 
Irish  engineer  and  author,  an  adherent  of 
the  House  of  Stuart.  At  seventeen  he 
gave  a  solution  of  the  curve  of  equal  pres- 
sure. In  1746  he  was  taken  political  prisoner 
in  Ireland,  and  after  that  served  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.  He  published  an  Essay  on 
Artillery,  a  Memoir  on  the  Duration  of  the 
Sensation  of  Sight,  and  a  Memoir  on  Sy- 
'draulic  Machines. 

Dargan,  Edward  S.,  lawyer  and  jurist  of 
Alabama,  U.S.,  was  first  a  schoolmaster, 
then  studied  law.  In  1844  was  elected 
mayor  of  Mobile,  and  from  1845  to  1847 
was  representative  in  Congress.  He  is  re- 
membered as  the  first  proposer  of  the  line 
of  adjustment  finally  adopted  in  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Oregon  question  with  the 
British  Government.  He  was  on  his  return 
from  Congress  elected  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Alabama. 

Dargan,  WUliam  (b.  1799,  d.  1867),  Irish 
capitalist  and  railway  contractor,  was 
first  engaged  under  Telford  in  constructing 
the  Holyhead  road,  after  which  he  returned 
to  Ireland,  and  embarked  in  several  minor 
undertakings,  and  fonned  the  foimdation 
of  a  princely  fortune.  He  was  contractor 
of  the  DubUn  and  Kingstown  Railway, 
the  first  in  Ireland,  after  which  there 
was  scarcely  a  public  work  in  that 
country  with  which  he  was  not  connected. 
He  was  a  large  holder  of  railway  stock,  a 
steamboat  proprietor,  a  flax-grower,  and  a 
farmer. 

D'AxgenvUle,  Antoine  Joseph  DegalUer 
{b.  1680,  d.  1765),  French  author  and 
member  of  several  learned  societies  through- 
out Europe.  In  1747  appeared  a  Treatise 
on  Gardening,  and  in  1755  the  Lives  of 
Famous  Painters.  He  was  employed  on  the 
Encyclopedie  and  other  works. 

Darius  {b.  548,  d.  485  B.C.),  son  of 
Hystaspes,  dethroned  Smerdis  the  usurper, 
and  became  king  of  Persia  in  521.  He 
captured  Babylon  after  a  siege  of  twenty 
months,  conquered  Thrace,  and  defeated 
the  Scythians.  He  sent  two  armies  to 
Greece  to  avenge  the  destruction  of  Sardis 
by  the  Athenians,  the  fii'st  of  which  was 
repulsed  by  the  Thracians,  and  the  second 
by  the  Athenians  at  Marathon  in  490.  He 
died  while  organising  a  third  expedition. 

Darius  XL  {d.  405  B.C.)  reigned  nineteen 
years  ;  sumamed  Nothus,  being  the  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  married  Pary- 
satis,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon  and  Cyrus  the  Younger. 

Darius  III.  {d.  330  B.C.),  last  king  of 
the  Persians,  began  his  reign  in  336.  He 
was  defeated  at  Granicus  (334),  Issus  (333), 
and  Arbela  (331)  by  Alexander  the  Great, 


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and  was  killed  by  Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactri- 
ana. 

Daxling,  Grace  (b.  1815,  d.  1842),  the 
heroiue,  was  the  daughter  of  the  lighthouse 
keeper  on  the  Fern  Islands,  near  Bam- 
borough  Castle.  In  September,  1838,  the 
Forfarshire  went  on  the  rocks,  and  with 
her  father  she  succeeded  in  rescuing  nine  of 
the  crew. 

D'Arnaud.     {See  Arnaud.] 

Damley,  Henry  Steward,  Lord  (b.  1546), 
d.  1567),  married  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
July  19th,  1565 ;  instigated  the  murder  of 
Eizzio,  and  was  found  dead  in  the  garden 
of  his  house,  Kirk-of-Field,  after  it  was 
blown  up,  probably  being  killed  with  fhe 
consent  of  the  queen. 

Dajquier  de  Pellepoix,  Augustin  (Jb.  1718, 
d.  1802),  an  eminent  French  astronomer, 
and  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

DarreU,  William  {d.  1721),  an  English 
Jesuit,  and  president  of  the  CoUege  at 
Liege.  He  wrote  several  works  of  a  con- 
troversial character. 

D'Arrest,  Heinrich  Ludwig  (J.  1822,  d. 
1875),  German  astronomer,  discovered 
comets  in  1844,  1845,  1851,  and  1857,  and 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  astronomy  at 
Copenhagen.  He  is  best  known  as  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  planet  Freia  on  October  21st. 
1862. 

Dartmouth,  George  Legge,  Lord  {b.  1648, 
d.  1691),  distiaguished  English  naval  com- 
mander, at  one  time  governor  of  Ports- 
mouth. In  1682  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage.  He  was  Constable  of  the  Tower, 
and  commanded  the  fleet  at  the  time  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange's  invasion.  At  the  Eevo- 
lution  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower, 
where  he  died. 

Daxu,  Pierre  Antoine,  Count  {b.  1767,  d. 
1829),  peer  of  France,  and  one  of  the 
ablest  French  statesmen  of  the  school 
of  the  revolution  and  Napoleon.  His 
reputation  as  a  poet  was  estabUshed  by  his 
translation  of  Horace.  Under  the  emperor 
he  was  intendant-general  in  Prussia  and 
Austria,  and  in  1818  was  created  a  peer  by 
Louis  XVni.  He  wrote  a  valuable  Life  of 
Sully,  and  the  History  of  Venice  (1819- 
1821).  •'  ^ 

Daxwin,  Charies  Robert,  F.R.S.  {b.  1809, 
d.  1882),  English  biologist,  was  the  son  of 
Kobert  Wanng  Darwin,  a  medical  prac- 
titioner at  Shrewsbury,  where  the  future 
naturahst  was  bom.  He  was  educated  at 
Edmburgh  and  at  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1831  he  joined  the  surveying 
expedition    which   was  despatched    in  the 


Beagle  and  Adventure,  and  visited  South 
America,  Australia,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  many  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
islands.  Returning  after  a  voyage  of  five 
years,  he  married  (1839)  his  cousin.  Miss 
Wedgwood,  and  in  1842  settled  down  to  a 
quiet  life  of  study  at  his  countrj'-house  at 
Down,  in  Kent.  In  1839  he  published  his 
Journal  of  Researches  during  a  Voyage 
Round  the  World,  and  in  1842  his  Structure 
and  Distribution  of  Coral  Reefs.  In  1859 
appeared  The  Origin  of  Species,  a  work  that 
created  an  immense  sensation,  and  put 
before  the  world  what  is  generally  known  as 
the  "  Darwinian  Theory."  His  other  works 
include  The  Fertilisation  of  Orchids  (1862), 
Descent  of  Man  (1871),  Expression  in  Man 
and  Animals  (1872),  and  Earth-worms  and 
Vegetable  Mould  (1881.)  The  Life  and 
Letters  of  Charles  Darwin  were  published  by 
his  son  in  1887. 

Darwin,  George  Howard,  F.R.S.  (*. 
1846),  geologist  and  astronomer,  son  of 
the  above,  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  became  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1879.  In  1883  he  was 
appointed  Plumian  professor  of  astronomy 
and  experimental  philosophy  at  Cambridge. 

Daxwin,  Francis  {b.  1848),  younger  brother 
of  the  above,  author  of  The  Life  and  Letters 
of  Charles  Darwin,  was  appointed  in  1888 
reader  in  botany  to  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  fellow  of  Christ's  College. 

Darwin,  Erasmus  {b.  1731,  d.  1812),  phy- 
sician and  poet,  was  educated  at  CambrMge, 
took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Edinburgh,  and 
practised  as  a  physician  at  Lichfield.  He 
settled  in  Derby  in  1 781 ,  and  later  removed  to 
BreadsaU  Priory,  where  he  died  suddenly. 
In  1789  he  published  his  Botanic  Garden, 
including  The  Loves  of  the  Plants  ;  in  1 794-6 
Zoonomia,  or  the  Laws  of  Organic  Life,  and 
Phytologia  in  1799. 

Dasent,  Sir  George  Webbe  {h.  1820), 
Norse  and  Icelandic  scholar,  was  bom  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  educated  at  Oxford. 
After  being  called  to  the  bar,  he  published 
in  1842  The  Prose,  or  Younger  Edda ;  in 
1855  The  Norsemen  in  Iceland ;  and  in  1873 
Tales  from  the  Field;  was  for  some  years 
assistant  editor  of  The  Times.  He  also 
wrote  Annals  of  an  Eventful  Life  (1871)  ; 
Three  to  One  (1872) ;  and  Haifa  Life  (1874). 
He  was  knighted  in  1876. 

Dashkowa.orDaschkof,  Ekatarina  Rom- 
anovna  (h.  1744,  d.  1810),  Russian  princess, 
lady  of  honour  to  Catherine  II.  She  took 
part  in  the  revolution  of  1762,  by  which 
Peter  III.  was  deposed  and  Catherine 
placed  on  the  throne.  After  the  death  of 
her  husband  she  travelled  through  Europe. 
On  her  retum  to  Russia  in  1782  she  was 
appomted  president  of  the  Academy  of  the 


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Arts  and  Sciences  of  St.  Petersburg.  She 
was,  however,  deprived  of  her  offices  by  the 
Emperor  Paul  in  1796,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  her  days  in  retirement. 

Dati,  Agostino  {b.  U20,  d.  1478),  Italian 
scholar,  who  occupied  the  chair  of  rhe- 
toric at  Urbiao.  On  his  return  to  his 
native  town  (Sienna)  he  was  employed  in 
several  public  negotiations,  and  was  agent 
for  his  state  to  Pope  Pius  II.  He  died  of 
the  plague  at  Sienna.  His  works  were  col- 
lected and  printed  by  his  son  in  1503. 

Dati,  Carlo  {b.  1619,  d.  1675),  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  in  his  native  city, 
Florence.     He  is  best  known  by  his  work, 

The  Lives  of  Ancient  Painters. 

Daubenton,  or  D'Aubenton,  Louis  Jean 
Marie  {b.  1716,  d.  1799),  distinguished  French 
naturalist  and  phj'sician,  was  tlie  f rieud  of 
Buifon,  and  companion  in  his  work,  the 
anatomical  part  of  which  was  undertaken 
by  him.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  enriched  its  publications 
by  a  number  of  anatomical  discoveries 
and  researches  concerning  the  species 
of  animals  and  their  varieties.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  Eficychpedie.  On  the  last 
day  of  the  year  1799  he  attended  the 
Senate  for  the  first  time,  and  fell  sense- 
less into  the  arms  of  his  friends  in  a  fit  of 
apoplexy. 

Daubeny,  Charles  Giles  Bridle  {b.  1795, 
d.  1867),  chemist  and  botanist,  published  A 
Description  of  Active  and  Extinct  Volcanoes 
(1826),  an  Introduction  to  the  Atomic  Theory 
(1831),  Lectures  on  Climate  (1862),  etc.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Oxford  (1822),  and  of  botany  (1834). 

D'Aubigne.     [See  Aubign^.] 

Daubiguy,  Charles  Francj^is  (6.  1817,  <?. 
1878),  French  landscape  painter  and  book 
illustrator.  Painted  Upring-Time  (1861), 
Windmills  at  Dordrecht  (1872),  Rising  Moon 
(1877),  etc. 

DAubusson.     \See  Aubusson.] 

Daubuz,  Charles  (i.  1670,  d.  1740),  son  of 
a  French  Protestant  who  came  to  England 
on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  became 
vicar  of  Brotherton,  and  wrote  a  valuable 
commentarj^  on  the  Book  of  Revelation. 

Daudet,  Alphonse  (i.  1840),  French 
novelist,  wrote  poems,  essays,  plays,  and 
contributed  to  newspapers  for  some  years 
before  he  discovered  his  true  powers  as  a 
novelist.  He  is  author  of  bromont  jeune 
et  Risler  aine  (1874),  Jack  (1876),  ,Le  Nabab 
(1878),  Numa  Roumestan^  L'Evangeliste 
(1883),  Sappho  (1884),  Tartarin  sur  les  Alpes 
(1886),  L'Immertel  (1888).  Several  of  his 
a 


novels,  notably    Sappho,   have   been   dra- 
matised. 

Daudet,  Ernest  {b.  1837),  brother  of  the 
above,  novelist  and  man  of  letters,  is  a 
prominent  poUtical  writer  on  the  monar- 
chical side.  Among  his  writings  are  Therese 
and  Jean  le  Gueux,  and  various  political 
works. 

D'Aulnoy,  Marie  Catherine  Jumelle  de 
Bemeville,  Countess  {b.  circa  1650,  d.  1705), 
authoress  of  Contes  des  Fees,  a  series  of 
chaiTuing  fairy  tales,  and  some  tedious 
novels. 

D'Aumale.     [_See  Aumale.] 

Daumer,  George  Friediich  {b.  1800,  d. 
1875),  German  philosopher  and  poet,  bom 
and  educated  at  Niiremburg,  published 
Indication  of  a  System  of  Speculative  Phil- 
osophy (1831)  and  numerous  other  philo- 
sophical works.  Of  his  poems,  Hajiz  (1846), 
and  <So«y«  o/ iLTary  (1841-59)  maybe  men- 
tioned. 

Daumier,  Henri  {b.  1808,  d.  1879),  French 
caricaturist ;  his  most  remarkable  series 
were  the  Idylles  Parlementaires  and  Les 
Representatits  representes. 

Daun,  Leopold  Joseph  Marie,  Count  von 
(b.  1705,  d.  1766),  Austrian  field-marshal, 
who  fought  with  success  against  Frederick 
the  Great. 

Daunou,  Pierre  Claude  Fran9ois  {b.  1761, 
d.  1840),  French  poUtician  and  man  of 
letters,  was  presideut  of  the  Convention, 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety, 
and  first  president  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred.  He  withdrew  from  public  life 
in  18U2,  and  became  guardian  of  the  Pan- 
theon Library.  After  the  restoration  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Chamber^nd  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  College  de  France. 

Davauzati,  Bernardo  (b.  1529,  d.  1606), 
Florentine  writer,  principally  known  for  his 
translation  of  Tacitus. 

Davenant,  Charles  {b.  1656,  d.  1714), 
eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Davenant,  at  the 
age  of  nineteen  distinguished  himself  by  the 
acting  of  the  only  tragedy  he  wrote,  Circe. 
After  this  he  studied  the  civil  law,  and 
served  in  Parliament.  He  was  appointed 
by  James  II.  inspector  of  plays,  then  held 
the  office  of  commissioner  of  excise,  and 
lastly  of  inspector-general  of  exports  and  im- 
ports, which  office  he  held  until  his  death. 
His  works  on  political  and  financial  subjects 
were  collected  and  published  by  Sir  Charles 
Whit  worth  in  1771. 

Davenant,  John,  D.D.  (b.  1576,  d.  1641), 
English  prelate,  whose  learning  recom- 
mended him  to  James  I.,  who  sent  him  to 


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the  synod  of  Dort,  and  he  was  in  1621 
raised  to  the  see  of  Salisbury.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  works,  principally  in 
Latin,  and  was  a  strong  Calviaist. 

Davenant,  Sir  William  {b.  1606,  d.  1688), 
English  Ji-amatic  poet,  and  theatrical  mana- 
geriu  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  and  II.,  was 
the  son  of  a  tavern-keeper  iu  Oxford.  He 
was  a  short  time  at  Lincoln  College,  but  his 
disposition  led  him  to  try  his  fortunes  at 
court,  where  he  first  appeared  as  page  to 
the  Duchess  of  Richmond.  His  first  tragedy, 
Albovine,  was  a  distinguished  success.  In 
1637  he  succeeded  Ben  Jonson  as  poet 
laureate.  Political  troubles  caused  his  flight 
to  France  on  two  occasions,  and  once 
Milton  interposed  to  save  his  life.  He 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Amongst 
his  works  were  Gondibert  and  The  Siege  of 
Rhodes. 

Davenport,  Christopher  {b.  1598,  d.  1680), 
educated  at  Oxford,  became  a  friar  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  constituted  him- 
self a  Roman  Catholic  missionary  in 
England.  He  wrote  many  books  in  defence 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  cause,  and  was 
chaplain  to  the  queen  of  Charles  I.  During 
the  Civil  war  he  was  a  fugitive,  but 
after  the  Restoration  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  Catharine  of  Portugal,  consort 
of  Charles  II. 

Davenport,  John  (A.  1597,  d.  1670),  brother 
of  the  foregoing,  a  zealous  Puritan.  After 
being  miaister  at  St.  Stephen's,  Cole- 
man Street,  he  went  to  Amsterdam.  At  the 
Rebellion  he  returned,  but  soon  after  sailed 
for  America,  where  he  became  minister  of 
Newhaven,  and  died  at  Boston. 

David,  the  second  king  of  Israel,  was  the 
son  of  Jesse,  a  man  of  Bethlehem.  For  his 
valour  in  slaying  Goliath,  Saul  took  him  to 
court,  or,  according  to  Samuel,  he  was  ad- 
vanced for  his  skill  in  music.  The  king's 
jealousy  rendered  his  Ufe  insecure,  and  he  fled 
to  Phihstia.  In  the  cave  of  Adullam  he  col- 
lected a  band  of  followers,  with  whose  aid 
he  attacked  his  country's  enemies  in  the 
west  and  south.  When  Ishbosheth  died 
he  was  elected  king.  His  reign  was  re- 
markable for  warlike  vigour,  and  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  rebelUon  of  his  sons,  Ab- 
Balom  and  Adonijah.  It  is  generally  ad- 
mitted that  he  is  the  author  of  some  of  the 
Psalms. 

David,  Felicien  Cesar  (b.  1810,  d.  1876), 
French  composer,  was  educated  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  under  Cherubini.  He  sailed  to 
the  East  in  1832,  suffered  imprisonment  in 
Constantinople,  wandered  in  Egypt,  and  re- 
turning to  Paris  in  1835  pubUshed  V\%  Melo- 
dies Orientales.  In  1844  his  symphonic  ode 
the  Desert  met  with  great  success,  and  was 
qtuckly  followed   by  kindred  works.     He 


succeeded  Berlioz  as  librarian  of  the  Paris 
Conservatoire. 

David,  or  Dewi,  Saint,  the  patron  saint  of 
Wales  (rf.  601),  Bishop  of  Moni  Judeorum, 
or  Menevia,  called  now  St.  David's.  He 
was  at  the  Welsh  Synods  at  Brefi,  and  at 
"  Lucus  Victoriae." 

David,  Jacques  Louis  {b.  1748,  d.  1825), 
French  painter,  studied  at  Rome,  and,  on  his 
return  to  Paris,  met  with  great  success. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  he  was 
commissioned  by  the  Assembly  to  paint  The 
Oath  in  the  Racquet  Court.  In  the  Conven- 
tion he  was  deputy  for  Paris  in  1792,  and 
acted  as  one  of  the  king's  judges.  As  a 
follower  of  Robespierre  he  was  imprisoned, 
l)ut  released  in  1795,  when  he  devoted  him- 
self to  his  art.  Napoleon  appointed  him  his 
chief  painter,  and  employed  him  in  the 
decoration  of  the  Hall  at  Versailles.  At  the 
restoration  he  retired  to  Brussels. 

David,  Pierre  Jean  (6.  1789,  d.  1856), 
French  sculptor, 

David  I.,  King  of  Scotland  {d.  1153), 
married  Maud,  the  niece  of  WilUam  the 
Conqueror,  succeeded  in  1124.  After  the 
death  of  Henry  I.  he  asserted  the  claims 
of  his  wife  to  the  English  throne  against 
Stephen,  but  was  routed  at  the  battle  of 
Northallerton  in  1138. 

David  II.  {b.  1324,  d.  1371),  King  of 
Scotland,  son  of  Robert  Bruce,  whom 
he  succeeded  at  five  years  old.  During 
the  invasion  of  his  country  by  Baliol 
iu  1332  he  was  conveyed  to  France, 
but  returned  after  the  defeat  of  his 
enemies  in  1341.  He  was  in  1346  made 
prisoner  by  Queen  Phihppa  at  Neville's 
Cross,  and  was  taken  to  the  Tower,  from 
which,  after  an  imprisonment  of  ten  years, 
he  was  released  on  payment  of  a  heavy 
ransom. 

Davidson,  Andrew  Bruce,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

{b.  1831),  was  educated  at  the  Marischal 
college,  Aberdeen,  and  at  the  Free  Church 
college,  Edinburgh,  where,  in  1863,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew  and  Old 
Testament  Exegesis.  He  was  throughout  a 
member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Committee. 

Davidson,  John  {d.  1836),  an  energetic 
traveller,  son  of  a  London  tailor,  educated 
as  a  chemist  and  druggist,  but  his  fondness 
for  travel  induced  him  in  1826  to  give  up 
business  for  travel.  He  was  robbed  and 
murdered  in  Africa. 

Davidson,  Lucretia  Maria  {b.  1808,  d. 
1825),  American  poetess,  was  bom  of  poor 
parents,  and  appears  to  have  been  self- 
educated.    Her  writings  were  published  in 


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New  York   in    1829,   with  a  biographical 
sketch  by  F.  L.  B.  Morse. 

Davidson,  Samuel,  D.D.,LL.D.  (b.  1807), 
biblical  critic,  was  educated  in  Ireland  at 
the  Roj^al  College  of  Belfast.  He  entered 
the  Presbyterian  ministry,  and  was  called  in 
1835  to  the  chair  of  biblical  criticism  in  his 
own  college.  In  1842  he  became  professor 
of  biblical  literature  and  oriental  lan- 
guages in  the  Congi-egational  college  at 
Manchester.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old 
Testament  Revision  Committee. 

Davies,  Hugh  (*.  1739,  d.  1821),  botanist, 
bom  in  Anglesey  and  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  successively  held  the  Hvings  of 
Beaumaris  and  Aber,  in  Carnarvonshire. 

Davies,  John  (d.  1618),  schoolmaster  and 
poet. 

Davies,  Sir  John  (*.  1570,  d.  1626), 
English  poet,  lawyer,  and  political  wi-iter. 
Bom  in  Wiltshire,  he  was  educated  at 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  entered  the 
Middle  Temple  ;  was  for  misconduct  ex- 
pelled from  the  society,  and  then  returned 
to  Oxford,  and  there  wrote,  in  1599,  Jfosce 
Teipsum.  In  1601  he  was  restored  to  his 
chambers  in  the  Temple,  and  entered  Parlia- 
ment the  same  year.  In  1603  he  was  sent  to 
Ireland  as  solicitor-general,  and  soon  after 
as  attorney-general  and  one  of  the  justices 
of  assize.  He  was  finally  appointed  Chief 
Justice  for  England,  but  died  before  he 
assumed  office. 

Davies,  Rowland,  D.D,  {h.  1649,  d.  1721), 
bom  in  Ireland,  for  a  time  was  settled  in 
England,  where  he  held  a  lectureship  at 
Great  Yarmouth.  At  the  close  of  the  Civil 
war  he  returned  to  Ireland,  when  he 
became  Dean  of  Cork.  His  writings  were 
principally  against  the  Roman  Church. 
The  Camden  Society  in  1857  reprinted  his 
journal. 

Davies,  Samuel  {h.  1723,  d.  1761),  Presby- 
terian divine,  of  Welsh  descent,  born  at 
Summit  Ridge,  Newcastle,  Delaware,United 
States.  He  was  one  of  the  fotmders  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  and  succeeded  Jona- 
than Edwards  as  president  of  it  in  1759. 

DavUa,  Arrigo-Caterino  {h.  1576,  d.  1631), 
Italian  historian,  who  distinguished  himself 
in  the  French,  and  subsequently  in  the 
Venetian  army.  He  was  stabbed  whilst  on 
his  way  to  Crema,  of  which  place  he  had 
been  appointed  governor. 

Davis,  Jefferson  {h.  1808,  d.  1889), 
American  statesman  and  soldier,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1826,  and  served  in  the 
army  for  seven  years.  In  1845  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  and  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  Mississippi 
▼olimteers.     In  1853  he  was  secretary  of 


war,  and  from  1858-61  was  again  member 
of  the  Senate.  On  February  9th,  1861,  he 
was  unanimously  elected  "  President  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America."  War 
followed,  and  commenced  with  a  Con- 
federate victory  at  Bull  Run,  but  the  South 
soon  sustained  serious  reverses,  then  finances 
failed,  and  Grant's  defeat  of  Lee  concluded 
the  war.  Davis  was  captured  at  Irwins- 
ville,  and  conveyed  to  Fort  Munroe,  where 
he  was  imprisoned  for  two  years.  He  was 
prosecuted  in  1867  for  treason,  was  dis- 
charged, and  his  name  included  in  the 
general  amnesty. 

Davis,  John  {b.  1560,  d.  1605),  English 
navigator,  who  in  1585  was  sent  in  com- 
mand of  an  expedition  to  discover  a  north- 
west passage  to  the  East  Indies,  in  which 
voyage  he  discovered  the  strait  which  was 
named  after  him,  and  on  similar  voyages  in 
1586,  1587.  He  subsequently  sailed  with 
Cavendish  to  the  South  Seas,  and  made 
several  voyages  to  the  East  Indies.  He  was 
kiUed  by  pirates  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca. 

Davis,  John  Chandler  Bancroft  {I.  1822), 
American  lawyer,  born  at  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  educated  at  Harvard  College. 
In  1849  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  lega- 
tion at  London.  He  was  agent  of  the  United 
States  government  at  Geneva  during  the 
meeting  of  the  tribunal  of  arbitration  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
(1871-2),  and  in  1873  became  assistant- 
secretary  of  state, 

Davis,  John  Lee  {h.  1825),  American 
naval  commander,  who  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Civil  war.  In  command  of  the  iron- 
clad, Montaivk,  he  participated  in  all  the 
battles  of  the  summer  and  fall  of  1863,  in 
Charleston  Harbour  with  Forts  Sumter, 
Gregg,  and  Moultrie.  In  command  of  the 
Sassac'cs  he  took  part  in  several  fights,  and 
was  recommended  for  promotion  by  Admiral 
Porter,  and  since  the  war  was  constantly 
employed. 

Davis,  Thomas  Osborne  {b.  1814,  d.  1845), 
Irish  poet  and  patriot,  bom  at  Mallow, 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
after  spending  three  years  in  London  and 
on  the  Continent,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
Dublin  in  1838.  Though  a  Protestant,  he 
joined  the  Repeal  Association,  and  with 
John  Dillon  jointly  edited  the  Buhlin  Morn- 
ing Register,  and  in  1842  founded  the  Nation, 
but  fever  brought  to  a  close  a  promising 
career. 

Davison,  Jeremiah  {d.  1745),  portrait 
painter,  and  friend  and  disciple  of  Sir  Peter 
tely. 

Davison,  William  {d.  1608),  a  statesman 
under  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  was 
secretary.    He  incurred  the  anger  of  the 


Dav 


(244  ) 


De£ 


queen  for  despatching  the  warrant  for  the 
execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  with- 
out orders,  and  was  heavily  fined  and  im- 
prisoned. He  is  commonly  believed  to  have 
been  umoceut,  and  to  have  been  sacrificed 
to  the  policy  of  the  queen  and  her  min- 
isteia. 

Davitt,  Michael  (i.  1846),  was  bom  in  the 
village  of  Straid,  County  Mayo.  In  1866 
he  joined  the  Irish  revolutiouarj^  movement 
initiated  by  James  Stephens,  and  in  1870 
was  an-ested  in  London,  tried,  and  convicted 
of  "  treason -felony,"  and  sentenced  to 
fifteen  years'  penal  servitude,  from  which  he 
was  released  in  seven  years  on  a  ticket-of- 
leave.  Ke  commenced  an  anti- landlord 
agitation  in  Ireland,  and  in  1879  founded 
the  Irish  Land  League.  In  1881  he  was 
imprisoned  in  Portland  for  breaking  his 
ticket-of-leave,  and  since  then  has  devoted 
himself  to  propagating  his  views  on  the 
land  question  in  Ireland. 

Davoilt,  Louis  Nicolas  (b.  1770,  d.  1823), 
French  general,  rose  in  the  revolutionary 
wars  to  the  rank  of  general,  and  went  with 
Napoleon  to  Egypt,  where  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself.  In  1800  he  became 
general  of  division,  and  in  1804  marshal  of 
the  empire.  He  fought  with  success  at 
Austerlitz  (1805),  and  for  the  victory  of 
Auerstadt  (1808)  was  created  duke.  _  At 
Wagram  he  was  in  command  of  the  right 
wing,  and  in  1811  was  made .  Prince  of 
Eckmiihl.  He  fought  bravely  in  the  Russian 
campaign  (1812),  and  after  the  retreat  from 
Moscow  was  appointed  governor-general  of 
the  Hanse  towns,  taking  up  his  residence  at 
Hamburg.  At  Napoleon's  return  from 
Elba  he  became  war  minister,  and  com- 
manded the  French  army  after  Waterloo. 
He  was  created  a  peer  of  France  in  1819. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry  (6.  1778,  d.  1829), 
English  chemist,  was  a  native  of  Penzance. 
Two  papers  on  nitrous  oxide  obtained  him 
the  post  of  assistaut-lecturt-r  on  chemistry  to 
the  Eoyal  Institution,  Loudon,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  he  was  raised  to  the  chief  lectureship. 
In  1803  he  became  a  fellow,  and  in  1807 
secretary  of  the  Royal  Society.  His 
Bakerian  lecture  in  1806  gained  him  the 
3,000  franc  prize  of  the  French  Institute. 
In  1815  he  invented  the  miner's  safety 
lamp.  He  was  knighted  in  1812,  made  a 
baronet  and  elected  president  of  ttie  Royal 
Society  in  1820.  Failing  health  cornpelled 
him  to  leave  England,  and  he  died  at 
Geneva  from  paralysis. 

Davy,  John  (*.  1763,  d.  1824),  musician, 
whose  ballads,  including  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
were  exceedingly  popular. 

Dawe,  George,  R.A.  (b.  n%\,d.  1829),  a 
prolific  portrait  painter,  bom  in  London, 
many  years  first  painter  to  the  Emperor  of 


Russia,  and  author  of  the  Life  of  George 

Mor/iinJ. 

Dawes,  Sir  William  (b.  1671,  d.  1724),  a 
learned  prelate,  Bishop  of  Chester  and  Arch- 
bishop of  York. 

Dawkins,  William  Boyd  {b.  1838), 
geologist,  bom  at  Battingtou  vicarage,  near 
Welshpool,  aud  educated  at  RossaU  school 
and  at  Oxford.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
to  the  geological  survey,  became  curator  of 
Manchester  Museum  in  1869,  aud  professor 
of  geology  at  Owens  College  in  1874.  He 
was  employed  by  the  Channel  Tunnel  Com- 
mittee in  1862,  and  the  next  year  on  a 
tuunel  under  the  Humber.  He  is  the  author 
of  numerous  works  on  early  man. 

Dawood,  Khan  {d.  1714),  soldier  in  the 
service  of  iJahadur  Shah,  Emperor  of  Delhi. 
In  1708  Zulficar  Khau  appointed  him  his 
delegate  as  imperial  viceroy  in  the  Deccan 
and  Camatic.  In  1713  he  was  transferred 
to  Guzerat,  and  was  killed  in  battle  the 
following  year. 

Dawson,  George  {b.  1821,  d.  1876),  popular 
preacher  and  lectm-er;  became  pastor  of  a 
Baptist  church  at  Rickmansworth,  and  in 
1844  of  the  Mount  Zion  Chapel,  but  the 
breadth  of  his  views  caused  him  to  leave  this 
charge,  and  the  "Church  of  the  Saviour" 
at  Birmingham  was  built  for  him  in  1847,  in 
which  he  preached  till  his  death. 

Dawson,  John  {b.  1734,  d.  1820),  contro- 
versial mathematician,  opposed  Newton's 
system  of  analysis,  Dr.  Stewart  on  the  sun's 
distance.  Dr.  Wildbore  on  the  discharge  of 
fluids  in  motion,  and  Dr.  Priestley  on  philo- 
sophical necessity. 

Day,  Francis  {b.  circa  1830),  writer  of 
ichthyological  works,  including  The  Fishes 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Day,  George  {b.  1501,  d.  1556),  an  English 
prelate,  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1543,  de- 
prived in  1551,  for  his  opposition  to  the  new 
doctiiues,  and  afterwards  restored  after  the 
death  of  Edward  VI. 

Day,  John,  dramatist,  author  of  The  Blind 
Beggar  of  Bednal  Green,  The  Parliament  of 
Bees,  etc.     He  is  mentioned  by  Henslowe. 

Day,  Daye,  or  Dale,  John  {b.  1522,  d. 
1584),  EngUsh  printer,  native  of  Dunwich, 
materially  served  the  cause  of  the  Reforma- 
tion by  his  various  pubUcatious,  and  parti- 
cularly by  Foxe's  Acts  and  Motiuments  of  the 
Martyrs. 

Day,  Thomas  {b.  1748,  d.  1789),  philan- 
thropist and  author,  wrote  several  works  m 
verse,  but  his  best  known  book  is  The  History 
of  Sandford  and  Merton. 

Deik,     Ferencz     Q>.     1803,     d.     1876), 


Dea 


C245) 


Dee 


Hungarian  politician  and  advocate,  was 
champion  of  the  peasants  against  the  nobles, 
obtained  for  them  important  rights  in  1840. 
After  the  revolution  of  1848  became  minister 
of  justice  in  the  cabinet  of  Count  Batthyany. 
On  Kossuth's  accession  to  power  he  re- 
signed, and  in  1849  withdrew  from  pubUc 
affairs  to  his  estate,  and  refused  to  return 
till  1861,  when  the  constitution  was  granted. 
He  again  became  leader  of  the  moderate 
party.  He  di-ew  up  an  address  to  the 
emperor  Francis  Joseph,  demanding  certain 
concessions,  which  the  emperor  refused :  but 
on  the  humiliation  of  Austria,  in  18G6,  his 
efforts  were  attended  with  success,  and  what 
amounted  to  Home  Rule  was  granted  to 
Hungary. 

Deas,  Charles  {b.  1818),  American  painter, 
whose  best  known  pictures  are  Indian  and 
prairie  scSnes,  many  of  which  have  been 
engraved. 

Deasy,  Richard  {b.  1812,  d.  1883),  member 
of  the  Irish  bar,  Q.C.  in  1849,  and  Solicitor- 
General  for  Ireland  in  1859.  He  was 
appointed  Attorney-General  in  1860,  and  the 
following  year  Baron  of  the  Exchequer  in 
Ireland.  He  represented  Cork  from  1855  to 
1861. 

De  Bary,  Heinrich  Anton  {b.  1831,  d. 
1888),  German  botanist,  was  appointed  in 
1855  professor  of  botany  to  Freiburg.  In 
1867  he  went  to  Halle,  and  in  1872  to  Stras- 
burg.  He  published  Comparative  Anatomij 
of  Fhanerogams  and  Ferns,  Morphology  of 
Plants,  and  Lectures  on  Bacteria. 

Deborah,  the  "  Mother  of  Israel,"  Hebrew 
prophetess,  judged  Israel  under  a  palm-tree 
on  Mount  Ephraim.  She  defeated  the 
Canaanites  under  Sisera,  whose  discomfiture 
she  celebrated  in  the  8ong  of  Deborah. 

Debrett,  John  (d.  1822),  London  book- 
seller and  the  original  publisher  of  the 
Feerage  which  bears  his  name. 

De  Bry,  Theodor  {b.  1528,  d.  1598),  Bel- 
gian goldsmith  and  engraver,  published  a 
collection  of  Voyages  to  the  East  and  West 
Indies. 

Decaisne,  Joseph  (b.  1807),  Belgian  painter 
and  botanist,  was  appointed  in  1848  professor 
of  agriculture  in  the  College  of  France,  and 
in  1851  professor  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 

Decamps,  Alexandre  Gabriel  (/*.  1803,  d. 
1860),  French  historical  and  landscape 
painter,  visited  the  Levant  about  1827,  and 
painted  chiefly  oriental  scenes  with  striking 
light  eifects. 

De  CandoUe.     [See  Gandolle.] 

Decatur,  Stephen  {b.  1779,  d.  1820), 
American  naval  commander.    After  serving 


on  the  Spanish  Main  and  the  Mediterranean, 
in  1804,  destroyed  the  Fhiladelphia,  which 
had  been  captured  by  the  Turks  and  was 
lying  in  Tripoli  harbour.  During  the  war 
with  England  in  1812  he  commanded  the 
United  States,  capturing  the  British  frigate 
Macedonian,  but  in  1814  was  compelled  to 
surrender  in  the  Fresident.  In  1815  he  was 
successful  in  making  reprisals  on  Algiers. 
He  was  Mlled  in  a  duel  with  Commodore 
Barron. 

Decazes,  gUe,  Due  (J.  1780,  d.  1860), 
minister  of  the  restoration,  was  born  in  the 
Gironde,  and,  having  come  to  Paris,  was 
employed  for  a  time  in  the  service  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  King  of  Holland,  became  private 
secretary  to  Xapoleon's  mother,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  law  courts  in  1811.  In  1814  he 
acquiesced  in  the  Bourbon  restoration,  but 
was  compelled  to  retire  till  the  second 
restoration,  when  he  was  appointed  prefect 
of  police.  As  such  he  is  supposed  to  be 
responsible  for  the  arrest  of  Marshal  Ney. 
He  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1818, 
and  in  the  following  year  president  of  the 
council.  In  consequence  of  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  Due  de  Berri  (in  which  he  was 
wrongfully  suspected  of  complicity)  he 
became  unpopular,  and  was  sent  to  London 
as  ambassador,  where  he  was  kept  for  a 
year.  He  tried  to  check  the  downward 
progress  of  Charles  X.,  and  was  with  some 
difficulty  induced  to  continue  his  services  to 
the  state  under  Louis  Philippe,  but  soon 
after  declined  to  take  further  part  in  public 
affairs. 

Decebalus  (d.  105),  king  of  the  Dacians, 
fought  against  the  Romans  in  the  reigns  of 
Domitian  and  Nero,  but  was  overthrown  by 
Trajan. 

Dechales,  Claude  Fran(;ois  MiUiet  (d. 
1611,  d.  1678),  French  mathematician,  pro- 
fessor at  Clermont  and  Tmin. 

Decio,  Philippo  (i.1453,  d.  1535),  an  Italian 
jurist  and  legal  vsriter. 

Decius  (b.  circa  200,  d.  251),  Roman 
emperor.  Being  sent  by  the  emperor, 
Pliilippus,  to  quell  a  sedition  in  Mcesia,  he 
tvimed  his  arms  against  the  emperor,  de- 
feated him  at  Verona,  and  assumed  the 
purple  in  249.  He  was  killed  in  battle  with 
the  Goths  near  Abricum.  He  was  a  relent- 
less persecutor  of  the  Christians. 

Decort,  Frans  {b.  1834,  d.  1878),  Flemish 
lyrical  poet,  in  1862  published  a  Flemish 
translation  of  Burns's  songs. 

Dee,  Dr.  John  (b.  1527,  d.  1608),  English 
divine,  astrologer,  alchemist,  and  mathema- 
tician, was  a  favourite  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  a  fellow  of  Trinity,  and  travelled 


Def 


(246) 


Del 


and  lectured  over  the  Contmeut.  lu  15S1 
he  joined  another  quack,  Edward  Kelly,  and 
visited  Poland.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1.5s:},  and  died  in  absolute  povertj'. 

Deffand,  Marie  de  Vichy  Chararond, 
Marquise  du  (*.  1697,  d.  1780),  a  French 
lady,  who  became  the  centre  of  a  literary 
circle  composed  of  the  moat  distinguished 
characters  of  the  age.  She  corresponded 
with  Horace  Walpolo,  Voltaire,  D'Alem- 
bert,  Montesquieu,  and  others. 

Defoe,  Daniel  {0.  1061,  d.  1731),  author, 
was  the  son  of  James  Foe,  a  butcher  in  St. 
Giles',  Cripplegate.  He  was  educated  for 
the  dissenting  ministry,  but  soon  took  to 
politics,  and  appeared  as  a  pamphleteer  in 
his  nineteenth  year.  In  1685  he  joined 
Monmouth's  rebellion,  and  narrowly  escaped 
the  gallows.  He  next  became  a  wool- 
trader,  and  several  times  visited  Spain,  and 
afterwards  took  to  tile-making  with  scant 
success.  In  the  meantime  his  literary 
activity  had  been  unceasing,  and  he  was 
fined,  pilloried,  and  imprisoned  in  1703  for 
his  famous  pamphlet.  The  Shortest  Waijwith 
Dissenters.  While  in  Newgate  he  started 
his  Review.  In  1704  Harley  obtained  his 
release.  In  1706,  to  promote  the  Union,  he  1 
published  an  Essay  at  Removing  the  Prejudices 
aginnst  a  Union  with  Scotland,  and  in  1709 
the  History  of  the  Union.  In  1715  was 
published  the  tirst  volume  of  Robinson  Oritsoe, 
which  was  completed  the  year  after  by  the 
sequel.  This  was  followed  by  Memoirs  of  a 
Cavalier  and  Captain  Singleton  (1720),  Moll 
Flanders  and  the  History  of  the  Plague 
(1722),  and  numerous  other  works.  He 
died  in  Ropemaker's  Alley,  Moorfields,  and 
was  buried  in  Bunhill  Fields. 

Defregger,  Franz  {h.  1835),  German 
painter,  studied  under  Piloty,  and  became  a 
professor  at  the  Munich  Academy.  He 
chiefly  paints  Tyrolean  subjects. 

De  Grey,  the  Right  Hon.  Thomas  Philip, 
Earl  (/;.  1731,  d.  1859),  Baron  Lucas  of  Crud- 
well.  Wiltshire,  and  Baron  Grantham  of 
Grantham,  Lincolnshire,  First  Lord  of  the 
A'lmiraltv  in  1834-5,  and  in  1841  was 
appointed  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and 
bemg  very  popular,  his  retirement  in  1844 
was  rauc^  regretted.  At  his  death  the 
earldom  of  De  Grey  and  the  barony  of 
Grantham  descended  to  his  nephew,  the 
Earl  of  Ripon,  son  of  his  half  brother. 

De  Grey,  William,  Lord  Walsingham  (A. 
1719,  d.  1781),  English  judge,  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  called  to  the  bar  in  1742. 
Became  Solicitor-General  in  1763.  and 
Attorney-General  in  1766.  In  1771  he  was 
made  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  but 
retired  in  1780,  and  was  created  a  peer.  He 
represented  Tamworth  and  Cambridge  in 
Parliament. 


Dejazet,  Marie  Virginie  {>>.  1797,  d.  1875), 
French  actres.s,  appeared  chiefly  at  the  Palais 
Royal. 

Dejoux,  Claude  {b.  1731,  d.  1816),  French 
sculptor. 

De  la  Beche,  Sir  Henry  Thomas  (6.  1796, 
d.  185.3),  geologist,  born  in  London,  and 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  Ottery 
St.  Mary  and  the  Royal  Military  College 
At  eighteen  he  entered  the  anuy,  but  .soon 
withdrew  in  order  to  give  full  scope  to  his 
studies,  and  three  years  afterwards  he 
became  a  fellow  of  the  Geological  Society, 
of  which  he  was  afterwards  secretary  and 
president  in  1847.  While  in  Switzerland  he 
published  a  jjaper  on  the  temperature  and 
depth  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  He  subse- 
quently visited  Jamaica,  and  wrote  on  the 
geology  of  the  island.  He  also  published  a 
Manual  of  Geology  (1831),  Researches  in 
'Theoretical  Geology  (1834),  and  a  Geological 
Observer  (1853).  He  undertook  a  geological 
map  of  England,  and  the  Government,  under 
his  superintendence,  undertook  the  geolo- 
gical survey.  He  founded  the  Geological 
Museum  and  the  School  of  Mines.  In  1848 
he  was  knighted,  and  in  1853  was  elected 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

De  la  Borde,  Henry  Francois,  Count  {b. 
1764,  d.  1830),  French  general,  son  of  a 
baker  at  Dijon.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  revolution  he  enlisted,  and  in  1793  he 
had  become  general  of  brigade,  and  after 
distinguishing  him.self  in  different  parts  of 
the  Continent,  was  ennobled  in  1808.  On 
the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba  he  at  once 
declared  for  him. 

Delacroix,  Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene  (b. 
1799,  d.  1863),  French  painter,  the  most 
prominent  member  of  the  Romantic  schooL 
He  studied  in  the  school  of  Guerin,  and  in 
1822  he  produced  his  first  work,  Dante  and 
Vtrgil,  and  followed  it  in  1824  with  The 
Miissncre  at  Chios.  In  1830,  after  the  revo- 
lution, appeared  his  Liberty  Guiding  the 
People  on  the  Barricades.  His  other  works  in- 
clude Sardanapalus  (1827),  Algerian  Women 
(1834),  Medea  (1838),  and  Hamlet  (1839). 

Delambre,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph  {h.  1749, 
d.  1822),  French  astronomer, bom  at  Amiens, 
studied  under  Lalande.  His  Tables  of  the 
Orbit  of  Uranus  were  crowned  by  the 
Academy  in  1790.  In  1807  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  astronomy  in  the  College  of 
France.  In  1814  he  published  a  Treatise  on 
Theoretical  and  Practical  Astronomy  and  a 
History  of  the  Three  Periods  of  Astronomy 
(1817-1821). 

Delamer,  George  Booth,  Lord  {d.  1684), 
an  adherent  of  Charles  I. ,  who  raised  forces, 
and  fought  for  him  against  Cromwell,  when 
he  was  defeated  and  sent  to  the  Tower  till 


Del 


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Dem 


the  Restoratiou,  when  he  received  a  parlia- 
mentary grant,  and  was  created  Baron 
Delamer. 

Delane,  John  Thaddeus  (6.  1817,  rf.  1879), 
editor  of  The  'Times,  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  joined  the  staff  of  The  Times  in 
1839,  and  in  1841  became  editor,  which  post 
he  retained  for  thirty-six  years. 

Delanne,  Thomas  {d.  1785),  nonconform- 
ist divine.  His  book  called  A  Plea  for  Non- 
conforintti/  gave  so  much  offence  to  the  High 
Church  party  that  he  was  tried  and  sen- 
tenced to  pay  a  heavy  fine,  and  died  in 
prison. 

Delany,  Patrick,  D.D.  (6.  1686,  d.  1768), 
Irish  divine  and  wit,  was  a  friend  of  Dean 
Swift,  by  whose  influence  he  was  succes- 
sively made  Chancellor  of  Christ  Church, 
prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick,  and 
(1744)  Dean  of  Down.  He  pubUshed  Reve- 
lation Examined  with  Candour,  and  other 
works. 

De  la  Rive,  Auguste  {b.  1801,  d.  1873), 
Swiss  natural  philosopher,  published  several 
valuable  works  on  electricity. 

Delaroche,  Hippolyte,  or  Paul  (6.  1797,  d. 
1856),  French  artist,  educated  by  Baron 
Gros  and  Gericault.  His  first  picture,  Joash, 
was  exhibited  in  1822,  and  this  was  followed 
by,  amongst  others.  The  J)eath  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  (1827),  Cromivell  Opening  Charles 
I.'s  Coffin  (1831),  The  Young  Martyr  (1846), 
Bonaparte  Crossing  the  Alps  (1851). 

De  la  Rue.  Warren  (6.  1815,  d.  1889), 
man  of  science,  educated  at  Paris,  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  electricity  and 
astronomical  photography,  and  was  especially 
known  for  his  photographs  of  the  sun  dui'ing 
the  total  eclipse  of  1860.  He  was  President 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  was 
secretary  of  the  Institution. 

Delavigne,  Jean  Francjois  Casimir  {h.  1703, 
d.  1843),  French  dramatist,  satirist,  and 
lyrist,  at  one  time  one  of  the  most  popular 
writers  in  France,  but  now  his  works  liave 
not  a  very  high  repute.  A  ballad.  La 
Toilette  de  Cons(a)ice,  is  perhaps  liis  best 
work,  and  his  plays  Louis  XL,  Les  J'ipres 
Siciliennes,  and  L'Lcole  dcs  Vieillards  were 
well  known. 

Delbriick,  Martin  Friedrich  Rudolf  von 
{b.  1817),  Prussian  statesman,  was  private 
tutor  to  the  Emperor  Frederick  and  to  the 
present  Gemian  Emperor.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Imperial  Council  of  the  German 
empire  till  1876,  when  he  resigned. 

Delhi,  the  Emperors  of,  styled  Grand 
Moguls.  Shah  Alum  {d.  1806)  ascended 
the  throne  in  1771,  and  became  a  Britisli 
pensioner   in    1803.      Behandur    Sbab   ('/. 


1862),  his  son,  succeeded  him,  aided  the 
mutineers,  and  was  condemned  to  perpetual 
banishment. 

DeliUe,  L'Abbe  Jacques  (6.  1738,  d.  1813), 
French  didactic  poet,  author  of  Les  Jardins, 
Pity,  Lmagination,  and  several  translations. 

Delisle,  Claude  (6.  1644,  d.  1720),  French 
historian. 

DeUsle,  Guillaume  {b.  1675,  d.  1726), 
sou  of  the  preceding,  French  geographer. 

Delisle,  Joseph  Nicolas  (6.  1688,  d. 
1768),  youngest  brother  of  the  preceding, 
astronomer,  and  friend  of  Newton  and 
Halley,  was  twenty-one  years  astronomer 
royal  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  was  afterwards 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal 
College  in  Paris. 

Delisle,  Louis  (d.  1741),  brother  of  the 
preceding,  astronomer,  geographer  and 
traveller. 

DeUtzsch,  Franz  {h.  1813,  d.  1890), 
German  theologian  and  Hebraist  of  pro- 
found learning,  author  of  several  exegetical 
and  historical  works  of  great  value. 

Delitsch,  Friedrich  (6.  1850),  son  of  the 
above,  has  made  a  name  as  an  Assyriologist, 
the  first  of  his  works  on  the  subject  being 
published  when  he  was  only  twenty-four 
years  of  age. 

DeUus,  Nikolaus  (J>.  1813,  d.  1888), 
German  Shakespearean  scholar  and  critic. 

De  Lolme,  Jean  Louis  (4.  circa  1745,  d. 
1807),  pohtical  writer,  bom  in  Geneva,  spent 
most  of  liis  years  in  England,  wliero  he 
published  many  works. 

Delorme,  Marion  (6.  circa  1612),  famous 
Frenchwoman,  noted  for  her  beauty  and 
wit,  and  her  amours.  She  died  probably  in 
1650,  though  strange  traditions  transfer  the 
date  to  170G,  or  even  1741. 

Delorme,  Philibert  {b.  1518,  d.  1577), 
French  architect,  designer  of  the  palace  of 
the  Tuileries. 

Demades,  {d.  318  b.c),  Athenian  orator, 
opponent  of  Demosthenes,  was  put  to  death 
by  Antii)ater  for  his  treacliory. 

Demarnbray,  Stoplien  Charles  (6.  1710,  d. 
1782),  English  writer  on  electricity. 

Dembinski,  Henri  {h.  1791,  d.  1864), 
Polish  g(uieral,  fought  under  Napoleon 
against  Russia  and  at  Leipsic.  Dis- 
tinguislied  himself  in  tlie  Polish  revolution 
of  1830,  and  in  1833  joined  Mehemct  All. 
He  supported  Kossuth  in  the  Hungai-ian 
rebellion,  but  was  defeated  at  Kapolna 
(1849),  fled  to  Turkey,  and  finally  retired  to 
Paris  in  1850. 


Dem 


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Den 


Demetrius,  cynic  philosopher  at  the 
bcgiuuiiig  of  the  Christian  era,  died  in 
banishmeut. 

Demetrius  {d.  180  b.c),  son  of  Philip, 
last  king  of  Macedon,  was  sent  as  a  hostage 
to  Rome. 

Demetrius,  suruamed  Poliorcetes,  King  of 
MiK-edon  {d.  28G  B.C.),  was  defeated  near 
Gaza  by  Ptolemy  in  318.  He  delivered 
Athens  from  Demetrius  Phalereus,  but  the 
successors  of  Alexander  defeated  him  at 
Ipsus  (301).  .  In  290  he  seized  the  throne  of 
Macedonia,  but  was  expelled  (287),  and  died 
in  captivity. 

Demetrius  Phalereus  (6.  34.5  b.c,  d.  284 
B.C.),  Greek  orator,  was  a  native  of  Athens. 
Banished  from  that  state,  he  fled  to  Egypt, 
where  he  died.  He  wrote  a  considerable 
number  of  works,  none  of  which  are  extant. 

Demetrius  I.,  surnamed  Soter  (Jb.  187 
B.C.,  d.  150  B.C.),  King  of  Syi-ia. 

Demetrius  II.,  surnamed  Nicanor  {h.  165 
B.C.,  d.  127  B.C.),  King  of  Syria,  son  of  the 
above. 

Demetz,  Frederic  Auguste  (b.  1796,  d. 
187o),  French  philanthropist,  founder  of  an 
institution  at  Mettray,  near  Tours,  for  the 
reformation  of  juvenile  offenders. 

Demidoff,  Auatol  {b.  circa  1810,  d.  1858), 
Count  of  Sau  Donato,  Eussian  traveller  and 
writer. 

Democritus  {b.  b.c  460),  Greek  philo- 
sopher, vp-as  called  the  "laughing  philo- 
sopher." 

Demoivre,  Abraham  (Jb.  1667,  d.  1754), 
bom  at  Vitri,  in  Champagne;  was  driven 
from  France  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Xantes,  and  settled  in  England.  He  was 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  member 
of  the  Academies  of  Science  of  Berlin  and 
Paris ;  is  best  known  for  his  Doctrine  of 
Chances. 

De  Morgan,  Augustus  (b.  1806,  d.  1871), 
matliematician  and  logician,  bom  in  India, 
and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  became 
the  first  professor  of  mathematics  at  Uni- 
versity College,  London. 

Demosthenes  {b.  circa  385  e.g.,  d.  322 
B.C.),  Greek  orator,  resolved  to  study 
rhetoric,  though  his  lungs  were  weak,  his 
pronunciation  bad,  and  his  gesture  awkward. 
He  persevered  till  he  surpassed  all  other  \ 
orators,  and  is  noted  for  his  Philippics  and  I 
OljTithiacs,  aimed  against  Philip  of  Ma- 
cedon. On  the  advance  of  Antipater  he 
fled,  and  poisoned  himself  in  preference  to 
fallmg  into  his  enemies'  hands. 

Dempster,  Thomas   {b.   1579,    d.    162.5), 


Koman  Catholic  writer,  born  in  Scotland, 
and  studied  at  Cambridge.  He  taught 
successfully  at  Paris,  Toulouse,  Nismes,  and 
Pisa.  He  was  the  author  of  several  his- 
torical works. 

D'EngMen,  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bour- 
bon, Due  {b.  1772,  d.  1804),  French  prince, 
born  at  Chautilly,  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  and  the  last  representative  of  the 
family  of  Conde.  He  fought  against  the 
republic  till  the  army  was  disbanded  in 
1801.  He  then  retired  to  Ettenheim  in 
Germany,  but  was  there  arrested  by  order 
of  Napoleon,  on  the  charge  of  conspiracy, 
and  taken  to  the  castle  of  Vincennes,  where 
he  was  shot. 

Denliam,  Sir  John  (b.  1615,  d.  1668), 
English  poet,  wliose  father  was  chief  baron 
of  the  Irish  exchequer,  and  afterwards  a 
judge  in  England.  His  chief  works  were  a 
tragedy.    The  Sophy   (1641),   and    Cooper's 

HiUixdAS).  ^  V      ^'  i- 

Denina,  Giacomo  Maria  Carlo  {b.  1731,  d. 
1813),  Italian  historian,  for  many  years  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  at  Turia,  and  later  librarian 
to  Napoleon  I. 

Denison,  George  Anthony  {b.  1805),  arch- 
deacon, a  well-known  leader  of  the  High 
Church  party,  was  in  1845  appointed  vicar 
of  East  Brent,  Somersetshire.  He  has  more 
than  once  been  charged  with  heresy,  is  a 
stem  opponent  of  secular  education,  and 
advocates  an  advanced  ritual  in  the  services 
of  the  Church,  the  use  of  the  confessional, 
and  the  revival  of  Church  authority. 

Denman,  Thomas,  baron  {b.  1779,  d. 
1854),  politician  and  judge,  son  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Denman,  a  London  physician, 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1818  for  the 
pocket  borough  of  Wa.reham,  and  in  1820 
was  elected  for  Nottingham,  which  place  he 
represented  as  long  as  he  sat  in  the  House. 
He  always  voted  with  Lord  Brougham  and 
the  Whig  party.  In  1832  he  succeeded  Lord 
Tenterden  as  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench,  and  was  afterwards  raised  to 
the  peerage, 

D'Ennery,  Adolphe  Philippe  {b.  1811), 
French  dramatist,  author  of  nmnerous 
successful  pieces. 

Dennis,  John  {b.  1657,  d.  1734),  English 
poet  and  critic,  after  a  tour  through  the 
Continent,  took  his  place  among  the  wits  and 
men  of  fashion  in  London.  He  squandered 
a  considerable  fortune,  and  then  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough  obtained  him  a  situation  at 
the  Custom  House,  but  this  he  mortgaged. 
He  was  one  of  the  best-abused  men  in 
English  literature,  and  was  assailed  by  both 
Swift  and  Pope.  He  died  in  poverty,  aggra- 
vated by  blindness. 


Den 


(  249  ) 


Der 


Dentatus,  Marcus  Aimius  Curius  {b.  circa 
320  B.C.),  Roman  general,  vanquished  the 
Samnites,  Sabines,  and  gained  a  great 
victory  over  Pyrrhus,  near  Tarentum,  274 
B.C.     He  was  three  times  consul. 

D'Eon  de  Beaumont,  Charles  Genevieve 
Timothee  (b.  1728,  d.  ISIO),  known  as  "The 
Chevalier  d'Eon,"  French  adventurer,  was 
sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  London  in 
1762,  hut  was  recalled  by  Louis  XVI.,  who 
compelled  him  to  wear  female  costume, 
which  he  had  before  iised  as  a  means  of  dis- 
guise. A  doubt  existed  as  to  his  sex,  which 
was  only  dispelled  after  his  death,  in 
destitution. 

Depping,  George  Bernard  {b.  1784,  d. 
1853),  French  historical  and  miscellaneous 
writer. 

Depretis,  Augustino  {b.  1811,  d.  1888), 
Italian  statesman,  took  an  active  part  against 
Austria,  and  in  1862  became  minister  of 
public  works,  and  in  1 866  of  marine  and  of 
finance.  In  1878  he  was  called  to  office  as 
leader  of  a  coalition  ministry,  retired  after 
six  months,  but  again  returned  to  office  in 
1881,  when  he  carried  out  various  electoral 
reforms.  After  brief  resignations  in  1884 
and  1885  he  died  in  harness. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas  {b.  1785,  d.  1859), 
English  essayist,  was  bom  at  Manchester. 
His  father,  Thomas  Quincey  (not  De 
Quincey) ,  was  a  merchant,  aud  left  his  family 
well  provided  for.  De  Quincey  was  first 
educated  at  Salford  and  at  Bath,  and  after- 
wards at  Winckworth  and  the  Manchester 
grammar  school,  from  which  he  ranaway,  and 
subsequently  went  through  the  adventures 
and  privations  which  he  described  in  the 
Confessions  of  an  English  Upturn  Eater.  In 
1803  he  went  up  to  Worcester  College, 
Oxford,  which  he  left  without  a  degree,  and 
soon  after  became  acquainted  with  Coleridge 
and  Wordsworth,  took  a  cottage  at  Gras- 
mere,  and  became  one  of  the  famous  Lake 
scholars.  Here  he  remained  for  many  years, 
occasionally  visiting  London  and  Edinburgh. 
In  1830  he  removed  with  his  wife  and  eight 
children  to  the  latter  place,  and  lived  there 
till  his  wife's  death  in  1837.  He  had 
acquired  the  habit  of  taking  opium  by  using 
it  to  cure  an  attack  of  neuralgia,  and  so 
greatly  did  it  grow  upon  him  that  he  was 
known  to  take  as  many  as  12,000  drops, 
equal  to  ten  wineglasses,  in  a  day.  He 
was  engaged  in  preparing  fourteen  volumes 
of  his  works  for  the  press  within  a  few  days 
of  his  death.  Besides  the  Opium  Eater,  the 
following  works  may  be  mentioned :  Murder 
Considered  as  one  of  the  Fine  Arts  (1827), 
Suspiria  de  Frofiindis  (1845),  The  English 
Mail  Coach,  and  A  Vision  of  Sudden  JJeath 
(1849). 

Derby,  Eliza,  Countess  of.     \See  Farren.] 


Derby,  James  Stanley,  seventh  Earl  of  (i. 
1596,  d.  1651).  He  fought  on  the  Eoj'aUst 
side  in  the  Civil  war,  and  being  taken 
prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Worcester  was 
beheaded  at  Bolton.  His  countess,  Charlotte 
de  la  Tremouille,  is  famous  for  her  heroic 
defence  of  Lathom  House  (1644),  and  of  the 
Isle  of  Man  (1651). 

Derby,  Edward  Geoffrey  Smith  Stanley, 
fourteenth  earl  of  {b.  1799,  d.  1869),  English 
statesman,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ 
Church.  Oxford,  and  was  elected  member 
for  Stockbridge  in  1820.  In  1830  he  was 
appointed  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  under  Earl  Grey,  in 
1833  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  but 
the  following  year  left  the  Whig  party,  and 
for  some  years  remained  an  independent 
member.  He  again  became  Colonial  Secre- 
tary in  1841,  and  in  1844  was  called  ut.  to  tlie 
Lords  in  his  father's  barony  of  Stanley.  In 
1845  he  resigned  on  account  of  Sir  Eobert 
Peel's  determination  to  repeal  the  Corn 
Laws,_  and  henceforvrard  led  the  Tory  party. 
In  1852  he  was  Premier  for  a  short'period, 
and  again  in  1858.  He  returned  to  office  in 
1866,  and  carried  the  Reform  Bill  of  1867, 
and  resigned  the  following  year.  He  was 
one  of  the  greatest  parliamentary  debaters. 

Derby,  Edward  Henry  Smith  Stanley, 
earl  of  {h.  1826),  son  of  the  above,  educated 
at  Rugby  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
entered  Parliament  iu  1848  as  member  for 
King's  LjTin.  In  1852  he  was  Under- 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and  in  1855 
Secretary  for  India,  when  he  arranged  the 
transfer  of  the  Indian  Government  from  the 
Company  to  the  Crown.  In  1866  he  was 
Foreign  Secretary,  aud  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  earldom  in  1869.  In  1874  he  resigned 
his  post  as  Foreign  Secretary,  and  seceded  to 
the  Liberal  party  iu  18S0,  being  appointed 
Secretary  to  the  Colonies  in  1882.  In  1886 
he  left  Mr.  Gladstone,  differing  from  him  on 
the  Home  Rule  question. 

Derham,  William  (/;.  1657,  d.  1735), 
English  clergyman,  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  was  vicar  of  Warbridge, 
Berkshire,  and  afterwards  rector  of  L'^p- 
miuster,  Essex,  and  canon  of  Windsor.  He 
is  best  known  by  his  Fhijsico- Theology. 

Dering,  Edward  {d.  1576),  English  puritan 
divine  and  writer.  His  works  appeared  in  a 
collective  form  in  1595,  1597,  aud  1614. 

Dering,  Sir  Edward  {b.  1598.  d.  1644), 
politician,  who  embraced  the  Royal  cause  iu 
the  Civil  war,  raising  a  regiment  at  his  own 
expense. 

Dermody,  Thomas  (b.  1775,  d.  1802),  Irish 
poet,  who  tired  numerous  benefactors  by  his 
dissipated  life,  and  died  in  poverty  and 
wretchef'ness  near  Sydenham. 


D^r 


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Des 


D^roulede.  Paul  {b.  1848),  French  poet 
and  dramatist,  was  put  to  the  law,  but  chose 
the  army  in  preference.  His  Chants  du  Soldat 
were  extremely  popular.  He  espoused  the 
Boulangist  cause,  and  was  chairman  of  the 
"League  of  Patriots." 

De  Ruyter,  Michel  Adriaanzoon  {b.  1607, 
d.  167o),  Dutch  admiral,  made  several 
voyages  to  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil,  and 
in  16il  was  made  rear-admiral.  In  1(352  he 
defeated  the  English  ofE  Plymouth,  but  a  few 
months  later  was  worsted  off  the  Flemish 
coast.  In  1667  he  took  Sheerness  and  sailed 
up  the  Thames,  and  fought  successfully  in 
Solibay.  He  was  mortally  wounded  in  an 
action  with  the  French  off  Messina. 

Dervisli,  Pasha  {b.  1813),  Turkish  general 
and  diplomatist,  was  educated  in  London 
and  Paris.  On  his  return  to  Turkey  he  was 
nominated  engineer-in-chief  of  the  mines  of 
Keban  and  Argana,  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
afterwards  professor  of  chemistry  and 
physics  in  the  military  school  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  then  general  of  brigade.  He 
was  afterwards  Ottoman  commissioner  for 
settUng  the  frontier-line  between  Turkey 
and  Persia.  In  1856  he  was  delegated  to 
attend  the  great  coimcil  of  war  which  had 
been  summoned  to  assemble  in  Paris.  In 
1862  he  was  engaged  in  military  operations 
in  Montenegro,  and  in  concert  with  Husein 
Pasha  compelled  Prince  Nicholas  and  his 
father,  Miako,  to  sign  the  peace  of  Scutari. 
In  the  Russian  war  he  was  engaged  in  the 
defence  of  Batoum ;  in  1880  he  was  employed 
in  reducing  Albania,  and  in  1882  was  sent  on 
a  mission  to  Egypt. 

Derwentwater,  James  Radclyife,  Earl  of 
(b.  1(588,  d.  1716),  took  an  active  part  in  the 
rebellion  of  1715,  but  was  compelled  to 
surrender  at  Preston.  He  was  beheaded  on 
Tower  Hill. 

Deryck  or  Derick,  Peter  Cornelius  (h. 
1568,  d.  1030),  a  landscape  and  portrait 
painter  of  Delft. 

Desagruliers,  Jean  Theophile  {b.  1683,  d. 
1744),  natural  philosopher,  was  born  in 
France,  but  his  parents  brought  him  to 
England  when  he  was  two  years  of  age,  and 
he  ultimately  settled  for  some  time  at  West- 
minster. After  some  years  he  obtained  a 
living,  first  in  Norfolk,  then  in  Essex,  and 
was  chaplain  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He 
was  a  member  at  the  Royal  Society,  and 
contributed  many  valuable  papers  and 
lectures. 

Desalx  de  Veygoux,  Louis  Charles 
Antoine  (').  1768,  d.  1800),  one  of  Bonaparte's 
favourite  generals,  killed  by  a  musket-ball 
at  the  battle  of  Marengo. 

Desaugiers,  Marc  (b.  1772,  d.  1827),  one 
of  the  best  song  writers  of  France. 


Desbarres,  Joseph  Frederick  Wallet  (b. 
1722,  d.  1824),  mihtary  engineer,  who 
rendered  great  services  in  North  America. 
Bom  in  England,  in  1756  he  sailed  as  a 
lieutenant  in  the  60th  Foot  to  America, 
where  he  commanded  a  corps  of  field  ar- 
tillery. In  1757  he  won  over  the  Indians, 
who  had  taken  Fort  Schenectady,  and  was 
aide-de-camp  to  Wolfe  at  Quebec.  He  con- 
trolled the  operations  during  the  conquest  of 
Canada,  and  was  made  quarter- master- 
general  in  the  expedition  that  captured 
Newfoundland  in  1762.  He  also  surveyed 
Nova  Scotia,  and  made  charts  of  the  North 
American  coasts  for  Lord  Howe.  He 
was  appointed  lieutenant  -  governor  of 
Cape  Breton  and  of  Prince  Edward 
Island. 

Descartes,  Rene  {b.  1596,  d.  1650),  French 
philosopher  and  mathematician,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  college  of  La  Fleche,  which  he 
left  in  1612,  dissatisfied  with  its  methods  and 
dogmas.  He  entered  the  Dutch  arniy  in 
1616,  and  that  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  in 
1619,  but  renounced  the  mihtary  profession 
in  1621,  and  then  travelled,  and  settled  in 
Holland  in  1629,  in  order  to  devote  himself 
to  the  study  of  mathematics,  astronomy, 
metaphysics,  etc.  He  made  important  dis- 
coveries in  algebra  and  geometry,  and  was 
the  first  who  introduced  exponents,  or  applied 
the  notation  of  indices  to  algebraic  powers, 
and  gave  a  new  and  ingenious  solution  of 
equations  of  the  fourth  degree.  In  1641  he 
published  Medttationes  de  Frima  Philosophia, 
which  gave  a  wonderful  impulse  to  philoso- 
phical inquiry.  In  1644  he  brought  forth 
his  Fri»cipia'Philosophi(e,  in  which  he  pro- 
pounds his  theory  of  the  world.  The  French 
court  granted  him  a  pension  of  3,000  livres 
in  1647.  He  went  to  Stockholm  in  1649, 
where  he  died. 

Deschamps,  Emile  (*.  1791,  d.  1871), 
French  poet  and  dramatist,  produced  in 
1818  two  successful  comedies — Sflmours  et 
Fhrian  and  Le  Tvvr  de  Fareur.  lu  1828  he 
published  a  volume  of  poems  called  French 
and  Foreign  Studies,  and  he  contributed  prose 
tales  to  the  journals. 

Deschamps,  Eustache  {b.  1328,  d.  1415), 
French  poet,  led  an  eventful  life  as  soldier, 
magistrate,  and  courtier.  He  composed 
numerous  haUitdes,  rondeaux,  virelais,  and  a 
long  poem,  the  Miroir  de  Mariage. 

Deschanel,  Martin  (J.  1819),  French  author 
and  editor  of  the  Journal  des  Debats. 

Heshze,  RajTnond  {b.  1750,  d.  1828),  coiin- 
cillor  of  the  parliament  of  Bordeaiix,  and 
one  of  the  counsel  who  defended  Louis  XVI. 
He  was  imprisoned,  but  escaped  the  scaffold, 
but  could  not  be  induced  to  serve  under  the 
Directory.  On  the  return  of  the  Bourbona 
he  held  several  distinguished  of&ces,  and  waa 


Des 


(251 


Die 


made  a  peer  of  France,  and  president  of  the 
Court  of  Appeal. 

Desfontaines,  Rene  Louiche  {b.  1752,  d. 
1833),  French  naturalist,  made  a  successful 
expedition  to  Barbary  in  1783,  and  in  1786 
was  chosen  professor  of  botany  at  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  Paris.  His  principal  work  was 
Flora  Atlantica. 

Desboulieres,  Antoinette  du  Ligier  de  la 
Garde  (/a  circalQM,d.  1694),  French  poetess, 
the  wife  of  the  Seigneur  Deshoulieres,  and  a 
very  prominent  figure  in  the  literary  circles 
of  Paris  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
She  wrote  much,  both  in  poetry  and  prose, 
and  was  known  among  her  contemporaries 
as  the  "Tenth  Muse." 

Desmoulins,  Camille  {b.  1760,  d.  1794), 
French  revolutionist  and  writer,  was  a  prime 
mover  in  the  1789  revolution,  his  writings 
exercising  a  great  influence,  notably  La 
Lanterne  aux  Farisiens,  and  Les  Rerolutwns 
de  France  et  de  Brabant.  He  became  secretary 
to  Danton,  and  was  elected  by  Paris  to  the 
National  Convention;  but  afterwards  his 
moderation  led  to  his  execution  with 
Danton. 

Desnoyers,  Auguste  Gaspard  Louis 
Boucher,  Baron  {b.  1779,  d.  1857),  French 
engraver  and  designer,  whose  talent  dis- 
played itself  at  an  early  age,  and  who  was 
taken  up  by  Darcis.  Among  his  many  en- 
gravings of  the  old  masters,  those  after 
Raphael  are  best  known. 

Dessalines,  Jean  Jacques  {b.  1760,  d. 
1806),  negro  emperor  of  Hayti.  Taken  to 
Hayti  as  a  slave,  he  joined  Toussaint 
rOuverture's  cause,  and  after  his  leader's 
transportation  drove  the  French  from  the 
island,  and  procured  the  proclamation  of 
himself  as  emperor.  His  cruelties  brought 
about  his  assassination  two  years  later. 

Deutsch,  Emanuel  Oscar  Menahem  (6. 
1829,  d.  1873),  German  Talmudist,  of 
Hebrew  descent.  In  1855  he  came  from 
Germany  to  England  to  occupy  a  post  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  he  held  the  position 
till  his  death.  In  1867  he  published  in  the 
Qnartei-ly  Beriew  an  article  on  the  Talmud, 
which  at  once  gave  him  the  highest  reputa- 
tion, and  which  was  followed  by  other 
writings  of  great  erudition.  He  died  in 
Egypt,  whither  he  repaired  in  1872  to 
recruit  his  broken  health. 

De  Vere,  Aubrey  Thomas  {b.  1814),  poet 
and  political  writer  of  Irish  nationality,  first 
published,  in  1842,  The  JFaldetises.  In  1872 
he  produced  the  Legends  of  iSt.  Patrick  ;  in 
1879,  Legends  of  the  Saxon  Saints,  and  in 
1882,  The  Foray  of  Queen  Meade,  and  othtr 
jjegends  of  Ireland's  Heroic  Age,  eta 


Devonshire,  Duke  of,  Spencer  Compton 
Cavendish  (6.  1833),  eighth  duke,  statesman, 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge; 
was  attached  to  Lord  Granville's  mission  to 
Russia  in  1856,  and  returned  for  North  Lan- 
cashire as  a  Liberal  1857.  In  1859  he  moved 
and  carried  a  vote  of  no  confidence  against 
Lord  Derby,  and  in  1863  entered  upon 
oifice  as  Lord  of  the  Admii-alty  and  under- 
secretary  for  War.  In  1866  he  was  for  a 
short  time  Secretary  for  War  in  Lord  Rus- 
sell' s  administration.  Having  lost  his  former 
seat  in  1868,  he  was  elected  for  the  Radnor 
Burghs,  was  Postmaster-General  under  Mr. 
Gladstone  till  1871,  then  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland  till  1874.  During  the  succeeding 
period  he  led  the  Opposition  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  after  1880  was  invited  to 
form  an  administration.  He  declined,  but 
took  oifice  as  Secretary  for  India,  and  waa 
from  1882  Secretary  for  "War.  He  had  re- 
gained his  Lancashire  seat,  and  was  re- 
elected for  it  in  1885  and  1886.  In  1886 
he  broke  with  Mr.  Gladstone  on  Home  Rule. 
In  1891  he  was  chairman  of  the  Royal  Cora- 
mission  on  Labour  Questions.  He  succeeded 
to  the  title  in  1892. 

Diaz,  Bartholomew  (d.  1500),  Portuguese 
navigator,  in  1486  commanded  an  expedition 
to  Africa,  and,  being  diiven  southward  by  a 
gale,  he  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Dibdin,  Charles  (^1.  1745,  dA9,U),  nautical 
song  writer  and  dramatist,  appeared  on  the 
London  stage,  but  failed  as  an  actor,  though 
his  musical  sketches  were  a  great  success. 
His  ballads  of  the  sea,  such  as  Tom  Boivling, 
and  Blow  High,  Blow  Low,  at  once  achieved 
great  popularity. 

Dickens, Charles  {b.  \%\2,d.  1870),  novelist, 
was  born  at  Laiidport,  Portsmouth,  where  his 
father  held  a  small  appointment  in  the  Navy 
Pay-Office  ;  but  when  this  position  was  lost 
the  family  came  to  London  and  Dickens' 
youth  was  spent  in  constant  penury  and 
want.  For  some  time  he  was  employed  in  a 
blacking  factory,  but  at  twelve  years  of  age 
he  was  again  sent  to  school,  and  after  three 
years'  tuition  he  entered  an  attorney's  office. 
Then  he  became  a  shorthand  writer,  and  at 
nineteen  obtained  the  position  of  parlia- 
mentary reporter.  During  the  years  1831  to 
1836  he  represented  various  papers— latterly 
the  Morning  Chronicle— und  in  1836  his 
Sketches  by  Bo::  were  published  in  a  collected 
form.  A  publishing  firm  wishing  to  pro- 
duce an  illustrated  periodical,  Dickens 
undertook  the  lettei-press,  and  produced  the 
Piclfirick  Papers.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
writin.g  Oliver  Twist.  In  1842  he  visited 
America,  and  wrote  on  his  return  the 
Ameririin  Notes.  In  1843  he  began  to  pub- 
lish 3L.(rtin  Chuzzlewit,  which  at  first  fell 
rather  flat,  and,  in  order  to  economise, 
I  Dickens  went  to  live  at  Genoa.    When  the 


Did 


(  252  ) 


Dig 


Dai?;/  yews  was  started  Dickens  was  ap- 
pointed editor,  but  he  retired  very  soon,  and 
busied  himself  in  further  novel-writing — 
Dumhe;/  a»d  Sun.  David  Copperjicld,  llli-ak 
House,  ahA.  Little  ]>orrtt,  all  being  produced 
between  1846  and  1855.  In  1850  he  started 
tlie  perioilical  Household  Words,  afterwards 
changed  to  All  the  Year  Round.  In  1858  he 
separated  from  his  wife.  In  this  year  he 
first  appeared  as  a  public  reader  of  his  own 
works,  and  from  1866  to  1870  he  was  almost 
continuouslj'  employed  in  this  task,  his 
success  being  unexampled.  In  1867  he  made 
a  lecturing  tour  in  America,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  enthusiasm,  despite  his 
unpalatable  American  Notes.  The  strain 
proved  too  great  for  his  constitution,  and 
he  died  suddenly  at  his  house  at  Gadshill, 
leaving  his  last  novel,  Edwin  Drood,  incom- 
plete. 

Diderot,  Denis  (b.UlS,  d.  1784),  French 
writer.  As  a  young  man  his  great  love  of 
study  disinclined  him  from  any  profession, 
andhe  supported  himself  by  teaching  for  some 
years,  his  father  having  stopped  his  allow- 
ance. In  his  penury  he  secretly  married  a 
sempstress ;  but  after  a  time  he  seut  his 
wife  and  child  to  live  \\'ith  his  father,  and 
himself  remained  in  Paris  carrying  on  a 
liaison.  He  now  began  to  write  indus- 
triously, and  in  1746  published  his  Pensees 
Fhilosophiques,  while  he  suffered  imprison- 
ment for  his  Lettre  sur  les  Aveugles.  To- 
gether with  D'Alembert  the  Encyclopedie  des 
Sciences  des  Arts  des  Metiers  was  begun,  and 
was  carried  on  by  Diderot  alone,  who  dis- 
played the  most  untiring  industry  iu  its 
compDation.  His  thriftlessness,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  he  lent  his  services  to 
those  who  asked  for  them,  obliged  him  in 
Ms  old  age  to  sell  his  books.  They  were 
bought  by  the  Empress  Catherine,  who  ap- 
pointed Diderot  custodian,  and  who  treated 
him  so  handsomely  that  after  his  visit  to 
Russia  he  returned  to  France  a  rich  man. 
He  only  survived  his  good  fortune  twelve 
days. 

Diebitscli-Sabalkanski,  Hans  Karl  Fried- 
rich  Anton  {b.  1785,  (/.  1831),  Count  von 
Diebitsch  and  Wardin,  Russian  general, 
bom  in  Silesia,  passed  from  the  Prussian 
service  to  that  of  Russia.  He  was  wounded 
at  Austerlitz,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaign  of  1812,  and  later 
at  the  battles  of  Dresden  and  Leipzig.  He 
was  commander-in-chief  during  the  Turkish 
war  of  1828,  his  famous  passage  of  the 
Balkans  procuring  for  him  the  name  Sabal- 
kanski.     He  served  in  Poland  in  1830. 

Diemen,  Antoin  van  {b.  1593,  d.  1645), 
Dutch  Governor  of  Ba.tavia,  which  post  he 
held  under  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 
Besides  doing  much  for  the  island,  he  fitted 
out    several    expeditions    of    exploration, 


discovering   Tasmania,    or   Van   Diemen's 
Land. 

Dieterici,  Karl  Friederich  Wilhelm  (6. 
1790,  d.  1859),  German  economist,  in  1831 
became  a  privy  councillor  ;  and  in  1834  was 
appointed  professor  of  political  economy  iu 
Berlin  university ;  while  in  1844  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  directorship  of  the  national 
bureau  of  statistics.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  economical  and  statistical  works  of 
authority. 

Diez,  Christian Friedrich  (J).  1794,  d.  1876), 
Gei-man  philologist,  for  many  years  pro- 
fessor at  the  Bonn  university.  The 
Romance  languages  fonned  the  subject  of 
his  most  devoted  study,  and  in  this  con- 
nection he  wrote  many  most  valuable  and 
authoritative  works,  such  as  Grauimar  of 
the  Romance  Language,  Etymological  Die- 
tio)iary  of  the  Romance  Languages,  and  Tht 
Life  and  Works  of  the  Troubadours, 

Digby,  Sir  Kenelm  (b.  1603,  d.  1665), 
son  of  Sir  Everard  Digby,  who  was  executed 
for  participation  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot, 
was  knighted  by  James  I.,  and  held  court 
appointments  under  Charles  I.  In  1628  he 
fitted  out  a  squadron  at  his  own  cost,  and 
defeated  the  combined  fleets  of  Venice  and 
Algiers.  During  the  Civil  war  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  Parliament  for  some  time,  and 
then  retired  to  France,  returning  in  1661. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  philosophical 
works. 

Digby,  Lord  George  (b.  1612,  d.  1676),  son 
of  the  preceding,  as  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Commons  was  concerned  in  the  impeach- 
ment of  Strafford,  but  refusing  to  sign  the 
bill  of  attainder  was  expelled  from  Parlia- 
ment. He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  war 
on  the  Royalist  side,  and  at  its  close  with- 
drew to  France  and  afterwards  to  the 
Netherlands.  At  the  Restoration  he  again 
took  part  in  public  affairs,  offering  great 
opposition  to  Lord  Clarendon. 

Digby,  John,  Earl  of  Bristol  {b.  1580,  d. 
1653),  knighted  by  James  I.  in  1605,  and 
subsequently  created  first  Baron  Digby,  a,nd 
then  Earl  of  Bristol,  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Spain  to  arrange  the  marriage  of  Prince 
Charles  with  the  Infanta.  Returning,  he 
was  banished  from  Court  and  forbidden  to 
sit  in  the  House  of  Lords.  His  property 
was  confiscated  by  the  Long  Parliament, 
and  he  died  in  exile. 

Digges,  Sir  Dudley  (b.  1583,  d.  1639), 
English  politician,  knighted  by  James  I., 
and  served  in  the  parliamentary  commission 
which  formulated  the  charges  against 
Bacon.  In  1626  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  impeachment  of  Buckingham,  and  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  by  the  king.  In 
1636  he  was  appointed  Master  of  the  Rolls. 


Dil 


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D'ls 


Dilke,  Ashton  Wentworth  {b.  ISoO,  d. 
1882),  politician,  was  educated  at  Trinity 
Hall,  Cambridge.  In  1880  he  was  returned 
for  Newcastle  in  the  Radical  interest,  retiring 
shortly  before  his  death.  He  was  an  authority 
on  Russian  affairs,  and  was  the  proprietor 
of  the  Weekly  Despatch, 

Dilke,    Sir    Charles    Wentworth,     Bart. 
(p.   1S43),    brother    of    the    above.     After 
being    educated    at    Trinity    Hall,    Cain- 
bridge,  and  taking  his  degree  at  the  head 
of  the  law  tripos,   he   was    called  to  the 
bar    at    the    age    of    tweuty-three.      Two 
years  later  he   was  returned    by    a    large 
majority    as    member    of    Parliament    for 
Chelsea  in  the  Radical  interest.     He  worked 
with  Mr.  Forster  in  amending  the  Education 
Bill,  and  was  strongly  iu  favour  of  giving 
women    a    vote    at    municipal    elections. 
Being  re-elected  for  Chelsea  iu   187-1,    Sir 
Charles  went  for  his  second  tour  round_  the 
world,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  writer, 
also  publishing  some   of  his  grandfather's 
papers  under  the  title  Papers  of  a  Critic. 
In  1878  he  carried  in  the  House  of  Commons 
the  measure  extending  the  hours  for  polling 
at  the  London  elections,  which  is  still  called 
"Dilke's  Act."     In   1879  he    opposed    the 
Government  in  its  management  of  affairs  in 
South  Africa.      In  18^,  on  the    return  to 
office  of  a  Liberal  Government   under  Mr. 
Gladstone,  he  entered  the  Ministry  as  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affaii-s.     Two 
years  later  Sir  Charles  succeeded  to  the  pre- 
sidency of  the  Local  Government  Board,  and 
was  made  a  member  of  the  cabinet.     In  1885 
he  took  a  leading  part  in  conducting  the  Re- 
distribution Bill  through  the  Lower  House, 
and  afterwards    endeavoured    strongly    to 
obtain  a  reform  of  local  government.     In 
1886,  having   lost  his  seat,  he  retired  into 
private    life,     shortly    before    this    having 
married  Emilia,  widow  of  the  Rev.   Mark 
Pattisou.     In  1892  he  reappeared  in  politics 
as  member  of  Parliament  for  the  Forest  of 
Dean  division. 

DiUmann,  Christian  Friedrich  August  {b. 
1823),  theologian  and  professor  of  Oriental 
languages,  was  bom  at  lUingen  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  afterwards  became  professor  of 
exegesis  at  Tiibingen  university,  where  he 
had  studied.  Later  he  took  high  positions 
at  Kiel,  Giessen,  and  Berlin,  devoting  much 
of  his  time  to  the  study  of  the  .^thiopic 
languages  and  publishing  numerous  works 
on  this  subject. 

Dillon,  John,  M.P.  [b.  18.51),  was  educated 
at  the  CathoUc  university  of  Dublin.  He 
assisted  Pamell  and  Michael  Davitt  in 
founding  the  Land  League  in  America,  and 
in  188Q  was  elected  member  of  Parliament 
for  county  Tipperary  (a  position  his  father, 
John  Blake  Dillon,  had  pre\'iously  held). 
In  May,  1881,  he  was  arrested,  but  in  a  few 


months  was  liberated  on  the  ground  of  ill- 
health,  and  for  a  time  withdrew  from  the 
political  arena,  not  sympathising  with 
Pamell's  attitude  towards  the  Land  Act. 
Afterwards,  being  associated  with  the  "  No- 
Rent"  manifesto  of  the  Land  League,  he 
was  committed  to  Kilmaiuham  prison,  with 
Messrs.  Parnell,  Sexton,  and  O'Kelly,  where 
he  remained  till  May,  1882.  In  188o  he 
again  took  his  seat  iu  Parliament  as  member 
for  East  Mayo,  and  in  188(3,  in  consequence 
of  his  supporting  the  ''  Plan  of  Campaign," 
was  indicted  for  conspiracy,  and  bound  over 
to  keep  the  peace.  Under  Lord  Salisbury's 
admiuistration  of  188G  he  took  one  of  the 
most  prominent  parts  in  opposition  to  the 
Government  as  a  leader  of  the  Irish  party, 
and  was  twice  convicted  under  the  Irish 
Crimes  Act.  After  enduring  an  imprison- 
ment of  three  months,  he  went  to  AustraUa 
to  collect  funds  for  the  Irish  party.  Re- 
turning, he  was  again,  vrith  O'Brien,  con- 
victed under  the  Crimes  Act,  but  escaped 
from  Ireland  in  a  yacht,  and  went  to 
America  to  collect  funds.  During  his  ab- 
sence Parnell's  leadershij)  was  repudiated  by 
the  larger  section  of  the  Irish  party,  and 
Dillon  came  to  France  to  endeavour  to  heal 
the  breach.  The  negotiations  having  proved 
fruitless,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was 
at  once  arrested  and  imprisoned  under  the 
sentence  passed  upon  him  before  his  tour  in 
America. 

Diocletianus,  Caius  Valerius  Jovius  {b. 
245,  (/.  313),  succeeded  in  284  Numerian  as 
Roman  emperor,  having  raised  himself  to 
that  position  from  the  rank  of  common 
soldier.  His  reign  was  distinguished  by  his 
victories  over  the  barbarians  and  his  deter- 
mined persecution  of  the  Christians.  In  304 
he  abdicated,  and  retired  to  Saloue. 

Diogenes  [b.  412  B.C.,  d.  323  B.C.),  cynic 
philosopher.  The  greater  part  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  Athens.  In  his  old  age  he  was 
captured  by  pirates,  by  whom  he  was  sold 
to  a  wealthy  Corinthian,  whose  firm  friend 
he  became. 

Disraeli,  Benjamin,     [See  Beaconsfield.] 

D'lsraeU,  Isaac,  D.C.L.  {b.  1766,  d.  1848), 
the  only  sou  of  a  Venetian  merchant,  for 
many  years  resident  in  England,  was  an 
earnest  student  of  history  and  criticism,  in 
wliich  he  attained  considerable  distinction. 
After  publishing  many  valuable  books,  he 
produced,  in  1816,  his  Commentaries  on  the 
Life  and  Reign  of  Cliarles  I.,  for  which  the 
University  of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.  A  comprehensive  history 
of  literature,  which  it  was  intended  by 
D' Israeli  to  extend  to  six  volumes,  had  to  be 
abandoned,  owing  to  its  author  being 
stricken  with  blindness.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  Quarterly  Review,  and  hia 


Dix 


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Dol 


Iteview  of  Spoicc^s  Anecdotes,  in  1820,  led 
to  the  famous  Pope  controversy.  Other 
•works  of  his  axe  Curiosities  of  Literature, 
Calamities  of  Authors,  and  Quarrels  of 
Authors. 

Dix,  John  Adams  {b.  1798,  d.  1879), 
American  general  and  politician,  entering 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  soon  rose  to 
distinction  under  General  Benin.  In  1828 
he  left  the  army  for  the  law,  but  on  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  war  was  appointed  major- 
general  of  the  New  York  militia.  In  1863 
he  was  transferred  to  New  York,  of  which 
he  had  command  at  the  time  of  the  riots. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  appointed 
minister  in  Paris,  and  in  1872  was  elected  by 
the  Republican  party  as  governor  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  but  in  1874,  when  he 
and  his  party  were  defeated  by  Mr.  Tilden, 
General  Dix  retired  from  pubUc  Ufa. 

Dixon,  Denham  {b.  1785,  d.  1828),  soldier 
and  explorer,  served  in  Spain  against  the 
French  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  In  1821 
he  joined  Oudney  and  Clapperton  in  their 
African  expedition,  when  they  penetrated  to 
the  interior  from  Tripoli,  Dixon  returning  in 
1825.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  the  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  where 
he  died. 

Dixon,  WiUiam  Hep  worth  (b.  1821,  d. 
1879),  man  of  letters,  began  his  career  at 
Cheltenham,  where  he  acted  as  editor  to  a 
local  newspaper.  At  twenty-five  years  of 
age  he  went  to  London,  where  he  entered  as 
student  of  the  Inner  Temple,  and  associated 
himself  with  the  Daily  News.  For  this 
paper  he  wrote  articles  on  the  Literature  of 
the  Lower  Orders  and  on  London  Prisons, 
which  were  published  in  book  form  in 
1850.  From  1853-66  Mr.  Dixon  edited  The 
Athcnaum,  and  during  this  time  made  a 
systematic  study  of  the  State  archives,  and 
produced,  in  1860,  The  Personal  History  of 
Lord  Bacon,  in  1865,  The  Holy  Land,  and  in 
1866,  New  America.  In  1868  he  travelled 
through  Russia,  and  two  years  later  brought 
out  his  Free  Russia,  after  which,  to  the  time 
of  his  death,  he  wrote  no  less  than  twenty- 
five  volumes  of  history,  travel,  and  fiction. 
In  1872  an  action  for  libel  was  brought  by 
Mr.  Dixon  against  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette 
for  some  severe  criticisms  on  New  America, 
Spiritual  Wives,  and  Free  Russia,  and  after  a 
long  trial  he  was  awarded  one  farthing 
damages. 

DobeU,  Sydney  {b.  1824,^.  1874),  poet  and 
man  of  letters,  known  also  by  the  name 
"Sydney  Yendys."  In  1850  he  brought  out 
his  first  poem,  The  Roman,  a  drama,  which 
was  favourably  received,  but  his  next  work. 
Balder  (1854),  was  severely  attacked.  In 
1855  he  published,  jointly  with  Mr. 
Alexander  Smith,  his  Sonnets  of  the  War, 


and  the  year  following  England  in  Time  of 
War.  In  politics  he  was  always  the  friend 
of  Uberty,  and  he  was  probably  the  first  to 
introduce  the  system  of  co-operation  into 
his  business,  which  was  that  of  a  wine 
merchant. 

Dobson,  Henry  Austin  {b.  1840),  poet  and 
man  of  letters.  In  1856  he  obtained  a  clerk- 
ship in  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  his  first 
verses  were  published  in  1873.  Since  that 
time  he  has  published  numerous  volumes  of 
verse,  such  as  Proverbs  in  Porcelain,  Old 
World  Idylls,  and  At  the  Sign  of  the  Lyre. 
He  is  also  the  author  of  several  able 
biographies. 

Dobson,  William  Charles  Thomas  (*.  1817), 
artist.  In  1843  he  was  appointed  head-master 
of  the  Government  school  of  design  at 
Birmingham,  and  in  1845  left  the  post  to 
travel  on  the  Continent.  In  1872  he  was 
elected  Royal  Academician,  and  in  1875  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water  Colours.  His  oil  paint- 
ings proved  very  popular,  and  his  Alms- 
deeds  of  Dorcas  was  painted  by  command  of 
the  Queen. 

Doderidge,  John  (*.  1555,  d.  1628), 
English  lawyer,  who  was  at  the  same  time 
an  authority  on  art,  theology,  and  antiquity. 
He  passed  from  the  ofiice  of  solicitor-general 
to  the  Pi-ince  of  Wales  to  a  judgeship,  and 
was  one  of  those  judges  who  were  cited 
before  the  House  of  Lords  for  refusing  to 
admit  Hampden  to  bail. 

Doherty,  .John  (b.  1783,  d.  1850),  Irish 
judge.  In  1826  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Kilkenny  as  a  Tory,  where  his 
reputation  as  a  debater  was  so  quickly 
established  that  in  1827  he  became  Solicitor- 
General.  He  is  remembered  especially  for 
his  parliamentary  encounters  with  O'Connell. 
In  1830  he  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  Com- 
mon Pleas  in  Ireland. 

Dohrn,  Anton  (b.  1842),  German  zoologist, 
established  a  zoological  station  at  Naples  in 
1874,  his  own  private  contributions  to  this 
great  undertaking  being  supplemented  by 
those  of  the  German  and  Italian  govern- 
ments. He  has  been  a  prolific  contributor 
to  the  scientific  journals,  and  has  made  some 
very  valuable  biological  collections. 

Dolet,  :6tienne  {b.  1509,  d.  1546),  French 
printer,  scholar,  and  poet,  was  the  writer  of 
many  valuable  books,  the  most  famous  being 
Com-nie»tarion<m  Lingum  Latina,  which  ob- 
tained for  him  from  Francis  I.  the  privilege 
of  printing,  during  ten  years,  all  the  books 
written,  translated,  or  annotated  by  himself. 
In  1543  the  Parliament  of  Paris  judged  a 
phrase  in  his  translation  of  the  Axiochus  to 
be  heretical,  and  ordered  him  to  be  cruelly 
tortured  and  strangled. 


D61 


(  255  ) 


Don 


Dollinger,  Johann  Josef  Ignaz  [b.  1799,  d. 
1890),  theologian,  became  a  priest  in  1882, 
and  shortly  sifter  was  appointed  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Munich,  when  he 
published  The  Meformation  :  its  Development 
and  Results.  In  1845  he  sat  in  the  Bavarian 
parliament  as  representative  of  the  Munich 
university,  and  in  1851  was  a  delegate  to 
the  parliament  at  Frankfort,  where  he  ad- 
vocated the  separation  of  church  and  state. 
In  1861  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
against  the  temporal  supremacy  of  the 
Pope,  and  in  the  QEciunenical  Council  of 
1869-70  he  took  up  a  very  strong  attitude 
against  the  Vatican  decrees.  He  became 
the  leader  of  the  "Old  Catholic"  party, 
and  was  excommunicated  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Munich.  In  1871  he  was  elected  rector 
of  his  university,  and  1873  became  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Science.  At  the 
conference  of  the  Old  Catholics,  held  at 
Bonn,  in  1874,  over  which  he  presided,  he 
still  fui'ther  receded  from  the  orthodox 
church,  and,  ki  fact,  his  sect  established  an 
episcopacy  of  its  own. 

Dolomieu,  Deodat  Guy  Silvain  Tancrfede 
Gratetde  [h.  1750,  d.  1801),  French  geologist. 
Entering  the  Order  of  Malta  at  an  early  age, 
he  was  imprisoned  for  a  fatal  duel  with  a 
knight  of  the  order,  and  during  his  confine- 
ment he  studied  physical  science.  Pursuing 
his  studies  after  his  release,  he  published 
several  treatises  on  geology,  which  obtained 
for  him  election  to  the  Academie  des  Sciences. 
In  1777  he  made  a  pedestrian  tour  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  in  the  interest  of  geological  obser- 
vation, and  in  1798  he  joined  the  scientific 
expedition  to  Egypt.  Returning,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  nearly  two  years  by  the 
Knights  of  Malta,  into  whose  power  he  fell. 

Dombrowski,  Jan  Henryk  {b.  175.5,  d. 
1818),  Polish  general.  In  1770  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  but  in 
1792,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion, he  returned  to  Warsaw,  and  took  part 
in  the  struggle  against  Russia  and  Prussia. 
His  services  were  so  brilliant  that,  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  war,  he  was  oflfered  com- 
mands in  the  armies  of  both  Russia  and 
Prussia.  In  1796  he  went  to  France,  and 
formed  and  commanded  a  Polish  legion  in 
the  Republican  anny,  which  greatly  dis- 
tinguished itself  in  the  Italian  campaign. 
In  1806  he  was  commissioned  by  Napoleon 
to  raise  his  countrymen  in  arms,  and  made  a 
triumphal  entry  into  Warsaw.  Heservedwith 
much  distinction  in  the  Russian  campaign 
of  1812,  and  commanded  the  Polish  division 
in  the  Prussian  campaign  of  1813.  In  1815 
he  was  appointed  general  and  Polish  senator 
by  the  Emperor  Alexander  of  Russia.  He 
published  the  History  of  the  Folish  Legions  in 
Italy. 

Domett,  Alfred  (b.  1811,  d.  1887),  poet 


and  statesman  of  New  Zealand,  was  bom 
and  educated  in  England,  and  afterwards 
travelled  in  America  and  on  the  Continent. 
He  settled  in  New  Zealand  in  1841,  and  in 
1851  became  secretary  of  state  for  New 
Zealand,  while,  in  1862,  he  was  called  upon 
to  form  a  government.  In  1865  he  became 
registrar-general  of  land,  and  in  1871  he 
returned  to  England.  His  verses  are 
numerous. 

Dominic,  St.,  Dominigo  de  Guzman  {b. 
1170,  d.  1221),  Spanish  priest  who  founded 
the  order  which  is  named  after  him.  He  is 
reputed  to  have  been  the  initiator  of  the 
Inquisition,  and,  at  any  rate,  he  filled  the 
office  of  inquisitor.  His  order  were  allowed 
to  settle  in  London  in  the  district  known  as 
Blackfriars. 

Domitian,  Titus  Flavins  Sabinus  Domi- 
tianus  Augustus  {b.  a.d.  52,  d.  96),  Roman 
Emperor.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  the 
Emperor  Vespasian,  and  succeeded  his 
brother,  Titus,  in  81.  He  undertook  several 
expeditions  against  the  barbarians;  but  his 
rule  was  so  cruel  and  corrupt  that  it  was 
ended  by  his  assassination. 

Donaldson,  James  {b.  1831),  philologist,  a 
native  of  Aberdeen.  In  1852  he  was 
appointed  Greek  tutor  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  in  1881  professor  of  Latin 
at  Aberdeen  University.  In  1886  he  sue- 
ceeded  Principal  Shairp  as  principal  of  St. 
Andrew's  University.  He  has  published 
many  valuable  works  on  Greek  literature 
and  on  historical  and  theological  subjects. 

Donatello,   or  Donato   di   Betto  Bardi 

(b.  1386,  d.  1466),  Italian  sculptor,  a  native 
of  Florence,  received  his  fii'st  instruction 
from  Lorenzo  Bicci,  and  his  first  great  works 
were  St.  Peter  and  St.  Mark,  and  the  church 
of  St.  Michael  at  Florence.  His  other 
works  were  numerous,  including  an 
equestrian  statue  in  bronze  of  Erasmus 
Gatemelata  at  Padua. 

Donati,  Corso  (d.  1308),  Florentine 
nobleman,  and  the  leader  of  the  Neri 
party,  was  such  a  disturbing  influence  in 
the  republic  that  his  banishment  was 
decreed.  Proceeding  to  Rome,  he  induced 
Boniface  VIII.  to  send  Charles  of  Valois  to 
Florence  as  pontifical  vicar,  and  he 
employed  this  papal  interference  for  the 
purpose  of  proscribing  his  enemies.  In  this 
proscription  his  relative  Dante  was  included. 
Finally  he  was  again  compelled  to  fly  from 
Florence,  and  was  assassinated  soon  after. 

Donati,  Giambattista  {b.  1826,  d.  1873), 
ItaUan  astronomer,  became  famous  by  his 
astronomical  observations  while  at  the 
Florence  observatory.  In  1860  lie  published 
his  work  on  the  upectra  of  stars,  which  first 
drew  attention  to  that  branch  of  astronomy, 


Don 


(  256  ) 


Dor 


and  two  years  previously  he  discovered  a 
new  comet,  called  "  Douati's  comet."  lu 
1864  he  succeeded  to  the  directorship  of  the 
observatory,  aud  spent  much  time  in  the 
establishmeut  of  a  new  observatory.  He 
died  of  cholera. 

Donati,  Vitaliauo  {b.  1713,  d.  1763), 
Italian  naturalist,  was  a  professor  at  Turin 
university,  aud  made  many  scientific 
collections  in  the  course  of  his  naturalist 
tours  through  the  length  of  the  Italian 
peninsula.  Later  he  went  to  Egyjjt  and  the 
East,  but  was  shipwrecked  and  drowned  on 
the  return  voyage. 

Donizetti,  Gaetano  {b.  1798,  d.  1848), 
Italian  musician  and  composer ;  entered  the 
academy  of  Naples,  but  for  many  years  his 
talent  was  obscured  from  recognition  by  the 

Eopularity  of  Eossini.  In  1830  he  produced 
is  opera  Anna  Bokna,  which  had  a  very 
great  success  in  France  and  England  as  well 
as  in  Italy.  His  best  known  work,  Lucia  di 
Lammeriiioor,  was  first  produced  at  Milan 
in  1835.  Lucrezia  Borgia.,  which  was 
founded  on  Victor  Hugo's  Zucrece  Borgia, 
was  for  some  time  excluded  from  France, 
but  in  1842  it  was  produced  in  London  with 
great  success.  Among  his  other  works  were 
B'Elisir  d' Amove,  a  comic  opera;  Don 
Fasquale  in  1843 ;  La  Figlia  del  Reggimento  ; 
and  La  Favorita. 

Donne,  John  [b.  1573,  d.  1631),  poet  and 
divine,  born  of  CathoUc  parents,  joined  the 
Protestant  faith  while  reading  for  the  bar, 
and  about  this  time  he  published  his  first 
poems.  In  1594  lie  went  to  Italy  and  Spain, 
and  on  his  return  he  became  secretary  to 
Lord  Ellesmere,  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal.  While  in  this  position  he  privately 
married  Lord  Ellesmere's  niece,  and,  on  the 
marriage  being  discovered,  he  was  imprisoned 
bj-  Sir  George  More,  his  wife's  father. 
After  his  hberation  he  lived  with  his  wife  in 
Loudon  and  Paris,  and  when  he  returned  to 
England  was  induced  by  James  I.  to  take 
orders,  subsequently  being  presented  with 
the  deanery  of  St.  Paul's.  His  poetical 
works  are  numerous,  aud  of  a  very  varied 
character.  He  began  by  vsritiug  erotic  poetry, 
and  in  later  life  devoted  himself  to  meta- 
physical compositions.  It  was  to  his  work, 
The  Psetido  Martin;  a  composition  directed 
against  the  Catholics,  that  he  largely  owed 
the  favour  of  James  I. 

Donoso,  Cortes  Juan  Francisco,  Maria  de 
la  Salad,  Marquis  de  Valdegamas  (b.  1809, 
d.  1853),  Spanish  writer  and  diplomatist. 
Joining,  in  1832,  the  popular  party  on  the 
question  of  the  royal  succession,  he  wrote 
and  sent  to  the  king  a  treatise,  which  pro- 
cured for  him  a  post  in  the  ministry.  For  a 
short  time  after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
he  was  secretary  to  the  council  of  ministers, 


and  he  retired  to  France  with  the  queen- 
mother  during  the  dictatorship  of  Espar- 
tero.  In  1843  he  returned  to  Spain  aud  sub- 
sequently became  minister- plenipotentiary 
at  Berlm.  His  principal  work  was  Essays 
on  Catholicism,  Liberalism,  and  Socialism. 

Doo,  George  Thomas  (b.  1800,  d.  1886), 
historical  engraver.  In  1824  he  produced 
his  engraving,  2Vte  Duke  of  York,  after  Sir 
Thomas  Lawrence,  and  for  this  he  was 
appointed  engraver  to  his  Royal  Highness. 
Having  spent  some  time  studying  in  Paris, 
he  helped  to  form  an  Academy  of  Sculpture 
in  the  Savoy,  and  then  occupied  himself 
with  lecturing  on  the  history  and  develop- 
ment of  art.  In  1836  he  was  appointed 
historical  engraver  to  William  IV.,  and  in 
1842  to  Queen  Victoria.  In  1856  he  was 
elected  Eoyal  Academician,  and  later  was 
chosen  as  one  of  the  four  representatives  of 
the  Royal  Academy  at  the  Congrfes  Artistique 
held  at  Antwerp.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  Ralfaelle's  Infant  Christ,  Cor- 
regio's  Ecce  Homo,  and  Wilkie's  Knox 
Preaching  before  the  Lords  of  the  Covenant. 

Doran,  John  (b.  1807,  d.  1878),  journalist 
and  man  of  letters,  was  first  known  as  a 
contributor  to  the  Literary  Chronicle,  and  in 
1835  produced  his  History  of  Reading.  Until 
1846  he  edited  a  London  weekly  newspaper, 
and  succeeded  Mr.  Thorns  as  editor  of  Notes 
and  Queries.  From  time  to  time,  also,  he 
edited  the  Athenccuin.  Besides  his  contribu- 
tions to  periodical  literature,  he  published  an 
annotated  edition  of  Xeuophon's  Anabasis, 
a  Life  of  Dr.  Young,  Saints  and  Sinners, 
Knights  and  their  Days,  and  other  works. 

Dore,  Paul  Gustavo  (b.  1832,  d.  1883), 
French  painter  and  book  illustrator,  was 
bom  at  Strasbourg  and  educated  at  a 
Parisian  lycee.  He  became  known  by  his 
illustrations  of  Rabelais  and  Don  Quixote, 
and  for  some  years  was  a  constant  con- 
tributor to  the  Journal  pour  Rire.  At  the 
time  of  the  Crimean  war  he  produced  his 
Alma  and  InJcermami ;  in  1861  he  published 
the  first  of  his  famous  illustrations  to  Dante's 
Divine  Comedy;  and  next  his  illustrations 
to  the  Bible,  Paradise  Lost,  The  Ancient 
Mariner,  and  The  Idylls  of  the  King.  These 
works  secured  for  him  a  greater  reputation 
in  England  than  was  accorded  to  him  in  his 
native  coimtrj\  He  afterwards  devoted 
himself  to  the  production  of  large  pictures 
on  religious  subjects,  such  as  The  Dream  of 
Pilate's  Wife,  The  Entry  into  Jerusalem,  axi.6. 
Ecce  Homo. 

Doria,  Andrea  (6.  1468,  d.  1560),  Genoese 
patriot,  entered  the  Genoese  navy  when 
quite  young,  and  rendered  distinguished 
services.  In  1527  he  fought  with  the  French 
under  Francis  I.  against  the  emperor, 
Charles  V.,  but,  becoming  disgusted  with  the 


Dor 


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Don 


treatment  of  Genoa  by  the  French,  he  joined 
the  emperor.  As  admiral  of  the  imperial 
fleet  he  raised  the  siege  of  Naples,  and  drove 
the  French  from  Genoa,  becoming  a  magis- 
trate of  the  republic.  In  the  naval  war 
with  the  Turks  he  achieved  several  triumphs 
on  behalf  of  the  Emjjeror  Charles.  In  his 
latter  days  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  but,  owing  to  the  death  of  the  leading 
conspirator,  it  failed,  and  Doria  retained  his 
power  and  popularity  until  his  death. 

Dorigny,  a  family  of  French  artists. 
Michael  {b.  1617,  d.  1665),  was  a  professor 
at  the  Paris  Academy.  Loms,  son  of  the 
above  (b.  16.54,  d.  1742).  Sir  Nicholas, 
brother  of  the  above  {b.  165S,  d.  1746),  was 
the  engraver  of  the  Raphael  cartoons  at 
Hampton  Court,  and  was  knighted  by 
George  I. 

Dorregaray,  Don  Antonio,  Marquis  of 
Eraul  {b.  1820,  d.  1882),  Curlist  leader, 
passed,  in  1839,  from  the  service  of  Don 
Carlos,  which  he  entered  in  1836,  to  the 
royal  army,  distinguishing  himself  in  the 
Morocco  campaign.  In  1872  he  gave  his 
allegiance  to  the  younger  Don  Carlos,  and  in 
the  following  year  won  the  battle  of  Estella. 
In  1874  he  assumed  chief  command  of  the 
CarUst  forces,  and  in  1876  fled  to  England 
with  his  leader.    He  died  in  Madrid. 

D'Orsay,  Alfred,  Comte  (b.  1798,  d.  1852), 
the  noted  beau  and  dilettante,  was  born  in 
Paris,  and  entered  the  army.  In  1827  he 
married  Lady  Harriet  Gardiner,  a  daughter 
of  Lord  Blessington,  but  was  soon  separated 
from  his  wife.  On  the  death  of  his  father- 
in-law  he  succeeded  to  property  in  Ireland, 
which  enabled  him  to  live  in  London  as  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  fashionable  life.  Meet- 
ing Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  he  followed  him 
to  Paris,  and  exerted  his  influence  on  the 
side  of  moderation,  when  that  prince  became 
head  of  the  state. 

Dost  Mahommed  (b.  1806,  d.  1863),  Ameer 
of  Cabul,  succeeded  Shah  Soojah,  who  was 
driven  from  the  country,  and  who  took 
refuge  in  India.  In  1834  he  defeated  Shah 
Soojah  in  an  attempt  to  recover  his 
dominions,  and  then  endeavoured  to  wrest 
Peshawar  from  the  Sikhs.  Failing  in  this, 
he  entered  into  intrigues  with  Eussians  and 
Persians,  which  provoked  the  Afghan  cam- 
paign of  1839.  He  was  defeated,  and  com- 
pelled to  fly,  and  after  a  long  struggle  he 
surrendered  to  the  British  general.  Till  1842 
he  was  detained  in  India,  and  on  his  restora- 
tion he  joined  the  Sikhs  in  the  second  Sikh 
war.  In  1856  he  entered  into  alliance  with 
the  British,  by  whom  an  army  was  sent  to 
aid  him  against  the  Persians,  who  had  seized 
Herat. 

Dostoieffsky,  Feodor  (*.  1821,  d.  1881), 
Russian  novelist,  entered  the  army  in  1343, 


but  soon  gained  favour  by  his  novel.  Poor 
Folk.  In  1849  he  was  transported  to  Si- 
beria, where  he  was  detained  till  1854,  when 
he  served  as  a  common  soldier  till  1858.  In 
1861  he  married  and  settled  in  St.  Peters- 
burg. Amongst  his  other  works  may  be 
named  Buried  Alive  (1858)  and  Crime  and 
its  Punishment  (1866). 

Douglas,  Sir  Archibald  (d.  1368),  brother 
of  Lord  James  Douglas,  an  adlierent  of 
King  David  II.,  defeated  Baliol  at  Annan 
in  1362,  and  in  1368  he  was  chosen  regent 
of  Scotland.  In  the  same  year,  however, 
he  was  defeated  at  Halidon  Hill,  where  he 
was  mortally  wounded. 

Douglas,  Sir  Charles  {d.  1789),  naval 
officer,  served  for  some  time  in  the 
Dutch  navy.  He  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  in  the  British  service,  fought  in  the 
American  war,  and  commanded  Rodney's 
vessel  on  "  the  r2th  of  June." 

Douglas,  Sir  Howard  (5,  1776,  d.  1861), 
distinguished  general,  and  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
in  1823  was  governor  of  New  Brunswick, 
and  in  1835  Commissioner  of  the  Ionian 
Islands.  In  1842  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Liverpool.  He  left  several  military 
works. 

Douglas,  James,  Lord  (d.  1331),  sur- 
named  "The  Good,"  and  son  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Douglas,  the  friend  of  Wallace,  waa 
active  in  the  cause  of  Bruce,  and  com- 
,manded  a  division  at  Bannockbum.  When 
Bruce  went  to  Ireland  he  was  left  as  re- 
gent, and  in  1319  made  a  victorious  raid 
into  England.  In  1327  he  again  defeated 
the  English,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Dur- 
ham. He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
who  concluded  the  Treaty  of  Northampton, 
and  on  Bruce's  death  set  out  to  convey  the 
patriot's  heart  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at 
Jerusalem.  He  was  killed  in  Spain  on  his 
way. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold  (b.  1813,  d. 
1861),  American  politician,  was  bom  in 
Vermont,  where  he  practised  as  a  lawyer, 
and  where  he  became  a  leader  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party.  In  1841  he  became  a  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois,  and  1843  a 
member  of  Congress.  From  1847  to  1859  he 
sat  in  the  United  States  senate  for  Ilhnois, 
supporting  Clay's  "  Compromise  Measures," 
and  enimciating  his  "Popular  Sovereignty" 
doctrine  on  the  slavery  question.  In  1858 
he  defeated  Abraham  Lincoln  in  the  contest 
for  the  representation  of  Illinois  in  the 
senate,  but  he  strongly  supported  the 
Government  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
war. 

Douglas,  Sir  William  {d.  1353),  the 
Knight  of  Liddesdale.    Taken  prisoner  by 


Don 


(  258  ) 


Doy 


the  English  in  1332,  he  was  strictly  confiiied 
by  Edward  III.  On  his  release  he  drove 
the  English  from  Teviotdale,  and  was  made 
governor  of  Roxburgh  Castle  by  David  II. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Neville's  Cross, 
and  was  assassinated  in  1353  by  his  godson, 
Lord  William  Douglas. 

Douglas.  William,  first  Earl  of  (d.  1384), 
the  son  of  Sir  Archibald  Douglas.  In  1346 
he  returned  to  Scotland  from  France,  and 
succeeded  in  driving  out  the  Eiighsh  in- 
vaders from  Teviotdale.  In  13o3  he  m\u'- 
dered  his  godfather,  Sir  William  Douglas, 
the  Knight  of  Liddesdale.  He  fought  at 
Poictiers,  and  was  created  earl  next  year. 

Douglas,  James,  second  Earl  of  {d.  1388), 
son  of  the  preceding,  married  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Robert  II.  He  displayed  great 
soldierly  qualities  ia  his  English  raids,  and 
in  1388  he  reached  York.  On  his  return  he 
met  and  defeated  the  Percies  at  Otterbum, 
but  he  himself  was  killed. 

Douglas,  Archibald,  fourth  Earl  of  (d. 
1424),  headed  the  Scottish  army  which,  in 
1402,  invaded  England,  and  was  defeated  at 
Homildon  Hill.  Taken  prisoner  by  Percy, 
he  joined  that  nobleman  against  Henry  IV., 
and  was  taken  prisoner  again  at  the  battle 
of  Shrewsbury.  In  1421  he  went  to  France, 
where  he  was  created  Duke  of  Touraine. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Vemeuil. 

Douglas,  William,  eighth  Earl  of  (d. 
1462),  son  of  James  the  Gross,  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  by  King  James  II., 
he  defeated  the  English,  and  assumed  a 
quasi-independence,  making  pacts  vnth 
foreign  powers,  and  alliances  with  other 
great  Scottish  nobles.  Deprived  of  his 
office  by  the  king,  he  levied  war  upon  the 
king's  friends,  and  put  Sir  John  Herpies  to 
death.  At  an  interview  with  the  king  at 
Stirling  he  was  assassinated. 

Douglas,  James,  ninth  Earl  of  (d.  1488), 
brother  of  the  preceding,  nailed  a  defiance 
of  the  king  to  the  walls  of  the  Parhament 
House,  and  then  openly  declared  war.  De- 
serted by  the  Angus  family,  he  was  defeated 
at  Arkenholme,  in  1455,  and  was  compelled 
to  fiy  to  England.  In  1484  he  was  taken 
prisoner  in  a  border  foray,  and  confined  in 
a  monastery  for  the  rest  of  his  Ufe,  with 
him  ending  the  peerage. 

Douglass,  Frederick  (b.  1817),  American 
orator,  was  born  a  mulatto  slave  in 
Maryland,  but  he  escaped  as  a  young  man, 
and  in  1841  began  to  dehver  lectures  against 
slavery,  which  attracted  much  attention. 
In  1846  he  made  a  very  successful  lecturing 
tour  in  England,  and,  returning  to  America, 
he  became  a  newspaper  editor.  From  1877 
to  1881  he  was  United  States  marshal  for 
the  district  of  Columbia. 


Dousa,  James,  or  Jan  Vander  Does,  Lord 

of  Moordwyck  {b.  1545,  d.  1604),  Dutch 
statesman,  and  man  of  letters,  was  a 
member  of  the  deputation  sent  by  the  re- 
volted Netherlands  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
1572,  and  in  1574  he  was  governor  of  Ley- 
den  during  the  siege  by  the  Spaniards.  Em- 
ployed on  several  diplomatic  missions,  he 
was  made  keeper  of  the  Dutch  archives  in 
1585,  and  wi'ote  the  annals  of  the  country 
in  prose  and  verse.  In  1591  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  sovereign  council. 

Dove,  Heinrich  Wilhehn  (A.  1803,  d.  1879), 
German  savant,  having  attained  the  dignity 
of  a  i^rofessorship  at  Berlin  University  and 
admission  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
he  published,  in  1855,  a  Treatise  on  the 
Metrical  Standards  of  Different  Nations.  He 
secured  an  international  reputation  by  his 
researches  into  the  laws  of  cyclone  storms, 
while  other  investigations  led  to  numerous 
optical  discoveries.  He  was  largely  respon- 
sible for  the  organisation  of  the  storm  signal 
department  ia  Germany. 

Dover,  George  James  Welbore  Agar  Ellis, 
Baron  {b.  1797,  d.  1833), historian, enteredPar- 
liament  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  in  1826 
published  a  volume  on  the  Iron  3Iask,  de- 
monstratiug  the  prisoner  to  have  been  Count 
Matthioli.  In  1828  he  published  Historical 
Enquiries  Respecting  the  Character  of  Edward 
Hi/de,  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and  in  1829  The 
Ellis  Correspondence.  Among  his  other  works 
were  Life  of  Frederick,  King  of  Prussia; 
Letters  of  Horace  Walpole  to  Sir  Horace 
Mann ;  and  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent 
Sovereigns  of  Modern  Europe. 

Dow,  Gerard  {b.  1613,  d.  1675),  Dutch 
painter,  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt.  His  works 
stand  very  high  in  the  class  of  genre 
paintings — the  minuteness  of  detail  being  a 
peculiar  feature.  Among  his  works  are  The 
Dropsical  Woman,  The  Village  Grocer,  TJie 
Mountebank,  and  The  Dentist. 

Dowland,  John  (*.  1562,  d.  1626),  musi- 
cian, very  celebrated  in  his  own  day,  and  a 
contemporary  and  friend  of  Shakespeare. 
He  took  a  musical  degree  at  Oxford  in  1588, 
and  in  1597  produced  his  first  work,  A  Collec- 
tion of  Songs.  He  was  an  accomplished 
vocalist  and  player  of  the  lute,  and  at  one 
time  held  the  post  of  lute-player  to  the  king 
of  Denmark. 

Doyle,  John  (b.  1789,  d.  1868),  caricaturist, 
born  of  Irish  parents,  he  came  to  London  ia 
1822.  Not  succeeding  as  an  artist,  he  took 
to  producing  lithograph  likenesses  of  public 
men  of  the  day,  and,  as  these  proved  popular, 
he  turned  to  caricature,  adopting  the  sig- 
nature "H.B.,"  and  for  many  years  his 
productions  were  eagerly  looked  for. 

Doyle,  Richard  (b.  1826,  d.  1883),  artist, 


Doz 


(259) 


Dre 


son  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the 
original  artists  of  Punch,  but  in  1850  he 
severed  his  connection,  and  devoted  himself 
to  hook-illustration.  Besides  his  Fairy  Tales 
and  Continental  Tour,  he  produced  his  Comic 
History  of  £»(/ land  a,ud  his  BircVsEye  Views 
of  Society,  the  latter  appearing  in  Cornhill. 

Dozy,  Reiuhart  (*.  1820,  d.  1884),  Dutch 
Orientalist  and  professor  of  history  at  the 
Ley  den  university.  In  1S61  he  produced 
his  Histoire  des  Musyulmans  d'K^pagne,  and 
this  was  followed  by  his  Researches  in  the 
Folitical  and  Literary  History  of  Spain 
During  the  Middle  Ages.  Besides  his  in- 
valuable SuppUment  aux  l)ictionnaires 
Arabes,  he  published  several  works  of  value 
on  Mohammedanism  and  the  Moors, 

Draco,  a  lawgiver  of  Athens  about  620  B.C. 

Dragut  (d.  1565),  Turkish  corsair,  bom  of 
Christian  parents.  He  entered  the  Turkish 
service,  and  obtained  the  command  of  a 
squadron.  Captured  by  the  Genoese,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  four  years,  when  he  was 
ransomed,  and,  resuming  his  command,  he 
raided  the  coasts  of  Italy,  and  captured 
several  places  from  the  Spaniards.  He  died 
from  a  wound  received  at  the  siege  of  Malta 
by  the  sultan,  Solyman  II. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis  (b.  1545,  d.  1596), 
English  naval  commander,  early  entered 
upon  a  seafaring  hfe,  and  in  1566  sailed  with 
his  kinsman.  Sir  John  Hawkins,  to  the 
Spanish  MaLa.  This  voyage  was  followed 
by  several  others,  undertaken  merely  in  the 
hope  of  plunder,  and  in  1572,  with  two 
vessels,  he  attacked  Nombre  de  Dios  and 
Vera  Cruz.  After  serving  in  Ireland,  he  set 
out  again  for  the  Spanish  Main  (1577)  in 
command  of  five  vessels,  this  time  with  the 
sanction  of  Elizabeth.  He  passed  through 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  plimdered  the 
Spanish  settlements  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America  ;  then,  fearing  to  return  by 
the  same  route,  he  sailed  across  the  Pacific 
to  the  East  Indies,  and,  doubling  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  reached  Plymouth  with  a 
remnant  of  his  fleet,  in  1580.  The  queen 
knighted  Drake  for  this  exploit,  and  dined 
with  him  on  board  his  vessel.  In  1585  he 
again  sailed  with  a  fleet  to  the  Spanish  West 
Indies,  and  captured  St.  Jago,  St.  Domingo, 
and  Carthagena.  In  1587,  while  the  Ar- 
mada was  being  collected,  he  sailed  to  Cadiz, 
where  he  destroyed  an  enormous  quantity  of 
shipping,  and  he  served  as  vice-admiral  of 
the  English  fleet  against  the  Armada.  In 
1595  he  sailed  with  Hawkins  to  the  West 
Indies  again,  but  the  expedition  was  baffled 
at  several  points,  and  Drake  died  ofE  Porto 
Belle. 

Drake,  Friedrich  (A.  1805,  d.  1882),  German 
Bculptor,  was  a  pupil  of  Ranch,  and  executed 


some  large  allegorical  subjects  for  King 
Friedrich  WUhelm  IV.  His  reputation 
chiefly  rests  on  his  busts  and  statues,  such 
as  those  of  Mciser,  Ranch,  Humboldt,  Bis- 
marck, and  Ranke. 

Draper,  Henry  {b.  1837,  d.  1882),  Ameri- 
can scientist,  took  an  M.D.  at  New  York, 
and  in  1859  liecame  professor  of  physiology 
at  the  university;  from  1873  to  1882  he 
taught  analytical  chemistry,  and  in  the 
latter  year  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
of  systematic  chemistry.  He  made  valu- 
able researches  into  the  spectra  of  the  stars, 
and  greatly  developed  the  use  of  photo- 
graphy in  his  astronomical  observations. 
In  1874  he  superintended  the  photographic 
department  of  the  Transit  of  Venus  Com- 
mission. He  spent  large  sums  from  his 
private  fortime  on  the  pursuit  of  scientific 
research,  and  had  secured  a  wide  reputation 
when  he  met  an  untimely  death  a  few 
months  after  his  father. 

Draper,  John  William  (i.  1811,  d.  1882), 
father  of  the  preceding,  chemist  and  physi- 
ologist, was  bom  in  Liverpool,  and  studied 
at  the  London  University,  going  to  America 
in  1833.  After  a  distinguished  academic 
career  he  became  professor  of  chemistry 
and  natural  history  at  the  university  of 
New  York,  and  later  professor  of  chemis- 
try and  physiology  at  the  University 
Medical  College.  He  wrote  several  valu- 
able memoirs  on  the  chemical  action  of 
light,  besides  such  philosophical  and  his- 
torical works  as  History  of  the  Intellectual 
Development  of  Europe,  The  Conjlict  between 
Religion  and  Science,  and  The  History  of  the 
American  Civil  War. 

Drayton,  Michael  (b.  1563,  d.  1631),  poet; 
but  little  is  known  of  his  life.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life,  however,  was  spent  in  the 
residence  of  the  Earl  of  Dorset,  to  whom  he 
was  indebted  for  patronage.  His  chief  works 
are  The  Polyolhion  and  Nymphidia.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Drew,  Andrew  {b.  1792,  d.  1878),  British 
naval  officer.  Entering  the  navy  at  the  age 
of  fourteen,  he  saw  constant  service  through 
the  Napoleonic  wars.  In  1824,  with  160 
men,  he  held  Cape  Coast  Castle  against 
50,000  Ashantees,  and  in  1838  he  even  sur- 
passed this  exploit.  During  the  rebellion  iu 
tipper  Canada  he  cut  out  the  rebel  steamer, 
Caroline,  which  was  can-ying  across  arms  and 
men  from  the  States  to  the  rebels  encamped 
at  Navy  Island  on  the  Niagara  river.  He 
captured  the  vessel  by  crossing  the  streain 
with  a  few  men  in  open  boats,  and  for  this 
action  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  Cana- 
dian legislature.  In  1842  he  discovered  a 
very  dangerous  shoal  in  the  West  Indies. 

Drew,  Samuel  {b.  1765,  d.  1833),  Metho 
dist  preacher.    Settled  in  St,  Austell  as  a 


Dri 


(260) 


Dub 


shoemaker,  he  was  excited  by  the  preaching 
of  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  to  join  the  Methodist 
Conuexiou,  and  soon  he  became  a  preacher 
of  great  popularity,  Though  quite  unedu- 
cated, he  set  himself  to  study,  reading 
science  and  metaphysics.  In  1799  he  pub- 
lished an  answer  to  Paine's  A(/e  of  Reason, 
and  in  1802  an  Essay  on  the  Im)naterialit>j 
and  Immortality  of  the  Soul.  He  also  wrote 
a  History  of  Cornwall. 

Driz,  Fran9ois  Xavier  Joseph  {b.  1773,  d. 
1S50),  French  writer,  served  for  three  years 
in  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  then  in  1779 
produced  his  first  effort  in  literature,  L' Essai 
sur  PArt  Oratoire.  This  was  followed  by 
the  romance  Lina,  and  several  philosophical 
essays ;  and  in  1823  his  De  la  Philosophie 
Morale  gained  him  the  Monthyon  prize,  and 
admission  into  the  Academie  Franqaise  in 
1824.  His  great  work  was  Sistoire  du 
Reyne  de  Louis  XVI. 

Drouais,  Jean  Germain  {b.  1763,  d.  1788), 
French  painter,  was  a  pupil  of  David, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  Italy,  where  he 
died  of  fever.  His  first  work  to  attract 
attention  was  the  Woman  of  Canaan  at  the 
Feet  of  Jesus. 

Drouet,  Jean  Baptiste  (b.  1765,  d.  1844), 
French  general.  In  1782  he  entered  the 
army  as  a  private  soldier,  and  in  1799  he 
was  appointed  general  of  brigade.  His 
constant  and  distinguished  services  gained 
for  him  the  title  of  Count  of  Erlon  in  1807, 
with  an  annuity.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  the  French  possessions 
in  the  north  of  Africa,  and  in  1843  marshal 
of  France. 

Drouot,  Antoine,  Count  {b.  1774,  d.  1847), 
French  general  of  artillery,  surnamed  by 
Napoleon,  "The  Sage  of  the  G-reat  Army." 
He  fought  at  Hohenlinden,  Wagram,  Boro- 
dino, and  Liitzen  with  much  distinction, 
and  at  Bautzen  in  1813  he  commanded  the 
Imperial  Guard.  Appotuted  aide-de-camp 
to  Napoleon  and  general  of  division,  he 
followed  the  emperor  to  Elba,  and  accom- 
panied him  on  his  return  to  France,  fight- 
ing at  Waterloo.  Created  a  peer  of  France 
in  that  year,  he  lived  in  retirement  after  the 
restoration. 

Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  Edouard  {b.  1805,  d. 
1881),  French  statesman  and  diplomatist, 
began  his  pubUc  career  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
six,  when  he  became  attached  to  the  French 
embassy  at  Madrid,  and  later  was  promoted 
to  charge  d'affaires  at  the  Hague,  at  the 
time  when  Belgium  was  separated  from 
Holland.  After  holding  important  positions 
in  the  French  Chamber,  he  was  dismissed 
from  office  by  M.  Guizot  for  his  opposition 
to  the  government,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Reforme  party.  In  1848  he  became 
minister    of   foreign  affairs   under   Prince 


Louis  Napoleon,  and  again,  on  the  coup  d'etat 
of  1851,  was  appointed  to  that  position,  and 
for  the  third  time  in  1863,  during  the  Dauo- 
German  war,  he  held  the  same  important 
office.  In  1871,  at  the  fall  of  the  empire,  he 
fled  to  Jersey,  but  later  returned  to  his 
native  country. 

Drummond,  William,  {b.  1585,  d.  1645), 
Scottish  poet  and  man  of  letters,  known  aa 
"Drummond  of  Hawthomden,"  from  the 
place  of  his  residence.  In  1613  he  published 
his  first  poem  Tears  on  the  Death  of  MosUades, 
which  was  followed  by  a  volume  of  poema 
iu  1616.  Ai.ter  some  years  of  foreign  travel 
he  wrote  a  History  of  the  Five  Jameses,  and 
in  1632  he  married.  He  was  visited  ia  his 
home  by  many  of  the  literary  men  of  his 
time,  including  Ben  Jonson,  who  walked 
from  London  to  see  him.  Among  other 
works  he  wrote  Notes  of  Ben  Jonson' s  Con- 
versations, and  he  also  wrote  in  the  Royalist 
interest  on  the  pohtical  events  of  the  day. 

Drusus,  Marcus  Livius,  Roman  orator; 
tribune  of  the  people,  122  b.o. 

Drusus,  Nero  Claudius  {b.  38  B.C.,  d.  9), 
brother  of  Tiberius,  was  surnamed  Ger- 
manicus  for  his  successes  against  the  Ger- 
mans. He  married  Ajitonia,  daughter  of 
Mark  Antony. 

Dryden,  John  {b.  1631,  d.  1700),  the  poet 
of  the  Restoration,  came  to  London  in  1657, 
and  produced  an  elegy  on  the  death  of 
Cromwell.  The  Restoration  he  hailed  with 
his  Astrcea  Redux,  and  from  this  time 
he  rapidly  rose  in  reputation  and  position, 
marrying  the  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Howard. 
Aiter  some  attempts  at  dramatic  composi- 
tion he  wrote  his  Essay  on  Dramatic  Poetry, 
which  was  followed  by  several  successful 
tragedies.  In  1667  he  wrote  the  Annus  Mira- 
bilis,  and  in  1668  he  was  appointed  poet 
laureate.  In  1681  he  wrote  his  greatest  poem, 
Absalom  and  Achitophel,  a  pohtical  satire, 
directed  against  Shaftesbury  and  Bucking- 
ham, which  was  followed  by  the  Medal,  a 
further  attack  on  Shaftesbury,  and  Religio 
Laid,  a  defence  of  the  Church  of  England 
against  Dissent.  After  the  accession  of 
James  II.  Dryden  joined  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  in  1687  published  The  Hind  and 
the  Panther,  a  religious  allegory.  The  Re- 
volution deprived  Dryden  of  all  his  posts, 
and  he  reverted  to  dramatic  writing.  He 
translated  Virgil  and  other  classics  into 
English  verse. 

Dabarry,  Marie  Jeanne,  Comtesse  (b. 
1746,  d.  1793),  mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  was 
executed  during  the  reign  of  terror. 

Dubois,  Guillaume  (*.  1651,  d.  1723), 
French  statesman  and  prelate,  having  acted 
as  tutor  to  the  Duke  of  Chartres,  he  was 
appointed  Abbot  of  St.  Just,  and  employed 


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Dnd 


on  diplomatic  missions,  being  one  of  the 
signatories  to  the  Triple  Alliance.  Later  he 
became  councillor  of  state,  and  foreign 
minister,  and  in  1772  prime  minister.  In 
1720  he  was  appoiated  Archbishop  of  Cam- 
bray,  and  next  year  was  made  a  cardinal. 

Du  Cane,  Sir  Edmund  Frederick,  KC.B. 
{b.  1S30),  helped  to  carry  out  the  convict 
estabhshment  in  Western  Australia  as 
planned  by  Lord  Grey,  and  subsequently 
held  the  positions  of  director  and  inspector 
of  prisons,  chairman  of  directors  of  convict 
prisons,  and  in  1877  was  appointed  chair- 
man of  the  prison  commissioners.  He  wrote 
an  introduction  to  Guy's  liemlts  of  Censuses 
of  the  Population  of  Convict  Prisons,  and 
An  Account  of  the  Manner  in  tvhich  Sen- 
tences of  Penal  Servitude  are  carried  out  in 
England, 

Duchinski,  Henri  Francois  [b.  1816), 
Polish  author,  travelled  through  most  of 
the  countries  of  Europe  collectiag  facts  in 
aid  of  his  theory  that  the  Russians  were 
descended  from  the  Slavs,  and  had  no  con- 
nection with  the  Muscovites.  His  published 
books  were  The  Oriental  Question,  Panslavism 
and  The  Principles  of  the  History  of  Poland 
and  other  Slav  Races,  besides  several 
pamphlets.  His  wife,  Severine,  is  also  a 
writer  of  no  mean  rank. 

Duels,  Jean  Francois  (b.  1733,  d.  1816), 
French  dramatist  and  poet,  after  success- 
fully adaptmg  many  of  Shakespeare's  plays 
for  the  Parisian  stage,  produced  in  1778 
^dipe  Chez  Admete,  imitated  partly  from 
Sophocles  and  partly  from  Euripides,  which 
secured  for  him  the  chair  in  the  Academy, 
then  vacant  by  the  death  of  Voltaire.  In 
1796  he  produced  Abufar,  his  first 
(OTgmal  play,  which  was  followed  by 
Phedor  et  TFaldemar,  Le  Banquet  de 
I  Amitte,  a  poem  in  four  cantos,  and  several 
other  smaller  works. 

,c?i^°^°^^'  ^"^  -^"^^  Thomas  (b.  1748,  d. 
181/),  admiral,  enteiing  the  navy  at  eleven 
years  of  age,  advanced  from  one  di<Tnitv 
to  another  until  in  1799  he  was  appomted 
rear-admiral.  In  1802  he  was  made  chief 
commander  of  Jamaica,  and  three  years 
I?^^,A^®  ^■^^'^  ^^^  second  command  in 
the  Mediterranean.  In  1806  he  defeated 
the  French  fleet  at  St.  Domingo,  for  which 
he  received  from  Parliament  an  annuity  of 
£1,000,  and  was  presented  with  a  sword  by 
the  Corporation  of  London.  Later  he 
effected  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles,  was 
made  governor  of  Newfoundland,  received 
the  title  of  baronet,  and  in  1815  was  ap- 
P°"i^P,'5 ,  cJiief  commander  of  Plymouth, 
after  holding  which  office  for  two  years  he 
died. 

I'Jiclerc,   Charies   Theodore  Eugene   (6. 
1812,  d.   1888),  French  politician,  financier 


and  writer,  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  life 
was  a  regular  contributor  to  Ze  Bon  Sens, 
the  Pevtie  du  Progres,  and  Le  National,  and 
also  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Pictionnaire 
Politique.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  deputy- 
mayor  of  Paris,  and  afterwards  assistant- 
secretary  to  the  minister  of  finance.  In 
18(1  he  was  elected  to  represent  Basses- 
Pyrenees  in  the  National  Assembly,  and 
in  1882  formed  a  cabinet.  One  year 
later,  however,  the  ministry  was  defeated, 
owmg  to  a  manifesto  issued  by  Prince 
Napoleon,  and  Duclerc  was  forced  to 
resign. 

Dudevant,  Amantine  Lucile  Aurore 
Dupm  (Z..  1804,  d.  1876),  French  authoress, 
better  known  as  "  George  Sand,"  was  edu- 
cated m  a  convent,  and  in  1822  married 
M.^  Dudevant,  from  whom  she  separated  ia 
ISol,  and  settled  in  Paris  to  earn  her  living 
by  Hterature.  In  1832  she  published  iZ 
diana,  a  romance  which  at  once  secured  her 
reputation,  and  which  was  rapidly  followed 
by  many  others,  among  them  Valentine, 
^udre,  and  Simon.  Besides  her  work  in 
fiction  she  contributed  to  the  periodical 
literature  many  essays  and  articles  on 
philosophical  and  political  subjects,  her 
sympathies  being  of  the  most  advanced  type. 
Among  these  was  the  remarkable  Sept  Cordes 
de  la  Lyre.  Her  assured  position  in  literature 
now  enabled  her  to  get  a  divorce  from  her 
husband,  and  she  passed  her  time  at  Berri 
or  Paris,  educating  her  children.  Having 
quarrelled  with  the  editors  of  the  Revue  des 
I)eux  Mondes,  she  started  on  her  own  accoimt 
the  Revue  Independente ,  to  which  she  con- 
tributed several  romances,  including  Con- 
suelo.  After  the  revolution  she  took  an 
active  part  in  politics  for  a  short  time,  and 
then  turned  to  dramatic  composition.  She 
also  wrote  Histoire  de  ma  Vie. 

Dudley,  Sir  Andrew,  brother  of  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland.  In  1553  he  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  to 
mediate  between  the  Spanish  and  French, 
and  he  was  also  commissioned  by  Northum- 
berland to  invite  the  French  king  to  send  an 
army  in  support  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  For 
this  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  re- 
prieved. 

Dudley,  Sir  Edmund  {d.  1510),  English 
lawyer,  remembered  for  the  extortions  prac- 
tised under  his  advice  by  Henry  VII.  In 
1492  he  accompanied  the  king  to  France, 
and  on  his  return  associated  himself  with 
Empson  in  the  work  of  raising  revenue  for 
the  crown.  In  1504  he  was  appointed 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  and  later 
a  Baron  of  the  Exchequer.  On  the  succes- 
sion of  Henry  VIII.  Dudley  and  Empson 
were  tried  for  high  treason  and  executed 
to  satisfy  the  popular  indignation  against 
them. 


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Duf 


Dudley,  Sir  Heury,  cousin  of  the  Duke  of 
Northuiuberland.  In  1556  he  formed  a  con- 
spiracy to  overthrow  the  CathoUc  supremacy 
in  England,  and  to  set  the  Princess  Elizabeth 
on  the  throne.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and 
Dudley  escaped  from  the  country. 

Dudley,  John  (J>.  1502,  d.  1553),  son  of 
Sir  Edmund,  patronised  by  Wolsey  and 
Cromwell,  was  created  Viscount  Lisle  in 
1542.  and  as  admiral  of  the  fleet  inflicted  a 
severe  defeat  on  the  French.  As  Earl 
Warwick,  he  succeeded  Somerset  in  power, 
and  acquired  the  title  and  estates  of  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland.  On  the  death  of 
Edward  VI.  he  had  his  daughter-in-law, 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  proclaimed  queen,  but  the 
cause  of  Mary  triumphing  he  was  executed. 

Dudley,  Lord  Guilford  {d.  1554),  son  of 
the  preceding,  and  the  husband  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  was  condemned,  together  with 
his  father  and  wife,  for  the  attempt  to  place 
Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne,  but  his 
execution  did  not  take  place  till  1554,  after 
the  abortive  rising  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt. 

Dufaure,  Jules  Armand  Stanislas  {b.  1798, 
d.  1881),  French  orator  and  statesman,  held 
a  high  position  in  M.  Guizot's  ministry,  but, 
joining  the  opposition,  became  chief  of  the 
Third  party.  After  the  revolution  of  1848 
was  elected  member  for  the  Gharente- 
Inferieure,  and  was  the  leader  of  the 
Moderate  IDemocrats.  Being  again  elected 
by  his  old  constituents  in  1871  he  became 
minister  of  justice  under  M.  Thiers,  and 
held  the  same  ofiice  again  under  M.  Buffet's 
administration.  After  filling  other  important 
positions  he  retired  from  the  political 
arena  on  the  fall  of  Marshal  MacMahon  in 
1879. 

Duff,  the  Eev.  Alexander  (b.  1806,  d. 
1878) ,  one  of  the  first  missionaries  to  India, 
sailed  for  Calcutta  in  1830,  and  worked  with 
remarkable  success  for  twenty  years,  when 
he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  in  1851  was 
elected  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly. 
At  the  time  when  the  great  disruption  from 
the  Scottish  Church  took  place  he  sup- 
ported Dr.  Chalmers.  On  leaving  India, 
because  of  ill-health,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  in  the  Free  Church, 
Edinburgh.  Among  his  published  works 
are  Female  Education  in  India,  India  and 
its  Evangelisation,  and  Indian  Rebellion : 
its  Causes  and  Results. 

Duff.The  Eight  Hon.  Mountstuart  Elphin- 
stone  Grant  {b.  1829),  governor  of  Madras, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1854.  In  1857 
became  Liberal  member  for  the  district  of 
Elgin  Burghs,  and  in  1868  was  appointed  to 
the  oflice  of  Under-Secretary  of  State  for 
India,  under  Mr.  Gladstone's  administration, 
and  later  Under-Secretary  of  State  for 
the  Colonies.    Mr.  Grant  Duff  was  elected 


Lord  Rector  of  Aberdeen  University  in  1367, 
and  again  in  1870,  and  in  1881  was  appointed 
governor  of  Madras.  Among  his  pubUshed 
works  are  Studies  in  European  Politics  and 
The  Political  Survey  of  Europe. 

Dufferin  and  Ava,  The  Right  Hon. 
Frederick  Temple  Blackwood,  Marquis  of, 
and  fourth  Earl  of  Dufferin  (6.  1826),  at 
the  opening  of  his  political  career  visited 
Ireland,  during  the  potato  famine,  and 
wrote  most  interesting  accounts  of  his 
experiences  there.  In  1855  he  joined  Lord 
John  Russell's  mission  to  Vienna,  and 
in  1859  visited  Iceland,  and  published  his 
Letters  from  High  Latitudes.  In  1860  he 
was  appointed  British  Commissioner  iu 
Syria,  and  for  the  abihtj'  with  which  he  in- 
vestigated the  question  of  the  massacre  of 
the  Christians  was  rewarded  with  a  K.C.B. 
In  1872  he  was  appointed  Governor-General 
of  Canada,  which  position  he  held  till  1878, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Marquis  of 
Lome.  In  1879  Lord  Dufferin  was  appoiuted 
Ambassador  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  three 
years  later  was  sent  to  Constantinople  to 
arrange  with  the  Porte  for  the  joint  occupa- 
tion of  Egypt,  in  which  he  displayed  great 
ability.  In  1882  he  went  to  Cairo  to  settle 
the  affairs  of  the  country  after  Arabi 
Pasha's  rebellion,  and  in  1884  he  succeeded 
Lord  Ripon  as  Governor- General  of  India. 
During  his  administration  Burmah  was  an- 
nexed to  England,  and  vigorous  measures 
were  taken  to  strengthen  the  frontier  against 
Russian  advance.  In  1890  Lord  Dufferin 
returned  to  England,  and  was  created 
Marquis  of  Dufferin  and  Ava,  and  was 
appointed  ambassador  in  Rome,  and  in  1891 
ambassador  iu  Paiis. 

Duffy,  Sir  Charles  Gavan  (6.  1816),  states- 
man, began  his  public  career  as  sub-editor 
of  the  Dublin  Morning  Register,  and  was 
subsequently  a  journalist  in  Belfast,  and 
later,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  John  Dillon, 
was  the  originator  of  The  Nation.  In  1844, 
with  O'Connell  and  five  others,  he  was  con- 
victed of  sedition,  but  on  appeal  to  the 
House  of  Lords  the  conviction  was  set  aside. 
In  1852  he  was  elected  member  for  New 
Cross,  but  the  disruption  of  the  Independent 
Irish  party  induced  him  to  resign  his  seut  in 
1856,  when  he  proceeded  to  Melbourne, 
where  for  some  time  he  practised  at  the  bar. 
After  some  time  he  again  took  to  pohtics,  re- 
entered parliament  in  Victoria,  and  ulti- 
mately was  made  prime  minister  (1871). 
Two  years  later  he  was  knighted,  and  in 
1877  was  elected  speaker  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  His  published  works  are  Young 
Ireland  and  Four  Years  of  Irish  History. 

Dufrenoy,  Adelaide  Gillette  (b.  1765,  d. 
1825),  Freuch  poetess  and  actress.  Her  first 
poem,  entitled  Boutade  a  un  Ami,  appeared 
in  1787,  and  in  1815  her  Derniers  Moments  d» 


Dug 


(263) 


Dum 


Bayard,  to  which  production  the  Academy 
prize  was  awarded. 

Dugdale,  Sir  WiUiam  {h.  1605,  d.  1686), 
antiquary,  settling  in  Warwickshire,  de- 
voted himself  to  antiquarian  research,  the 
result  of  which  was  his  Monasticon  Anglica- 
num.  In  1641  he  made  copies  of  all  the 
principal  monuments  in  the  churches  and 
cathedrals  of  the  country.  He  accompanied 
the  king  througliout  the  Civil  war,  and  after 
the  Restoration  was  appointed  Garter  king- 
at-arms.  He  also  wrote  Antiquities  of 
JFaru-ickshire,  History  of  St.  Find's  Cathe- 
dral, Origines  Judiciales,  the  Baronage  of 
England,  and  A  Short  View  of  the  Late 
Troubles  in  England. 

Dugommier,  Jean  Fran9ois  Coquille  (6. 
1736,  d.  1794),  French  general,  a  native 
of  Gruadaloupe,  commanded  the  national 
guards  of  Martinique  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution.  In  1792  he  went  to  Paris  as 
deputy  for  Martinique,  and  in  1793  served  as 
general  of  brigade  in  the  army  in  Italy.  He 
drove  the  Eughsh  out  of  Toulon,  and  as 
chief  of  the  army  of  Eastern  Pyrenees  in 
1794,  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Sierra 
Negra. 

Duguay-Trouin,  Eene  (b.  1673,  d.  1736), 
French  admiral,  abandoning  the  clerical 
profession,  joined  a  corsair  in  1689,  and 
so  distinguished  himself  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed captain  of  a  French  frigate  in  1697. 
In  1707  he  defeated  an  English  tleet,  and  in 
1711  captured  Rio  Janeiro  from  the  Portu- 
guese. 

Duni6ril,  Andre  Marie  Constant  {b.  1774, 
d.  1860),  French  physician  and  naturalist. 
In  1805  he  was  sent  "by  Napoleon  to  Spain 
to  watch  the  progress  of  the  yellow  fever, 
and  in  1825  succeeded  Lacepfede  as  pro- 
fessor of  ichthyology.  Among  other  scien- 
tific works  he  left  a  History  of  Reptiles. 

Dumas,  Alexandre  {b.  1802,  d.  1871), 
French  novelist  and  dramatist ;  son  of 
General  Dumas,  came  to  Paris  in  1823  and 
produced  the  tragedy  Christine  a  Fontaine- 
ileau,  which  was  refused  by  the  Theatre 
Franqais.  In  1829  his  drama  Henri  IFF. 
secured  a  remarkable  success,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  series  of  other  plays  dealing 
with  the  life  of  the  16th  century,  chief 
among  which  is  La  Reine  Margot.  Having 
travelled  in  Spain  and  Africa,  he  endea- 
voured to  enter  political  life,  but  was  un- 
successful, and  in  1853  he  retired  to  Bel- 
gium, owing  to  the  pecuniary  embarrass- 
ments caused  by  his  habits  of  living.  Hia 
literary  industry  was  imtiriug,  and,  besides 
sixty  plays,  he  produced  numerous  ro- 
mances, chief  among  which  are  The  Three 
Musketeers  and  its  continuations,  and 
Monte  Christo.  Altogether  his  works 
number  some  three  thousand,  au  amount  of 


writing  which  he  was  only  able  to  produce 
by  the  employment  of  literary  "  ghosts." 
In  18G0  he  went  to  Italy  to  follow  Garibaldi. 
He  died  in  comparative  poverty. 

Dumas,  Alexandre  {b.  1824),  son  of  the 
preceding,  and,  like  him,  a  novelist  and 
dramatist,  accompanied  his  father  in  a 
voyage  to  the  Mediterranean  in  1846,  and 
in  1848  produced  the  work  which  made  his 
rei3utation — La  Dame  aux  Gamelias,  a  novel 
which  drew  the  encomium  of  his  own  father. 
Since  then  his  work  has  been  chiefly  dra- 
matic, and  includes  such  plays  as  the  Demi' 
Monde  (1855),  La  Frincesse  Georges  (1872), 
Motisieur  Alphonse  (1873),  audBenise  (1885). 
In  1874  he  was  admitted  as  a  member  to 
the  French  Academy. 

Dumas,  Jean  Baptiste  Andr^  (5.  1800, 
d.  1884),  eminent  French  chemist,  was 
employed  as  an  apothecary  in  Geneva, 
where  he  attracted  attention  by  a  discovery 
in  connection  with  the  treatment  of  goitre. 
He  was  encouraged  by  Prevost  and  Hum- 
boldt to  prosecute  his  scientific  researches, 
and  went  to  Paris,  in  1826  marrying  the 
daughter  of  Brongniart.  His  house  became 
the  centre  of  the  scientific  coteries.  He  was 
largely  instrumental  in  founding  L'£cole 
Centrale  des  Arts  et  Manufactures,  and  he 
became  professor  of  chemistry  jn  1832  at 
the  Sorbonne,  in  1835  at  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique,  and  in  1839  at  the  Ecole  de 
Medecine.  After  the  1848  revolution  he 
entered  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and 
shortly  afterwards  became  minister  of 
agriculture  and  commerce.  After  the 
Second  Empire  had  been  declared,  he  be- 
came vice-president  of  the  council  of  edu- 
cation, and  president  of  the  municipal 
Council  of  Paris,  and  from  1868  to  1870  he 
was  master  of  the  mint.  In  1868  also  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  in  1875  he  succeeded  to 
Guizot's  place  in  the  French  Academy. 
He  left  many  scientific  memoirs,  recording 
the  results  of  the  investigations  which  occu- 
pied so  large  a  part  of  his  life,  and  which 
were  so  important  for  chemical  science. 

Du  Maurier,  George  Louis  Palmella 
Busson  {b.  1834),  artist  and  draughtsman, 
bom  in  Paris,  but  educated  in  London, 
Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands.  For  many 
years  a  valuable  contributor  to  Funch,  at 
the  same  time  illustrating  many  other  books 
and  magazines.  His  mode  of  satirising  the 
extravagances  of  the  so-called  ".Esthetic" 
school  and  other  society  foibles,  have  pro- 
cured for  him  a  high  reputation.  In  1891 
he  published  a  aovel,  Feter  Ibbetson. 

Dumichen,  Johannes  {b.  1833),  Egypt- 
ologist ;  after  studying  under  the  famous 
Lepsius,  he  tvrice  visited  Egypt,  exploring 
the  Nile  valley.     Subsequently  he  acted  aa 


Dniu 


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Dun 


guide  to  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia 
during  his  tour  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  He  was  after- 
wards made  professor  of  Egyptology  at 
Strasburg.  His  chief  works  are  The  Fleet 
of  an  Eijyptian  Queen,  several  books  on 
Egyptian  inscriptions,  and  his  History  of 
Effifpt. 

Diunont,  Pierre  fitienne  Louis  (b.  1759, 
d.  1829),  Swiss  author,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  was  ordaiued  minister  of  a  Protestant 
church  at  Geneva,  but,  owing  to  the  defeat 
of  the  Liberal  party  in  the  Swiss  state,  he 
went  into  voluntary  exile  at  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  gained  a  great  reputation  as  a 
preacher.  Accepting  an  offer  to  become 
tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Marquis  of  Lans- 
dowue  he  came  to  London,  and  there  formed 
a  strong  friendship  with  Jeremy  Bentham 
and  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  and  in  1788  visited 
Paris,  where  he  was  patronised  by  Mirabean. 
His  Souvenirs  snr  J!/2r«Jeff?<  appeared  in  1832, 
edited  by  J.  L.  Duval.  Dumont  also 
edited  Bentham's  Traites  de  Legislation 
Q802^,  Theorie  des  Peines  et  des  Recompenses 
(1811),  Tactiqne  des  Assemblees  Legislatives 
(1815),  and  Preuves  Judiciaires  (1823).  In 
1814,  when  Geneva  was  restored  to  inde- 
pendence, Dumont  returned  there,  and 
became  leader  of  the  supreme  council. 

Dumont- d'Urville,  Jules  Sebastien  Cesar 
(b.  1790,  d.  1842),  French  navigator  and 
botanist,  being  raised  by  his  ability  to  the 
position  of  captain,  he  commanded  the 
corvette  Astrolabe  which  was  sent  in  1826 
to  obtain  tidings  of  La  Perouse,  and  found 
evidence  for  the  belief  that  he  had  been 
wrecked  on  Jenikoro,  one  of  the  Solomon 
Islands.  This  expedition  lasted  three  years, 
and  an  account  of  it  was  afterwards 
published  under  the  title  of  Voyage  de 
Licouvertes  autour  du  Monde.  In  1837 
he  went  on  a  voyage  of  Antarctic  dis- 
covery, and  on  his  way  home  discovered 
Adelie  Land.  Later  he  was  appointed  rear- 
admiral,  and  received  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Societe  de  Geographie.  From  1841  to  1854 
he  was  engaged  in  the  publication  of  his 
Voyage  au  Pole  Sud  et  dans  P  Oceane. 

Dumouriez,  Charles  Franqois  (b.  1739,  d. 
1823),  French  general,  entering  the  army 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  attained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1763.  Later  he  became  in- 
volved in  political  troubles,  and,  at  the 
instance  of  the  Due  de  Choiseul  was 
obliged  to  fly  from  France,  but  on  a  recon- 
ciliation being  effected  he  returned,  and  was 
appointed  quarter -master  general  of  the 
troops.  He  was  afterwards  engaged  in 
several  diplomatic  missions,  and  at  the 
failure  of  the  Stockholm  intrigue  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned  for  six  months  in 
the  Bastille.  On  the  first  symptoms  of  the 
great    revolution   he    was    made  minister 


for  foreign  affairs,  then  minister  of  war, 
and  later  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  the  north  as  lieutenant- 
general.  He  gained  the  victory  of  Valmy 
in  1792,  but  was  defeated  at  Neerwinden  in 
1793,  after  which  he  became  an  exile,  and 
finally  took  up  residence  in  England. 

Dunbar,  William  {b.  circa  1460,  d.  circa 
1520),  Scottish  poet,  vrrote  The  Thissil  and 
the  Rois,  a  number  of  allegories  and  other 

pieces. 

Duncan,  Adam,  Viscount  {b.  1731,  d. 
1804),  English  admiral,  served  in  the  Belle- 
isle  and  Havannah  expeditions,  and  under 
Rodney  in  17'S0.  In  1797,  while  command- 
ing the  North  Sea  fleet,  he  inflicted  a  heavy 
defeat  on  the  Dutch  off  Camperdown,  for 
which  service  he  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age. 

Duncan,  Jonathan,  East  Indian  adminis- 
trator. As  residentof  Benares  he  endeavoured, 
with  much  success,  to  abolish  the  practice  of 
female  infanticide  among  the  Rajpoots,  and 
in  1800  was  appointed  governor  of  Bombay. 

Duncker,  Maximilian  Wolfgang  {b.  1811, 
d.  1886),  German  historian  and  statesman, 
in  1839  became  professor  of  history  at 
Halle,  and  soon  after  1848  entered  the 
National  Assembly  of  Frankfurt,  and  be- 
came a  minister.  In  1859  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  history  at  Tubingen,  and  in 
1875  he  retired.  Among  his  works  are 
Origines  Germanica,  Papers  concerning  the 
Natiotial  Assembly  of  Germany,  and  a  His- 
tory of  Antiquity. 

Dundas,  Sir  David  (Jb.  1735,  d.  1820), 
soldier,  served  in  Germany  and  the  West 
Indies,  and  afterwards  became  adjutant- 
general  in  Ireland.  In  1713  he  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  defence  of  Toulon, 
and  he  served  imder  the  Duke  of  York  in 
Holland,  and  afterwards  fought  in  the 
Dutch  campaign  of  1799.  In  1809  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 

Diindas,  Sir  James  Whitley  Deans  {b. 
1785,  d.  1862),  British  admiral.  Entering 
the  navy  in  1799,  he  accompanied  Aber- 
cromby's  Egyptian  expedition,  and  from 
then  to  1815  served  in  many  engagements 
with  the  French  with  great  distinction. 
From  1852  to  1854  he  commanded  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Black  Sea  fleet.  He  was  the 
first  representative  of  Greenwich  after  the 
passing  of  the  1832  Reform  Act. 

Dundonald,  Thomas  Barnes  Cochrane, 
tenth  Earl  of  (b.  1775,  d.  1860),  sailor,  as 
commander  of  the  Speedy  rendered  brilliant 
service  against  the  French  in  1801,  until  he 
was  taken  prisoner.  In  1805  he  again  dis- 
tinguished himself  with  the  Pallas.  Enter- 
ing Parliament  for  Westminster,  he  attacked 


Dun 


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Dup 


the  naval  administration  so  bitterly  as  to  ex- 
cite the  enmity  of  the  authorities,  and  when 
(1S(I9)  his  attempt  to  destroy  the  Fi-ench 
fleet  off  Brest  failed,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
command.  For  exposing  the  abuses  of  tlie 
prize  system  at  Malta  he  was  imprisoned, 
but  escaped,  and  in  1814  he  was  cashiered 
and  again  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  having 
fraudulently  circulated  the  news  of  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  in  order  to  make  money  on  the 
Stock  Exchange.  Re-elected  by  his  con- 
stituents, he  again  broke  loose  from  gaol, 
but  was  recommitted.  On  his  release  he 
went  to  South  America,  and  rendered  bril- 
liant services  to  the  Chilians  against  Spain, 
and  to  the  Brazilians  against  Portugal. 
Returning  to  England  for  a  short  time,  he 
next  took  command  of  the  Greek  fleet ;  but 
after  the  accession  of  William  IV.  he  was 
restored  to  his  honours  and  position  in  Eng- 
land. 

Dunkin,  Edward  {b.  1821),  EngUsh  as- 
tronomer. In  1838  he  was  appointed  com- 
puter to  the  Royal  Observatory;  in  1847 
superintendent  of  the  Altazinuth  Observa- 
tions; and  in  1870  superintendent  of  the 
Astronomical  Observations.  From  1871  to 
1877  he  was  secretary  to  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society,  and  from  1884  to  1886  he 
■was  president. 

Dunning,  John,  Baron  Ashburton  [b. 
1731,  d.  1783),  lawyer.  Called  to  the  bar  in 
1756,  he  attracted  attention  in  1762  with  his 
defence  of  the  East  India  Company  against 
the  complaints  of  the  Dutch.  He  defended 
Wilkes,  and  in  1767  became  Sohcitor- 
general.  In  1768  he  entered  ParHament, 
and  in  1781  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Dunois,  Jean,  Count  of  Orleans  and 
Longueville  (b.  1402,  d.  1468),  the  natural  son 
of  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  known  as  the 
"  Bastard  of  Orleans."  In  the  wars  with  the 
English,  which  ended  in  their  expulsion  from 
France,  he  took  a  distinguished  part,  winning 
several  battles.  He  was  appointed  Heutenant- 
general  to  the  king,  and  grand  chamberlain. 
For  a  time  he  was  out  of  favour  with  Louis 
XI.,  but  afterwards  he  presided  over  the 
council  appointed  for  the  reform  of  the  state. 

Duns  Scotus  {b.  1265,  d.  1308),  divme  and 
writer.  Residing  in  Paris,  he  occupied  there 
the  post  of  head  of  the  theological  schools, 
and  was  known  as  the  "Subtle  Doctor." 
He  was  the  first  to  promulgate  the  doctrine 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  At  one  time 
a  follower  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  he  later 
founded  a  school  of  his  own  in  antagonism 
to  the  system  of  Aquinas. 

Dunstan,  St.  (b.  circa  925,  d.  988).  When 
still  young  he  was  appointed  Abbot  of 
Glastonbury  bj-  King  Edmund,  and  in  946, 
on  the  succession  of  Edred,  he  became  chief 
adviser  to  the   king.      His  administration 


resulted  in  the  cohesion  of  Wessex  and  the 
conquest  of  Northurabria  from  the  Danes. 
When  Edwy  came  to  the  throne,  however. 
Dunstan's  poHcy  was  reversed,  and  he  was 
banished.  He  lived  in  a  Benedictine  monas- 
tery ki  Flanders  till  recalled  by  King  Edgar, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  by  the  revolted 
Northumbrians  and  Mercians,  and  by  whom 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  London.  When 
Edgar  succeeded  on  Edwy's  death  to  the 
thi-one  of  Wessex,  Dunstan  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  under  his  influ- 
ence the  monastic  system  developed  very 
rapidly,  while  the  stability  of  the  state  was 
ensured.  His  power  continued  until  Ethel- 
red  the  Unready  came  to  the  throne,  when 
Dunstan  retired  to  Glastonbm-y,  occupying 
himself  until  his  death  with  literature, 
music,  and  the  finer  handicrafts.  His 
greatness  is  made  evident  by  the  mass  of 
fable  and  myth  which  has  been  woven 
into  the  story  of  his  life. 

Dupanloup,  FeUx  Antoine  PhiUbert  (b. 
1802,  d.  Ib7b),  French  prelate,  after  having 
been  instructor  to  the  Orleanist  princes,  he 
became  in  1835  curate  of  St.  Roche,  where 
his  preaching  attracted  attention,  and  in 
1837  became  vicar-general  to  Mgr.  de 
Quelen.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  and  in  1854  he  was  elected  to 
the  Academy.  Along  with  his  friend 
Montalembert  he  headed  the  Liberal  Catholic 
party,  but  his  views  not  proving  acceptable 
at  Rome  he  submitted.  In  1871  he  was 
retui-ned  to  the  Assembly,  acting  consistently 
with  the  monarchical  party. 

Dupin,  Andre  Marie  Jacques  (S.  1783, 
d.  1865),  French  advocate,  called  generally 
"Dupin  the  Elder."  In  1815  he  was 
charged  with  the  codification  of  the  laws 
of  the  empire,  and  in  the  same  year  entered 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  was  one  of 
the  counsel  for  Marshal  Ney;  he  was  the 
rapporteur  of  the  famous  address  of  the 
121  deputies  in  1830,  and  he  helped  to  bring 
on  the  1830  revolution.  He  was  a  member 
of  Louis  Philippe's  first  cabinet,  and  fi-om 
1832  to  1848  was  president  of  the  Chamber 
eight  times.  In  the  latter  year  he  presented 
to  the  deputies  the  infant  Comte  de  Paris, 
and  from  1830  to  1851  he  was  procureur- 
g^neral  of  the  Coiu't  of  Cassation,  a  post 
which  he  resumed  in  1857.  He  left  several 
legal  and  political  works. 

Dupin,  Franqois  Pierre  Charles,  Baron 
{b.  1784,  d.  1873),  French  geometer  and 
statistician,  and  brother  of  the  preceding.  In 
1803  he  entered  the  navy  as  an  engineer, 
and  in  1813  he  founded  the  Maritune  Museum 
at  Toulon.  After  Napoleon's  abdication  he 
published  Les  Lois  Fondamoi talcs  de  la 
France,  followed  by  another  political  piece. 
In  1816  he  visited  the  naval  establishments 
of  Great  Britain,  and  in  1818  he  was  elected 


Dup 


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Dvo 


S  member  of  the  Institute.  In  1823  be 
entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies ;  in  1834 
he  was  minister  of  marine  for  three  days,  and 
in  1837  he  was  created  a  peer  of  France. 
After  the  coup  d'itat  he  was  made  a  senator. 

Dupleix,  Joseph,  Marquis  {b.  1697,  d. 
n6o).  in  1720  went  to  India  as  member  of 
the  Pondi cherry  council ;  in  1731  became 
administrator  of  Chandernagar,  which  he 
raised  to  a  position  of  great  importance,  and 
in  1742  he  was  appointed  governor-general 
of  the  French  possessions  in  India.  In  this 
position  he  disagreed  with  Labourdonnais, 
who  was  sent  to  operate  against  the  English. 
An  army  of  10,000  men,  sent  by  the  viceroy 
of  the  Carnatic  to  demand  reparation  for 
attacks  on  the  British,  was  defeated  by 
Dupleix  with  a  small  French  force,  and 
he  then  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  nawab  against  the  British.  His  defence 
of  Poudicherry  in  1748  was  stubborn  and 
successful.  He  next  opened  campaigns  to 
set  Chimda  Sahib,  and  afterwards  has  son, 
on  the  throne  in  the  Camatic,  but  the  French 
forces  were  ultimately  defeated.  Having 
been  created  Marquis,  he  was  recalled  in 
1753. 

Dupoat,  Pierre  (b.  1821,  d.  1871),  French 
poet,  going  to  Paris  he  obtained  the 
publication  of  some  verse  in  1839,  and  in 
1844  produced  a  volume  of  poetry.  The  Two 
Angels.  He  obtained,  and  abandoned  from 
distaste,  a  post  in  the  Institute,  and  in  1847 
made  his  reputation  secure  with  a  song  which 
caught  the  popular  taste.  In  1851  he  was 
condemned  to  exile  for  seven  years  on  account 
of  the  Socialistic  character  of  his  verse,  but 
the  sentence  was  afterwards  cancelled. 

Dupoat  de  I'Etang,  Pierre,  Count  (5.  1765, 
d.  ISoS),  French  general,  served  in  Holland 
and  at  Marengo,  and  was  afterwards  made 
governor  of  Piedmont.  He  rendered  brilliant 
services  as  general  in  Italy,  Prussia,  and 
Spain,  but  in  1808  he  was  disgraced  by 
Napoleon  for  his  share  in  the  capitulation  of 
Baylen.  Louis  XVIII.  made  him  minister 
of  war  and  a  peer  of  France. 

Duquesne,  Abraham  {b.  1610,  d.  1688), 
French  admiral,  after  commanding  with 
great  success  against  the  Spaniards,  joined 
the  Swedish  navy,  of  which  he  was  appointed 
vice-admiral  for  a  victory  over  the  Danes. 
He  returned  to  the  French  service,  and  was 
again  so  successful  against  Spain  that  he 
was  made  lieutenant-general  of  the  naval 
forces.  In  1676  he  won  a  great  victory  over 
the  Dutch  under  De  Euyter. 

Durand,  Sir  Henry  (b.  1812,  d.  1871), 
IndiaTi  governor,  entering  the  Indian  army 
in  ls2S,  served  in  the  Afghan  war  with 
distinction,  and  rendered  exceptional  ser- 
vices in  the  Punjab  campaign  of  1848-9. 
He  also  fought  in  the  Mutiny,  and  later  acted 


as  agent  to  the  Governor-General  in  Central 
India.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  the  Punjab,  where  he  was  very 
popular. 

Diirer,  Albrecht  (J).  1471,  d.  1628),  German 
painter.  His  father  was  a  Nuremberg  gold- 
smith, and  he  was  brought  up  to  his  father's 
craft.  He  early  evinced  a  great  talent  for 
art,  and  at  tif teen  executed  a  piece  of  work  in 
chased  silver  representing  the  "  seven  falls" 
of  Christ.  In  1486  he  was  apprenticed  to 
Wohlgemuth,  the  artist,  and  from  1490  to 
1494  he  travelled  in  Germany  and  Italy.  On 
his  return  he  married  a  woman,  whose  dis- 
position afterwards  made  his  life  miserable, 
and  having  by  his  drawing  of  Orpheus  be- 
come a  master  painter,  he  returned  to  Venice. 
From  thence  he  went  to  Bologna,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Kaphael,  and  his 
reputation  rose  so  rapidly  that  he  became 
court  painter  to  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
and  after  to  Charles  V.  In  1520  he  visited 
the  Netherlands  with  his  wife,  where  they 
were  received  with  the  greatest  honour  and 
distinction.  It  was  here  that  the  tirst 
symptoms  appeared  of  the  consimiption  which 
foially  carried  him  off.  He  was  a  most 
industrious  as  well  as  rapid  worker,  and  his 
own  list  of  works  contains  1,254  pieces.  He 
also  wrote  works  on  perspective  and 
measurement,  on  fortification,  and  on 
human  proportion. 

Durham,  John  George  Lambton,  first  Earl 
of  {b.  1792,  d.  1840),  in  1813  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Durham  county  as  an  ad- 
vanced reformer.  He  was  created  Baron 
Durham  in  1827,  and  became  privy  seal  in 
Lord  Grey's  ministry,  in  which  post  he 
helped  to  draft  the  Eeform  Bill.  In  1832  he 
failed  in  a  special  mission  to  Russia,  and  in 
1833  he  resigned.  Created  Earl  of  Durham, 
he  was  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1837, 
and  in  1838  he  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Canada,  the  French  revolt  haying 
j  ust  been  put  down.  He  acted  in  a  very  high- 
handed manner,  and  the  Government  at 
home,  having  been  forced  to  accept  a  reso- 
lution condemning  his  conduct,  he  abandoned 
his  post  without  waiting  to  be  recalled. 

Duroc,  Michel  Gerard  Christophe,  Duke 
of  Firuli  {b.  1772,  d.  1813),  served  in  Na- 
poleon's early  campaigns,  and  in  1805  was 
made  grand  marshal  of  the  palace. 

Duruy,  Victor  {b.  1811),  French  historian, 
author  of  a  History  of  France  (1852),  His- 
tory of  Greece  (1862),  etc. 

Dvorak,  Antonin  {b.  circa  1840),  com- 
poser, a  native  of  Prague,  son  of  an  inn- 
keeper, studied  music  in  Prague,  and 
maintained  himself  for  some  time  by  teach- 
ing, his  numerous  compositions  attracting 
little  attention.  He  has  composed  an  opera 
and  a  number  of  songs  and  dances,  with 


Dwi 


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Eas 


atrong  Bohemian  chaxacteriatics,  some  sym- 
phonies, a  cantata,  a  Stabat  Mater,  Lud- 
tnilla,  etc  His  cantata,  The  Spectre's  Bride, 
was  composed  for  the  Birmingham  festival 
of  1885. 

Dwight,  Timothy  (b.  rtb2,  d.  1817), 
American  divine,  served  as  army  chaplain 
in  the  Confederate  army,  and,  after  working 
on  a  farm,  was  ordained  a  minister.  In 
1795  he  became  president  of  Yale  College. 
He  wrote  The  Conquest  of  Canaan,  an  epic 
poem.  Theology  Explained  and  Defended,  etc. 

Dyce,  William  (h.  1806,  d.  1864),  painter, 
educated  at  Aberdeen,  studied  art  at  the 
Boyal  Academy  and  at  Rome.  From  1830-38 
he  hved  in  Edinbiirgh,  devoting  himself  to 
portrait-painting.  In  1835  he  exhibited  his 
Xtescentof  Venus  at  the  Eoyal  Academy,  and 
in  1837  he  published  a  pamphlet  on  the 
management  of  schools  of  design,  just  es- 
tablished by  Government.  This  procured  for 
biTr»  the  office  of  secretary  to  that  branch  of 


the  Board  of  Trade  which  had  charge  of  the 
new  schools.  For  the  Government  he  also 
made  a  report  on  the  Continental  systems  of 
art  instruction,  and  in  1842  he  became  in- 
spector of  provincial  schools.  His  picture, 
Joash  Shooting  the  jlrrow  of  Deliverance, 
procured  for  him,  in  1844,  election  as 
A.R.A. ;  R.A  1848. 

Dyck,  Sir  Anthony  Van  {h.  1599,  d.  1641), 
painter,  was  bom  in  Antwerp.  In  1615  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  and  in  1821  he 
went  to  Italy  for  five  years.  In  1626  he 
returned  to  Antwerp,  and  in  1630  came 
to  England,  but,  receiving  no  encourage- 
ment, returned  to  his  native  country.  In 
1632,  however,  he  was  invited  to  England  by 
Charles  I.,  and  received  a  knighthood  and  a 
pension.  His  work  was  in  great  demand, 
and  he  lived  in  the  best  style,  having 
married  Marie  Ruthven,  the  granddaughter 
of  Lord  Gowrie.  Although  he  died  within 
twenty  years  of  leaving  Rubens'  studio,  he 
left  behind  him  nearly  a  thousand  works. 


Eadmer  (i.  eirea  1124),  a  monk  of  Canter- 
bury, friend  and  spiritual  director  of  Ansehn, 
whose  life  he  wrote,  as  well  as  those  of 
Dunstan,  Oswald,  and  others.  His  chief  work 
is  Historia  Novorum,  a  chronicle  of  events 
from  1066  to  1122. 

Eads,  James  Buchanan  (5.  1820,  d.  1887), 
American  engineer,  constructed  the  steel 
bridge  over  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis 
(completed  1874) ;  partly  carried  out  a  plan  of 
deepening  the  Mississippi  by  means  of  jetties, 
and  was  engaged  at  his  death  in  planning  a 
ship-canal  over  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 

Eakin,  Samuel  (J.  circa  YIM,  d.  1784), 
American  Presbyterian  minister,  who  zeal- 
ously upheld  American  independence. 

Eakins,  Thomas  (b.  1844),  American  artist, 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  studied  in  Paris,  and, 
on  his  return  to  Philadelphia,  became 
demonstrator  of  anatomy  and  afterwards 
professor  of  painting  and  director  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

Eames,  Jane  Anthony  (S.  1816),  American 
author  :  travelled  in  Europe  and  the  East, 
and  wrote  A  Budget  of  Letters  (1847), 
etc. 

Earle,  Rev.  John  {h.  1824),  elected  pro- 
fessor of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Oxford  for  a  term 
of  five  years  in  1849,  and  permanently  in 


1876;   has  written  The  Philosophy  of  th« 

English  Tongue  (1871),  A  Book  for  the 
Beginner  in  Anglo-Saxon  (1877),  English 
Prose :  its  Elements,  History,  and  Usage 
(1890),  and  other  works. 

Earle,  Pliny  {b.  1809),  bom  at  Leicester, 
Massachusetts,  as  physician  at  various  asy- 
liims  has  introduced  a  more  reasonable 
method  of  treating  the  insane.  He  has 
written  The  Curability  of  Insanity,  etc. 

Earle,  WilUam  {b.  1833,  «?.  1885),  major- 
general,  served  in  the  Crimea;  in  the 
Egyptian  war  of  1882  commanded  the  base 
and  line  of  communication,  and  was  present 
at  Tel-el-Kebh- ;  afterwards  commanded  the 
garrison  of  Alexandria,  and  accompanied  the 
expedition  to  relieve  Gordon,  but  was  slain 
in  an  attack  on  the  enemy  near  Dulka 
island. 

Early,  Jubal  A.  {b.  1816),  American- 
general  and  lawyer,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  on  the  Confederate  side  in  the 
American  civil  war,  holding  Fredericksburg 
in  1863,  and  commanding  a  division  at  Get- 
tysburg. He  haspublished  Memoirs  of  the 
L'Vit  fear  of  the  War  (1867). 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  Locke  (5.  1793, 
d.  I860),  painter  and  art  critic,  born  at  Ply- 
mouth ;  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
afterwards  in  Paris  and  Rome  ;  exhibited  ia 


Eas 


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Ech 


the  Academy,  of  ■whicli  he  became  a  member 
in  1S29  and  president  in  1850.  Christ  Bless- 
ing Little  Children  (1839)  and  Christ  Weeping 
OverJerusalem  (1841)  are  considered  his  best 
pictxrres.  He  has  written  Materials  for  the 
History  of  Oil  Painting  (1847),  and  Contri- 
butions to  the  Literature  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

Eastman,  John  Robie  {b.  1836),  American 
astronomer,  has  accompanied  various  astro- 
nomical expeditions,  and  in  1883  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Eastwick,  Edward  Backhouse  (Jb.  1814,  d. 
1883) ,  Orientalist ;  entered  the  Indian  army  ; 
held  political  posts  in  Scinde ;  was  professor 
of  Hindustani  at  Haileybury  ;  went  to  Persia 
in  1860  as  secretary  of  legn*ion ;  became 
private  secretary  to  Lord  Salisbury,  and  was 
member  of  Parliament  for  Penrhyn  and 
Falmouth  (1868-74).  He  has  translated 
Sadi's  Gulistan  (1852)  and  much  Persian 
literature,  and  written  The  Journal  of  a 
Diphmate  in  Persia  (1864),  etc. 

Eaton,  Amos  (b.  1776,  d.  1842),  American 
scientist,  first  principal  of  the  Rensselaer 
Institute  at  Troy,  Xew  York  (1828),  wrote 
many  scientific  works. 

Ebba,  St.,  or.ffibbe  {d.  circa  &1^),  daughter 
of  iEthelfrith,  Kingof  Northumbria,  founded 
the  monastery  of  Ebchester,  in  Durham,  and 
became  Abbess  of  Coldingham,  in  Berwick- 
shire, which  was  destroyed  by  fire  shortly 
after  her  death. 

Ebbo,  a  successful  missionary  to  the  Danes 
in  the  9th  century ;  was  Archbishop  of 
Rheims,  and  librarian  to  Louis  le  Debon- 
naire. 

Ebed- Jesus  Bar-Bricha  (<^.  1 3 1 8) ,  Nestorian 
Bishop  of  Arabia,  and  afterwards  Metro- 
politan of  Soba.  Wrote  in  Syriac  a  Col- 
lection of  the  Canons  of  the  Chief  Councils, 
and  other  works  in  prose  and  poetry. 

Eberliard,  August  Gottlob  {b.  1779,  d. 
1845),  German  scholar  and  writer  of  fiction, 
author  of  Hannchen  und  die  Kuchlein  and 
I)er  erste  Mensch  und  die  Erde. 

Eberhard,  Conrad  {b.  1768,  d.  1859), 
German  painter  and  sculptor,  worked  with 
his  brother  Franz  {d.  1836).  They  were  pat- 
ronised by  the  Elector  Clement  of  Treves. 

Eberliard,  Johann  August  {b.  1739,  d.  1809), 
German  philosopher  and  theologian,  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  HaUe,  wrote  an 
Ap)olijgij  for  Socrates  in  opposition  to  the 
Calvinists,  a  General  Sistory  of  Philosophy, 
etc. 

Ebers,  Georg  {b.  1837),  Egj'ptologist  and 
anvelist,  bom  at  Berlin,  apiDciiited  professor 
4t  Leipzig  in  1870 ;   while  visiting  Egypt 


discovered  the  hieratic  medical  papyrus 
known  as  Papyrus  Ebers,  which  he  published 
in  1875  ;  wi'ote  Egypt  and  the  Books  of  Moses, 
and  other  works  on  Egypt.  His  later  books 
are  historical  novels,  those  representing 
Egj'ptian  antiquity  being  the  most  valuable. 
Among  them  are  Farda  (1877),  and  Serapis 
(1885). 

Eberus  {b.  1511,  d.  1569),  aleamed  German 
reformer,  friend  of  Melanchthon,  whose 
views  he  supported  against  the  Lutherans. 

Ebion,  the  supposed  founder  of  the  sect  of 
the  Ebiouites  in  the  latter  part  of  the  1st 
century.  It  is  probable  that  no  such  per- 
son existed,  and  that  the  name  was  derived 
from  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  "poor." 

Ebl^,  Jean  Baptiste,  Count  {b.  1758,  d. 
1812),  French  general,  served  ia  the  army  of 
the  North,  distinguishing  himself  at  Hond- 
schoote  and  Dunkirk;  commanded  the  ar- 
tillery of  the  army  in  Flanders,  and  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle;  also  served  in 
Portugal,  and  in  the  Russian  campaign,  the 
hardships  of  which  caused  his  death. 

Ebrard,  Johann  Heinrich  August  {b. 
1818),  professor  of  theology  at  Zurich  (1844), 
and  afterwards  at  Erlangen  (1847),  wrote 
Christian  Dogmatics,  etc. 

Ebroin  or  Eberwein  {d.  681),  mayor  of  the 
palace  under  Clotaire  III.  of  Neustria  ;  sup- 
ported the  authority  of  the  crown  against 
the  nobles.  On  the  death  of  Clotaire  (670) 
a  period  of  anarchy  ensued,  tiQ  Ebroin  in  674 
established  Theodoric  III.  on  the  throne  of 
Neustria  and  Burgundy,  under  whom  he 
ruled  with  great  tyranny  till  he  was  assassi- 
nated. 

Ebulo,  Pietro  d',  author  of  a  chronicle  in 
verse  of  the  events  in  Sicily  under  Tancred 
and  the  Emperor  Henry  VI. ;  lived  towards 
the  close  of  the  12th  century. 

Echard,  Jacques  {b.  1644,  d.  1724),  a 
Dominican,  born  at  Rouen,  wrote  the  lives  of 
the  authors  who  were  members  of  that  order. 

Echard,  Laurence  {b.  circa  1670,  d.  1730), 
an  English  clergj'man  and  historian,  wrote 
a  History  of  England  (1707-20),  a,n  Eccle- 
siastical History  to  the  tune  of  Constantine, 
etc. 

Ecbion,  Greek  artist  of  the  4th  century 
B.C.  :  painted  the  Bride  of  Seniiramis,  of 
which  the  Noces  Aldobrandlnes  on  the  walls 
of  the  Vatican  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy. 

EcMus,  Eck,  or  Eckius,  Johann,  of  Ingol- 
stadt  (I).  1486,  d.  1543),  German  theologian; 
professor  in  the  university  of  Ingolstadt ; 
argued  against  the  reformed  doctrines  in  dis- 
putes with  Luther  (1518),  and  Carolstadt 
(1519),  and  at  the  Diets  of  Augsburg  (1530) 


Eck 


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Edi 


and  Ratisbon  (1541).    He  wrote  a  Manual 
of  Controversies. 

Eckermann,  Johann  Peter  (5. 1 792,  i.  1 854) , 
a  German  writer,  secretary  to  Goethe,  pub- 
lished a  coUection  of  Conversations  with 
Goethe  (1836-48). 

Eckersberg,  Christoph  Wilhelm,  Danish 
artist ;  visited  France  and  Italy  in  1805,  and 
painted  Moses  Crossing  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Death  of  Basdur. 

Eckhard,  a  German  mystic  of  the  14th 
century,  entered  the  Dominican  order,  and 
became  Vicar-general  of  Bohemia,  and  after- 
wards provincial  prior  of  Germany,  but  was 
deprived  owing  to  his  Pantheistic  views,  and 
in  1327  condemned  by  an  inquisition,  held  at 
the  instance  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne. 
He  appealed  to  the  Pope,  who  issued  a  bull 
of  condemnation  against  him  (1329).  Eck- 
hard  died  before  its  publication. 

Eckhart,  Johann  Georg  von  {b.  1674,  <f. 
1730),  German  historian,  succeeded  Leibnitz 
as  librarian  to  the  court  of  Hanover,  and 
wrote  on  German  antiquities  and  mediaeval 
history. 

Eckhel,  Joseph  Hilarius  (5.  1737,  d.  1798), 
German  numismatist,  bom  in  Upper  Austria, 
was  professor  of  antiquities  at  Vienna :  wrote 
a  treatise  in  French  on  the  engraved  gems 
in  the  imperial  cabinet. 

Eckstein,  Ferdinand,  Baron  von  (fi.  1790, 
d.  1S61),  French  writer,  bom  at  Altona, 
descended  from  Danish  Jews ;  was  appointed 
inspector-general  to  the  ministry  of  poUce  by 
Louis  XVIII,  and  afterwards  historiographer 
to  the  department  of  foreign  affairs.  He 
was  connected  with  several  papers,  and  wrote 
Des  Jesuites,  De  V Europe,  etc. 

Eddy,  Hiram  Clarence  {b.  1851),  a  dis- 
tinguished musician  and  composer,  who  in 
1871  visited  Berlin,  and  after  a  tour  through 
Austria,  Switzerland,  and  England,  returned 
to  America  and  settled  at  Chicago. 

Edebali,  a  Mahometan  of  the  14th  century, 
the  father-in-law  of  Othman,  the  founder  of 
the  Turkish  empire. 

Edeliack,  Gerard  (*.  1640,  d.  1707),  en- 
graver, bom  at  Antwerp,  pupil  of  Comeille 
Galle ;  was  patronised  by  Louis  XIV.  His 
best  works  are  Alexander  and  the  Family  of 
Darius,  and  the  portraits  of  Descartes,  La- 
fontaine,  and  Dryden. 

Edelmann,  Johann  Friederich  (5.  1749,  d. 
1794),  French  pianist  and  composer,  took 
part  in  the  Revolution,  and  died  by  the 
guillotine. 

Edgar  or  Eadgar,  King  of  England  {b. 
944,  d.  975),  son  of  Edmund  I.,  became  ruler 
of  England  north  of  the  Thames  after  the 


insurrection  of  957,  and  sole  sovereign  on  the 
death  of  his  brother,  Edwy,  in  959.  He 
adopted  a  conciliatory  policy  towards  hia 
Danish  subjects,  and  ruled  firmly  and  peace- 
fully, imder  the  guidance  of  Archbishop 
Dunstan. 

Edgar  Atheling  or  Eadgar  the  ^theling 

{b.  circa  1055,  d.  after  112(J),  son  of  Edward 
the  Exile,  son  of  Edmund  Ironside  ;  was, 
after  the  battle  of  Hastings,  proclaimed 
king  by  the  archbishops  and  citizens 
of  London,  but,  through  the  desertion  of 
Earls  Edwin  and  Morkere,  forced  to  yield  to 
WilUam  at  Berkhampstead.  Though  well 
treated  by  him,  he  fled  to  Scotland  in  1068, 
and  in  1069  joined  in  two  imsuccessful  ex- 
peditions against  WOliam,  the  latter  in  con- 
junction with  the  Danes.  Henceforward  he 
led  an  adventurous  life — defeating  Donald- 
bane  of  Scotland  in  1097,  and  securing  the 
throne  for  his  nephew  Edgar,  and  joining  in 
the  Crusade  of  1099.  He  supported  Robert 
of  Normandy  against  Henry  I.,  and  was 
captured  at  Tenchebrai,  but  released. 

Edgeworth,  Maria  {b.  1767,  d.  1849), 
novelist,  bom  in  Berkshire,  daughter  of 
Richard  Lovell  Edgeworth,  with  whom 
she  went  to  Ireland  in  1782.  Besides 
several  stories  for  children,  with  a  moral 
purpose,  she  wrote  Castle  Eackrent  (1800), 
Belinda  (1801),  and  other  novels,  illustrating 
Irish  life  and  character. 

Edgeworth,  Richard  Lovell  (b.  1744,  d. 
1817),  mechanical  inventor,  in  some  degree 
anticipated  McAdam  in  has  Essay  on  the 
Construction  of  Roads  and  Bridges.  In 
conjunction  with  his  daughter  he  wrote  an 
Essay  on  Practical  Education. 

Edinburgh,  H.R.H.  Prince  Alfred  Ernest 
Albert,  Duke  of  (6. 1844),  second  son  of  Queen 
Victoria,  was  educated  for  the  navy,  and  in 
1885-6  commanded  the  Mediterranean  squad- 
ron. He  declined  the  throne  of  Greece  in 
1862.  In  1874  he  married  the  Grand  Duchess 
Marie,  only  daughter  of  the  Czar  Alexander 
II.  ^ 

Edison,  Thomas  Alva  {b.  1847),  American 
inventor,  bom  at  MUan,  in  Ohio,  from  the  age 
of  twelve,  when  he  was  engaged  as  a  newsboy, 
showed  an  aptitude  for  iavention,  which  was 
early  directed  towards  telegraphy.  His 
principal  inventions  are  the  quadruplex 
telegraph,  the  automatic  telegraph  (which 
can  transmit  a  thousand  words  a  minute) , 
the  motograph  relay,  the  carbon  telephone, 
the  "  Edison  system  "  of  electric  lighting  by 
incandescence,  and  the  phonograph  and 
photometer. 

Edith,  or  Eadgyth  {d.  1075),  daughter  of 
Earl  Godwin,  and  queen  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  to  whom  she  was  married  in  1045. 
When  her  father    was  banished  she    was 


Edi 


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Edw 


removed  to  a  monastery,  but  brought  back 
to  coxirt  iu  lO'rl.  She  is  described  by  con- 
temporary writers  as  pious,  beautiful,  and 
learned. 

Editb,  St.,  sister  of  King  Edgar,  and 
Abbess  of  Polesworth  in  Warwickshire. 

Edith,  St.  (b.  circa  962,  d.  984),  daughter 
of  King  Edgar,  entered  the  convent  of 
Wilton,  in  Wiltshire,  of  which  she  is  said  to 
have  become  abbess.  Her  festival  was  kept 
with  great  solemnity  in  every  part  of 
England. 

Edmtmd,  or  Eadmund,  St.,  King  of  East 
Anglia  {b.  841,  d.  870),  began  to  reign  in 
855.  In  866  East  Anglia  was  invaded  by 
the  Danes  under  Hiugwar,  who  sent  a  mes- 
senger to  Edmund,  bidding  him  renounce 
Christianity  and  become  his  vassal.  On  his 
refusal  he  was  tied  to  a  tree,  and  his  body 
pierced  with  arrows.  His  remains  were 
afterwards  interred  in  the  church  of  Bury, 
hence  called  St.  Edmund's  Bury,  or  Bury 
St.  Edmimds. 

Edmund  I.,  the  Elder  (b.  circa  922,  d.  946), 
King  of  England,  succeeded  his  brother, 
Athelstan,  in  940.  The  men  of  the  north 
ha\'ing  chosen  other  kings,  Olaf  and  Ragnar, 
Edmund  concluded  a  treaty  with  them  in 
943,  but  expelled  them  in  944.  He  also  re- 
duced Mercia,  including  the  Five  Boroughs, 
and  in  945  formed  an  alliance  with  Malcolm 
of  Scotland.  He  was  assassinated  by  an 
outlaw,  named  Liofa. 

Edmund  II.,  Ironside  {b.  989,  d.  1017), 
son  and  successor  of  Ethelred  the  Un- 
ready, fought  against  the  Danes  during 
his  father's  lifetime,  and  on  his  accession 
shared  the  kingdom  with  Canute,  who  had 
defeated  him  owing  to  the  treachery  of 
Edric  Streona.  He  was  assassinated,  pro- 
bably thi-ough  Edric's  instigation. 

Edmund  Rich  (d.  1240),  a  native  of 
Abingdon,  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury (12o2)  on  the  nomination  of  Gregory 
IX. ;  resisted  the  poise's  exactions  and  inter- 
ference with  the  liberties  of  the  church,  but 
failed  in  his  efforts.  He  withdrew  to  Soissy, 
where  he  died. 

Edred  (d.  955),  King  of  England,  youngest 
son  of  Edward  the  Elder,  succeeded  his 
brother,  Edmund,  in  946. 

Edric,  called  Streona,  "the  Gainer,"  (d. 
1017),  of  obscure  birth,  gained  the  favour 
of  Ethelred  the  Unready,  and  became  ealdor- 
man  of  Mercia  in  1007.  In  1015  he  took  part 
in  a  treacherous  assassination  of  the  Danes 
at  Oxford;  on  the  death  of  Ethelred  (1016) 
joined  Canute  in  opposition  to  Edmund 
Ironside ;  afterwards  allied  himself  with 
Edmund,  and  by  his  flight  at  Assandun, 
probably  pre-arranged,  occasioned  his  defeat 


by  Canute  in  that  battle.  The  kingdom  was 
then  divided  at  his  suggestion.  He  is  believed 
to  have  had  a  hand  in  the  death  of  Edmund. 

Edrisi,  Abu  Abdallah  Ben  Ediis  (b. 
1099,  d.  1104),  Arabian  geographer,  bom 
at  Ceuta,  a  descendant  of  Ali,  son-in- 
law  of  Mahomet,  settled  at  the  court 
of  Eager,  King  of  Sicily,  and  wrote  La 
Arabic  a  geographical  treatise  explaining  the 
large  silver  globe  he  made  for  the  king. 

Edward  "the  Elder,"  King  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  {b.  870,  d.  924),  son  and  successor 
(901)  of  Alfred  the  Great,  was  opposed  by 
his  cousin,  Ethelwald,  who  was  aided  by  the 
Danes,  but  slain  in  battle  (906).  With  the 
assistance  of  his  sister,  Ethelfleda,  lady  of 
the  Mercians,  widow  of  Earl  Ethelred,  he 
defeated  the  Danes  of  Northumbria,  and 
secm-ed  his  borders  by  a  group  of  strong  fort- 
resses; afterwards  extended  his  sway  over 
Northumbria,  Wales,  and  Strathclyde,  being 
the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  ICing  of  Eng- 
land. 

Edward  "the  Martyr"  (J.  circa  963,  d.  979), 
succeeded  his  father,  Edgar,  in  975.  He 
was  supported  by  Dunstau,  but  opposed  by 
his  stepmother,  Elfrida,  who  had  him 
assassinated  at  Corfe  Castle. 

Edward  "  the  Confessor  "  (6.  circa  1004, 
d.  1066),  son  of  Etheked  the  Unready  and 
Emma,  daughter  of  Eichard  the  Fearless^ 
Duke  of  Normandy,  was  brought  up  at  the 
Norman  court,  and  after  his  accession,  on  the 
death  of  Harthacnut,  in  1042,  showed  a  pre- 
ference for  Norman  customs  and  ideas.  Out- 
rages were  committed  vsith  impunity  by  his 
Norman  favourites,  while  the  English  earls, 
Leofric  of  Mercia,  and  Godwine  of  Wessex, 
were  engaged  in  private  quarrels.  At  last, 
in  1052,  Godwine,  who  had  been  outlawed, 
rose  in  rebellion,  installed  Stigand  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  in  place  of  Eobert  of 
Jumieges,  who  had  fled  with  the  other 
Normans,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  reign 
all  real  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  House 
of  Godwine.  Edward  codified  the  customary 
law  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  which  thus  became 
knowm  as  the  ''  laws  of  King  Edward." 

Edward  I.,  King  of  England  (6.  1239,  d. 
1307),  succeeded  his  father,  Henry  III.,  in 
1272.  Imbued  with  high  notions  of  feudal 
sovereignty,  he  sought  to  establish  his 
supremacy  throughout  the  island  of  Britain. 
His  expeditions  against  Llewellyn  -  ap  - 
Gruffydd,  Prince  of  Wales  (1282),  and  his 
brother,  David  (1283),  resulted  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  principality,  the  government  of 
which  he  settled  by  the  statute  of  Wales 
(1284).  The  struggle  between  John  Baliol 
and  Eobert  Bruce  for  the  throne  of  Scotland 
gave  him  a  pretext  for  interfering  in  that 
country  (1290).  After  vainly  endeavouring 
to  maintain  Baliol  as  his  vassal,  he  set  to 


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Edw 


work  to  conquer  Scotland  for  himself,  send- 
ing the  Earl  of  Warrenne  thither  as  viceroy, 
but  was  forced  to  contend  with  a  succession 
of  claimants,  and  died  near  Carlisle, 
whilst  marching  against  WiUiam  Wallace. 
A  man  of  strictly  legal,  but  somewhat 
narrow  mind,  he  seciu-ed  order  and  good 
government  by  the  Statutes  of  Winchester 
and  "Westminster  and  other  enactments,  and 
carried  on  Simon  de  Montfort's  work  of 
moulding  the  English  Parliament  (129-5), 
though,  at  the  same  time,  somewhat  incUned 
to  strain  the  royal  prerogative.  His  personal 
chai'acter  was  extremely  high. 

Edward  II.,  Elug  of  England  (b.  1284,  d. 
1327),  born  at  Carnarvon,  succeeded  his 
father,  Edward  I.,  in  1307.  He  was  of  a  lux- 
urious and  pleasure-seeking  disposition,  and 
by  his  misgovern  ment  and  fondness  for  his 
favourite,  the  Gascon  Piers  Gavestou, 
provoked  a  rising  of  the  bai'onage,  under  his 
cousin,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster.  In  the 
Parliament  of  1310  the  royal  power  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  twenty-one  "lords  ordainers," 
who  banished  Gaveston  (1311).  Returning 
in  1312,  he  was  captured  and  executed  by 
the  Earl  of  Warwick  on  Blacklow  Hill. 
Edward  afterwards  chose  the  Despensers, 
father  and  son,  as  favourites,  and  the  quarrel 
with  the  barons  continued  till  the  latter  were 
defeated  at  Boroughbridge  (1322),  and  Lan- 
caster beheaded.  In  1325  Queen  Isabella 
went  to  France  to  settle  a  dispute  with 
Charles  IV.,  and  returned  the  following  year 
with  the  exiled  Roger  Mortimer,  Earl  of 
March,  now  head  of  the  baronial  party. 
They  were  soon  joined  by  a  large  force. 
Edward  was  captured  in  Wales,  deposed  by 
Parliament,  and  imprisoned  in  Berkeley 
Castle,  where  he  was  murdered.  The 
internal  dissensions  of  the  reign  enabled  the 
Scots  to  maintain  their  independence. 
Edward's  lords  would  not  follow  him  to 
battle,  and  he  was  defeated  by  Bruce  at 
Bannockbum  (1314). 

Edward  III.  (6.  1312,  d.  1377)  became 
king  on  the  deposition  of  his  father,  Edward 
II.,  in  1327.  The  government  was  carried 
on  by  Queen  Isabella  and  Roger  Mortimer. 
After  seizing  them  at  Nottingham  Castle 
(1330),  and  executing  Mortimer,  Edward 
prosecuted  the  Scottish  war  with  vigour, 
winning  the  victory  of  HaUdon  Hill,  and  re- 
instating Baliol,  who  was  soon  afterwards 
again  expelled.  In  1327  the  Hundred  Years' 
war  began,  Edward  claiming  the  French 
throne  through  his  mother,  daughter  of 
Philip  the  Fair,  in  opposition  to  the  reigning 
monarch,  Philip  VI. ,  of  ValoLs.  After  fruitless 
campaigns  from  the  side  of  Flanders  in  1339 
and  1340,  Edward,  in  1346,  landed  in  Nor- 
mandy, and  marched  along  the  Seine  towards 
Paris,  but,  finding  it  covered  by  Philip's 
army,  tamed  northwards,  defeated  Philip  at 


Crecy  (August  26th) ,  and,  after  a  year's  siege,- 
reduced  Calais.  Meanwhile  David  Bruce 
had  been  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of 
Neville's  Cross  (1346).  The  French  war 
continued  iatermittently  till  1360,  when  by 
the  treaty  of  Bretigny' Edward  renounced 
his  claim  to  the  thi-one,  but  received 
Aquitaine  in  full  sovereignty.  In  1369  war 
recommenced,  and  Charles  V.  soon  won 
back  most  of  his  lost  provinces.  Edward 
encom-aged  the  wool  trade,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  there  was  some  constitu- 
tional progress,  the  Commons  claiming  new 
functions  and  powers  of  control. 

Edward  rv.  {b.  1442,  d.  1483),  son  of 
Richard  Plautagenet,  Duke  of  York,  after 
winning  the  victory  of  Mortimer's  Cross, 
marched  to  London,  and  was  crowned  king 
(1461).  He  then  followed  the  Lancastrian 
army  northwards,  and  defeated  them  at 
Towton.  The  last  efforts  of  Hem-y's  sup- 
porters were  crushed  in  1464,  and  Edward 
ruled  peacefully  for  six  years.  His  marriage 
with  Elizabeth  Wydeville  offended  the 
Nevilles,  who  joined  the  Lancastrian  party, 
and  Edward  was  forced  to  fly  to  Holland. 
Within  six  months  he  returned,  landed  in 
Yorkshire,  marched  soiithwards,  gathering 
forces  on  his  way,  and  defeated  Warwick  at 
Barnet  (1471).  Three  weeks  afterwards 
Queen  Margaret  was  defeated  at  Tewkes- 
bury. Edward  was  secm-e  from  fiu-ther 
attacks,  and,  as  most  of  the  barons  had  been 
killed  in  the  Civil  war,  while  the  Church  had 
lost  its  iniiuence,  and  the  power  of  the 
Commons  had  been  checked  in  mid-growth, 
he  ruled  as  an  absolute  monarch.  He 
promoted  commerce  and  jiatronised  learning, 
and  his  reign  was  one  of  material  prosperity. 

Edward  V.  (b.  1470,  d.  1483)  became  king 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  but  reigned  only 
a  few  weeks,  being  smothered  in  the  Tower 
by  order  of  his  uncle,  Richard,  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III. 

Edward  VI.  (*.  1537,  d.  1553),  son  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Jane  Seymour,  succeeded 
his  father  in  1547.  He  was  a  learned  youth ; 
but  weak  in  bodj',  and  probably  in  character. 
The  government  was  at  first  in  the  hands 
of  his  uncle,  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of 
Somerset,  who  incurred  the  dislike  of  the 
nobles,  and  was  in  1549  supplanted  by  John 
Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick,  afterwards  Duke 
of  Northumberland.  During  his  reign  a 
somewhat  Calvinistic  form  of  Protestantism 
was  rigorously  estabUshed  throughout  the 
kingdom. 

Edward  {b.  1330,  d.  1376),  Prince  of 
Wales,  called  the  "Black  Prince,"  son  of 
Edward  III.,  fought  under  his  father  at 
Crecy;  led  a  marauding  expedition  into 
France  in  1355,  and  another  in  1356,  when 
he  won  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  taking  King 


Edw 


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Ege 


Johu  prisoner.  lu  136G  he  undertook  to 
reinstate  Pedro  the  Cruel,  of  Castile,  on  his 
throne,  and  accomplished  this  object  by  the 
victory  of  Navarrete. 

Edward,  Thomas  (b.  1814,  d.  18S6),  Scottish 
natuialist,  of  humble  parentage,  throughout 
life  a  struggling  shoemaker ;  spent  much  time 
in  collecting  specimens ;  discovered  several 
new  species,  and  \vrote  Selections  from  the 
Fauna  of  Ba>iifshire,  appended  to  his 
biography  by  Smiles  (1876).  In  1876  he 
received  a  pension  from  the  Queen. 

Edwardes,  Sir  Herbert  Benjamin  (b.  1819, 
d.  1868),  obtained  a  cadetship  in  the  East 
India  Company  (1840) ;  served  in  the  Sikh 
war  (1845) ;  became  assistant  to  Sir  Heury 
Lawrence  at  Lahore  (1847)  ;  defeated  the 
SLkhs  at  Kineyree,  and  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  Mooltan  (1849)  ;  as  com- 
missioner of  the  Peshawar  frontier  during 
the  Mutiny  secured  the  neutrality  of  the 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan,  and  sent  a  force  to 
assist  in  capturing  Delhi.  He  was  com- 
missioner of  Umbala  from  1862  to  1865. 

Edwards,  Amelia  Blandford  (6.  1831, 
d.  1892),  novelist ;  besides  contributing  to 
magazines  and  writing  for  the  daily  and 
weekly  papers,  has  written  My  Bruther^s 
Wife  (1855),  Barbara's  History  (1864),  Lord 
Brackenbury  (1880),  and  other  novels;  also 
some  books  of  travel —  Untrodden  Paths  and 
Unfrequented  Valleys  (1873),  A  Thousanc 
Miles  up  the  Nile  (1877),  etc. 

Edwards,  Bryan  (b.  1743,  d.  1800),  spent 
some  years  in  Jamaica,  and,  returning  to 
England,  wrote  a  History  of  the  British 
Colonies  in  the  West  Indies. 

Edwards,  George  (fi.  1694,  d.  1773), 
naturalist ;  wrote  a  History  of  Birds,  Glean- 
ings of  Natural  History,  etc. 

Edwards,  G-uillaume  Frederic  (6.  1777,  d. 
1842),  physiologist  and  ethnologist,  bom  in 
Jamaica,  was  educated  at  Bruges ;  spent 
most  of  his  life  in  Paris ;  wrote  Physio- 
logical Characters  of  Human  Races  (1839),  etc. 

Edwards,  Jonathan  (6.  1703,  d.  1758), 
American  theologian,  bom  at  East  Windsor, 
Connecticut,  educated  at  Yale  College, 
was  Presbyterian  minister  at  Northampton, 
Connecticut,  from  1727  to  1750,  but  ex- 
pelled by  his  congregation  for  attempting 
to  exercise  severe  church  discipline.  He 
then  became  a  missionary  among  the 
Indians  of  Massachusetts,  where  he  wrote 
his  Calvinistic  treatise  ou  the  Freedom  of  the 
Will  and  other  works.  He  died  soon  after 
accepting  the  post  of  principal  of  New 
Jersey  College. 

Edwards,  Richard  (b.  circa  1523,  d.  1566), 
an  early  English  dramatist;  author  of  Damon 
and  Pythias.      Some    of    his    poems    are 


contained  in  the  Paradise  of  Dainty  Devices 

(1576). 

Edwin,  King  of  Northumbria  (b.  586,  d. 
633),  son  of  ^Ua,  King  of  Deira,  by  the 
conquest  of  Bernicia  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Northumbria,  and  in  623  became  bret- 
walda,  Kent  alone  not  recognising  his  title. 
He  was  converted  to  Christianity  (627) ,  and 
slain  in  battle  with  Penda  of  Mercia. 

Edwy  the  Fair  {b.  circa  939,  d.  959) ,  King  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  son  of  Edmund,  succeeded 
his  imcle,  Edred,  in  955.  In  957  the 
Mercians  and  Northumbrians  revolted  from 
him,  and  declared  his  younger  brother, 
Edgar,  king. 

Eeckhout,  Antoni  van  den  (b.  1650,  d. 
1695),  artist,  bom  at  Bruges,  studied  in  Italy 
with  his  brother-in-law,  Deyster,  and 
worked  in  conjunction  with  him,  painting 
flowers  and  fruits.    He  was  assassinated. 

Eeckhout,  Gerbrandt  van  den  (b.  1621,  fij. 
1674),  Flemish  artist ;  pupil  of  Rembrandt ; 
excelled  in  portraits.  Among  his  best  works 
is  Christ  among  the  Doctors,  at  Munich. 

EfFen,  Just  van  {b.  1684,  d.  1735),  Dutch 
journalist,  published  at  the  Hague  Le 
Misanthrope    (1711)    in   imitation    of   the 

Spectator. 

Egbert,  or  Ecgberht  {d.  766),  brother 
of  Eadberht,  King  of  Northumberland,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  York  in  732,  and  founded 
a  library  in  that  town. 

Egbert  (d.  839),  King  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  belonged  to  the  House  of  Cerdic, 
and,  after  Hviug  in  exile  at  the  court  of 
Charlemagne,  became,  in  802,  King  of  Wes- 
sex,  to  which  he  annexed  Mercia  (825)  and 
Northumbria  (827).  In  828  he  overran 
Wales,  and  in  835  defeated  the  Danes  in 
Devonshire. 

Egede,  Hans  (b.  1686,  d.  1758),  Danish 
missionary  among  the  pagan  Greenlanders ; 
established  a  commercial  colony,  and  was 
very  successful  till  thwarted  by  Christian 
VI. ;  handed  on  his  work  to  his  son,  Paul, 
by  whose  descendants  it  was  continued  till 
the  present  century. 

Egerton,  Francis,  first  Earl  of  EUesmere 
{h.  1800,  d.  1857),  was  Chief  Secretary  for  Ire- 
land (1828-30)  and  Secretary  for  War  (1830). 
He  translated  Faust,  wrote  poems,  and  con- 
tributed to  the  Quarterly  Meview. 

Egerton,  Thomas,  Baron  of  Ellesmere, 
Viscount  Brackley  {b.  1540,  d.  1617),  bom  at 
Doddlestone  Hall,  in  Cheshire,  was  called 
within  the  bar  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  became 
Solicitor- General  (1581),  Attorney- General 
(1592),  Master  of  the  RoUs  (1594),  and 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal  (1596),  and  was 


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Eic 


Lord  Chancellor  under  James  I.  Among 
his  chief  reforms  was  the  introduction  of  a 
more  merciful  spirit  into  the  penal  code. 

Egg,  Augustus  Leopold,  R.A.  (b.  1816,  d. 
1863),  artist,  born  in  London  ;  excelled  in 
depicting  historical  incidents,  and  also  illus- 
trated scenes  from  Shakespeare.  Among  his 
best  works  are  Sir  Piercie  Shafton,  The  Life 
and  Death  of  Buckingham,  and  the  Dinner 
Seme  from  the  Taming  of  the  Shrew  (1860). 

Eggeatein,  Henri,  a  printer  of  the  15th 
century,  said  to  have  been  the  associate  of 
John  Mentel  at  Strasburg.  His  first  work 
there  is  dated  1471. 

Egglesfleld,  Robert  de  {d.  1349),  member 
of  an  old  Cumberland  family  and  confessor 
to  Philippa,  queen  of  Edward  LEI. ;  founded 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  for  the  benefit  of 
natives  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland. 

Eg^idius  {date  uncertain),  the  Latin  name 
for  St.  Giles,  one  of  the  black-letter  saints 
of  the  English  calendar,  an  Athenian  by 
birth.  He  fled  to  France,  and  became 
abbot  of  a  monastery  founded  by  Wamba 
or  Childeric.  Being  lame,  he  was  the 
patron  of  cripples  ;  he  is  also  the  patron 
saint  of  Edinburgh. 

Egilsson,  Svenbjorn  {b.  1791,  d.  1852), 
Icelandic  linguist  and  antiquarian ;  origin- 
ated the  Northern  Antiquarian  Society  in 
1825,  and  wrote  Lexicon  Poeticum  Linguce 
Septentrionalis,  and  Scripta  Historica  Is- 
landonim. 

Eginliard  {b.  circa  771,  d.  844),  German 
historian,  born  in  Franconia,  was  a  pupil  of 
Alcuin,  and  introduced  by  him  to  Charle- 
magne, who  made  him  lus  secretary.  On 
his  death  he  entered  the  service  of  Louis  le 
D^onnaire,  and  educated  his  son,  Lothaire. 
He  was  afterwards  Abbot  of  SeUgenstadt. 
Besides  Vita  et  Gesta  Caroli  Magni,  he  wrote 
Annates  Regum  Francomm  (741-829),  and 
other  works. 

Eginton,  Francis  {b.  1737,  d.  1805),  an 
English  painter  on  glass,  executed  a  Resur- 
rection, for  Lichfield  cathedral,  and  other 
works. 

Egizio,  Matteo  {b.  1674,  d.  1745),  a  learned 
antiquarian,  bom  at  Naples,  left  several 
works  on  archaeological  and  literary  subjects. 

Egloffstein,  Carl  August  von  (fi.  1771,  d. 
1834),  German  general,  joined  the  contingent 
furnished  to  the  French  army  on  the  Rhine 
by  Charles  Augustus  of  Saxe -Weimar; 
distinguished  himself  at  Jena,  and  after- 
wards in  Spain  under  Augereau,  and  in 
Napoleon's  Russian  campaign. 

Egmont,  Lamoral,  Count,  Prince  de 
Gavre   (6.  1522,  d.   1568),  Flemish  noble; 


accompanied  Charles  V.  on  his  expedition 
to  Africa  (1544),  and  distinguished  himself 
against  the  French  in  the  battles  of  St. 
Queutin  and  GraveUnes.  During  the  re- 
gency of  the  Duchess  of  Parma  he  sought 
to  mediate  between  her  and  the  people  of 
the  Netherlands.  Becoming  obnoxious  to 
Philip  II.  owing  to  his  connection  with  the 
Pilnce  of  Orange,  he  was  seized  and  executed 
at  Brussels  by  the  Duke  of  Alva. 

Eg^nazio,  the  name  assimied  by  Giovanni 
Battista  Cipelli  (b.  1478,  d.  1553),  a 
pupil  of  PoHtian,  who  taught  classics  in 
Venice,  and,  as  a  professor,  contributed  to 
the  revival  of  learning  in  his  day. 

Ehingen,  Georg  von  (b.  circa  1435),  Ger- 
man traveller  and  adventurer,  after  journey- 
ing thi'ough  Palestine,  A'isited  the  courts  of 
France,  Sicily,  Navarre,  Portugal,  England 
and  Scotland,  and  distinguished  himself 
against  the  Saracens,  England,  and  Scot- 
land.    He  left  an  accomit  of  his  travels. 

Ehrenberg,  Christian  Gottfried  {b.  1795, 
d.  1876),  a  Geiman  naturalist,  bom  at 
Delitzsch,  famous  for  his  investigations 
concerning  fungi  and  their  laws  of  re- 
production. In  1820  -  25  he  made  a 
scientific  expedition  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
Abyssinia,  returning  with  large  collec- 
tions; and  in  1829  accompanied  Alexander 
von  Humboldt  in  his  explorations  in  Central 
Asia.  His  chief  works  are  Infusoria  as  Per- 
fect Organisms  (1838),  and  Micro-geology,  or 
the  Life  that  Creates  Earth  and  Rocks 
(1854). 

Elrrenmalm,  Arvid,  in  1741  explored  the 
province  of  Absele-Lappmark  in  Nordland, 
and  left  an  account  of  his  travels. 

Ehret,  Georg  Dionysius  {b.  1710,  d.  1770), 
a  Gennan  botanist  and  painter  of  plants, 
visited  England,  and  was  patronised  by  Sir 
Hans  Sloane. 

Eichendorflf,  Joseph  von  (6.  1788,  d.  1857), 
German  poet,  a  member  of  the  later  ro- 
mantic school.  His  lyrics  are  popular ;  he 
also  wrote  A  Good-for-Nothing's  Life  (1826), 
and  other  tales  and  dramas. 

Eichhom,  Johann  Gottfried  (b.  1752,  d. 
1827),  Gennan  OrientaUst  and  theologian, 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Jena 
(1775)  and  Gottingen  (1778)  ;  wrote  Intro- 
ductions to  the  Old  and  i\cw  Testaments, 
to  the  Apocrypha  and  The  Hebrew  Pro- 
phets ;  conducted  a  Repertoriutn  for  Bibli- 
cal and  Oriental  Literature,  and  edited 
Abul-f  eda's  Arabic  Geography  of  Africa. 

Eichtlial,  Gustave  {b.  1804),  French  econo- 
mist, bom  at  Nancy,  educated  at  the  school 
of  St.  Simon,  became  a  St.  Simonian  and 
follower  of  Enf antin.  Migrating  to  Greece, 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  bureau 


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Elg 


of  political  ecouomv,  aud  helped  to  estab- 
lish the  Societ(5  d'Ethiiologie.  In  1848  he 
joined  in  starting  Le  Credit.  His  exegetical 
work,  Lcs  Ecangiks,  was  pubHshed  in  1863. 

Eisenlohr,  August  {b.  1832),  German 
Egyptologist,  in  1869  led  an  expedition  to 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  and  studied  the 
Harris  papyrus  at  Alexandria,  a  translation 
of  which  he  published  in  1872-3;  has  written 
papers  on  Egyptian  archaeology,  and  in  1872 
was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  in  the 
university  of  Heidelberg. 

Elcho,  Lord.     {See  Wemyss.] 

Elci,  Angelo  Maria,  Count  of  (*.  1754,  d. 
1824),  a  native  of  Florence,  formed  a  valu- 
able collection  of  rare  books,  now  in  the 
Biblioteca  Laurenziana  in  that  town. 

Eldon,  John  Scott,  Earl  of  {b.  1751,  d. 
1838),  son  of  a  Newcastle  coalfitter ; 
after  a  successful  career  at  Oxford,  entered 
the  Middle  Temple  (1773),  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  (1776) ;  entered  Parliament  as  a 
supporter  of  Pitt  (1783) ;  became  Solicitor- 
General  (1787),  and  as  Attorney- General 
(1793)  piosecuted  Thelwall,  Home  Tooke, 
and  other  revolutionary  agitators.  He  be- 
came Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in 
1799,  and  was  Lord  Chancellor  from  1801  to 
1806  and  1807  to  1827.  In  politics  he  was 
an  unbending  Tory,  opposing  all  improve- 
ments in  the  law  or  constitution. 

Eleanora  d'Anjou,  Queen  of  SicUy  {d. 
1343),  daughter  of  Charles  II.  of  Anjou; 
in  1302  married  Frederick  II.  of  Aragon, 
King  of  Sicily,  after  whose  death  she  with- 
drew to  a  convent. 

Eleanora  d'Arborea  {d.  1404),  daughter 
of  Mariano  IV.,  Lord  of  Arborea  in  Sar- 
dinia, inherited  a  great  part  of  the  island 
from  her  father,  and  ruled  prudently,  re- 
sisting the  Aragonese,  and  issuing  a  code  of 
laws. 

EleanoreTellez,  Queen  of  Portugal  (3.1350, 
d.  1405),  was  married  to  Joao  Lourencjo  da 
Cunha,whom  she  left  to  become  the  wife  of 
Ferdinand  I.  of  Portugal.  She  was  left  regent 
by  her  husband  at  his  death  in  1383,  but  dis- 
gusted the  people  by  her  liaison  with  Andeiro, 
a  Castilian  lord.  An  insurrection  breaking 
out,  Andeiro  was  assassinated,  and  Ferdi- 
nand's natural  brother,  Joao,  declared  king. 
Eleanore  was  afterwards  placed  in  a  monas- 
tery at  Tordesillas. 

Eleanor  of  Aragon,  Queen  of  Portugal, 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Aragon,  in  1428 
married  Edward,  afterwards  king  of  Por- 
tugal, and,  after  his  death  in  1458,  was 
regent  for  her  son,  Alphonso  V. 

Eleanor  of  Aragon,  Queen  of  Navarre 
(rf.  1479),  second  daughter  of  Juan  U.  of 


Aragon  and  Blanche  of  Navarre;  in  1436 
married  Gaston  IV.,  Count  of  Foix,  and  be- 
came queen  in  1479. 

Eleanore  of  Austria  (b.  1498,  d.  1558), 
sister  of  Charles  V. ;  was  married  first  to 
Manoel,  King  of  Portugal  (1519-21),  and 
afterwards  to  Francis  I.  (1530-47). 

Eleanore  of  Castile,  Queen  of  England, 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile ;  mar- 
ried Prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I. , 
in  1254.  She  accompanied  her  husband  on 
the  Crusade. 

Eleanor  of  CastUe,  Queen  of  Navarre  {d. 
1416),  daughter  of  Heni-y  II.  of  Castile; 
in  1375  married  Charles  III.  of  Navarre. 
She  abandoned  her  husband,  but  was 
forced  to  return  to  him  by  her  nephew, 
Henry  III.  of  Castile. 

Eleanore  of  Guienne  {b.  1122,  d.  1204), 
daughter  of  William  IX.,  Duke  of  Guienne; 
in  1137  married  Louis  VII.  of  France,  by 
whom  she  was  divorced  in  1152.  She  then 
became  the  wife  of  Henry  Plantagenet, 
Count  of  Anjou  and  Duke  of  Nonnandy, 
afterwards  Henry  II.  of  England;  aided 
her  sons  in  their  rebellion  against  their 
father,  and  was  imprisoned  from  1173  to 
1184.  She  was  regent  for  Richard  I.  during 
his  absence  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Eleanore  of  Provence,  Queen  of  England 
{d.  1291),  daughter  of  Raimond  Berenger 
IV.;  in  1236  married  Henry  III.  of  England, 
and  on  his  death,  in  1272,  took  the  veil. 

Eleazar,  son  of  Onias,  high  priest  in  the 
3rd  century  B.C.,  said  by  Josephus  to  have 
sent  to  Alexandria  the  seventy-two  Jews 
who  compiled  the  Septuagint. 

Eleazar  {d.  167  e.g.),  a  scribe,  mentioned 
in  the  Book  of  Maccabees  as  having  suifered 
death  by  torture  rather  than  eat  polluted 
meat  when  commanded  by  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes. 

Eleazar  (d.  163  b.c),  one  of  the  Macca- 
beau  brothers,  sons  of  Matathias,  led  the 
Jews  in  their  wars  with  the  kings  of  SjTia. 
He  was  crushed  by  an  elephant  whilst  fight- 
ing against  Antiochus  Eupator. 

Eleazar,  son  of  Ananias,  leader  of  one  of 
the  factions  which  divided  Jerusalem  during 
its  siege  by  the  Romans  a.d.  70. 

Eleazar  of  Massada,  a  Jewish  fanatic,  de- 
scended from  Judas  the  Gahlean,  at  the 
head  of  the  Sicaiii  defended  the  fortress  of 
Massada,  on  the  Dead  Sea,  against  the 
Romans.  When  resistance  proved  vain, 
he  and  his  followers  killed  themselves. 

Eleutherius  (<^.  1 92) ,  a  native  of  Nicopolia ; 
was  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Elgin,  Thomas  Bruce,  seventh  Earl  of  (i. 


Elg 


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EH 


1766,  d.  1841),  and  eleventh  Earl  of  Kin- 
cardine ;  entered  the  army,  bat  was  mainly 
engaged  in  diplomacy.  Whilst  ambassador 
in  Constantinople  (1799-1802)  he  planned 
the  removal  of  the  "Elgin  Marbles  "  from 
Athens  to  England.  In  1816  they  were 
bought  by  the  nation  for  £35,000,  and  placed 
in  the  British  Museum. 

Elgin,  James  Bruce,  eighth  Earl  of,  and 
twelfth  Earl  of  Kincardiae  {b.  1811,  d.  1863), 
son  of  the  preceding ;  was  governor  of 
Jamaica  (1842-46),  and  of  Canada  (1846-54); 
sent  as  special  envoy  to  China  in  1857  ;  nego- 
tiated the  treaty  of  Tiensia  (1858),  and  that 
of  Yeddo  with  the  Japanese.  In  1860  he 
again  went  to  China,  and  the  treaty  of  Tien- 
sin  was  ratified,  with  additional  stipulations. 
In  1862  he  went  to  India  as  viceroy. 

Eli,  a  Hebrew  judge  and  high  priest. 

Ellas,  Levita  {b.  1472,  d.  1549),  Jewish 
rabbi,  and  writer  in  modem  Hebrew, 
professor  at  Padua  in  1504.  He  fled  to  Venice 
at  the  sack  of  Padua  in  1509,  and  thence  to 
Rome,  where  he  lived  tiU  1527,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Venice. 

Ellas,  Matthiius  {b.  1658,  d.  1741),  German 
artist  of  humble  birth  ;  studied  under  Cor- 
been,  and  worked  at  Paris  and  Dunkirk; 
left  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Barbe,  at  Dunkirk, 
and  other  works. 

Elie  de  Beaumont,  Jean  Baptiste  Armand 
Louis  L6once  (b.  1798,  d.  1874),  French 
geologist ;  was  sent  on  a  metallurgical  ex- 
pedition by  the  Government  in  1821 ;  became 
professor  at  the  School  of  Mines  in  1829,  and 
chief  engineer  in  1833.  In  1823,  with  MM. 
Brochant  de  Vilhers,  and  Dufrenoy,  he  exe- 
cuted a  geological  map  of  France.  He  has 
written  Becherches  sur  Qtielques-unes  des 
Jiivolutions  ds  la  Surface du  Globe  (1829),  etc. 

Eligius  Noviomensls  (St.  Eloy),  (6. 588,  d. 
659),  French  saint ;  was  a  skilied  goldsmith, 
and  became  minister  of  Dagobert  I.,  and 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Noyon. 

Elijah,  Hebrew  prophet,  who  denounced 
idolatry  during  the  reigns  of  Ahab  and  his 
son  (B.C.  910-896). 

Elio,  Francisco  Xavier  (*.  1767,  d.  1822), 
Spanish  general ;  appointed  governor  of  Val- 
encia and  Murcia  ;  by  his  severity  provoked 
a  conspiracy,  which  was  suppressed.  In  1820 
he  was  arrested,  and  after  two  years'  im- 
prisonment, tried,  and  executed. 

Eliot,  George,  pseudonym  of  Mary  Ann 
Evans,  novelist  (b.  1819,  d.  1880).  Her 
parents  were  of  humble  origin.  Educated  in 
a  boarding-school  at  Nuneaton,  she  removed 
with  her  father  to  Foleshill,  near  Coventry, 
in  1841.  She  now  exchanged  Evangelicalism 
for  Scepticism,  and  in  1846  published  her 
translation  of  Strauss'  Leben  Jesu.  After  the 
S2 


death  of  her  father  (1849)  she  travelled  on 
the  Continent,  and  on  her  return  became 
joint-editor  of  the  Westminster  Meview.  In 
1851  she  began  her  lifelong  connection  with 
George  Henry  Lewes,  and  iu  1857  published 
Scenes  of  Clerical  Life,  followed  by  Adam 
Bede  (1859),  The  Mill  o?i  the  Floss  (1860), 
Silas  Marner  (1861),  Rmnola  (1863),  Felix 
Holt  (1866),  Middlemarch  (1871-2),  Daniel 
Deronda  (1876),  and  Theophrastm  Such 
(1879).  She  travelled  with  George  Lewes  in 
France  and  Spain,  and  pubUshed  two  volumes 
of  poetry.  The  Spanish  Gipsy  (1867)  and  The 
LegendofJubal  (1874).  Lewes  died  in  1878, 
and  shortly  before  her  death  she  married  Mr. 
J.  W.  Cross. 

Eliot,  Sir  John  (*.  1592,  d.  1632),  EngKsh 
statesman  and  patriot ;  entered  Parliament  in 
1623;  opposed  the  arbitrary  government  of 
Charles  I.,  and  in  consequence  of  his  freedom 
of  speech  in  the  Parliament  of  1629  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower,  where  he  died. 

Eliot,  John  {b.  1604,  d.  1690),  EngUsh 
missionary :  worked  among  the  Indians  of 
North  America,  establishing  settlements  vsdth 
a  regular  form  of  government,  founding 
schools,  and  translating  the  Bible  and  re- 
ligious works  into  Indian. 

Elisaeus,  Eghische  {d.  480),  a  learned 
Armenian  ;  became  bishop  in  the  province  of 
Ararat,  and  held  various  offices  under  Prince 
Vartan.  He  wi-ote  a  History  of  the  War  of 
Vartan  and  of  the  ^rOTe«ia«s,  extending  from 
439  to  463. 

Elisha,  Hebrew  prophet,  the  successor 
and  pupil  of  Elijah  ;  died  about  839. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England  (6.  1533,  d. 
1602),  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Anno 
Boleyn,  was  brought  up  as  a  Protestant.  Her 
education  was  entrusted  to  the  most  learned 
men  of  the  age,  and  she  became  an  accom- 
plished scholar.  During  the  reign  of  her 
sister  Mary  she  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  in 
the  Tower.  On  her  accession  (1558),  Mary's 
enactments  in  favour  of  Romanism  were 
abrogated;  by  the  Act  of  Supremacy  the 
sovereign  again  became  head  of  the  Church, 
and  a  form  of  worship  was  established 
which,  it  was  hoped,  would  conciliate  mode- 
rate men  of  all  parties.  At  first  the  spirit 
of  discontent  dared  not  show  itself  amidst 
the  general  satisfaction.  But  after  the 
escape  of  Mary  Stuart  into  England  (1568), 
her  presence  in  the  country  was  a  constant 
source  of  disquiet.  She  was  the  heir  to  the 
throne,  and  as  Elizabeth  persistently  re- 
fused to  marry,  it  seemed  probable  that  she 
would  be  her  successor.  The  disaffected 
Papists  were  further  encouraged  by  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  pronounced 
against  Elizabeth  by  the  Pope,  and  by  the 
triumph  of  their  cause  abroad ;  Jesuits  from 
Douay  traversed  the   country  in    disguise, 


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several  plots  were  formed,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  put  the  penal  enactments  against 
Recusants  more  stringently  in  force.  The 
Protestantism  of  the  coimtry  was  acutely 
aroused,  and  a  strong  party  in  the  council 
urged  the  queen  to  pat  herself  forward  as 
the  champion  of  the  Reformed  faith  on  the 
Continent.  But  Elizabeth  chose  rather  to 
encourage  a  feeUng  of  independence  and 
energy  at  home  than  to  involve  England  in 
foreign  complications ;  the  prudence  and 
patriotism  of  her  policy  were  f  uUy  proved  by 
the  after  history  of  her  reign.  The  growing 
feeling  of  nationality  proved  stronger  than  the 
lingering  attachment  to  the  old  faith,  especi- 
ally after  the  hopes  of  the  Roman  Catholics 
had  been  dashed  by  the  execution  of  Mary 
(1587),  and  when  Philip  of  Spain  sent  his 
long-projected  expedition  against  England 
(1588)  Papists  as  well  as  Protestants  came  1 
zealously  forward  in  defence  of  the  realm,  i 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  reign,  the  dis- 
turbances created  by  the  Puritans  fore- 
shadowed the  troubles  of  the  opening  cen- 
tury. 

Elizabetli  Alexieona,  Emuress  of  Russia 
(h.  1779,  d.  1826),  daughter  of  Charles 
Frederick,  Margrave  of  Baden,  in  1793  mar- 
ried the  Grand  Duke  Alexander,  afterwards 
emperor,  becoming  a  member  of  the  Greek 
Church,  and  changing  her  name  from  that  of 
Louisa  Marie  Augusta. 

Elizabeth  Christina,  Queen  of  Prussia  (*. 
1715,  d.  1797),  daughter  of  Duke  Ferdinand 
Albert  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel ;  married 
Frederick  II.  in  1732,  but  lived  apart  from 
him  after  1740. 

Elizabeth  Famese  (*.  1692,  d.  1766), 
daughter  of  Odoardo  II.,  Duke  of  Parma ;  in 
1714  married  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  and  ex- 
ercised much  influence  over  him,  obtaining 
the  throne  of  Naples  for  her  son,  the  infant 
Charles.  After  the  death  of  Philip  (1746) 
Bhe  withdrew  from  the  court. 

Elizabeth  Petrowna,  Empress  of  Russia 
(*.  1709,  d.  1761),  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great;  seized  the  throne  in  1741,  and  ruled 
with  ability,  carrying  on  war  with  Sweden 
and  Prussia. 

Elizabeth  Stuart,  Queen  of  Bohemia  {b. 
1596,  d.  1662),  daughter  of  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land; in  1613  married  Frederick  V.,  Elector- 
Palatine,  and  shared  his  fortunes.  In  1660 
she  came  to  England  with  her  nephew, 
Charles  II. 

Elizabeth  Wydevllle,  Queen  of  England 
{b.  circa  1437,  d.  1492),  daughter  of  Richard 
Wydeville,  afterwards  Earl  Rivers,  and 
Jacqueline  of  Luxembourg ;  after  the  death 
of  her  first  husband.  Sir  John  Grey,  a  Lan- 
castrian knight,  was,  in  May,  1464,  privately 
married  to  Edward  TV.  Their  union  was 
acknowledged  in  the  autumn. 


Elizabeth,  or  Izabel,  of  Aragon,  St.  {b. 

1271,  d.  1336),  daughter  of  Pedro  lU.  of 
Aragon;  in  1282  married  Denis,  King  of 
Portugal. 

Elizabeth,  or  Isabella,  of  Austria  (*.  1554, 
d.  1592),  daughter  of  Maximilian  II.  of 
Austria  ;  married  Charles  IX.  of  France  in 
1570;  was  excluded  from  all  part  in  the 
government  by  her  mother-in-law,  Catherine 
de'  Medici,  and  after  the  death  of  the  king, 
in  1574,  withdrew  to  a  monastery  in  Vienna. 

Elizabeth  of  Bohemia,  Princess-Palatine 
(*.  1618,  d.  1680),  daughter  of  Frederick  V., 
Elector-Palatine,  and  Elizabeth  Stuart ;  was 
devoted  to  study,  and  a  patron  and  pupil  of 
Descartes. 

Elizabeth  of  France,  Queen  of  Spain  {b. 
1602,  d.  1644),  daughter  of  Henri  IV.  of 
France  and  Marie  de'  Medici;  in  1615  mar- 
ried Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

Elizabeth,  St.,  of  Hungary  {b.  1207,  d. 
1231),  daughter  of  Andreas  II.  of  Hungary ; 
m  1221  married  Louis,  Landgrave  of  Thur- 
iugia.  She  was  celebrated  for  her  piety  and 
charity,  and  was  canonised  by  Gregory 
Ia.. 

Elizabeth  of  Valois,  Queen  of  Spain  {b. 
1545,  d.  1568),  daughter  of  Henxi  11.  of 
France  and  Catherine  de'  Medici,  was  mar- 
ried (1560)  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ;  her  death 
has  been  attributed  to  poison. 

Elizabeth  of  York,  Queen  of  England  (b. 
1465,  d.  1503),  daughter  of  Edward  IV.;  was 
married  in  1486  to  Henry  VII.,  thereby 
reconciling  the  rival  claims  of  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster. 

Elizabeth  Isabelle  of  Bavaria,  Queen  of 

France  (Zi.  1371,  «^.  1435),  daughter  of  Stephen 
II.  of  Bavaria ;  was  married  in  1385  to 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  and  when  that  king 
lost  his  reason,  shared  the  control  of  him 
with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  Her  liaisons 
with  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  Bois  Bourdon 
led  to  her  banishment  in  1417,  but  she  re- 
turned, and  made  a  treaty  with  Philip  of 
Burgundy  and  the  English  in  1420.  She  died 
in  neglect. 

Elizabeth  Philippine  Marie  Hel^ne  de 
France,  Madame  {h.  1764,  d.  1794),  youngest 
sister  of  Louis  XVI. ;  celebrated  for  her 
devotion  to  him  and  his  family.  She  died  on 
the  scaffold. 

Ellenborough,  Edward  Law,  Baron  (b. 
1750,  d.  1818),  lawyer,  son  of  Edmimd  Law, 
Bishop  of  Carlisle:  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1780;  defended  Warren Hastings(1787-94), 
became  Attorney-General  in  1801,  and  in 
1802  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the  King's 
Bench,  and  raised  to  the  peerage.  In.  1806 
he  obtained  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet. 


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Elm 


EUenborough,  Edward  Law,  Earl  of 
{b.  1790,  d.  1871),  eldest  son  of  the 
precediiig  was  President  of  the  Board  of 
Ck)ntrol  in  1828,  1834,  1841,  and  1858 :  was 
appointed  Governor -General  of  India  by 
Sir  Robert  Peel  (1842) ;  pacified  Afghanistan, 
conquered  and  annexed  Scinde,  and  success- 
fully terminated  the  first  Chinese  war,  but 
was  recalled  by  the  Court  of  Directors  in 
1844.  He  was  afterwards  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  (1846-7).  His  despatch  to  Lord 
Canning  concerning  his  policy  in  Oude  gave 
rise  to  much  discussion. 

EUery,  WilUam  (*.  1727,  d.  1820), 
American  politician  (Federalist) ;  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  (1776);  retired 
from  Congress  in  1785,  owing  to  the  loss  of 
his  property ;  in  1790  was  appointed  collector 
of  customs. 

Ellicott,  Right  Rev.  Charles  John  {b.  1819), 
Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol ;  conse- 
crated in  1863,  has  written  Commentaries 
on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  (1854-8),  and 
other  theological  works. 

Elliger,  Ottomar,  a  celebrated  painter  of 
the  Flemish  school,  patronised  by  Frederick 
the  Great. 

Elliot,  George  Augustus,  Lord  Heath- 
field  {b.  1718,  d.  1790),  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  cavalry  officer  on  the  Continent 
and  in  the  West  Indies,  and  became  com- 
mander of  the  troops  in  Ireland  in  1775. 
His  brilliant  defence  of  Gibraltar  (1780-82) 
gained  him  the  title  of  Lord  Heathfield, 
Baron  Gibraltar. 

Elliot,  Murray  Kynnynmond  Gilbert,  first 
Earl  of  Minto  (h.  1751,  d.  1814),  statesman; 
was  called  to  the  bar ;  entered  Parliament  in 
1774 ;  attached  himself  to  Fox,  and  supported 
the  coalition  ministry.  He  became  viceroy 
of  Corsica  in  1 794 ;  was  envoy  at  Vienna  from 
1799  to  1801;  and  while  Governor-General  of 
India  (1807-14)  conquered  the  Isle  of  France 
and  Java. 

Elliotson,  John,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  {b.  1791,  d. 
1868),  physician  ;  educated  at  Cambridge  and 
Edinburgh ;  while  physician  at  St.  Thomas's 
Hospital  became  distinguished  in  thera- 
peutics, and  introduced  clinical  teaching 
into  the  Metropolitan  hospitals.  In  1831  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  at 
University  College,  but  his  belief  in  mes- 
merism, dating  from  1837,  led  to  his  pro- 
fessional fall. 

Elliott,  Ebenezer  (b.  1781,  d.  1849), 
the  "Corn-Law  Rhymer,"  a  self-educated 
ironfounder,  of  Sheffield;  first  attracted 
notice  by  the  Corn  Law  Rhymes  (1827) : 
also  wrote  the  Village  Patriarcn  and 
other  poems.  In  1838  he  helped  to  organise 
the  Chartist  movement,  but  abandoned  the 


cause  in  1840,  owing  to  its  opposition  to  the 
Anti-Com-Law  League. 

Elliott,  Henry  George,  Sir  (i.  1817), 
second  son  of  the  second  Earl  of  Minto ; 
entered  the  Foreign  Office  (1840),  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  the  Porte  (1867), 
with  Lord  Salisbury  represented  Eng- 
land at  the  Conference  of  Constantinople 
(1876-7),  and  was  ambassador  at  Vienna 
(1878-84). 

Ellis,  George  (b.  1745,  d.  1815),  miscel- 
laneous writer ;  contributed  to  the  Rolliad 
and  Probationary  Odes,  and  afterwards  to 
the  Anti-Jacobin,  and  published  Specimens 
of  our  Early  Poetry  (1790),  and  Specimens  of 
Early  English  Metrical  Romances  (1802). 

Ellis,  Henry  {b.  1721,  d.  1806),  English 
navigator;  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
(1746)  to  discover  the  North- West  passage, 
and  was  afterwards  governor  of  Georgia. 

Ellis,  Sir  Henry  (*.  1777,  d.  1869), 
librarian  and  antiquary ;  principal  librarian 
of  the  British  Museum  from  1827  to  1856 ; 
wrote  an  I/itrodttction  to  Domesday  Rook 
(1833) ;  annotated  Original  Letters  Illus- 
trative of  English  History ;  also  published 
Elgin  Marbles  of  the  Classic  Ages  and  The 
Townley  Gallery  of  Sculpture  (1847). 

Ellis,  William  {b.  1794,  d.  1872),  a  mission- 
ary  in  the  islands  of  Polynesia ;  wrote  Poly^ 
nesian  Researches,  a  History  of  Madagas' 
car,  etc. 

Elliston,  Robert  WUliam  {b.  1774.  d. 
1831),  a  popular  English  comedian. 

EUwood,  Thomas  (b.  1639,  d.  1713),  a 
Quaker  friend  of  Milton,  to  whom  he  is  said 
to  have  suggested  the  idea  of  writing 
Paradise  Regained. 

Ellys,  Anthony  {b.  1690,  d.  1761),  Bishop 
of  St.  David's ;  wrote  A  Pka  for  the  Sacra- 
mental Test,  and  answered  Hume's  Essay 
Concerning  Miracles.  His  Tracts  on  the 
Liberty,  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  of  Protes- 
tants in  England,  upholding  the  Church  of 
England,  were  published  after  his  death. 

Elmacinus,  George  {b.  1223,  d.  1273),  an 
Egyptian ;  war  secretaiy  imder  the  sultans 
of  Egypt,  wrote  a  History  of  the  Saracens 
from  the  time  of  Mohammed  to  1118.  He  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  Christian. 

Elmore,  Alfred  {b.  1815,  d.  1881),  painter; 
bom  at  Clonakilty,  County  Cork;  studied 
at  the  Royal  Academy  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent. Among  his  works  are  The  Inven- 
tion of  the  Combing  Machine,  and  The 
Tuileries,  June  Wth,  1792. 

Elmsley,  Peter,  [b.  1773,  d.  1826), 
Greek  critic  and  philologist;  educated  at 
Westminster     and     Oxford :    after    taking 


Elp 


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Eml 


orders,  lived  for  some  time  in  Ediubui-gh, 
where  he  f onned  a  friendship  with  Jeffrey, 
and  contributed  articles  on  Greek  Hteratnre 
to  the  Eduiburgh  Review.  In  1823  he 
became  principal  of  St.  Alban  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  Camden  professor  of  history. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  editions  of  the 
Greek  dramatists. 

ElpMnstone,  John,  thirteenth  Baron  (J. 
1807,  d.  1860),  was  governor  of  Madras 
from  1837  to  1842 ;  returned  to  India  as 
governor  of  Bombay  in  1853,  and  rendered 
great  service  duimg  the  Mutiny. 

Elphinstone,  the  Hon.  Mountstuart  {b. 
1779,  d.  1859),  a  younger  son  of  the  eleventh 
Earl ;  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company;  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Mahratta  war;  was  British  Resident  at 
Nagpore  (1806-8) ;  in  1811  was  appointed 
British  Resident  at  Poonah,  where  he  ably 
resisted  the  Peshwah,  and  successfully 
organised  the  province  when  annexed ; 
wmle  lieutenant-governor  of  Bombay  (1820- 
1827)  he  promulgated  the  Elphiastone 
Code.  He  wrote  An  Account  of  the  King- 
dom of  Cabul  (1815),  a  History  of  India 
during  the  Hindoo  and  Mahometan  periods 
(1841),  and  other  works. 

Elphinstone,  WUliam  {b.  1431,  d.  1514), 
Bishop  of  Ross,  and  afterwards  of  Aberdeen ; 
after  filUng  the  chairs  of  civU  and  canon 
law  at  Paris  and  Orleans,  became  Lord  High 
Chancellor  under  James  III.  It  was  mainly 
through  bis  efforts  that  the  University  of 
Aberdeen  was  founded. 

Ellington,  Charles  Richard  {b.  1787, 
d.  185Uj,  professor  of  divinity  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin ;  wrote  a  Life  of  Archbishop 
Usher,  and  other  works. 

Elsheimer,  Adam  {b.  1574,  d.  1620), 
German  artist;  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
painted  landscape  and  night  pieces. 

Elssler,  Theresa  (4.  1808,  d.  1878),  and 
Fanny  [b.  1811,  d.  1884),  dancers,  were 
sisters,  natives  of  Vienna.  Fanny  was  the 
more  celebrated.  In  1851  Theresa  con- 
tracted a  morganatic  marriage  with  Prince 
Adalbert  of  Prussia,  and  was  subsequently 
ennobled. 

Elton,  Charles  Isaac  {b.  1839),  one  of  the 
first  English  jurists  of  the  historical  school. 
Besides  Tenures  of  Kent  (1867),  treatises  on 
Commons  and  Waste  Lands  (1868),  and 
Copyholds  and  Customary  Tenures  of  Land 
(1874),  and  Custom  and  Tenant  Right  (1882), 
he  has  vmtten  Origins  of  English  History 
(1882),  laying  stress  on  the  Celtic  element  in 
the  early  population.  He  was  returned  to 
Parliament  in  1886. 

Elvey,  George  Job,  Sir  (b.  1816),  musical 
composer,  bom  at  Canterbtiry ;  organist  of 


St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  from  1835  to 
1882,  has  composed  a  number  of  anthems 
and  other  church  music. 

Elwaxt,  Antoine  Aimable  Elie  (5.  1808, 
d.  1877),  musician,  composer,  and  author, 
of  PoUsh  origin ;  prof ossor  of  harmony 
at  the  Couservatou'e  at  Paris,  composed 
Noe  and  La  Naisance  d''Eve  (oratorios), 
Les  Catalans  (an  opera),  and  many  other 
pieces  of  various  kinds.  He  wrote  a  Life 
of  Dupres  (1838),  and  a  poem  called  L'Har- 
monie  Musicale  (1853),  etc. 

Elzevir,  the  name  of  a  famous  family  of 
printers,  the  first  of  whom.  Loots  (b.  1540, 
d.  1617),  established  his  press  at  Ley  den. 
The  press  at  Amsterdam  was  founded  by  hia 
great  grandson.  Loots  {b.  1604),  and  here  the 
well-known  series  of  classics  was  issued  in 
1665.  A -RT?.  ATT  A  AT  (d.  1712)  was  the  last  of  the 
family. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo  {b.  1803,  d.  1882), 
American  author ;  boru  at  Boston,  United 
States,  son  of  a  Protestant  minister;  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  ;  was  a  Unitarian  minister 
from  1826  to  1832.  Coming  to  Europe 
in  1833,  he  visited  France,  Italy,  and 
England,  where  he  met  Coleridge,  Words- 
worth, and  Carlyle.  From  1835  to  his 
death  he  remained  quietly  at  his  New 
England  home,  engaged  in  writing  and 
country  pursuits,  except  for  another  visit  to 
England  and  France  in  1847-8.  In  1836  he 
founded  the  Transcendental  Club,  and  after 
1840  contributed  to  the  Dial,  the  organ  of 
the  Transcendentalists.  Besides  his  numerous 
essays  he  wrote  Xature  (183G),  English  Traits 
(1856),  and  the  Conduct  of  Life  (1860),  etc. 
He  was  at  one  time  a  prominent  abolitionist. 

Emery,  Charles  Edward  {b.  1838), 
American  engineer ;  has  made  several  inven- 
tions in  connection  with  steam-engines,  and 
written  some  technical  papers. 

Emlli,  Paolo  {b.  1460,  d.  1529),  Italian 
historian ;  went  to  Paris  in  1499,  and  was 
historiographer  to  the  French  court  imder 
Loxiis  XII.;  wrote  i>«  Oestis  Francorum :  a 
history  of  France  from  the  origin  of  the 
monarchy  to  the  time  of  Charles  VIII. 

Emilia,Ti1,  Gtrohno  (fi.  1481,  d.  1537); 
originally  a  Venetian  student ;  founded 
the  Somaschi,  a  religious  order  devoted 
to  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  the  education 
of  the  young,  so  named  from  Somasco,  the 
village  where  the  first  convent  was  built. 

Emin  Pasha  {b.  1840),  German  Mrican  ex- 
plorer, in  1878  was  made  ruler  of  the  Ec^ua- 
torial  province,  and  held  his  ground  agamst 
the  Mahdi.  In  1886  Stanley  went  to  his  relief. 

Emlyn,  Thomas  {b.  1663,  d.  1741),  bom  at 
Stamford,  in  Lincolnshire,  became  a  Non- 
conformist minister    at    Dublin,   and    wafi 


Emm 


(279) 


Enf 


prosecuted  and  imprisoned  in  consequence 
of  his  Arian  views. 

Emma,  called  iElf  gif  u.  Queen  of  England 
{d.  1052),  daughter  of  Richard  the  Fearless, 
Duke  of  Normandy ;  in  1002  married  Ethel- 
red  the  Unready  (by  whom  she  had  two 
sons,  Edward  "  the  Confessor  "  and  Alfred), 
and  in  1017  Cnut  or  Canute,  by  whom  she 
was  mother  of  Harthacnut.  Banished  by 
her  stepson,  Harold,  she  returned  with 
Harthacnut  in  1040,  and  exercised  much 
influence  during  his  reign. 

Emmanuele,  FiUberto,  Duke  of  Savoy 
(I.  1528,  d.  1580),  son  of  Charles  III., 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial 
troops  in  Italy  against  the  French,  who, 
on  his  father's  death,  seized  most  of  his 
inheritance ;  appointed  governor  of  the 
Netherlands  by  Philip  II.  in  1556,  he 
attacked  France,  winning  the  battle  of  bt. 
Quentin,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Chateau- 
Cambresis  (1559)  recovered  his  ancestral 
iomains,  and  married  Marguerite,  sister  of 
\^e  king  of  France.  He  appUed  himself  to 
the  administrative  and  military  organisation 
of  his  country,  and  is  considered  the  founder 
of  the  Sardinian  monarchy. 

Emmanuele  da  Come,  Fra  (J).  1625,  d. 
1700),  Italian  painter  ;  executed  the  frescoes 
in  the  library  of  the  Irish  convent  on  the 
Pincian  Hill  at  Rome.  > 

Emmett,  Robert  {b.  1778,  d.  1803),  Irish 
revolutionist :  son  of  a  Dublin  doctor ;  ex- 
pelled from  Dublin  University  in  1798  owing 
to  his  anti-English  sympathies ;  in  1803  led 
an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Dublin  Castle; 
escaped  into  Wicklow,  but  was  captured  and 
executed.  His  fate  is  the  subject  of  some 
verses  by  Moore. 

Emmett,  Thomas  Addis  {b.  1764,  d.  1827), 
brother  of  the  preceding ;  called  to  the  Irish 
bar  in  1790 ;  was  a  member  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary Directory  in  1797.  After  being 
examined  by  secret  ParHamentary  Com- 
mittees, he  was  imprisoned  from  1798  to 
1802,  and  then  exiled.  He  went  to  America, 
and  won  a  reputation  at  the  New  York  bar. 

Emmius,  Ubbo  (b.  1547,  d.  1626),  Dutch 
historian  of  Calvimstic  views.  On  refusing 
to  sign  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  he  was 
driven  from  his  rectorate  at  Norden  by  the 
Lutherans,  but  obtained  a  professorship  at 
the  college  of  Liers. 

Emo,  Angelo  (*.  1731,  d.  1792),  Venetian 
statesman  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Malta ; 
freed  the  Mediterranean  from  the  Barbary 
pirates  between  1762  and  1 767,  and  in  1784  was 
appointed  commander-general  in  the  war 
with  Tunis  His  death  was  hastened  by  the 
ingratitude  of  his  countrymen. 

Empedocles  {b.  circa  460  B.C.,  d.  384  B.C.), 


areek  philosopher  and  poet,  bom  at  Agn- 
gentum;  belonged  to  the  popular  party, 
and  took  part  in  the  conspiracy  to  expel 
Thrasideus,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum.  He 
refused  the  sovereignty,  and  devoted 
his  wealth  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  and 
to  medical  and  philosophical  studies.  He 
committed  suicide  by  plunging  into  Mount 
Etna.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  and 
wrote  tragedies,  political  tracts,  and  poems 
on  Medicine,  Nature,  and  Furijications,  frag- 
ments of  which  remain. 

Empis,  Adolphe  Dominique  Florent  Joseph 
Simonis  (J).  1795,  d.  1868),  French  di-amatic 
writer. 

Empoli,  Jacopo  Chimenti  [b.  1554,  d. 
1640),  Italian  painter;  imitated  Andrea  del 
Sarto.  One  of  his  best  works  is  the  St.  Ivo 
in  the  Uflizi  gallery  at  Florence. 

Enambuc,  Pierre  Vaudrosque  Diel  d'  (d. 
1636),  French  navigator;  sailed  with  du 
Rossey  to  the  Antilles  in  1626,  and  gained 
the  island  of  St.  Christopher,  which,  with 
Richelieu's  assistance,  they  afterwards 
colonised,  after  defeating  and  expelUng  the 
English.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  colon- 
ised Martinique. 

Encalada,   Manuel   Blanco    (J.   1790,  d. 

1876),  a  South  American  soldier,  of 
Spanish  descent ;  in  1813  left  the  Spanish 
navy  for  the  Chilian  army,  of  which 
he  became  commander-in-chief  in  182o, 
after  contributing  gi-eatly  to  the  victory  of 
Ayacucho.  He  was  president  of  the  re- 
public in  1826  ;  in  1847  became  governor  ot 
Valparaiso,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
progress  of  the  city. 

Encke,  Johann  Franz  (i.  1791,  d.  1865), 
German  astronomer;  served  m  the  war 
against  France  from  1813  to  1815,  when  he 
became  assistant  in  the  observatory  ot 
Seeberg,  near  Gotha,  of  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  in  1825.  He  there  dis- 
covered the  comet  which  bears  his  name. 
In  1830  he  became  editor  of  the  Berhner 
Astronomische  Jahrbuch. 

Encontre,  Daniel  (b.  1762,  d.  1818),  a 
Fi-ench  mathematician;  professor  of  doctane 
and  dean  of  the  faculty  of  theology  at  Mon- 
tauban. 

Endlcott,  John  {d.  1665),  bom  at 
Dorchester,  became  colonial  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  He  was  a  rigid  Pur-itau, 
persecuted  the  Quakers,  and  treated  the 
Indians  harshly. 

Enfantin,  Barth^lemy  Prosper  [b.  1796,  d. 
1864),  Socialist  reformer,  in  1825  bewime  a 
disciple  of  St.  Simon,  who  entrusted  him 
with  the  promulgation  of  his  doctrmes.  ile 
wrote  the  Doctrine  de  St.-Simon  (1830)  and 
Economic  politique  et  Politique,  and  became 


zing 


(280) 


Epe 


pire  suprSine  of  the  sect.  The  increasing 
extravagance  of  their  views  led  to  their 
suppression  by  the  French  Government  in 
1832.  Enfautin  henceforward  turned  his 
energy  in  other  directions,  and  became  a 
director  of  the  Lyons  Railway  Company.  In 
1861  appeared  La  Vie  Jiternelle,  Fasee,  Pre- 
sente,  et  Future. 

Engelberge,  or  Engelborde,  Empress  of 
Germany  {d.  890);  in  856  married  Louis  II., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  on  whose  death  (875) 
she  was  seized  by  Charles  the  Bald,  one  of 
the  claimants  for  the  throne,  and  impris- 
oned. 

Engelbrechtsen,  Cornelius  {b.  1468,  d. 
1533),  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  ;  fol- 
lowed Van  Eyck,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
use  oils.  His  oil-paintings,  the  Sacrifice  of 
Abraham  and  the  Descent  from  the  Cross, 
are  at  Paris. 

Engelbrekt,  or  Engelbrechtsen  {d.  1436), 
a  Swedish  patriot  noble,  who,  as  leader 
of  the  people,  forced  the  senate  to  sign  a 
bond  securing  them  their  ancient  liberties. 
In  1435  he  was  appointed  regent  by  the  Diet 
at  Arboga,  but  was  soon  after  assassinated. 

Engelmann,  Godefroy  [b.  1788,  d.  1839), 
one  of  the  inventors  of  lithography;  after 
working  at  Munich,  established  lithographic 
presses  at  Mulhouse,  and  afterwards  at  Paris, 
and  executed  designs  after  Vernet  and  other 
artists.  He  also  greatly  improved  the  art  of 
chromo-lithography. 

Engerth,  Eduard  {b.  1818),  historical 
painter,  a  native  of  Pless,  in  Silesia; 
after  studying  at  Vienna  and  Rome, 
travelled  in  England  and  the  East.  He 
spent  six  yeai's  in  adorning  the  Alt- 
lerchenfeld  church  at  Vienna  with  fres- 
coes. His  masterpiece  is  Prince  Eugene 
after  the  Battle  of  Zeuta  (1865). 

Englefleld,  Sir  Henry  Charles,  Bart.  {b. 
1752,  d.  1822),  antiquary;  wrote  Tables  of 
the  Apparent  Places  of  the  Comet  in  1661, 
A  Walk  Through  Southampton,  etc. 

Ennemoser,  Joseph  (b.  1787,  d.  1854), 
physician  and  writer,  born  in  the  Tyro- 
lese;  at  first  a  goatherd;  educated  at 
luuspruck  and  Vienna;  served  against 
Napoleon  ;  became  a  doctor  in  1816, 
and  was  made  professor  at  Bonn  in  1819. 
Hi3  works  include  a  Historu  of  Mag- 
netism, Historico-Psychological  Inquiries  into 
the  Nature  and  Origin  of  the  Human  Soul, 
etc. 

Ennius,  Quintus  (A.  239  B.C., <?.  169 B.C.),  an 
early  Latin  poet ;  born  at  Rudiae,  in  Calabria, 
served  in  Sardinia,  and  against  the  .Slto- 
lians,  and  became  a  favourite  of  the  Scipios, 
whose  exploits  he  celebrated  in  his  poems. 


His  epic  poem.  The  Annals,  embodies  the 
traditions  and  history  of  Rome  to  his  own 
day.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce 
the  study  of  Greek  literature.  His  woi-ks 
are  now  only  known  through  Cicero's  quo- 
tations. 

Ennodius,  Magnus  Felix  (*.  473,  d.  621), 
Bishop  of  Pavia ;  wrote  a  panegyric  on 
Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  other 
works. 

Enriquez,  Gomez  Antonio,  a  Spanish 
writer  of  the  1 7th  century ;  a  Portuguese  Jew 
by  birth. 

Entinopus  of  Candia,  an  Italian  architect 
of  the  first  half  of  the  5th  century ;  connected 
with  the  foundation  of  Venice,  whither  he 
fled  on  the  invasion  of  the  Goths  in  405. 

Entrecasteaux,  Joseph  Antoine  Bruni  d* 
(b.  1739,  d.  1793),  French  admiral  and  navi- 
gator, bom  at  Aix ;  headed  the  search  for  La 
Perouse  in  1788,  visiting  New  Holland  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land.  The  expedition  was  vin- 
successful,  but  led  to  important  discoveries 
in  navigation  and  geography. 

Enzina,  or  Encina,  Juan  de  {b.  1468, 
or  1469,  d.  1534),  Spanish  dramatist  and 
musician ;  patronised  by  the  Duke  of  Alva ; 
went  to  Rome  and  became  master  of 
Leo  X.'s  Chapel.  He  was  the  first  Spanish 
wi'iter  of  the  secular  drama. 

Enzo,  or  Entius  (b.  1224,  d.  1272),  natural 
son  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. ;  aided 
his  father  against  the  Pope,  conti'ibuting 
to  the  victory  of  the  Meloria  (1240).  In 
1249  he  was  captured  by  the  Guelphs  of 
Bologna,  and  remained  a  prisoner  till  his 
death.     He  wrote  sonnets  and  canzoni. 

Eotvos,  Joseph  de  Vasaros  Nameny, 
Baron  {b.  1813,  d.  1871),  Hungarian  states- 
man, political  wi'iter  and  poet :  after  travel- 
ling in  Europe  in  1836  and  1837,  led  the 
Opposition  in  the  upper  house  of  the  Diet ; 
took  part  in  the  Diet  of  Presburg  after 
the  revolution  of  1848 ;  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  the  first  Hungarian 
administration,  and  again  from  1866  to  his 
death.  His  works,  The  ViUnge  Notary,  a 
romance  (1845),  Hungary  in  1514  (1847),  and 
the  The  Influence  of  the  Ruling  Ideas  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century  on  the  State,  led  to  ad- 
ministrative and  political  reforms. 

Epaminondas  {d.  362  B.C.),  Theban  gen- 
eral ;  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Spartans 
(379  B.C.),  became  the  leading  man  in  Thebes, 
and  by  his  wise  policy  and  military  skill 
raised  his  country  to  the  first  place  in 
Greece.  He  defeated  the  Spartans  at  Leuc- 
tra  (371),  but  fell  at  the  battle  of  Mantinea 
in  the  moment  of  victory. 

Epee,  Charies  Michel,  Abb^  de  1'  (*.  1712, 


Eph 


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Era 


d.  1789),  French  philanthropist;  devoted  his 
fortune  to  the  education  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  invented  the  manual  alphabet. 

Ephorus  {b.  circa  380  B.C.,  d.  circa  330), 
Greek  historian,  bom  at  Cimiae ;  was  the 
pupil  of  Isocrates  at  Chios,  and  wrote  a 
universal  history  in  thirty  books,  from  the 
return  of  the  Heraclides  to  the  siege  of 
Perinthus  in  341,  fragments  of  which 
remain. 

Epliraem,  Syrus  {d.  370),  a  native  of 
Nisibis  in  Mesopotamia,  and  a  pupil  of  St. 
James,  biskop  of  that  city ;  lived  as  a  hermit 
in  a  cave  near  Edessa,  where  he  wrote  com- 
meutaxies  and  other  works  in  Syriac  and 
Greek.  During  a  famine  in  Edessa  he  fitted 
up  a  hospital,  supported  by  subscriptions. 

Epicaro,  Antonio,  bom  at  Corfu,  lived  in 
the  first  half  of  the  16th  century.  He  taught 
Greek  in  Venice,  and  left  a  poem  in  Greek 
on  the  fall  of  his  country  under  the  Tui'ks, 
and  a  series  of  Epistolce  Spectantes  ad  Con- 
cordiam  ReipubUcce  Christiana." 

Epicliaxmus  (b.  540  b.c,  d.  450  B.C.),  a 
Greek  philosopher  and  poet,  bom  at  Cos,  a 
disciple  of  Pythagoras ;  is  said  to  have  prac- 
tised as  a  physician  in  Megara,  Sicily, 
whence  he  removed  to  Syracuse,  and  there 
composed  the  first  Dorian  comedies,  properly 
so-called,  fi-agments  of  which  remain. 

Epictetus,  a  Stoic  philosopher  of  the  1st 
century  a.d.,  born  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia ; 
was  bought  as  a  slave  by  Epaplu-oditus,  a 
favourite  of  Nero.  When  emancipated  he 
lived  at  Rome,  until  banished  by  Domitian, 
and  then  became  a  teacher  at  Nicopolis  in 
Epirus.  His  lectures  were  transcribed  by 
his  pupil,  Arrian. 

Epicurus  {b.  circa  340  B.C.,  d.  270  B.C.), 
Greek  philosopher.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
his  birth  occurred  before  or  after  his 
parents'  removal  from  Gargettus,  in  Attica, 
to  Samos.  His  youth  was  spent  in  that 
island,  whence  he  removed  to  Athens, 
when  about  eighteen,  and  afterwards  taught 
at  Colophon,  Mitylene,  and  Lampsacus.  He 
returned  to  Athens  about  304,  and  remained 
there  tiU  his  death.  He  was  founder  of  the 
Epicurean  school,  who  hold  that  the  sum- 
mum  bonum  consists  in  pleasure — chiefly 
mental  pleasure. 

Epimenides,  a  semi-fabulous  Cretan  poet 
and  soothsayer,  who  lived  about  600  B.C. ,  and 
is  said  to  have  delivered  the  Athenians  from 
a  plague. 

^pinay,  Louise  Florence  P^tronille, 
Madame  d'  (A.  1725,  d.  1783),  daughter  of 
an  oificernamed  Tardieu  d'Esclavelles  ;  mar- 
ried her  cousin,  d'Epinay,  in  1735.  She  was 
strongly  attached  to  Rousseau,  for  whom  she 
built  the  "  Hermitage."  She  left  Mhnoirs  et 
Correspondance  de  Madame  d'']ipinay,  etc. 


Epiphanius  {b.  circa  310,  d.  403),  Arch- 
bishop of  Constantia  or  Salamis,  in  Cyprus ; 
a  Jew  by  bii-th  ;  a  learned  but  credulous 
man,  and  an  active  controversialist  \  opposed 
the  doctrines  of  Origen,  and  wrote  the 
Panarium,  a  treatise  against  heresies. 

Episcopius,  Simon  {b.  1583,  d.  1643), 
Dutch  divine ;  friend  and  disciple  of 
Arminius ;  was  an  able  disputant,  and 
took  part  in  the  Remonstrant  Conference 
at  the  Hague  and  in  the  synod  of  Dort, 
where  he  was  the  spokesman  of  the  Remon- 
strants. 

Eponina,  or  Epponina  {d.  78),  the  de- 
voted wife  of  Julius  Sabinus,  a  chief  of  the 
Ligones,  who  opposed  the  Romans  in  Gaul, 
was  defeated,  and  nine  yeai-s  afterwards 
captured  and  condemned  to  death.  After 
vainly  imploring  Vespasian  to  pardon  him, 
Eponina  shared  his  punishment. 

Epr^m^nsil,  or  Espremesnil,  Jean  Jacques 
Duval  {b.  1746,  d.  17y4)  :  born  at  Pondi- 
cherry,  came  to  France  in  1750,  and 
became  councillor  to  the  parliament  of 
Paris,  whose  rights  he  defended  against 
the  minister  Brienne.  He  advocated  the 
convocation  of  the  states-general,  and 
was  a  representative  of  the  noblesse  of  Paris 
in  the  National  Assembly.  His  subsequent 
support  of  the  royal  privileges  made  him  an 
object  of  suspicion,  and  from  his  counti-y 
estate,  whither  he  had  retired  after  the  10th 
of  August,  he  was  brought  before  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal,  and  condemned  to  the 
guillotine. 

Erard,  S^bastien  (J.  1752,  d.  1831),  born  at 
Strasbm-g,  in  1780  established  himself  in 
Paris  as  a  maker  of  pianos.  He  improved 
the  construction  of  harps  and  pianos,  and 
built  the  grand  organ  for  the  chapel  of  the 
Tuileries. 

Erasistratus  {d.  circa  257b. o.) ,  a  celebrated 
physician  ;  a  native  of  Ceos ;  the  first  to  dissect 
human  bodies.  Was  patronised  by  Seleucus 
Nicator,  King  of  Syria,  and  afterwards  prac- 
tised at  Alexandria. 

Erasmus, Desiderius  (A. 1467,  rf.l536),  one  of 
the  greatest  scholars  of  the  Renaissance,  bom 
at  Rotterdam  ;  on  his  parents'  death  entered 
a  monastery, which  he  left  to  becomeateacher 
at  Paris,  and,  at  the  invitation  of  his  pupil, 
Lord  Mountjoy,  came  to  England.  He  settled 
at  Oxford,  where  he  became  the  friend  of 
More,  and  studied  divinity  uuder  Colet,  and 
Greek  uuder  Grocyn  and  Linacre.  In  1506 
he  visited  Italy,  staying  at  Bologna  and 
Rome,  where  he  was  warmly  received,  but 
returned  to  England,  and  was  made  Mar- 
garet professor  of  divinity  and  professor 
of  Greek  at  Cambridge.  He  retm-ned  to 
the  Continent,  and,  alter  a  journey  to  the 
Low  Countries,  settled  at  Basle,  where  he 


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Eri 


published  his  edition  of  the  Xew  Testameut. 
Erasmus  was  in  favour  of  moderate  reform 
iu  the  Church,  as  is  shown  by  his  Enchiridion 
Militis  Christiani  and  Encomium  Morice, 
but  he  gave  little  support  to  Luther, 
although  he  refused  to  wi'ite  against  him. 

Erastus,  Thomas  {b.  1524,  d.  1583), 
German  physician  and  theological  writer ; 
studied  at  Basle,  and  became  physician  and 
counsellor  to  Frederic  III.,  Elector-Palatine. 
The  views  called  Erastian  were  expressed  iu  a 
work  on  ecclesiastical  excommunication,  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  and  answered  by  Beza. 

Eratosthenes  (jb.  276  B.C.,  d.  circa  196 e.g.), 
mathematician,  born  at  Gyrene,  was  sum- 
moned from  Athens  by  Ptolemy  Euergetes  to 
take  charge  of  the  library  at  Alexandria, 
where  he  remained  tUl  his  death.  He 
measured  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
detenniued  the  size  of  the  earth,  according 
to  the  modem  system. 

Erckmann-Cliatrain,  the  name  adopted  by 
^MiLE  Eeckmann  (Jb.  1822),  and  At.kxandbe 
Chateain  {b.  1826,  d.  1890),  French  novelists, 
authors  of  L'Ami  Fritz  (1864),  L'Mistoire 
d'un  Comcrit  de  1813  (1864),  etc. 

Ercilla  y  Zufiiga,  Don  Alonzo  de  {b. 
1533,  d.  1595),  Spanish  poet;  became 
chamberlain  to  the  Emperor  Eodolph  11. 
After  travelling  in  Europe,  served  against 
the  rebel  Araucanians  in  South  America,  and 
wrote  his  epic,  La  Araucana. 

Ericsson,  John  (b.  1803,  d.  1889),  Swedish 
engineer,  inventor  of  the  atmospheric  engine, 
early  showed  an  aptitude  for  mechanics,  but 
was  at  first  an  officer  in  the  army.  Came  to 
England  in  1826,  and  in  1833  exhibited  the 
caloric  engine,  perfected  in  the  Ericsson, 
built  in  1851.  Proceeding  to  New  York  in 
1839,  he  constructed  the  Princeton,  in  which 
the  screw  was  for  the  first  time  applied  to 
steam  navigation,  and  invented  ships  with 
revolving  turrets  for  guns.  In  1873  he  pub- 
lished a  work  on  Moveable  Torpedoes. 

Erigena.     [^See  Scotus.] 

Erik  I.,  "  the  Good,"  King  of  Denmark 
(d.  1103),  natural  son  of  King  Svend,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother,  Olaiis,  in  1095. 

Erik  n.,  "the  Fierce"  {d.  1137),  fought 
against  Magnus  Sigurdsen,  king  of  Norway, 
and  the  Vandal  pirates. 

Erik  III.,  '<  the  Lamb  "  {d.  1147),  favoured 
the  clergy,  and  finally  retired  to  a  monastery. 

Erik  IV.  {d.  1250),  began  to  reign  in  1241 ; 
quarrelled  with  hi.s  brothers,  one  of  whom, 
Abel,  murdered  him. 

ErikV.  {b.  1249,  d.  1286),  succeeded  his 
father,  Christopher  I:,  in  1259  ;  was  assassin- 
ated by  Duke  Waldemar  of  Sonderjylland. 


Erik  VL  {d.  1319),  son  of  the  preceding, 
began  to  reign  in  1286  ;  fought  against  Nor- 
way, and  was  taken  prisoner  in  1294. 

Erik  VII.,  of  Denmark.  [See  Eric  Xin.  of 
Sweden.] 

Erik  VIIL,  "the  Victorious,"  King  of 
Sweden  and  Denmark ;  reigned  conjointly 
with  liis  brother  Olaf  from  993,  and  on  his 
death  became  sole  king.  He  added  Den- 
mark to  his  dominions. 

Erik  IX.,  "  the  Saint  "  {d.  1160),  King  of 
Sweden  and  Denmark ;  attacked  the  Finns, 
whom  he  converted  to  Christianity.  He  was 
slain  by  Magnus  of  Denmark. 

Erik  X.,  King  of  Sweden  {d.  1216),  son  of 
Cnut,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding;  married 
the  sister  of  Waldemar  II.  of  Denmark,  and 
reigned  six  years. 

Erik  XL,  "the  Limping  "  {d.  1252),  King 
of  Sweden  ;  a  minor  at  his  accession  in  1222  ; 
was  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the  usurper, 
Coimt  Johansson,  and  afterwards  with  his 
son,  Hobngeir,  till  the  death  of  the  latter  in 
1248. 

Erik  XII.  (d.  1359),  son  of  Magnus,  King 
of  Sweden  and  Norway;  was  in  1350  set  up 
as  joint  king  with  his  father,  against  whom 
he  fought  till  his  death. 

Erik  XIII.,"  the  Pomeranian  "  (*.  1382,  d. 
1449),  elected  King  of  Sweden  in  1396 ;  was 
iu  1397  proclaimed  ruler  over  Norway  and 
Denmark.  A  rebellion  having  arisen  through 
his  exactions,  he  fled  to  Gothland  in  1439, 
and  died  in  obscurity. 

Erik  XIV.  (b.  1535,  d.  1577),  King  of 
Sweden,  son  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1 560 ;  fought  against  Poland 
and  Denmark ;  under  the  influence  of  his 
minister,  Goran  Pehrsson,  became  cruel  and 
unjust,  and  was  deposed  by  his  brothers, 
John  and  Charles,  in  1569  ;  was  imprisoned, 
and  died  of  poison. 

Erinna,  Greek  poetess,  lived  about  612  B.C.; 

wrote  The  Distaff,  etc. 

Erizzo,  Francesco  {b.  1570,  d.  1646),  ac- 
quired military  renown  in  the  war  of  Mantua; 
became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1631,  and  displayed 
great  energy  and  patriotism,  especially  in 
1645,  when  the  Sultan  Ibraham  attacked  the 
island  of  Candia,  and  the  resistance  of  the 
Venetians  saved  Europe  from  the  progress 
of  the  Turks. 

Erizzo,  Paolo  {d.  1470),  a  Venetian ; 
governor  of  Negropont,  which  he  defended 
with  a  much  smaller  force  against  Mahomet 
11.  On  the  captuBe  of  the  town,  Erizzo 
and  his  daughter,  Anne,  retired  into  the 
castle,  were  made  prisoners,  and  put  to 
death. 


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Ers 


Erizzo,  Sebastiano  (5. 1525,  d.  1585),  scholar 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Venice  ;  studied  at 
Padua,  and  distiuguished  himseK  as  an  orator 
and  statesman  iji  rhe  Venetian  senate.  Among 
his  works  are  one  on  politics,  entitled  I)ei 
Governi  Civili,  a  treatise  on  the  inventive 
power  of  the  ancients,  an  Essay  on  Ancient 
Medals,  and  Le  Sette  Giornate,  a  book  of 
novels. 

Erlach,  Johann  Ludwig  von  (J).  1595, 
d.  1650),  a  native  of  Berne;  after  serving 
under  the  princes  of  Anhalt  and  Nassau, 
became  an  officer  in  the  army  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  whom  he  left  to  take  command 
of  the  troops  raised  in  defence  of  the 
town  of  Berne.  In  1632  he  was  made 
councillor,  by  Duke  Bernard  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  and  given  the  command  of  the 
Swiss  frontier.  On  his  death,  he  entered  the 
French  service,  and  distinguished  himself 
under  Conde,  especially  at  the  battle  of  Sens 
(1648).  His  Memoirs  throw  light  on  events 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 

Erlach,  Rudolf  von  {d.  1360),  liegeman 
to  the  Count  of  Nydau  ;  was  appointed  leader 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Berne  against  the 
Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria  ;  won  the  battle 
of  Laupen,  1339 ;  was  assassinated  at 
Eeichenbach  by  his  son-in-law.    - 

Erie,  William,  Sir  {b.  1793,  d.  1880),  caUed 
to  the  bar  1819 :  was  successively  Judge  of 
the  Common  Pleas  (1844-46),  and  of  the 
Queen's  Bench  (1846-59).  He  was  made 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in  1859, 
but  resigned  in  1866.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  The  Law  Edating  to  Trades  Unions. 

Ermaa,  Georg  Adolf  {b.  1806,  d.  1877), 
German  man  of  science  ;  wrote  a  record  of 
his  Voyage  Round  the  World  by  Northern 
Asia  and  the  Two  Oceans. 

Ermengarde,  Queen  of  Provence  (b.  855), 
only  daughter  of  Louis  II.  of  France  ;  in  877 
married  Boson,  governor  of  Lombardy,  and 
afterwards  of  Provence,  who  became  involved 
in  war  with  Louis  III.  In  882  she  was  im- 
prisoned, but  released  on  the.  death  oi  her 
husband  (888) .  She  afterwards  withdrew  to 
a  convent. 

Ernest  I.,  of  Zell,  fifth  Duke  of  Brunswick- 
Luneberg  [b.  1497,  d.  1546),  bom  at  Ultzen, 
second  son  of  Duke  Henry  I.  and  Margaret  of 
Saxony,  was  a  disciple  of  Luther  ;  signed  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  and  joined  the 
League  of  Smalkalden. 

Ernest  Augnstus,  sixteenth  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick-Luneberg,  and  first  Elector  of  Hanover 
{b.  1629,  d.  1698),  was  made  Bishop  of  Osna- 
briick  in  1662.  Fought  at  Consarbruck,  took 
Maestricht  and  Chaneroy,  and  brought  about 
the  treaty  of  Pinneberg.  Succeeding  to  the 
dukedom,  he  Joined  the  Leu^jue  of  Augsburg 


against  Louis   XIV.,    and   was   appointed 
Elector  in  1692. 

Ernest  Augustus,  King  of  Hanover  and 
Duke  of  Cumberland  {b.  1771,  d.  1851),  fifth 
son  of  George  III. ;  entered  the  English 
anny,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal ; 
in  1815  married  the  Princess  Fredeiica  of 
Meckleuburg-StreHtz ;  succeeded  to  the 
crown  of  Hanover  in  1837. 

Emesti,  Johann  August  {b.  1707,  d.  1781), 
German phUologer,  professor  at  St.  Thomas's 
School,  Leipzig;  brought  out  editions  of 
several  classical  authors,  and  published  a 
critical  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews. 

Emouf,  Jean  Augustin,  Bai-on(3. 1753,  d. 
1827),  French  general,  born  at  Alen9on ; 
joined  the  anny  of  the  North  in  1793,  and 
distiuguished  himself  by  his  defence  of 
Cassel ;  in  1798  commanded  the  army  of  the 
Danube  tiU  the  arrival  of  Massena ;  was 
appointed  captain -general  of  Guadaloupe, 
and  after  the  restoration  was  made  baron. 

Emoul,  Edmond  (i.  1829),  French  lawyer 
and  politician,  bom  in  London ;  member  of 
the  National  Assembly  (1871)  ;  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  Comte  de  Chambord; 
proposed  the  motion  which  led  to  M.  Thiers' 
resignation  in  1873.  He  was  minister  of 
justice  from  1873  to  1876. 

Erpen,  Thomas  von  {b.  1584,  d.  1624), 
Dutch  Orientalist ;  studied  at  Leyden,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  1613,  and  of  Hebrew  1619.  He 
wrote  liudimenta  Linguae  Arabicee,  Gram- 
matica  Ebrwa  Generalis,  etc, 

Errard,  Charles  Q>.  1606,  d.  1689),  French 
painter  and  architect,  bom  at  Nantes,  was 
employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  decorate  the 
Palais  Royal.  He  suggested  and  founded 
the  Academy  at  Rome  (1666),  and  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  French  Academy  of 
Painting  (1648).     Died  at  Rome. 

Ersch,  Johann  Samuel  {b.  1766,  d.  1828), 
a  German  bibliographer,  bom  at  Glogau, 
Silesia,  studied  at  the  University  of  Halle  ; 
edited  the  Neue  Ramburijher  Zeitimg  from 
1795 ;  wrote  La  France  LiUiraire,  Handbuch 
der  Beutsche  Literatur,  etc. 

Ersldne,  David,  Lord  Dun  {b.  1670, 
d.  1758),  Scotch  lawyer,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  169S;  member  of  the  last  Scottish  j)ar- 
liament,  and  strongly  opj.osed  the  Union. 
He  was  made  a  judge  in  1711,  and  a  Com- 
missioner of  the  Coiurt  of  Justiciary  in  1713. 

Ersldne,  Ebenezer  (*.  1680,  d.  1754), 
Scottish  minister ;  founder  of  the  Secession 
Church;  in  1703  became  minister  of  the 
Established  Church  at  Portmoak  in  Kinross, 
where  he  was  very  popular  ;  in  1731  removed 


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Esc 


to  West  Church,  Stirling:  in  1740  finally 
Bepaxated  from  the  Scottish  Church,  and  was 
deposed.  His  adherents  built  him  a  new 
place  of  worship. 

Erskine,  Henry,  third  Lord  Cardross  {b. 

circa  1650,  d.  1693),  vigorously  opposed  the 
Lauderdale  administration ;  was  fined  and 
imprisoned  for  four  years  in  Ediuburgh 
Castle;  joined  a  Scottish  colony  in  South 
Carolina,  but  returned  to  Europe  and  settled 
at  the  Hague.  He  came  to  England  with 
William  ILL.,  who  made  him  a  privy  coim- 
ciUor. 

Erskine,  Hon.  Henry  {b.  1746,  d.  1817), 
son  of  the  tenth  Earl  of  Buchan;  an  accom- 
plished scholar,  wit  and  lawyer ;  attained  to 
the  highest  eminence  in  his  profession,  and 
was  Lord  Advocate  of  Scotland  in  1783  and 
from  1806  to  1807.  He  was  a  consistent 
Whig. 

Erskine,  John,  Baron  of  Dun  (b.  1609,  d. 
1591),  scholar;  studied  Greek,  and  became  a 
Protestant.  Knox  found  a  home  at  his 
castle.  As  one  of  the  five  ecclesiastical  su- 
perintendents nominated  in  accordance  with 
The  First  Book  of  Discipline,  he  actively 
promoted  the  Reformation. 

Erskiae,  John  (b.  1695,  d.  1768),  of  Carnock, 
lawyer;  held  the  chair  of  Scottish  law  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  from  1737  to  1765  ; 
wrote  Principles  of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  and 
The  Institutes  of  the  Law  of  Scotland . 

Erskine,  John,  D.D.  {b.  1721,  d.  1803), 
minister  of  the  Scottish  Church;  published 
Sermons  and  Theological  Dissertations. 

Erskine,  John.     \_See  Mar,  Earl  of.] 

Erskine,  Thomas,  Lord  (b.  1750,  d.  1823), 
son  of  the  tenth  Earl  of  Buchan ;  after  serv- 
ing in  the  army  and  navy,  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1778,  and  soon  won  renown  as  an 
advocate  by  his  defence  of  Lord  Keppel  and 
of  Lord  George  Gordon.  A  strong  Whig, 
he  acted  for  the  defence  in  the  political 
trials  of  the  time,  giving  his  aid  to  Home 
Tooke,  Thelwall,  and  Tom  Paine ;  his  de- 
fence of  the  latter  cost  him  the  post  of  at- 
tomey-genera.l  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He 
was  now  regarded  as  the  defender  of  popular 
liberties  and  constitutional  rights.  From 
1790  he  sat  in  Parliament  as  a  supporter  of 
Fox  ;  in  1806  became  Chancellor  under  him, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  Hencefor- 
ward he  took  little  part  in  politics,  but  vigor- 
ously supported  Queen  Caroline  in  1821. 

Erskine,  Sir  Thomas  (*.  1788,  d.  1864), 
son  of  the  preceding ;  was  called  to  the  bar 
from  Lincoln's  Inn  (1813)  ;  made  King's 
Coimsel  (1827) ;  was  Chief  Judge  of  the  New 
Court  of  Bankruptcy  from  1831  to  1842,  and 
a  Judge  of  the  Common  Pleas  from  1839  to 
1844,  when  he  retired,  owing  to  ill-health. 


Erskine,  William  (J).  1773,  d.  1853),  went 
to  India  as  secretary  to  Sir  James  Mackin- 
tosh ;  became  a  magistrate  of  Bombay,  and 
wrote  a  translation  from  the  Turkish  oif  the 
Autobiography  of  the  Emperor  Baber,  His- 
tory of  India  under  the  Emperors  Baber  and 
Mumayun,  etc. 

Erslev,  Thomas  Hansen  {b.  1803,  d.  1870), 
a  Danish  bibliographical  writer;  vyrote  a 
Universal  Dictionary  of  Danish  Writers. 

Erwin  von  Steinbach  {d.  1318),  archi- 
tect, bom  at  Steiubach,  near  Blihl ;  de- 
signed the  new  towers  and  the  interior 
ornamentation  of  Strasburg  cathedral. 

Erxleben,  Joliann  Christian  Polycarp  (i. 
1744,  <^.  1777),  German  naturalist;  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Gottiugen 
m  1775;  wrote  Systems  Regni  Animalis. 

Escalante,  Juan  Antonio  (b.  1639,  d. 
1670),  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cordova, 
imitated  the  Venetian  masters.  One  of  his 
best  pictures  is  the  Life  of  St.  Gerard,  painted 
for  the  cloisters  of  Clericos  Minores  at 
Madrid. 

Eschenbach,  Wolfram  von,  a  minne- 
singer, who  was  alive  at  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  century;  bom  near  Nuremberg;  took 
part  in  the  Civil  wars  of  Germany,  and  spent 
much  time  at  the  court  of  Hermann,  land- 
grave of  Thuringia,  at  Eisenach.  Among 
the  poems  he  is  known  to  have  written  are 
Titurel,  Parcival,  and  eight  Minnelieder. 

Eschenburg,  Johann  Joachim  (b.  1743,  d. 
1820),  German  writer;  professor  of  belles 
lettres  at  Brunswick;  translated  Shakes- 
peare, and  wrote  Monuments  of  Ancient 
German  Poetry,  etc. 

Eschenmayer,  Karl  Adolf  (b.  Neuenberg, 
Wurtemberg,  1768,  d.  1854),  a  German  mys- 
tic philosopher ;  professor  of  medicine,  and 
afterwards  of  philosophy,  at  Tiibingen. 

Escher  von  der  Linth,  Hans  Konrad  {b. 

Zurich,  1767,  d.  1823),  statesman  and  en- 
gineer ;  lived  throughout  his  life  at  Zurich  ; 
in  1798  founded  the  Swiss  Republican,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Helvetian  Direc- 
tory. Resigning  in  1803,  he  was  engaged  tni 
1810  in  the  construction  of  the  Linth  Canal, 
by  which  he  saved  the  valley  from  the  devas- 
tation of  periodical  floods.  After  1814  his 
Ufe  was  devoted  to  the  study  of  Svriss  geo- 
logy. 

Eschricht,  Daniel  Frederik  (5.  1798,  d. 
1863),  Danish  naturalist;  professor  and 
afterwards  (1844)  rector  of  the  University  of 
Copenhagen ;  wrote  a  Description  of  the 
Human  Eye,  etc. 

Eschscholtz,  Johann  Friedrich  (fi.  1793,  d, 
1831),    German    traveller   and   naturalist; 


Esc 


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Ess 


joined  the  expedition  of  Kotzebue  (1815-18) 
as  physician,  and,  ia  conjunction  with  Cha- 
misso,  made  important  observations  and  col- 
lections. In  1823  he  accompanied  Kotzebue 
on  another  voyage,  of  which  he  published 
an  account  iu  1830. 

Escobedo,  Mariano  (b.  1828),  Mexican 
soldier,  of  humble  birth  ;  at  the  outbreak  of 
war  with  United  States  was  leader  of  a  band 
of  muleteers,  whom  he  organised  and  led 
against  the  enemy ;  afterwards  supported 
Juarez  ;  in  1866  became  general  of  the  army 
of  the  North,  and  captui-ed  the  emperor ; 
after  the  revolution  of  1876,  fled  to  New 
York ;  returning  to  Mexico,  was  seized,  and 
tried  by  court  martial,  but  acquitted. 

Escoiquiz,  Don  Juan  (*.  1762,  d.  1820), 
Spanish  statesman ;  after  holding  a  pre- 
bend ia  the  cathedral  of  Saragossa, 
became  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Asturias, 
afterwards  Ferdinand  VII.  He  resisted 
Godoy,  and,  on  the  abdication  of  Charles 
rV.  became  coimcillor  of  state,  and  all- 
powerful  with  Ferdinand  VII.  Although 
faithful  to  Ferdinand  in  his  misfortunes,  he 
was  twice  disgraced  by  him,  and  finally  ban- 
ished to  Andalusia  (1820).  He  wrote  an 
epic  poem.  The  Conquest  of  Mexico,  and 
translated  Paradise  Lost. 

Escosura,  Patricio  de  la  (b.  1807),  Spanish 
poHtician  and  writer  ;  after  being  three  times 
exiled  as  a  Carlist  (1824,  1834,  and  1840), 
became  secretary  of  state  ia  1843;  was 
minister  of  the  interior  (1854-6),  and  am- 
bassador to  the  German  empire  (1872-4). 
Besides  his  romances,  £1  Cotide  de  Candespina 
and  Ni  Bey  ni  Eoque,  he  has  written  poems, 
dramas,  and  a  constitutional  history  of 
England. 

Espaxtero,  Joaquin  Baldomero,  Duke  of 
Vittoria  {b.  1792,  d.  1879),  Spanish  soldier 
of  humble  birth ;  distinguished  himself 
in  South  America  against  Bolivia  ;  served 
against  the  Carhsts  during  the  Civil 
war,  becoming  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  North;  in  1836  saved  Madrid; 
drove  the  enemy  across  the  Ebro  in  1837 ; 
and  brought  the  war  to  an  end  in 
1840.  On  the  resignation  of  Queen  Chris- 
tina (1841)  he  was  appointed  regent,  but 
driven  from  the  country  during  an  insur- 
rection in  1843.  After  four  years'  residence 
in  England  he  returned,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  O'Dounell,  formed  a  coalition  ministry 
in  1854,  which  lasted  two  years. 

Espejo,  Antonio,  Spanish  traveller  of  the 
16th  centiu-y ;  settled  in  Mexico,  and,  setting 
out  in  1582,  traversed  much  of  the  unknown 
coimtry  towards  the  north. 

Espinosa,  Don  Diego  d'  {b.  1502,  d.  1572), 
Spanish  statesman  ;  became  president  of  the 
council    of     Castile,    inquisitor -general    of 


Spain,  Bishop  of  Siguenza,  and,  in  1568, 
cardinal.  He  excited  the  hatred  of  all  by 
his  arrogance ;  was  at  last  dismissed  by 
Philip  n.,  and  died  in  disgrace.  By  his  in- 
fluence over  the  king  he  contributed  to  the 
death  of  Don  Carlos. 

Espinosa,  Hyacinth  Jerome  d'  (b.  1600,  d. 
1680),  Spanish  artist.  Several  of  his  works 
are  in  the  museum  of  Valencia,  and  others 
at  Madrid. 

Espinosa,  Nicholas  (b.circa  1520),  Spanish 
poet,  wrote,  in  continuation  of  Aiiosto's 
Orlando  Fiirioso,  a  poem  in  thii'ty-five 
cantos,  treating  of  the  legends  of  Spain  and 
the  battle  of  Roncesvalles. 

Espr^mesnil,  J.  J.    [See  ;6pr^mensil.] 

Espronceda,  Jose  de  {b.  1810,  d.  1842), 
Spanish  poet  and  politician  ;  as  member  of  a 
secret  society,  was  imprisoned  in  the  convent 
of  Guadalajara,  and  there  commenced  his 
epic  poem,  El  I'elayo  ;  took  part  in  the  revo- 
lution at  Paris  in  1830  ;  returned  after  the 
amnesty  of  1833,  but  was  banished  to 
Cuellar,  where  he  wrote  his  romance,  Bon 
Sancho  Suldatia ;  took  an  active  part  in  the 
insurrection  of  Madrid,  and  in  1841  was 
appointed  secretary  of  legation  at  the  Hague. 

Espy,  James  Pollard  (*.  1785,  d.  1860), 
American  meteorologist ;  advanced  a  theory 
of  the  proximate  cause  of  great  atmospheric 
disturbances.  Published  the  Philosophy  of 
Storms,  1841. 

Esquirol,  Jean  Etienne  Dominique  {b.  1772, 
d.  1840),  physician,  bom  at  Toulouse,  was 
the  first  to  introduce  a  gentle  treatment  of 
madness  and  idiocy.  Succeeded  Pinel  ia 
the  hospital  of  Salpetri^re  (1811),  and  in 
1826  became  chief  physician  of  the  asylum 
at  Charenton.  He  wrote  Bes  Maladies 
Mentales,  etc. 

Esquiros,  Henri  Alphonse  (6.  }814, 
d.  1876),  French  author  and  politician ; 
was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly 
in  1850,  and  banished  after  the  coup  d''etat  in 
1851  ;  became  a  member  of  the  National 
Assembly  (1871),  and  voted  with  the  Extreme 
Left.  Among  his  works  are  Les  Hirondelles, 
a  volume  of  poems  (1834),  Charlotte  Corday, 
a  romance  (1840),  and  Les  Vierges  Martyrs, 
les  Vierges  Folks,  les  Vierges  Sages. 

Essen,  Hans  Henrik,  Count  of  {b.  Hob, 
d.  1824),  Swedish  general;  was  appointed 
governor  of  Stockholm  in  1 796  ;  commanded 
the  army  in  Pomerania  in  1807,  and  de- 
fended Stralsund  against  the  French  ;  be- 
came councillor  of  state  in  1809 ;  conducted 
a  successful  campaign  against  Norway 
(1813) ;  was  afterwards  appointed  field- 
marshal  and  governor  of  Norway. 

Essex,  Walter  Devereux,  first  Earl  of  (4. 


Ess 


(286  ) 


Eth 


oirea  1540,  d.  1576),  son  of  Sir  Richard 
Devereux ;  succeeded  to  the  titles  of  Viscount 
Hereford  and  Lord  Ferrers  of  Chartley  ;  won 
the  favour  of  Elizabeth,  and,  after  sharing 
in  the  suppression  of  the  Northern  rebellion, 
was  made  Earl  of  Essex ;  went  to  Ireland 
in  1573  to  crush  a  rebellion  in  Ulster  ;  came 
back  in  1575,  but  in  1576  returned  to  Ii'eland 
as  field-marshal ;  was  continually  thwarted 
by  Leicester,  and  died  of  anxiety  and  dis- 
appointment. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  second  Earl  of 
(b.  1567,  d.  IGOl),  son  of  the  preceding;  ac- 
companied Leicester  to  the  Low  Countries 
in  1585,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Zutphen ; 
on  the  death  of  Leicester  became  the  Queen's 
favourite,  but  offended  her  by  joining  in  the 
expedition  to  re-instate  Don  Antonio  of 
Portugal,  and  by  marrying  Sir  Philip  Sidney's 
widow ;  led  an  unsuccessful  expedition  to 
Spain  (1597) ;  appointed  Lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland ;  met  with  ill-success,  returned  vrith- 
out  leave,  and,  when  denied  access  to  the 
queen,  attempted  to  create  an  insurrection, 
but  was  taken  and  executed. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  third  Earl  of 
{b.  1591,  d.  1646),  son  of  the  preceding; 
was  restored  to  his  titles  and  dignities  in 
1604  ;  distinguished  himself  in  Holland  under 
the  Prince  of  Orange  ;  became  vice-admiral 
in  the  English  navy  ;  in  the  Civil  war  was 
appointed  general  of  the  Parliamentary 
forces ;  was  victorious  at  Edgehill  and  else- 
where.    He  resigned  the  post  in  1645. 

Estaco,  Achilles  {b.  1524,  d.  1581),  Portu- 
guese scholar  and  poet ;  was  librarian  to  the 
Cardinal  Sforza,  and  secretary  to  the  Council 
of  Trent.  Wrote  Sylvce  Calimachi  and  other 
works  in  Latin. 

Estaing,  Charles  Hector,  Count  d'  {b.  1729, 
d.  1794),  French  admiral ;  after  serving  in  the 
army  in  India,  under  the  Marquis  de  Bussy, 
and  being  made  prisoner  at  the  siege  of 
Madras,  entered  the  navy,  and  led  an  ex- 
pedition to  Sumatra,  capturing  several  Eng- 
lish forts.  Placed  in  command  of  a  squad- 
ron sent  to  aid  the  United  States  against 
England,  he  captured  the  isle  of  Grenada, 
but  ultimately  met  with  reverses,  and  re- 
turned to  France  in  disgrace.  He  was 
guillotined  during  the  Revolution. 

Estcourt,  Richard  {b.  1668,  d.  1712),  an 
EngUsh  actor  and  mimic  ;  appeared  at  Drury 
Lane  as  Dominic  in  the  Spanish  Friar,  and 
wrote  the  Fair  Example  and  Prunella. 

Este,  House  of,  a  princely  family  of  Italy, 
whose  origin  is  traced  back  to  the  Longobard 
period,  though  the  name  of  Este  was  not 
assumed  till  the  10th  century. 

Esterhazy,  a  noble  and  illustrious  Hun- 
garian family,  which  traces  its  descent  from 


Paul  d'Esteras,  who  was  baptised  in  the  10th 
century,  and  was  a  descendant  of  AttUa. 
Its  most  important  members  were  : — 

Paul  {b.  1635,  d.  1713),  a  general  who 
helped  to  defeat  the  Turks  at  St.  Gothard  in 
1664,  defended  Vienna  against  them  in 
1683  and  Buda  in  1686,  and  was  made  vice- 
gerent of  Hungary. 

Nicholas  (6. 1765,  d.  1833),  a  generous  pat- 
ron of  the  arts,  who  in  1807  refused  the  crown 
of  Hungary. 

Paul  Anthony  (*.  1786,  d.  1866),  dip- 
lomatist, ambassador  at  Dresden,  Rome,  and 
London;  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  1848, 
etc. 

Estrees,  Gabrielle  d'  {b.  1571,  d.  1599), 
a  favourite  of  Henri  IV.  of  France ; 
was  made  by  him  Marquise  de  Monceaux  and 
Duchesse  de  Beaufort,  and  hoped  to  become 
queen.  She  is  believed  to  have  been  poisoned 
by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany. 

]6tampes,  Anne  de  Pisseleu,  Duchesse  d' 
{b.  1508,  d.  1576),  a  favourite  of  Francis  I. 
of  France,  originally  maid  of  honour  to  the 
Duchesse  d'  Angoxdeme.  She  was  married, 
by  the  king's  desire,  to  Jean  de  Brosse,  after- 
wards made  Due  d'Etampes.  The  latter 
years  of  the  king  were  troubled  by  jealousies 
between  Anne  and  Diana  of  Poictiers,  the 
mistress  of  the  dauphin. 

Etex,  Antoine  (J).  1808,  d.  1888),  French 
sculptor,  painter,  and  architect ;  executed 
the  colossal  group  of  Cain  and  his  Family  in 
1833.  His  most  important  monument  is  that 
of  the  painter  Ingres  (1868). 

Ethelbald,King  of  Mercia  {d.  757),  reigned 
from  716,  and  ruled  with  vigour  and  justice, 
but  was  defeated  by  Cuthred,  King  of 
Wessex. 

Ethelbald,  King  of  England  {d.  860),  son 
of  Ethelwulf,  began  to  reign  over  Wessex  in 
855.  He  was  a  man  of  vicious  Hfe,  and  his 
marriage  with  his  stepmother,  Judith,  ex- 
cited general  disapprobation. 

Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent  (b.  circa  552,  d. 
616),  son  of  Eormenric,  whom  he  siicceeded  in 
560,  was  defeated  by  Ceawlin,  King  of  Wes- 
sex; became  bretwalda in  693;  and,  after  the 
landing  of  Augustine,  was  baptised  in  597. 

Ethelbert,  King  of  Wessex  {d.  866),  third 
son  of  Ethelwulf;  succeeded  his  brother 
Ethelbald  in  860.  His  reign  was  troubled 
by  Danish  invasions. 

Ethelfrid,or,ffithelfrith,KingofNorthum- 

bria  {d.  617),  succeeded  his  father,  Ethelric, 
King  of  Bemicia  in  593,  and  conquered 
Deira,  thus  forming  the  kingdom  of  Nor- 
thumbria.  He  successfully  invaded  North 
Wales,  but  was  defeated  by  Raedwald,  King 
of  East  Anglia. 


Eth 


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Eud 


Ethelred  L,  King  of  England  (d.  871), 
fourth  son  of  Etnelwulf;  succeeded  his 
brother  Ethelbert,  in  866 ;  was  constantly  at 
war  with  the  Danes,  whom,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  Alfred,  he  several  times 
defeated. 

Ethelred  IL,  King  of  England  {b.  968, 
d.  1016),  son  of  Edgar  and  Elfrida;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  978.  He  was  weak, 
cruel,  and  licentious,  and  the  kingdom  suf- 
fered much  from  the  Danes  and  from  conse- 
quent anarchy.  In  1013  he  was  driven  from 
England  by  Swend,  but  returned  the  follow- 
ing year. 

Ethelreda,  St.  (St.  Audry),  Queen  of 
Egfrid,  King  of  Northimibria  ;  took  refuge 
from  her  husband  in  the  Isle  of  Ely, 
and  there  founded  the  conventual  church, 
afterwards  the  cathedral  of  Ely,  which 
is  dedicated  to  St.  Ethelreda  and  St. 
Peter. 

Ethelwulf,  King  of  Wessex  {d.  858),  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Egbert,  in  839 ;  fought 
successfully  against  the  Danes  and  Welsh  ; 
made  a  pUgrimage  to  Rome  ;  on  his  re- 
turn was  forced  to  cede  the  greater  part  of 
his  kingdom  to  his  son  Ethelbald. 

Etherege,  Sir  George  {b.  circa  1634, 
d.  1688),  dramatist;  wrote  The  Comical 
Revenge;  or,  Love  in  a  Tub  (1664),  She 
Would  if  She  Could  (1667),  and  the  Man  of 
Mode,  or  Sir  FopUng  i  hitter  (1676).  He 
was  knighted  by  James  II.,  and  appointed 
envoy  to  Ratisbon. 

^tienne,  Henri  {b.  circa  1460,  d.  1520), 
founder  of  a  family  of  printers;  set  up  his 
press  near  the  University  of  Paris,  whose 
arms  and  motto  he  adopted. 

Etienne,  Robert  (b.  1503,  d.  1559),  son  of 
the  above,  was  patronised  by  Francis  I.,  on 
whose  death  he  retired  to  Switzerland,  and 
became  a  convert  to  Calvinism.  His  chief 
editions  are  a  folio  Bible,  Greek  Testament, 
Hebrew  Bible  in  eight  volumes,  and  a  Latin 
and  Gallic  dictionary,  the  most  ancient  of  its 
kind. 

Etienne,  Henri  {b.  1528,  d.  1598),  son  of 
Robert ;  spent  a  large  fortune  in  amassing 
Greek  manuscripts,  and  was  ruined  by  the 
issue  of  his  Greek  dictionary.  He  also  wrote 
a  Thesaurus  of  the  Greek  Language,  an  edi- 
tion of  Anacreon  ;  a  Treatise  on  the  Life  of 
Queen  Catherine  de  Medici,  and  several 
translations. 

Ett,  Kaspar  {b.  1788,  d.  1847),  organist  and 
composer  ;  born  at  Eresing,  in  Bavaria,  edu- 
cated at  Munich,  where  he  was  organist  of  St. 
Michael's  from  1816  till  his  death;  revived 
and  imitated  the  Church  music  of  the  16th, 
17th,  and  18th  centuries  ;  was  also  an  excel- 
lent linguist,  and  set  to  music  the  responses 


of  the  Greek  Church,  and  several  Hebrew 
psalms  for  the  \ise  of  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue. 

Ettinghausen,  Constantin,  Baron  von 
{b.  1826),  professor  of  botany  in  the 
University  of  Gratz.  Besides  memoirs  on 
botanical  and  palseontological  subjects,  he 
has  written  Physiotypia  Plantarum  Austria- 
carum,  etc. 

EttmitUer,  Ernst  Moritz  Ludwig  (*. 
1802,  d.  1877),  German  philologist,  pro- 
fessor of  German  at  Zurich  iu  1833. 

Ettricus,  sumamed  "The  Estriot,"  a 
Christian  philosopher,  poet,  and  geographer 
of  the  4th  century,  bom  at  Estria.  His 
chief  works  are  Cosmographia,  and  Sopho- 
grammios,  both  written  in  Latin. 

Etty,  William,  R.A.  {b.  1787,  d.  1849), 
artist,  born  at  York,  son  of  a  baker 
and  miller;  was  for  seven  years  ap- 
prenticed to  a  letterpress  printer  at 
Hull ;  coming  to  London  was  patronised 
bj'  Fuseli,  and  became  the  pupil  of  Sir 
Thomas  Lawrence ;  first  exhibited  in  the 
Academy  in  1811;  during  a  visit  to  Italy 
in  1822  acquired  the  vivid  sense  of  colour 
and  harmony  which  distinguished  his  later 
works.  He  especially  excelled  in  flesh  tints. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  Judith,  The 
Judgment  of  Paris,  and  Venus  Attired  by  the 
Graces. 

Eubulides,  a  philosopher  and  dramatist  of 
Miletus.     Demosthenes  was  his  pupil. 

Euclid  of  Alexandria,  a  celebrated  geo- 
metrician. Little  is  known  of  his  life.  Ac- 
cording to  Proclus  he  lived  from  328  to  283 
B.C.,  and  was  one  of  the  Platonic  school. 
He  is  said  to  have  written  other  works 
besides  the  Elements  of  Geometry. 

Euclid  of  Megara,  {d.  probably  circa  374 
B.C.),  a  Greek  philosopher;  disciple  and 
friend  of  Socrates,  after  whose  death  he  esta- 
blished his  school  at  Megara. 

Eudocia,  Augusta  {b.  394,  d.  461),  the 
learned  and  beautiful  daughter  of  Leontius, 
an  Athenian  sophist,  married  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  II.,  after  which  she  became  a 
Christian.  She  was  subsequently  disgraced, 
and  died  in  retirement  at  Jerusali^m. 

Eudoxia,  Empress  of  the  East  ib.  376,  d. 
404),  daughter  of  Bauto,  a  Frank,  married 
the  Emperor  Arcadius  in  395. 

Eudoxia,  Empress  of  the  West  (b.  422), 
married  Maximilian  III.,  about  436,  and,  on 
his  assassination  by  Petrouius  Maximus  in 
455,  was  forced  to  accept  the  hand  of  his 
murderer.  She  appealed  to  Genseric  the 
Vandal,  who  captured  Rome  and  delivered 
her. 


End 


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£us 


Eudoxlus,  au  ecclesiastic  of  the  4th  ceutury, 
born  at  Ai-abissus,  in  Armenia  Minor ;  was 
successively  Bishoi>  of  Germanicia,  on  the 
Euphrates,  and  of  Autioch,  and  patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  After  belonging  to  various 
Arian  sects,  he  finally  became  a  follower  of 
Aetius  of  Antioch. 

Eugene,  Fran9ois,  Prince  of  Savoy  (b. 
1663,  d.  1736),  son  of  Eugene  Maurice, 
Count  of  Soissons ;  joined  the  Austri;xu 
service ;  distinguished  himself  against  the 
Tui'ks  in  1683,  and  was  present  at  the 
siege  of  Belgrade  in  1688.  After  serving 
against  the  French,  and  defeating  Catinat 
in  Italy,  he  overthrew  the  Turks  at  Zenta. 
Again  opposed  to  the  French  in  the  War  of 
Succession,  he  captured  Villeroi  at  Cremona, 
and  joined  Marlborough  in  1704,  taking  part 
in  the  battle  of  Blenheim.  He  then  went 
to  Italy,  and  was  defeated  at  Cassano 
(170o),  but  soon  afterwards  gained  a  vic- 
tory, and  relieved  Turin.  In  1708  he  joined 
Marlborough  iu  Flanders,  and  was  present 
at  Oudenarde  and  Malplaquet.  He  again 
distinguished  liimself  against  the  Turks  at 
the  battles  of  Peterwaradin  and  Belgrade. 

Eugenie-Marie  de  Guzman,  ex-Empress  of 
the  French  and  Countess  de  Teba  {b.  1826), 
daughter  of  the  Count  of  Montijos,  an 
officer  in  the  Spanish  army;  married  Napo- 
leon III.  in  1853. 

Eugenius,  Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  the 
7th  ceutury ;  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Trinity, 
and  other  works. 

Eugenius  {d.  oOo),  Bishop  of  Carthage; 
was  banished  on  account  of  his  orthodoxy 
by  Huueric,  the  Vandal  King  of  Africa. 
After  some  time  he  returned,  and  was  again 
banish»d  to  Vienne,  where  he  died. 

Eugeiiius  I.,  Pope  («f.  658),  a  pious  Roman 
priest ;  elected  in  654,  while  his  predecessor, 
Martin  I.,  was  in  exile,  through  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Constans. 

Eugenius  II. ,  Tone  (ci.  827) ;  his  election 
(824)  was  opposed  by  Zizimus,  the  candidate 
of  the  Roman  aristocracy,  but  he  was  sup- 
ported by  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  and  his  son, 
Lotharius. 

Eugenius  III.,  Pope  (Pietro  Bernardo  da 
Pisa)  {d.  1153),  a  disciple  of  St.  Bernard; 
elected  in  1 145.  Under  his  reign  the  Romans 
rose  against  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope. 
He  fled  to  France,  where  he  remained  till 
1152,  when  Frederic  Barbarossa  promised 
him  his  aid.  He  died  at  Tivoli  on  his  way 
to  Rome. 

Eugenius  IV.,  Pope  {d.  1447)  ;  elected  in 
1431 ;  vainly  attempted  to  dissolve  the  Coun- 
cil of  Basle  in  1437,  and  by  his  opposition  to 
it  caused  the  great  schism  of  the  loth  cen- 
tuiy  w  ithin  the  pale  of  the  Roman  Church. 


Euler,  Leonhard  {b.  1707,  d.  1783), 
mathematician,  born  at  Basle ;  was  in- 
vited by  Catherine  II.  to  Russia  in  1727,  and 
taught  mathematics  at  St.  Petersburg,  la 
1741  he  went  to  Berlin,  but  returned  to  St. 
Petersburg  in  1766.  His  writings  are  nu- 
merous and  valuable. 

Eulogius,  Cordubensis,  Saint  and  Martyr 
(d.  859),  joined  other  Spanish  Christians  in 
reviling  the  Mahometans,  under  whom  they 
were  living  peaceably,  and  was  consequently 
beheaded  by  them. 

Eumenes  {b.  361,  d.  316  B.C.),  born  at 
Cardia,  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus, 
was  secretary  to  Alexander  of  Macedon, 
after  whose  death  he  was  made  satrap 
of  Cappadocia  and  Paphlagonia.  He  de- 
feated Craterus  and  Neoptolemus,  but  was 
betrayed  by  his  troops,  and  put  to  death  by 
Antigonus. 

Eumenes  I.,  King  of  Pergamos  (rf.  241 
B.C.) ;  began  to  reign  in  2o.i,  and  fought 
against  Ajatiochus  Soter. 

Eumenes  II. ,  King  of  Pergamos  {d.  circa 
159  B.C.),  succeeded  his  father,  Attalus  I., 
in  197,  and  through  his  alliance  with  the 
Romans,  became  very  powerful. 

Eunapiua  (b.  347,  d.  circa  420),  Greek 
historian,  wrote  Lives  of  the  Philosophers 
and  Sophists,  and  a  continuation  of 
Dexippiis'  history  extending  from  270  to 
404. 

Eunomius  {d.  394),  a  disciple  of  the  Arian 
Aetius ;  became  Bishop  of  Cyzicus,  but  died 
in  banishment. 

Euphranor,  painter  and  sculptor,  a  native 
of  Corinth,  called  "the  Isthinian,"  lived 
about  364  B.C.  All  his  works  have  per- 
ished. 

Eupompus  of  Sicyon,  Greek  painter; 
lived  about  364  B.C.,  and  founded  the  Sicy- 
onic  school. 

Euric,  or  Evaric,  Eng  of  the  Visigoths  {b. 
circa  420,  d.  484) ;  in  466  assassinated 
his  brother,  Theodoric,  and  seized  the  throne. 
After  gaining  possession  of  the  whole  of 
Gaul,  he  sent  his  troops  into  Spain,  which  he 
added  to  his  empire. 

Euripides  {Jj.  480  b.c.  d.  406  B.C.), 
Greek  tragedian,  born  at  Salamis ;  rival  and 
contemporary  of  Sojihocles,  and  friend  of 
Socrates;  studied  under  Anaxagoras,  and 
produced  his  first  tragedy  in  455.  He  sought 
in  Macedonia  a  refuge  from  the  satire  of 
Aristophanes.  Among  his  works  are  the 
Alccstis,  Hecuba,  and  Medea. 

Eusebius  {b.  315,  d.  370),  Bishop  of  Ver- 
celU,  owing  to  his  warm  defence  of  Athana- 
sius,  was   banished   by  Constantius  first  to 


Ens 


(  289  ) 


Eve 


jyria,  and    afterwards  to  Egypt.    He  re- 
turned in  the  reign  of  Julian. 

Eusebius,  Pamphilus  (i.  circa  267,  d.  circa 
338),  Bishop  of  Caesarea,  in  Palestine;  at- 
tended the  Council  of  Nice  (325),  and  drew 
up  the  first  draft  of  the  creed.  His  most 
important  work  is  the  Historia  Lcclesias- 
tica,  which  reaches  to  the  year  324. 

EustacM,  or  EustacMo,  Bartolommeo 
{d.  1574),  Italian  anatomist ;  professor  of 
m^edicine  at  Rome  in  1562;  made  many  dis- 
coveries in  anatomy,  and  left  a  valuable 
series  of  plates,  drawn  under  his  direction  by 
Titian,  and  discovered  at  Urbino  in  1712. 
He  was  little  appreciated  during  his  life- 
time. His  writings  have  been  published 
under  the  title  of  Opuscula  Anatomica. 

Eustatliius,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  4th 
century,  sat  in  the  Council  of  Nice  as  Bishop 
of  Beroea,  and  afterwards  became  Patriarch 
of  Antioch.  At  the  Council  of  Nice  he 
opposed  the  Arians,  who  afterwards  induced 
Constantiue  the  Great  to  banish  him. 

Eutropius,  Flavins,  Latin  historian  of  the 
4th  century ;  was  secretary  to  Constantino 
the  Great,  and  afterwards  accompanied  Julian 
the  Apostate  in  his  Persian  expedition.  His 
history  extends  from  the  foundation  of  Rome 
to  the  reign  of  Valens. 

Eutyches  [h.  circa  378),  head  of  a  monas- 
tery near  Constantinople ;  in  opposing  the 
Nestorians  gave  expression  to  another  heresy, 
maintaining  that  the  human  body  of  Christ 
was  only  apparent.  A  council  at  Ephesus  in 
449  acquitted  him  of  all  error,  but  he  was  con- 
demned in  the  fourth  (Ecumenical  Council 
held  at  Chalcedon  in  451. 

Evagoras  {fl.  374  b.c),  tjTant  of  Salamis, 
in  Cyprus,  gave  asylum  to  Conon,  after  the 
Athenian  defeat  at  ^gospotami.  He  was 
tributary  to  the  Persians. 

Evald,  Johann  {b.  1743,  d.  1781),  Danish 
poet  ;  ran  away  from  the  university  of 
Copenhagen  to  join  the  Prussian  army, 
which  he  deserted  for  the  Austrian,  He 
afterwards  returned  to  the  university.  On 
leaving  it  he  betook  himself  to  literature. 
Most  of  his  life  was  spent  in  sickness,  poverty, 
and  obscurity.  His  chief  poems  are  Adam 
and  Ere,  The  Fisherman,  and  Balder''s 
Death. 

Evans,  Frederick  John  Owen,  Sir  {b.  1815, 
d.  18M5),  hydrographer ;  in  1833  was  em- 
ployed in  surveying  the  Bahama  coast ;  after- 
wards explored  the  Coral  Sea  and  Torres 
Strait  under  Captain  Blackwood ;  survej'ed 
the  shores  of  New  Zealand  from  1847  to  1851; 
took  part  in  the  Baltic  campaign,  and  in 
1874  was  appointed  hydrographer.  He  was 
one  of  the  British  delegates  at  the  Inter- 
national   Conference  held    at    Washington 

T 


(1885)  to  fix  a  prime  meridian  and  universal 
day. 

Evans,  George  de  Lacy,  Sir,  G.C.B.  {b. 
1787,  d.  1870),  general,  bom  at  Moig,  in 
Ireland ;  served  under  Wellington  in  the 
Peninsula,  and  in  the  North  American  wai 
of  1814 ;  joined  the  English  army  in  Flan- 
ders, and  was  present  at  Quatre  Bras  and 
Waterloo ;  was  Liberal  member  for  West- 
minster from  1833  to  1841,  and  1846  to  1865 ; 
headed  the  "  British  Legion  "  sent  to  Spain 
(1835)  to  aid  the  queen  -  regent  ;  com- 
manded the  second  division  of  the  Easteru 
army  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  Alma,  Sebastopol, 
and  Inkerman ;  received  the  thanks  of 
Parliament. 

Evans,  John,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  (b.  1823), 
antiquary  ;  formerly  a  paper  manufacturer  ; 
devoted  his  leisure  to  antiquarian  pursuits ; 
became  president  of  the  Numismatic  Society, 
and  editor  oi  the  Numismatic  Chronicle.  He 
has  been  president  of  the  Geological  Society, 
and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Among 
his  "works  are  Coins  of  the  Ancient  Britons 
(1864),  and  The  Ancient  Stone  Implements  of 
Great  Britain  (1872), 

Evans,  Oliver  {b.  1755,  d.  1819),  American 
mechanist,  bom  at  Pliiladelpliia,  invented 
the  high-pressure  steam  engine. 

Evelyn,  John  {b.  1620,  d.  1706),  author, 
born  at  Wotton,  in  Surrey;  passed  from 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  to  the  Middle 
Temple  in  1640 :  visited  Holland  in  1641 ; 
resided  in  France  and  Italy  1643-7  ; 
in  1652  settled  at  Sayes  Court,  near 
Deptford,  and,  notwithstanding  his  Royalist 
opinions,  hved  unmolested.  In  1700  he  re- 
moved to  Wotton.  His  chief  works  are 
Sylva,  and  his  Diary  and  Correspondence. 

Evemerus,  or  Euhemerus,  Greek  philo- 
sopher and  writer ;  hved  about  300  B.C. ;  was 
sent  to  the  Indian  Ocean  by  Cassander,  King 
of  Macedon,  and  reached  the  island  of 
Panchasa,  where  he  discovered  monumental 
inscriptions,  on  which  he  based  his  Sacred 
History,  giving  a  rational  explanation  of 
Greek  myths. 

Everardi,  Nicolaus  (b.  circa  1462,  d. 
1532),  Dutch  jurist,  president,  in  1509,  of  the 
Great  Council  of  Holland  and  Zeeland. 
Wrote  Topica  and  Consilia  sive  Responsa 
Juris.    Died  at  Mechlin. 

Everdingen,  Alder  van  (b.  1621,  d.  1675), 
Dutch  artist,  known  as  the  Salvator  Rosa  of 
the  North.  Two  of  his  works  are  in  the 
Louvre.  He  was  also  a  designer  and  engraver. 

Everest,  Sir  George  (b.  1790,  d.  186G),  en- 
gineer and  surveyor ;  educated  at  Woolwich  ; 
entered  the  Bengal  Artillery,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  a  eiirveying   expedition  to  Java 


Eve 


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Ezz 


(1814-16)  ;  in  1818  became  chief -assistant  to 
Colonel  Lambton  (founder  of  the  Great 
Trigouonu'trical  Sui'vey  of  India),  whom  he 
Bucceeded  in  1823.  His  chief  work  is  the 
northern  part  oi  the  great  Meridional  Arc  of 
India,  Hi  degrees  in  length.  His  name  is 
perpevtuated  iii  Mount  Everest. 

Everett,  Alexander  Hill  {b.  1792,  <;.  1847), 
American  politician  and  man  of  letters  ;  born 
at  Boston,  Massachusetts  ;  held  several  diplo- 
matic posts,  the  last  being  at  Canton,  where 
he  died;  wrote  treatises  on  Europe  and 
Amencti,  and  was  editor  of  the  North 
A.merican  Review  from  1830  to  1835. 

Everett,  Edward  {b.  1794,  d.  18C5),  Ameri- 
can author  and  statesman,  brother  of  the 
preceding ;  became  professor  ol  Greek  at 
Harvard  in  1815  ;  travelled  in  Europe  from 
1815  to  1818 ;  became  editor  of  the  North 
American  Review,  and  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  1824  to  1834,  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts from  1835  to  1839,  and  from  1840 
to  1845  minister-plenipotentiary  to  England, 
in  which  capacity  he  succeeded  iu  adjusting 
several  delicate  matters.  He  became  secre- 
tary of  state  in  1852,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Senate  in  1853.  He  wrote  The  Dirge  of 
Alaric  the  Visigoth  (a  poem).  Lives  of 
Washington  and  General  Stark,  and  other 
works,  but  was  best  known  as  an  orator. 

Eversley,  Charles  Shaw  Lefevre,  Viscount 
(*.  1794,  d.  1888),  called  to  the  bar,  1819; 
entered  Parliament  in  1830 ;  was  elected 
Speaker  in  1839,  and  held  the  office  till  1857, 
when  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Ewald,  Georg  Heinrich  August  von  {b. 
1803,  d.  1875),  German  Orientalist  and 
theologian,  bom  at  Gottingen ;  a  pupil 
of  Eichhom  ;  was  professor  of  philosopliy 
and  afterwards  (1835)  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Gottingen.  His  opposition  to  the  over- 
throw of  the  Hanoverian  constitution  led  to 
his  dismissal  in  1837.  After  residing  at  the 
University  of  Tubingen,  where  he  encoun- 
tered much  opposition,  he  returned  in  1848, 
but  again  lost  his  prof  essorship  in  1867  owing 
to  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  king  of  Prussia.  He  was  afterwards 
a  member  of  the  Reichstag.  Among  his 
works  are  the  Ansfuhrliche  Grammatik,  still 
the  standard  grammar  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, a  History  of  the  People  of  Israel, 
1843-68,  and  Commentaries  on  the  Psalms. 

Ewald,  Johann.     [See  Evald.] 

Ewart,  WilUam  {b.  1798,  d.  1869),  a 
Liberal  politician ;  advocated  the  abolition  of 
capital  punishment ;  passed  an  act  (1850) 
establishing  free  public  libraries  and  schools 
of  design  in  large  towns,  and  in  1864  one 
legalising  the  use  of  the  metric  system. 

Ewing,  Juliana  Horatia  {b.  1842,  d.  1885), 


daughter  of  the  Rev.  A.  S.  Gatty;  married 
Major  A.  Ewiug  iu  1SG7.  She  contributed 
to  Aunt  Jiulfs  Magazine,  and  wrote  A  Hat 
Iron  for  a  Farthing  (1873),  A  Great  Emer- 
gency (1877),  Jackanapes  (1884),  and  other 
tales  for  children. 

Exmouth,  Edward  Pellew,  Viscount  {b. 
1757,  d.  1833),  served  in  the  wars  with 
America  and  France ;  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  East  Indian 
station.    In  1814  he  bombarded  Algiers. 

Eybler,  Joseph  von  (b.  1765,  d.  1846), 
musician ;  pupil  of  Albrechtsberger ;  friend 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  Held  a  post  as 
kapellmeister  at  Vienna  from  1825  to  1833. 

Eyek,  Hubert  van  {b.  1366,  d.  1426), 
painter  of  the  early  Flemish  school,  born 
at  Eyck,  or  Maaseyck.  He  painted  the 
greater  part  of  an  altar-piece,  the  Adoration 
of  the  Lamb,  for  the  cathedral  of  St.  Bavou 
at  Ghent,  and  shares  with  his  brother  Jan 
the  reputation  of  the  discovery  of  oil-paint- 
ing. With  him  he  founded  the  Flemish 
school  of  painting.    He  died  at  Ghent. 

Eyck,  Jan  van  {b.  circa  1390,  d.  1441), 
brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  assisted 
in  his  altar-piece,  the  Adoration  of  the 
Lamb,  in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Bavon,  at 
Ghent. 

Eyre,  Edward  John  {b.  1815),  admini- 
strator, son  of  a  Yorksliire  clergyman ;  in 
1833  went  to  Australia,  where  he  was  suc- 
cessful in  sheep-farming,  and  led  an  ex- 
ploring expedition ;  was  lieutenant-governor 
of  New  Zealand  in  1845,  and  of  St.  Vincent 
from  1854  to  1860 ;  appointed  governor  of 
Jamaica,  he  crushed  the  negro  rebellion  with 
much  severity.  He  was  suspended,  and  his 
conduct  examined  by  a  committee  of  in- 
quiry, which  acquitted  him. 

Eyre,  Sir  James  {b.  1734,  d.  1799),  lawyer ; 
called  to  the  bar  in  1755;  was  appointed 
recorder  of  London  in  1763,  Baron  of  the 
Exchequer  in  1772,  and  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas  in  1793.  He  presided  at  the 
trials  of  Hardy,  Tooke,  and  Thelwall. 

Eyre,  Sir  Vincent  (fi.  1811,  d.  1881), 
soldier ;  entered  the  Bengal  artillery  1828 ;  in 
the  defence  of  Cabul,  during  the  Afghan 
insurrection  of  1841,  offered  himself,  hia 
wife,  and  child,  as  hostages  to  Akhbar 
Khan.  He  reheved  Arrah,  and  also  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  relief  of  Lucknow 
and  the  capture  of  Alumbagh. 

Ezz-ed-din  ("Honour  of  Religion"),  the 
title  of  an  Arabian  poet  (b.  1181,  d.  1261),  an 
imaun,  or  preacher,  at  Damascus,  and  then  at 
Cairo.  He  wrote  an  allegorical  poem  on 
birds  and  flowers. 


Fab 


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Tab 


Fatoer,  Frederick  William  (*.  1814,  d. 
1863),  divine  and  poet,  nephew  of  George 
Stanley  Faber,  was  educated  at  Hanow 
and  at  University  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  obtained  a  fellowship.  In  1843  he 
became  incumbent  of  Elton,  Hunts ;  in 
1845  he  seceded  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 
In  1849  he  founded  the  Oratory  of  the 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Philip  Neri  at  Bromp- 
ton,  and  here  he  remained  xmtil  his 
death.  His  theological  works  attracted 
great  attention,  aud  some  of  them  have 
been  translated  into  French,  German,  aud 
Dutch.  His  poems,  which  include  some 
popular  hymns,  have  also  gone  through 
many  editions. 

Faber,  George  Stanley  (b.  1773,  d.  1854), 
Anglican  theologian,  became  prebendary  of 
Salisbury  cathedral  in  1831,  and  master  of 
Sherburn  Hospital  in  1832.  His  works, 
which  have  to  do  mostly  with  the  interpre- 
tation of  prophecy,  include  HorcB  Mosakce, 
the  Bampton  Lectures  for  1801,  etc. 

Fabert,  Abraham  de  (b.  1599,  d.  1662), 
French  general,  was  in  1654  created  mar- 
shal of  France  and  governor  of  Sedan  for 
his  services  in  capturing  Porto  Longone 
and  Piombino. 

Fabian.     [See  Fabyan,  Eobert.] 

Fabianus,  Bishop  of  Rome  238,  suffered 
death  in  the  Decian  persecution,  250.  From 
him  dates  the  first  germ  of  the  cardinalate. 

Fabius.     [See  Fabyan,  Robert.] 

Fabius,  Maximus  Gurges  Q.  [See  Pon- 
tius, Caius.] 

Fabius,  Maximus  Rullianus  Quintns  (d. 
circa  287  B.C.),  Roman  general,  was  aedile 
in  331,  master  of  the  horse  in  325,  consul 
in  322.  aud  in  315  was  appointed  dictator. 
He  attained  this  dignity  twice,  and  that  of 
consul  five  times,  and  triumphed  over  the 
Samnites,  the  Gauls,  the  Etruscans,  and 
the  Umbri. 

Fabius,  Maximus  Quintus  (b.  about  275 
B.C.,  (/.  203  B.C.),  Romau  general,  was  great- 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  was  sur- 
named  "  Cunctator  "  because,  having  ui  217 
been  appointed  dictator  for  the  second  time 
and  entrusted  with  the  defeuce  of  Italy 
against  the  victorious  Hannibal,  he  pursued 
a  course  of  cautious  and  patient  generalship, 
never  risking  a  general  engagement  with 
his  opponent,  but  cutting  off  his  supplies, 
and  gradually  wearying  him  out,  and  meet- 
ing with  signal  success.  Before  his  ap- 
pointment to  the  dictatorship  he  was  five 
times  consul. 
T  2 


Fabius,  Quintus  Pictor,  the  earliest  Roman 

historian,  flourished  about  220  B.C.,  and 
wrote  Annales,  of  which  we  possess  frag- 
ments extending  from  the  origin  of  Rome 
to  his  own  days. 

Fabre  d'Eglantine,  Philippe  Franqois  de 
Nazaire  (b.  1755,  d.  1794),  French  politician 
and  dramatist,  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention, aud  also  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety.  For  a  time  he  kept  well 
abreast  of  the  most  extreme  of  the  revo- 
lutionary leaders,  but  at  last,  lag<jing  behind, 
was  convicted  of  complicity  with  "foreign 
conspirators,"  and  sentenced  to  death  at 
the  same  time  as  Danton. 

Fabretti,  Rafifaele  (b.  1618,  d.  1700), 
antiquary  and  archaeologist,  became  papal 
treasurer  under  Pope  Alexander  VII., 
aud  afterwards  keeper  of  the  papal 
archives  of  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo.  His 
works  deal  with  the  aqueducts  of  Rome, 
ancient  monuments  (especially  Trajan's 
Column),  and  inscriptions.  His  collection 
of  antiquities  is  preserved  in  the  ducal 
palace  of  Urbino. 

Fabriauo,  Gentile  da  {b.  circa  1348,  d. 
circa  _U-2S),  painter,  so  delighted  the 
Venetian  senate  with  a  picture  of  the  en- 
gagement between  the  fleet  of  Venice  and 
that  of  the  Emperor  Barbarossa,  that  they 
made  him  a  patrician  and  gave  him  a  pen- 
sion. Among  the  best  of  his  extant  works 
is  his  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  done  for  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  Florence. 

Fabricius,  Caius  Luscinus,  Roman  general, 
was  consul  in  282  B.C.,  and  compelled  the 
Lucanians  to  raise  the  siege  of  Thurii.  He 
was  again  consul  in  278. 

Fabricius,  Girolamo.     [See  Fabrizio.] 

Fabricius,  Johann  Albrecht  (b.  1668,  d. 
1736),  critic  and  bibliographer,  was  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  at  Hamburg,  where  he 
died.  His  chief  work  is  the  Bibliotheea 
Grceca,  in  14  vols. 

Fabricius,  Johann  Christian  {b.  1745,  d. 
1808),  a  distinguished  Danish  entomologist, 
having  worked  under  Linneeus  at  Upsala, 
was  in  1775  appointed  to  the  chair  of  natural 
history  at  Kiel.  He  is  the  originator  of  the 
system  of  insect  classification  which  is 
determined  by  the  structure  of  the  mouth. 
An  account  of  his  life  appears  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society. 
vol.  iv.  (London,  1845). 

Fabrizio     d'Acquapendente,     Girolamo 

ib.   1537,  d.   1019),  anatomist  and  surgeon, 
torn    at    Acquapendente,     near     Orvieto, 


Fab 


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Fai 


was  professor  of  surgery  in  the  University 
of  Padua  for  about  forty  years.  To  his 
observations  on  the  valves  and  the  veins, 
Harvey,  his  pupil,  admittedly  owed  the 
process  of  thought  which  led  him  to  discover 
the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Fabroni,  Augelo  (b.  1732,  d.  1803),  bio- 
graphical writer,  born  at  Marradi,  Tuscany, 
IS  the  author  of  T'itce  Italorum  Loctrimi 
Excellent ittm  (twenty  volumes,  1778-1805), 
and  also  of  lives  of  Cosimo  and  others  of  the 
Medici  family. 

Fabrot,  Charles  Annibal  [h.  1581,  d.  1569), 
jurist,  was  professor  of  jurisprudence  in 
Aix  (Provence),  his  native  town.  His  chief 
work  is  a  translation  of  the  laws  of  the 
Eastern  Empire,  entitled  BasUicon. 

Fabvier,  Charles  Nicolas,  Baron  (*.  1782, 
d.  1855),  French  general,  a  native  of  Pont-a- 
Mousson,  distinguished  himself  at  Moscow  in 
1812,  and  was  made  baron  and  colonel  in 
1820.  He  was  imprisoned  for  being  impli- 
cated in  the  political  troubles  of  August. 
Arrested  again  in  1822,  he  left  France, 
travelled  in  England,  Spain,  and  Portugal, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  Greek  War 
of  Independence.  Returning  to  France  in 
1830,  he  participated  in  the  revolution.  He 
was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1839,  and 
peer  of  France  in  1815.  Later  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Danish  army  in 
Schleswig-Holstein. 

Fabyan,  Eobert  [b.  circa  1450,  d.  circa 
1512),  English  chronicler,  came  of  an  old 
Essi^x  family,  was  a  member  of  the  Drapers' 
Company,  and  in  1493  was  appointed  an 
alderman  and  sheriff  of  London.  His  annals 
extend  fi'om  the  fabulous  times  of  Brutus  to 
the  year  1533. 

Facciolati,  Jacopo  (b.  1682,  d.  1769), 
lexicographer,  bom  at  Torreglia,  near 
Padua,  was  professor  of  theology  and  logic 
at  Padua,  and  also  rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity. He  brought  out  a  new  edition  of 
Calepinus's  Lexicon  of  the  Seven  Lan- 
guages, and  largely  contributed  to  For- 
cellini's  great  Latin  Lexicon. 

Faed,  John,  R.S.A.  (*.  1820),  painter,  is 
elder  brother  of  Thomas  Faed  (q.v.),  and, 
like  him,  was  born  at  Burley  Mill,  Kirkcud- 
bright-hire. In  1841  he  settled  in  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  exhibited  in  1850  some 
pictures  of  humble  life.  He  came  to 
London  in  1864,  and  has  since  then  pro- 
duced a  considerable  number  of  popular 
works. 

Faed,  Thomas,  R.A.  (b.  1826),  painter,  son 
of  a  Scottish  millwright,  studied  in  Edin- 
burgh under  his  brother  John,  and  became 
an  A  ssociate  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy 
in  1849.  In  1852  he  came  to  London,  and 
three  years  later   made  a  deep  impression 


with  his  Mitherkss  Bairn,  which  has  been 
followed  by  many  other  pathetic  scenes  from 
lowly  life.  In  1859  he  was  elected  A.R.A., 
and  in  1864  R.A. 

Fagel,  Gaspar  (b.  1629,  d.  1688),  Dutch 
statesman,  was  Grand  Pensioner  of  Holland, 
and  showed  great  activity  in  supporting 
William  Prince  of  Orange,  both  in  his 
operations  against  Louis  XIV.  and  in  his 
English  expedition. 

Fagginola,  Delia  Uguecione  (b.  about 
1250,  d.  1319),  Italian  general  and  states- 
man, having  distinguished  himself  against 
the  Guelphs  of  Romagna,  was  entrusted 
with  the  commaiad  of  the  Pisan  troops 
against  the  Guelphs  of  Tuscany,  upon 
whom  he  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  at 
Montecatiui.  Fearing  that  he  was  intending 
to  establish  a  dictatorship,  the  Pi^cuis  drove 
him  out,  and  he  ended  his  days  in  Lom- 
bardy,  at  the  court  of  Can  Grande  della 
Scala. 

Fahlcrantz,  Christian  Erik  (b.  1790,  d. 
6th  August,  18G6),  poet  and  theologian,  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Upsala 
in  1827,  and  in  1849  Bishop  of  Westeras, 
where  he  died. 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel  (b.  1686,  d. 
1736),  Prussian  experimental  philosopher, 
after  travelling  in  England,  Germany,  and 
France,  settled  in  Holland.  About  1714  it 
occurred  to  him  to  use  quicksilver  instead  of 
spirits  of  wine  in  the  construction  of  ther- 
mometers. By  this  substitution  the  accu- 
racy of  the  instrument  was  greatly 
enhanced.  In  1724  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
and  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of 
that  year  there  appeared  several  papers 
from  his  pen. 

Faidherbe,  Louis  Leon  Cesar  (b.  1818), 
French  general  and  archaeologist,  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Senegal  in  1854.  From 
1867  to  1870  he  governed  a  district  of  the 
province  of  Algiers.  Being  a  Republican, 
he  was  not  offered  a  command  on  the  out- 
break of  the  Franco- German  war,  but 
when  Gambetta  had  come  into  ascendency 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  of  the  north.  He  fought  several 
bloody  but  indecisive  battles,  and  at  last 
retired  to  Lille,  and  remained  there  until 
tlie  conclusion  of  the  armistice.  In  1872 
he  went  to  Egypt  on  an  official  arcliasological 
mission. 

Fairbairn,  Andrew  M.,  D.D.  (*.  1839), 
theologian,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  and 
educated  at  its  univoioity.  In  1878  he  was 
elected  principal  of  Airedale  Congregational 
College,  Bradford,  since  removed  to  Oxford 
as  Mansfield  College.  Among  his  works  is 
titndies  in  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  and 
Hisforj/  (1876). 


Fai 


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Fal 


Fairbaim,   Sir  William,   Bart.   {b.    1789,  j 
d.  1«74),  engineer,  was  the  son  of  a  farm 
bailiff  of  Kelso,  Roxburghshire,  and  worked  [ 
first  as  a  mason,    then  as  a  carter,  after- 
wards applying    himself    to  practical  me-  ] 
chauics.       His    investigations    into     canal 
navigation  in  1830  led  incidentally  to  the 
great  development  of  the  use  of  iron  in  ship- 
building ;  later  he  invented  the  rectangular 
self-supporting  tubular  bridge.     He  died  at 
Moor  Park,  Surrey. 

Fairfax,  Edward  {b.  circa  1580,  d.  1635),  I 
poetical  and    miscellaneous  writer,    was  a 
son  (it  is  said  a  natural  son)  of  Sir  Thomas  I 
Fairfax,     of    Denton,    Yorkshire.      He    is 
known  chiefly  by  his  translation  of  Tasso's 
Jerusalem  Delivered  (1600),  in  the  metre  of 
the  original,  which  has  been  highly  praised  j 
by  such  good  judges  as  Drydeu,  Collins,  : 
and  Waller,  but  he  also  verote  a  Bicturse  \ 
of  Witchcraft  (1621),  which  has  been  pub-   , 
lishedia  the  Miscellanies  of  the  Philobiblon 
Society  (1858-9).    He  died  at  Fewston,  near 
Otley.  I 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  Lord  (*.  1612, «?.  1671),  | 
Parliamentary  general,  a  native  of  Denton, 
Yorkshire,  saw  service  in  Holland  in  1629 
under  his  uncle,  Lord  Vere,  as  a  volunteer, 
and  married  his  leader's  fourth  daughter,  : 
Anne,  in  1637,  soon  after  his  return  to 
England.  In  the  Civil  war  which  broke  out 
in  1642  he  sided  with  Parliament,  and  in 
1645,  having  won  renown  at  Marsrton  Moor 
and  Naseby,  was  appointed  to  succeed  the 
Earl  of  Essex  as  general  of  the  Parlia- 
mentary forces.  He  held  this  office  until 
superseded  by  Cromwell  in  June,  1650,  in 
consequence  of  his  refusal  to  march  against 
the  Scots  when  they  proclaimed  Charles  II. 
He  then  settled  down  on  his  Yorkshire 
estates.  After  Cromwell's  death  he  took 
part  in  the  Restoration  movement,  gathering 
troops  to  assist  Monk,  holding  York  in  the 
King's  name,  and  crossing  over  to  the 
Hague  in  1660  as  head  of  the  commission  to 
arrange  for  Charles  II.'s  return.  After  the 
Restoration  Fairfax  a^ain  returned  into 
private  life.  Among  his  prose  works  are 
two  memoirs  on  the  Civil  war. 

Fairliolt,  Frederick  William  (*.  1814,  d. 
186C),  draughtsman  and  antiquary,  a  native 
of  London,  illustrated  many  of  the  publi- 
cations of  Charles  Knight,  and  was  from 
1845  to  1852  draughtsman  to  the  British 
Archaeological  Association.  His  books  were 
bequeathed  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
of  which  he  was  a  fellow,  to  the  British 
Museum,  and  to  the  town  of  Stratford-on- 
Avon. 

Faithfull,  Emily  (b.  1835),  lecturer  and 
authoress,  bom  at  Headlcy  Rectory,  Surrey, 
founded,  in  1860,  a  printing  establishment 
in  London  where  only  female  compositors 


were  employed.  She  continues  to  take  a 
leading  part  in  movements  affecting  the 
interests  of  women.  Her  first  novel, 
Change  upon  Change,  appeared  in  1868.  In 
1889  she  received  a  Civil  List  pension  of 
£50. 

Faithome,  William  (b.  circa  1616,  rf.  1691), 
English  engraver  and  painter,  served  for 
some  time  in  the  Civil  war  on  the  side  of 
the  king,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Basing 
House.  His  works  were  catalogued  by 
Fagan  in  1888. 

Falcone,  Aniello  (b.  1600,  d.  1665), 
Italian  battle-painter,  bom  at  Naples,  was 
a  pupil  of  Spagnoletto  and  teacher  of 
Salvator  Rosa.  Obliged  to  leave  Naples 
in  consequence  of  his  share  in  Masani- 
ello's  insurrection,  he  settled  in  France, 
but  afterwards  returned  to  his  native 
city. 

Falconer,  Hugh  (b.  1808,  d.  1865), 
Scottish  botanist  and  palaeontologist,  a 
native  of  Forres,  N.B.,  made  investigations 
during  a  lengthened  residence  in  India 
which  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  flora  of  the  East.  It  was  on  his  re- 
commendation that  the  tea-plant  was  intro- 
duced into  that  country. 

Falconer,  The  Hon.  Ion  Keith  (J.  \?>bQ^ 
d.  1887),  Scottish  Orientalist  and  missionary, 
bom  in  Edinburgh,  was  a  third  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Kintore.  In  1885  he  published  a 
translation  of  the  Fables  of  liidpai,  with 
an  introduction.  He  also  distinguished 
himself  in  athletics,  in  1878  defeating  the 
then  fastest  cyclist  in  the  world,  and  rode 
from  Land's  End  to  John  o'  Groat's.  He 
died  near  Aden. 

Falconer,  WiUiam  (*.  1732,  d.  1770),  poet, 
was  son  of  an  Edinburgh  barber.  He 
went  early  to  sea,  and  after  being  ship- 
wrecked off  Cape  Colonna,  in  Greece, 
entered  the  royal  navy,  and  in  1769  was 
appointed  piu-ser  on  the  Aurora  frigate, 
which  sailed  from  Capetown  on  the  27th  of 
December  of  that  year,  and  a  few  days 
afterwards  foundered  in  the  Mozambique 
Channel.  For  his  principal  poem.  The  Ship- 
wreck (1762),  he  was  able  to  draw  from  his 
own  experience  off  Cape  Colonna.  He  also 
wrote  the  Demagogue,  a  satire  on  Wilkes 
and  Churchill. 

Falconet,  fitienne  Maurice  (4.  1716, 
d.  1791),  French  sculptor  and  art  writer, 
is  remembered  chiefly  for  his  figure  of 
Milo  of  Crotona,  his  statue  of  Peter  the 
Great,  executed  during  a  twelve  years'  resi- 
dence in  Russia,  and  his  writings  on  the  fine 
arts. 

Faliero,  Marino  {b.  circa  1274,  d. 
1355),  Venetian    general    and  doge,    took 


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Pal 


Zara  in  13J6,  defeating  an  army  of  80,000 
Hungarians,  and  afterwards  captured  Capo 
d'Istria.  He  was  elected  doge  of  Venice 
in  13')4.  In  the  following  year,  indignant 
at  the  inadequate  puuishnient  meted  out 
to  Michele  Steuo  by  the  patrician  tribunal 
for  an  indignity  offered  to  his  youug  wife, 
he  joined  a  conspiracy  of  the  plebeians 
against  the  ruling  oligarchy.  The  leading 
patricians  were  to  be  put  to  death,  and  the 
democratic  government  to  be  restored  under 
his  presidency.  The  plot,  however,  was 
revealed,  and  Faliero  was  arrested  and 
beheaded.  His  tragic  end  has  formed  the 
subject  of  dramas  by  Byron,  Swinburne, 
and  others. 

Falk,  or  Falck,  John  Peter  {d.  1774), 
Swedish  naturalist  aud  traveller,  was  a 
pupil  of  Linnaeus,  and  was  for  some  years 
engaged  in  exploring  some  of  the  more 
remote  parts  of  the  Russian  empire.  After 
his  death  his  travels  were  published  in 
three  vols.     He  died  by  his  own  hand. 

Falk,  or  Falck,  Paul  Ludwig  Adalbert  {b. 
1827),  Prussian  statesman,  became  minister  of 
justice  in  1871,  and  representative  of  Prussia 
in  the  Federal  Council.  In  1872  he  was 
transferred  to  the  ministry  of  public  wor- 
ship and  education,  and  in  that  capacity 
became  the  agent  of  Bismark's  anti- Vatican 
educational  policy.  His  celebrated  ' '  May 
Laws,"  enacting  that  all  theological  colleges 
should  be  liable  to  state  inspection,  that  all 
Roman  priests  should  have  spent  a  certain 
time  at  a  state  "  gymnasium  "  and  a  state 
university,  and  that  all  Roman  bishops 
should  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  were 
jDassed  in  1873 ;  and  at  the  same  time  several 
religious  orders  were  suppressed.  These 
and  various  other  anti-clerical  measures  met 
with  bitter  and  protracted  opposition,  which 
ended  in  1879  in  a  change  of  policy  and 
Talk's  retirement. 

Falkenstein,  Edouard  Vogel  von  {b. 
1797,  d.  1885),  Prussian  general,  com- 
manded the  army  that  held  Hanover 
in  check  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war,  and  defeated  the  Bavarians. 

Falkland,  Henry  Gary,  Viscount  (d. 
1633),  statesman  and  author,  father  of 
Lucius  Cary  Falkland  (q.v.),  and  son  of  Sir 
Edward  Cary,  was  appointed  controller  of 
the  king's  (James  I.)  household,  and  raised 
to  the  Scottish  peerage  of  Falkland  in  1620. 
In  1622  he  became  lord-deputy  of  Ireland, 
but  resigned  in  1629,  in  consequence  of  the 
opposition  of  the  Catholic  party.  Among 
his  works  was  a  History  of  that  TJnfortunate 
Frince,  Edward  II. 

Falkland,  Lucius  Caiy,  Viscount  {b.  1610, 
d.  1(343),  statesman  and  general,  bom  at 
Burford,    Oxfordshire,    was   educated    at 


Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  in  his  20tb 
year  succeeded  to  his  maternal  grand- 
father's property.  Soon  afterwards  he 
married  Letice,  daughter  of  Sir  Richard 
Morrison.  After  serving  in  Holland  as  a 
volunteer  on  the  side  of  the  republic,  he 
returned  to  England  aud  to  his  studies. 
In  1639  he  accompanied  Essex's  expedition 
against  the  Scots  as  a  volunteer.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  and 
represented  the  same  constituency  in  the 
Long  Parliament.  He  early  distinguished 
himself  by  his  eloquent  protests  against  the 
absolutism  of  Laud  and  Strafford,  and  both 
spoke  and  voted  in  favour  of  the  attainder 
of  the  latter.  He  also  took  the  popular 
side  on  the  question  of  ship-money,  and 
spoke  in  favour  of  excluding  the  bishops 
from  the  House  of  Lords  ;  but  took  alarm 
at  the  tone  and  spiiit  of  Presbyterianism, 
and  opposed  the  second  Bishops  Exclusion 
Bill.  Early  in  1642  he  was  jsre vailed  upon 
to  accept  the  secretaryship  of  State,  and 
greatly  exerted  himself  to  heal  the  breach 
between  the  king  and  the  Parliament. 
When  at  last  war  broke  out,  he  declared 
himself  on  the  Royal  side.  He  fought 
valiantly  at  Edgehill,  and  at  the  siege  of 
Gloucester,  but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Newbury.  Falkland  was  a  man  of  very 
considerable  learniug.  The  friend  of  Chil- 
lingworth  and  Clarendon,  and  most  of  the 
scholars  of  his  day,  he  was  even  more  re- 
markable for  his  large  charity,  and  his 
high  sense  of  honour.  Than  his  there  is 
no  more  chivalrous  figure  in  English  history. 

Fallmerayer,  Jakob  Philipp  {b.  1790,  d. 
1861),  traveller  and  historian,  a  native  of 
the  Bavarian  Tyrol,  is  memorable  chiefly 
from  the  vast  researches  by  which  he  sought 
to  prove  the  extinction  of  the  ancient  Greek 
stock,  and  the  Slav  origin  of  the  modem 
Hellenes. 

FaUopio  (Latin  Fallopius),  GabrieUo  (*. 
1523,  d.  1562),  Italian  anatomist,  was  pro- 
fessor of  his  science  at  Pisa,  and  at  Padua 
in  1551.  He  gave  special  attention  to  the 
anatomy  of  bones  and  to  the  organs  of 
generation,  and  the  Fallopian  tube  is 
named  after  him.  He  has  also  made  a 
reputation  as  a  botanist,  and  was  super- 
intendent of  the  botanical  garden  at 
Padua. 

Falloux,  Fr^de'ric  Alfred,  Comte  de  {b. 
1811,  d.  1886),  French  politician  and  man 
of  letters,  was  for  a  short  time  minister 
of  public  instruction  under  Louis  Napo- 
leon (1848-9),  and  was  characterised  by 
Thiers  as  "the  only  statesman  on  the 
Right." 

Fallows,  Fearon  (b.  1789,  d.  1831),  ma- 
thematician and   astronomer,  a   native  of 


Fal 


(  295  ) 


Far 


Cockermouth,  Cumberland,  was  in  1821 
appointed  astronomer-royal  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  drew  up  a  catalogue  of  the 
stars  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Falqm^re,  Jean  Alexandre  Joseph  (b. 
1831),  French  painter  and  sculptor,  was  a 
pupil  of  Jouli'roy,  and  gained  the  Prix  de 
liome.  At  the  Paiis  Exposition  of  1868 
he  was  awarded  a  medal  of  the  fii'st 
class.  He  is  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour. 

Faneuil,  Peter  {b.  1700,  d.  1743),  Ameri- 
can merchant,  bom  at  New  Eochelle,  and 
descended  from  a  Huguenot  family,  is  re- 
membered chiefly  from  his  association  with 
Faneuil  Hall  in  Boston,  which  he  presented 
to  that  city  in  1742.  In  1761  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  and  rebuilt. 

Fanshawe,  Anne  {b.  1625,  d.  1680),  is 
known  principally  for  her  devotion  to  her 
husband.  Sir  Eichard  Fanshawe  (q.v.), 
whom  she  married  in  1644,  and  of  whom 
she  wrote  a  memoir,  first  published  in 
1829. 

Fanshawe,  Sir  Richard  {b.  1608,  d. 
1666),  diplomatist  and  poet,  husband  of 
the  preceding,  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
king  in  the  Civil  war.  In  1648  he  was 
appointed  treasurer  to  the  navy  under 
Prince  Eupert ;  and  at  the  battle  of  Wor- 
cester, in  1651,  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
After  the  Eestoration  he  became  ambassa- 
dor to  the  courts  of  Portugal  and  Spain, 
but  in  1666  was  superseded  by  Lord  Sand- 
wich. His  works  consist  chiefly  of  poetical 
translations  from  the  Italian  and  Portuguese. 
He  died  at  Madrid. 

Faraday,  Michael  {b.  1791,  d.  1867), 
chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  bom  at 
Newington  Butts,  was  apprenticed  to  a 
bookbinder ;  but  having  sent  to  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  notes  he  had  taken  of  the  latter's 
lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution,  he  was 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one  engaged  as  Sir 
Humphry's  assistant  and  amanuensis.  Their 
relations,  however,  were  never  cordial,  for 
which  the  blame  must  be  allotted  to  the 
elder  man.  In  1825  Faraday  became  di- 
rector of  the  Royal  Institution  Labora- 
tory, and  in  1827  succeeded  Davy  as 
Fullerian  professor  of  chemistry.  In  1835 
he  received  a  Civil  List  pension,  and  in 
1858  a  residence  at  Hamjjton  Court.  Ex- 
tensive as  were  his  original  researches 
in  chemistry,  in  physics,  and  especially 
in  electricity,  he  was  quite  as  famous, 
thanks  to  a  peculiarly  lucid  style,  as  a 
populariser  of  science.  Among  his  most 
interesting  practical  achievements  was 
the  application  of  the  electric  light  to 
lighthouses.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
rehgious  sect  known  as  Sandemaniaus,  and 
used  to  take  a  leading  part  in  their  public 


worship.    His  character  was  not  less  admir- 
able than  his  talents. 

Fare,  Anne  Louis  Henri  de  la  {jb.  1752, 
d.  1829),  French  ecclesiastic,  became  bishop 
of  Nancy  in  1788.  In  1789  he  was  elected 
a  deputy  to  the  States-General.  When  the 
revolutionary  storm  burst  he  fled,  and  was 
agent  to  the  Bourbon  princes  till  the  Eesto- 
ration. Afterwards  he  was  preferred  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Sens,  and  in  1823  was  ele- 
vated to  the  cardinalate. 

Farel,  Guillaunae  (Jb.  1489,  d.  13th  Sept., 
1565),  reformer,  a  native  of  the  Dauphin^, 
studied  at  the  University  of  Paris ;  and 
being  zealous  on  the  side  of  the  Eoman 
Church,  was  made  professor  at  the  college 
of  Cardinal  Lemoiue ;  but  having  adopted 
the  new  doctrines,  he  soon  became  known 
throughout  France  and  Switzerland,  and 
also  in  Germany,  as  a  vehement  reformer. 
He  was  often  expelled  from  the  towns 
which  he  visited  on  his  proselytising 
missions,  and  in  1561  was  for  a  time  im- 
prisoned. When  nearly  seventy  years  of 
age  he  married  a  yoimg  wife. 

Farey,  John  {b.  1766,  d.  1826),  geologist 
and  surveyor. 

Faria  Manoel,  Severim  de  (b.  1583,  d. 
1655),  Portuguese  biographical  historian,  is 
the  author,  among  other  works,  of  Noticias 
de  Portugal. 

Faria  y  Sousa,  Manuel  de  [b.  1590,  d. 
1649),  Portuguese  historian  and  poet,  is  the 
author  of  more  than  sixty  volumes,  com- 
prising a  large  nimiber  of  sonnets,  some 
eclogues,  works  on  Portuguese  history,  com- 
mentaries on  Camoens,  and  some  treatises  on 
the  theory  of  poetry. 

Farinato,  Paolo  {b.  1522,  d.  1606),  Italian 
painter  at  Verona,  is  remembered  chiefly  for 
his  Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes, 
painted  for  the  church  of  St.  George  at 
Verona. 

Farinelli,  professional  name  of  Carlo 
Brocchi  {b.  1705,  d.  1782),  vocalist,  who  waa 
a  pupil  of  Porpora,  and  gained  the  highest 
distinction  in  the  chief  continental  cities,  as 
well  as  in  London. 

Farini,  Carlo  Luigi  (b.  1822,  d.  let  Aug., 
1866),  Italian  statesman,  orator,  and  his- 
torian, a  native  of  Russi,  became  minister 
of  the  interior  in  Piedmont  in  1850,  after 
several  periods  of  exile,  and  suggested  many 
of  the  energetic  measures  successfully 
carried  out  by  Cavour.  In  1859,  when  the 
Duke  of  Modeua  had  been  forced  to  seek 
refuge  in  the  Austrian  ranks,  he  was 
appointed  dictator  of  Modena,  which, 
together  with  Parma,  waa  by  his  influence 
annexed    to    Sardinia.      In    1860    he    wafl 


Far 


(-OG; 


Tar 


minister  of  commerce  in  Cavour's  last 
cabinet,  and  prime  minister  from  December, 
1S&2  to  March,  1873,  resigning  on  account  of 
ill-health.  His  //  Statu  Romano  has  been 
translated  by  Mr.  Gladstone. 

Farmer,  Hugh  (/>.  17U,  (/.  1787),  dissent- 
ing divine,  born  near  Shrewsbury,  was  a 
pupil  of  Dr.  Doddridge,  and  wrote  an  Essay 
on  ine  Demoniacs  of  the  New  Testament, 

Farmer,  Eichard  (b.  1735,  d.  1797), 
scholar,  a  native  of  Leicester,  was  elected 
to  the  mastership  of  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  177-5,  and  in  1778  to  the 
chief  librarianship  of  the  university.  After 
holding  prebendal  stalls  at  Lichfield  and 
Canterbury,  he  in  1788  became  a  resident 
prebendary  at  St.  Paul's.  Being  iuveter- 
ately  indolent,  he  left  but  one  work.  Essay 
on  the  Learniny  of  Shakespeare  (1767),  in 
which  he  proved  that  the  dramatist  derived 
his  knowledge  of  the  ancients  from  trans- 
lations. 

Farnese,  Alessandi-o  {h.  1468,  d.  1549), 
was  founder  of  the  prosperity  of  the 
princely  family  to  which  he  belonged. 
In  1534  he  became  Pope  as  Paul  III.  He 
was  founder  of  the  duchy  of  Panna  and 
Piacenza. 

Farnese,  Alessandro,  Duke  of  Parma 
{b.  1546,  d.  1592),  the  most  eminent  member 
of  the  Farnese  family,  was  son  of  the 
second  duke.  He  first  distinguished  himself 
at  Lepanto  in  1571.  In  1585,  as  governor  of 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  he  captured  Ant- 
werp for  Philip  II.,  and  five  years  later 
compelled  Henry  IV.  of  France  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Paris.  He  died  of  a  wound,  and 
was  succeeded  in  the  duchy  by  a  series  of 
worthless  princes. 

Farnese,  Elizabeth  {h.  1692,  d.  1766), 
daughter  of  Odoardo  Farnese,  married 
PhiUp  V.  of  Spain  in  1714,  and  was  thus 
the  occasion  of  the  claim  made  by  the 
Spanish  dynasty  to  Parma  and  Piacenza. 

Farquhar,  George  (J.  1678,  d.  1707),  dra- 
matist, a  native  of  Londonderry,  was  for 
two  years  an  actor,  but  having  accidentally 
inflicted  a  wound  on  a  brother  actor  who 
was  performing  in  Dryden's/wrfeV«i  Emperor, 
was  so  shocked  that  he  at  once  abandoned 
the  stage.  He  then  took  up  dramatic  com- 
position, and  in  1698  his  first  comedy,  Love 
and  a  Bottle,  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane, 
and  proved  an  emphatic  success.  It  was 
followed  in  1700  by  the  Constant  Couple, 
and  this  by  a  number  of  others,  the  last  and 
best  being  The  Beaux'  Stratagem,  written 
during  his  last  illness. 

Farr,  William  {h.  1807,  d.  1883),  statis- 
tician, a  native  of  Kenley,  Salop,  was  for 
many  years  superintendent  of  the  statistical 


department  of  the  registrar-general's  ofiice 
in  London.  Among  his  works  is  Vital 
Statistics,  pubUshed  as  a  memorial  volume 
after  his  death. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow  (b.  1801,  d.' 
1870),  American  admiral,  of  Spanish  origin,' 
born  at  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  commanded 
the  Western  Gulf  squadron  for  the  Federal 
government  in  1861,  and  after  bombarding 
Fort  Jackson  for  six  days,  ran  past  it 
in  the  night  to  New  Orleans,  and  com- 
pelled the  evacuation  of  that  city.  In  1864 
he  was  sent  to  Mobile  Bay,  the  harbour  of 
the  enemy's  blockade-runners,  ran  past  the 
forts  as  before,  silenced  the  Tennessee,  and 
closed  the  bay  to  the  Confederate  ships.  In 
1863  the  government  had  created  for  him 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral ;  in  1866  he 
became  admiral,  and  in  1867  commanded  the 
European  squadron,  afterwards  retiring  into 
private  life.  He  died  at  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire. 

Farrant,  Richard  (*.  circa  1530,  d. 
1580),  English  composer,  was  organist  of 
St.  George's  Chajjel,  Windsor  in  1564,  and 
in  1569  was  reapjioiuted  a  gentleman  of 
the  Chapel  Royal.  His  church  music 
merits  all  the  praise  which  its  solem- 
nity and  pathos  have  received ;  but  the 
beautiful  anthem.  Lord,  for  Thy  Tender 
Mercies'  Sake,  though  generally  assigned  to 
him,  is  attributed  by  earlier  writers  to  John 
Hilton. 

Farrar,  Frederic  William  {b.  7th  August, 
1831),  divine  and  scholar,  bom  at  Bombay, 
studied  at  King  William's  College,  Isle  of 
Man,  King's  College,  London,  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  and  also  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gained 
the  Chancellor's  medal  for  English  verse, 
graduated  as  fourth  classic  in  1854,  and 
was  elected  to  a  fellowship.  On  leaving 
Cambridge  he  became  assistant-master  at 
Marlborough,  and  afterwards  at  Harrow, 
returning  to  Marlborough  in  1871  as  head- 
master, and  holding  that  office  till  in  1876  he 
was  appointed  canon  of  Westminster  and 
rector  of  St.  Margaret's.  In  1880  he  became 
archdeacon  of  Westminster,  and  in  1890  chap- 
lain to  the  House  of  Commons.  His  popular 
schoolboy  story,  Eric,  appeared  in.  1858 ; 
the  Origin  of  Language,  the  first  of  a  series 
of  philological  works,  in  1860  ;  the  Life  of 
Christ,  the  most  popular  theological  work  of 
its  generation,  in  1874;  the  Life  of  St.  Paul 
ia  1879  ;  and  the  Early  Days  of  Christianity 
in  1 882.  Among  his  remaining  works  is  one 
cliallpnging  the  doctrine  of  everlasting 
punishment,  entitled  Eternal  Hope.  At 
the  Church  Congress  in  1890  he  advocated  a 
scheme  of  ceUbate  brotherhood,  which 
excited  a  good  deal  of  controversy. 

Farrar,  Nicholas.     [See  Ferrar.] 


Far 


(297) 


Pav 


Farre,  Arthur.  F.R.S.  {b.  1811),  phy- 
sician and  scientific  author,  is  physician- 
extraordinary  to  (ojueen  Victoria,  and  physi- 
cian-accoucheur to  most  of  the  princesses  of 
the  royal  family.  He  was  Harveian  orator  in 
1872,  president  of  the  Microscopical  Society 
in  1851-2,  and  is  now  hon.  president  of  the 
Obstetrical  Society. 

Farren,  Eliza,  Countess  of  Derby  {b.  1759, 
d.  182y),  actress,  was  the  daughter  of  a  pro- 
vincial actor,  and  made  her  debut  at  Liver- 
pool, at  the  age  of  fourteen.  In  1777  she 
came  to  London,  and  on  Mrs.  Abington's 
retiiement  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  first 
actress  of  the  day.  She  married  Lord  Derby 
in  1797. 

Fastolf,  Sir  John  {b.  circa  1378,  d.  1459), 
English  soldier,  a  native  of  Norfolk,  won 
renown  in  the  French  wars,  especially  at 
Agiucourt  (1415),  and  in  the  "  Battle  of  the 
Herrings  "  (1429),  but  was  unable  to  van- 
quish Joan  of  Arc,  though  there  is  no 
ground  for  tlie  story  that  he  was  stripped  of 
his  garter  for  cowardice  at  Patay  in  1441, 
for  soon  after  his  return  to  Norfolk  he  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  £20  ' '  for  notable  and 
praiseworthy  service  and  good  counsel."  It 
was,  no  doubt,  in  consequence  of  this  story 
that  Shakespeare  altered  the  name  of  his  fat 
knight  from  Sir  John  Oldcastle  to  Sir  John 
Falstaff. 

Faucher,  Ldon  (*.  1803,  d.  1854),  French 
publicist  and  statesman,  after  editing  the 
Temps  and  the  Courrier  Fratiqais,  in  1843 
contributed  to  the  Revue  des  Ikux  Mondes 
an  able  series  of  articles  on  the  industrial 
condition  of  England,  which  in,  1845  were 
published  in  two  volumes  as  £tudes  stir 
PAngleterre.  After  the  revolution  of  1848 
he  represented  the  Marine  Department  in 
the  constituent  and  legislative  assemblies. 
He  was  Louis  Napoleon's  first  minister  of 
public  works,  and  afterwards  minister  of 
the  interior,  but  resigned  and  retired  from 
political  life  when  Napoleon  was  contem- 
plating his  plebiscite. 

Fauci t,  Helen  (Lady  Theodore  Martin), 
{b.  1816),  actress  and  authoress,  is  the 
daughter  of  the  late  Mrs.  Faucit,  also  an 
actress,  and  received  her  early  stage  educa- 
tion from  Mr.  Percival  Farren,  of  the  Hay- 
mai'ket  theatre.  Her  first  appearance  was 
at  Richmond  in  1833  as  Juliet ;  in  1836  she 
made  her  debut  in  London  at  Covent  Garden 
as  Julia  in  The  Hunchback.  In  1837  she 
joined  the  company  formed  by  Macready 
for  Shakspeareau  revivals.  Since  her  marriage 
to  Mr.  (uow  Sir  Theodore)  Martin  in  1851, 
she  has  only  appeared  on  the  stage  at  rare 
intervals.  Some  of  Shakspeare's  Female 
Characters  appeared  in  1865. 

Faugfere,    Armand    Prosper    (b.     1810), 


French  author,  bom  at  Bergerac,  was  for 
some  time  director  of  the  Record  Ofiice  and 
Chancery.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  officer 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  in  1861 
commander. 

Faure,  Jean  Baptiste  (b.  15th  January, 
1830),  French  baritone  singer,  made  his  de- 
but at  the  Opera  Comique  in  Paris  in  1861. 
For  many  years  he  was  the  acknowledged 
head  of  the  French  lyric  stage.  In  1881  he 
was  nominated  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Houour. 

Fauriel,  Charles  Claude  (b.  1772,  d.  1844), 

French  philologist,  was  one  of  the  early 
advocates  of  electicism,  and  a  precursor  of 
the  philosophy  formulated  by  Cousin. 

Faust,  Johann.     \_See  Fust,  Johann.] 

Faust,  Johann,  dealer  in  the  black  art, 
appears  to  have  been  born  either  at  Knitt- 
lingen  in  Wiirtemberg,  or  at  Roda,  near 
Weimar,  early  in  the  16th  century,  and  to 
have  studied  medicine  and  magic  at  Cracow. 
He  may  have  died  as  early  as  1539,  but  he 
was  certamly  dead  by  1544.  He  is  the  hero 
of  much  legendary,  dramatic,  and  poetical 
literature,  including  the  tragedies  of  Mar- 
lowe and  Goethe,  and  the  famous  opera  by 
Gounod,  etc. 

Faustina,  Anna  Galeria,  generally  known 
as  Faustina,  senior,  was  wife  of  the 
Emperor    Antoninus    Pius,    and    died    141 

A.D. 

Faustina,  junior,  daughter  of  the  preced- 
ing, married  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus,  and  died  in  175  a.d.  near  Mount 
Taurus.  Like  her  mother,  she  led  a  shame^ 
lessly  profligate  life,  though  neither  mother 
nor  daughter  could  exhaust  the  patience  of 
their  husbands. 

Favart,  Charies  Simon  (b.  1710,  d.  1792), 
French  dramatist,  wrote,  among  other 
operas,  Le  Coq  du  Village,  Basticn  et 
Jiastienne,  Ninette  a  la  Cour,  Les  Trois  Sul- 
tanes,  and  L^ Anglais  a  Bordeaux.  In  1745 
he  married  Marie  Justine  Benoite,  nee 
Durouceray,  whose  stage  name  was  Mile. 
Chantilly,  who  was  bom  at  Avignon  in 
1727  and  died  tu  1772,  and  who  assisted  her 
husband  in  the  work  of  composition.  She  is 
the  subject  of  a  well-known  operetta  by 
Offenbach. 

Favre,  G.  C.  Jules  {b.  1809,  d.  1880), 
French  statesman,  a  native  of  Lyons, 
entered  political  life  about  1830  as  a  re- 
publican. He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  presently 
secretary  to  Ledi'u-Rollin,  on  whose  flight 
he  became  leader  of  the  Mountaiu.  After 
Louis  Napoleon's  coup  d'etat  he  confined 
himself  to    his   work   as  an    advocate  for 


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Pec 


six  years,  but  his  defence  of  Orsiui  secured 
his  return  for  Paris,  and  he  became,  with 
Tiiiers,  the  leader  of  an  increasingly 
powerful  Opposition.  His  speeches  in  con- 
demnation of  the  Mexican  Expedition  pro- 
duced a  profound  iiupression,  and  he  was 
one  of  the  few  French  statesmen  who 
opposed  the  a  Berlin  policy.  After  the 
overthrow  of  the  Second  Empire  he  became 
vice-president  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment of  national  defence,  and  as  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  conduct 
the  negotiations  with  Bismarck  which  pre- 
ceded the  peace.  "We  will  not  give  up  an 
inch  of  our  land,  nor  a  stone  of  our 
fortresses,"  he  had  declared  at  the  outset; 
but  as  a  diplomatist  he  was  no  match  for 
his  opponent,  and  the  surrender  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  was  but  one  of  the  humiliating 
conditions  to  which  he  signed.  After  the 
February  elections  he  became  Thiers's 
Foreign  secretary,  but  in  November  was 
forced  to  retue.  His  subsequent  appear- 
ances in  the  tribune  were  not  frequent,  but 
were  always  attended  with  excitement.  In 
1S76  the  department  of  the  Rhone  returned 
him  to  the  Senate.  Great  in  opposition,  he 
was  a  failure  in  office. 

Fawcett,  Henry  {h.  1833,  d.  1884),  econo- 
mist and  statesman,  a  native  of  Salisbury, 
studied  at  King's  College  School,  London, 
and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  B.A.  as  seventh  vsraugler  in 
1856,  and  was  subsequently  chosen'  a  fellow. 
In  1858,  while  partridge-shooting  with  his 
father,  he  met  with  an  accident  which 
inflicted  .on  him  total  blindness,  in  spite 
of  which  he  resolved  to  pursue  the  economic 
and  political  career  he  had  not  long  before 
determined  upon.  The  publication  of  his 
Manual  of  Political  Economy  in  1863  was 
immediately  followed  by  his  election  to 
the  chair  of  Political  Economy  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1865  he  was  elected  M.P.  for 
Brighton,  which  he  continued  to  repre- 
sent until  1874,  when  he  was  returned  for 
Hackney,  and  again  in  1880.  In  this  year 
he  became  Mr.  Gladstone's  postmaster- 
general,  and  held  the  office  four  years  and  a 
half,  his  tenure  of  it  being  marked  by  a 
long  series  of  reforms  and  new  institutions. 
He  was  lord  rector  of  Glasgow  University 
in  1883. 

Fawcett,  John  {b.  1769,  d.  1837),  actor 
and  theatrical  manager,  was  the  son  of 
an  actor.  He  first  appeared  in  London 
in  1791,  at  Covent  Garden,  as  Caleb  in  He 
would  be  a  Soldier.  He  was  several  times 
connected  with  the  Haymarket,  and  later 
was  manager  of  Covent  Garden  theatre,  an 
office  which  he  held  until  his  retirement 
from  the  profession  in  1836. 

Fawcett,  MilUcent  (b.  1847),  a  native  of 
Aldborough,     wife     of     Professor     Henry 


Fawcett  (q.v.),  and  sister  of  Mrs.  Garrett 
Anderson,  shared  her  husband's  pursuits, 
and  in  1^69  published  Political  Economy  for 
Beginners.  She  is  a  leading  advocate  of 
female  franchise. 

Fawcett,  Sii-  WilUam  {b.  1728,  d.  1804), 
military  officer,  served  under  General  Elliot 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  was  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  Marquis  of  Granby.  Ulti- 
mately he  became  Knight  of  the  Bath 
and  governor  of  Chelsea  Hospital.  In  his 
leisure  he  translated  the  Reveries  of  Marshal 
Saxe. 

Fawkes,  Guido  (h.  1570,  d.  1606),  conspi- 
rator, was  the  son  of  Edward  Fawkes,  a 
notary  of  York.  He  had  a  Protestant 
training,  but  became  a  Roman  Catholic 
while  yet  a  youth.  Having  squandered  his 
patrimony,  he  served  with  the  Spaniards 
in  Flanders  from  1596  until  1604,  and  was 
present  at  the  taking  of  Calais  in  1598. 
Retui-ning  to  England,  he  was  selected  by 
Catesby,  Winter,  and  others  as  chief  agent 
in  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  He  was  arrested 
on  the  5th  November,  1605,  and  put  to  the 
torture,  and  tliuugh  boldly  avowing  the  in- 
tention of  the  conspiracy,  he  steadfastly 
refused  to  name  his  accompUces  in  the 
plot. 

Fay,  Andras  [b.  1786,  d.  1864),  Hungarian 
author  and  politician,  wrote  plays,  ro- 
mances, and  tales,  and  also  a  number  of 
highly  successful  fables,  and  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Hungarian  National 
Theatre.  From  1825  to  1840  he  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  leaders  of  the  Liberal 
Opposition. 

Faye,  Herve  Augusta  Etienne  Albans 
{b.  1814),  French  astronomer,  discovered  the 
comet  which  bears  his  name  in  1843,  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Paris  Observatory 
in  1878,  and  in  1884  became  an  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour. 

Fayette.     \See  Lafayette.] 

Fayrer,  Sir  Joseph  {b.  1824),  surgeon  and 
author,  born  at  Plymouth,  served  as  a 
doctor  in  the  navy,  and  then  in  the  army, 
was  professor  of  surgery  in  the  Medical 
College  of  Bengal,  1859-1874,  and  was  for 
some  time  president  of  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Bengal.  He  accompanied  the  Prince  of 
Wales  on  the  latter's  Indian  tour  as  phy- 
sician, in  1875-1876,  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  knighted. 

Fazy,  Jean  Jacques  {b.  1796,  d.  1878), 
Swiss  economist  and  statesman,  was  the 
founder  of  the  Revue  de  Geneve,  and  was  for 
many  years  the  most  influential  publicist  in 
the  city  of  his  birth. 

Fechner,  Gustav  Theodor  (b.  1801,  i. 
1887),  German  philosopher,  became  professor 


Fee 


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Pel 


of  physics  at  Leipzig  in  1834,  but  five  years 
afterwards,  in  consequence  of  an  affection 
of  the  eyes,  devoted  himself  to  psycho - 
physics. 

Fechter,  Charles  Albert  (b.  1S23,  d.  1879), 
tragedian,  was  of  French  parentage,  though 
bom  in  London.  He  made  his  first  appear- 
ance in  the  metropolis  at  St.  James's  Theatre 
in  1848.  He  again  visited  England  in  1860, 
and  in  spite  of  his  pronounced  French  ac- 
cent, astonished  the  critics  by  his  masterly 
impersonation  of  Hamlet  and  other  cha- 
racters. 

Feckenliain,  John  de  {d.  1585),  last 
Abbot  of  Westminster,  bom  at  Fecken- 
ham,  Worcestershiie,  was  sent  to  the  Tower 
on  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  for  his 
opposition  to  the  Reformation.  Released 
by  Mary,  he  became  her  chaplain,  and  as 
such  endeavoured  to  convert  Lady  Jane 
Grey  while  she  was  under  sentence  of 
death.  Later  he  became  Dean  of  St.  Paul's, 
and  in  1556  Abbot  of  Westminster,  but  on 
Mary's  death  he  again  found  himself  fallen 
on  evil  times,  and  died  in  imprisonment. 

Feith,  Rhynvis  (b.  1753,  d.^  1824),  Dutch 
poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at 
Zwolle,  wrote  several  tragedies,  a  large 
number  ot  lyrics,  etc.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works,  in  eleven  volumes,  appeared 
in  1824. 

Felix,  Antonius  or  Claudius,  Roman 
governor,  was  a  freedman  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius  I.,  and  brother  of  his  favourite 
Pallas.  He  is  known  to  history  chiefly  as 
procurator  of  Judaea  in  the  time  of  St.  Paul, 
and  as  the  husband  of  Drusilla,  a  Jewess 
who  had  left  her  iirst  husband  in  order  to 
marry  him.  When  recalled  to  Rome  in 
62  A.D.  to  answer  the  charges  brought 
against  him  by  the  Jews,  he  narrowly 
escaped  condemnation  to  death. 

Felix,  St.,  was  beheaded  at  Zurich,  on  the 
site  of  the  great  cathedral,  as  a  Christian 
martyr,  early  in  the  3rd  century,  and  is 
conunemorated  on  the  11th  of  September. 
He  and  his  sister,  Regula,  are  the  patron 
saints  of  Zurich  and  its  cathedrals. 

Felix  L,  Pope  {d.  275),  succeeded  Diony- 
sius  in  269,  condemned  the  opinions  of 
Sabellius,  and  is  said  to  have  suffered  death 
in  the  Aurelian  persecution.  But  for  this 
there  is  no  respectable  evidence. 

Felix  II.,  Pope,  was  consecrated  in  356, 
when  Liberius  was  banished  for  refusing 
to  condemn  Athanasius,  but  on  the  resto- 
ration of  Liberius  in  the  following  year 
retired  from  the  city.  He  was  long 
regarded  as  the  first  of  the  anti-popes,  but 
in  the  end  was  ranked  among  the  sainta 
and  martyrs. 


Felix  III.  (d.  492),  succeeded  Pope  Simpli- 
cius  in  483.  By  excommimicating  Acacius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  he  brought 
about  the  first  disruption  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches. 

Felix  IV.  {d.  530)  was  appointed  by 
Theodoric  as  successor  of  Pope  John  I.  in 
526,  but  was  always  unpopular  with  both 
clergy  and  people. 

FeU,  John  (b.  1625,  d.  1686),  divine,  bom 
at  Longworth,  Berks.,  was  for  some  time 
ill  arms  for  Charles  I.,  and  was  one  of  four 
clergymen  who  mauitained  Anglican  services 
during  the  Commonwealth.  At  the  Res- 
toration he  was  rewarded  by  being  made 
prebendary  of  Chichester,  canon  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  afterwards  dean  and 
royal  chaplain.  From  1666  to  1669  he  was 
vice-chancellor  of  Oxford,  and  became 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  1676.  It  is  to  him 
that  Tom  Brown's  lines,  "  I  do  not  like  thee. 
Doctor  Fell,  the  reason  why  I  cannot  tell," 
are  addressed. 

Fell,  Samuel  {b.  1594,  d.  1649),  Anglican 
divine,  studied  at  Christ  Chui-ch,  Oxford, 
of  which  he  became  dean.  He  was  after- 
wards vice-chancellor  of  the  university, 
but  was  expelled  in  1647  on  account  of 
his  devotion  to  the  Royal  cause.  He  is 
said  to  have  died  of  grief  at  the  execution 
of  the  king. 

Fellenberg,  Emanuel  de  {b.  1771,  d. 
1844),  Swiss  educational  reformer,  bom  at 
Berne,  acquired  the  estate  of  Hofwyl,  near 
Berne,  in  1799,  and  there  carried  out  a 
number  of  instructive  experiments  in 
education. 

FeUowes,  Sir  Charles  {b.  1799,  d.  1860), 
antiquary,  a  native  of  Nottingham,  dis- 
covered the  sites  of  fifteen  cities  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  marbles  which  he  recovered 
are  kept  in  the  Lycian  saloon  of  the  British 
Museum. 

FeUowes,  Robert  (*.  1770,  d.  1847), 
political  and  religious  writer,  was  a  clergy- 
man of  the  AngUcan  Church  until  change 
of  views  led  to  his  retirement.  He 
was  on  terms  of  friendship  with  Queen 
Caroline,  and  at  her  death,  in  recognition  of 
his  championship  of  her  cause,  she  left  him 
nearly  £200,000.  He  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  scheme  for  founding  a  university  in 
London  ;  and  in  gratitude  to  Dr.  EUiotson, 
to  whom  he  attributed  his  recovery  from  a 
dangerous  illness,  he  founded  the  FeUowes 
gold  medals  for  proficiency  in  clinical 
science. 

Felton,  Cornelius  Conway  {b.  1807,  d. 
1862),  American  scholar,  bom  at  West 
Newbxiry,     Mass.,     studied    at    Harvard, 


Fel 


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Per 


where  in  1834  he  became  professor  of 
Greek,  and  in  1860  president.  He  edited 
several  editions  of  the  Greek  classics,  and 
also  delivered  a  valuable  series  of  lectures  on 
Greece,  Ancient  and  Modern,  published  in 
1867. 
Felton,  John.  \_See  Buckingham,  Duke  of .  ] 

F^nelon,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la  Mothe 
(J).  16'")I,  d.  1715),  French  divine  and  author, 
born  at  Perigord,  received  holy  orders  at 
the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  in 
1675.  In  1685,  after  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  he  was  sent  as  a 
missionary  among  the  Protestant  popu- 
lation of  Saintonge  and  Poitou.  In  1689 
he  was  appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  pre- 
ceptor of  the  king's  grandson,  the  young 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  in  1694  was 
rewarded  with  the  abbey  of  St.  Valery, 
succeeding  in  1695  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Cambrai.  His  favour  with  the  king  came 
to  an  end  in  1698  with  the  appearance  of 
his  book,  Les  Apcntures  de  Telemaque,  the 
publication  of  which  was  due  to  the  fraud 
of  a  servant  to  whom  he  had  entrusted  the 
manuscript.  He  always  maintained  that  it 
was  only  written  for  the  amusement  and 
instruction  of  the  Duke  of  Burgimdy,  but 
the  king  regarded  it  as  a  satire  upon  his  own 
court,  the  book  was  condemned,  and 
Fenelon  was  restrained  within  his  own 
diocese.  He  now  gave  himself  up  entirely 
to  the  work  of  preaching  and  administration, 
and  acquired  so  wide  a  fame  for  benevolence 
and  liberality,  that  in  the  campaign  of  1709 
the  Allies  gave  instructions  that  his  stores 
should  be  spared.  His  works  deal,  not 
merely  with  theology,  but  vrith  philosophy, 
history,  and  literature,  and  are  marked  by 
great  beauty  of  style.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Quietistic  controversy,  and  was 
unfortunate  enough  to  come  into  collision 
with  his  friend  Bossuet.  The  Papal 
decision  was,  on  the  whole,  against  him,  and 
as  soon  as  it  was  published,  he  un- 
hesitatingly accepted  it,  and  read  the 
brief  of  condemnation  from  his  own  pulpit. 

Fenn,  Sir  John  {b.  1739,  d.  1794),  anti- 
quary, born  at  Norwich,  selected  and  edited 
tlie  I'aMon  Letters,  and  established  their 
authenticity  when  it  was  impugned  by 
Hermann  Merivale. 

Fenton,  Elijah  (b.  1683,  d.  1730),  poetical 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  assisted  Pope  in 
translating  the  Odyssey,  wrote  a  tragedy 
entitled  Marianne,  and  lives  of  Milton  and 
Waller. 

Fenwick,  Sir  John  (b.  circa  1645,  d.  1697), 
politician,  entered  Parliament  in  1688  as 
Tory  member  for  Northumberland.  Being 
committed  to  the  Tower  for  his  share  in  the 
assassination  plot  in  1096,  he  made  a  con- 
fession implicating  some  of  the  Whig  leaders 


in  the  Jacobite  movement,  and  the  only 
witness  against  him  having  been  induced  to 
leave  tlie  country,  he  was  made  the  subject 
of  a  bill  of  attainder. 

Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria  (i.  1793, 
d.  1875),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Francis  I. 
by  his  second  wife  Maria  Theresa  of  Naples. 
In  1831  he  manied  Maria,  daughter  of 
King  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia.  He 
succeeded  his  father  in  March,  1835,  having 
been  crowned  king  of  Hungary  in  1830. 
He  proved  too  mild  a  sovereign  for  the 
revolutionary  times  in  which  his  lot  was 
cast ;  and  after  twice  fleeing  from  his  capi- 
tal, resigned  in  favour  of  his  nephew 
Francis  Joseph,  the  present  emperor,  on 
Dec.  2nd,  1848. 

Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany  (i. 

1503,  d.  1564),  bom  at  Alcala,  Spain,  was 
son  of  PhiUp  I.  In  1531  he  was  elected 
king  of  the  Itomans,  and  in  1556  succeeded 
his  brother  Charles  V.  as  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. He  was  engaged  in  a  long  war  with 
John  Zapolya,  who  was  supported  by  the 
Turks,  for  the  possession  of  Hungary,  till  in 
1538  the  country  was  shared  between  the 
two  claimants.  The  war,  however,  broke 
out  again  in  1540,  when  Ferdinand  bought 
off  the  Turks  by  a  yearly  tribute. 

Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany  (h, 

1578,  d.  1637),  was  son  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  and  grand- 
son of  Ferdinand  I.  He  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Bohemia  in  1617,  and  to  that  of 
Hungary  in  1618,  and  was  elected  emperor 
of  Germany  in  1618.  A  bigoted  Catholic, 
he  made  vigorous  attempts  to  suppress  Pro- 
testantism. His  reign  was  chiefly  occupied 
by  the  events  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 
When  his  succession  was  stayed  by  the 
opposition  of  Richelieu  and  the  appearance 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden,  he  not 
only  consented  to  the  dismissal  of  Wallen- 
stein,  one  of  his  two  generals,  but  con- 
nived at  his  murder.  His  reign  is  one  of 
the  most  calamitous  with  which  the  empire 
was  ever  cursed. 

Ferdinand    III.,    Emperor  of    Germany 

{b.  1608,  d.  1657),  bom  at  Griitz,  son 
of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1637,  having  become  king  of  Bo- 
hemia in  1625,  and  of  Himgary  in  1627. 
Though  inclined  to  peace,  he  was  obliged 
to  continue  the  hostilities  begun_  by  his 
father,  and  which  were  not  ended  till  1648, 
when  the  peace  of  Westphalia  was 
arranged. 

Ferdinand  or  Ferrante  I.,  King  of  Naples 
{b.  1423,  d.  1494),  was  son  of  Alphonso  I. 
The  chief  events  of  his  long  reign  were  his 
quan-els  with  the  Roman  court,  and  the 
insurrections  of  his  barons  in  1485. 


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Ferdinand  IL  {d.  1496),  King  of  Naples, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  succeeded  his 
father  Alphonso  II.  ia  1495,  when  the 
kingdom  fell  into  the  hands  of  Charles  VIII. 
and  the  French.  He  reconquered  it,  how- 
ever, in  the  following  year,  with  help  from 
the  Spaniards ;  but  uied  soon  afterwards  in 
the  prime  of  youth. 

Ferdinand  III.,  King  of  Naples.  [See 
Ferdinand  V.,  "  the  Catholic."] 

Ferdinand  IV.,  King  of  Naples  and 
Ferdinand  I.  of  the  Two  Sicilies  {b. 
1751,  d.  1825),  was  second  son  of 
Don  Carlos  (son  of  PhiHp  V.),  and 
succeeded  him  in  1759,  when  Don  Carlos 
passed  from  the  throne  of  Naples  to  that  of 
Spaiu.  In  1768  he  married  Maria  CaroUne 
of  Austria,  daughter  of  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa,  a  princess  both  clever  and  ambi- 
tious, who,  tiU  her  death,  ruled  under  her 
husband's  name.  After  his  victory  at 
AusterUtz  Napoleon  declared  that  the 
dynasty  of  the  Bourbons  had  ceased  to 
reign  at  Naples,  and  sent  thither  an  army 
of  occupation.  Ferdinand  and  his  family 
fled  to  Sicily,  and  there  remained  under 
British  protection  imtil  Napoleon's  fall. 
The  king  returned  in  1815,  and  thence- 
forward ruled  by  the  scourge  and  the 
ecaffold. 

Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
[See  Ferdinand  IV.,  King  of  Naples.] 

Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies 

ib.  1810,  (/.  18-59),  was  eldest  son  of  Francis 
,.  He  began  his  reign  with  some  liberal 
measures ;  but  after  his  marriage  to  his 
second  wife,  the  Archduchess  Maria  Theresa, 
niece  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  he  fell 
under  Austrian  influence,  and  his  tyi-annical 
rule  was  little  more  than  a  series  of  risings 
suppressed  by  bloodshed.  He  was  nick- 
named "Bomba"  for  having  ordered  the 
bombardment  of  Palermo  and  Messina. 

Ferdinand  I,  "the  Great,"  King  of 
Castile,  of  Leon  and  Galicia  {d.  1065), 
was  the  second  son  of  Sancho  III.,  King  of 
Navarre  and  Castile,  and  succeeded  to  the 
latter  kingdom  in  1035.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  monarchs  of  his  age,  and  dis- 
puted with  Henry  III.  of  Germany  for  the 
imperial  crown. 

Ferdinand  IL,  King  of  Galicia  and  Leon 
{d.  11S8),  was  the  second  son  of  Alphonso 
VIII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1157. 

Ferdinand  III,  St.,  King  of  Castile  and 
Leon  {d.  1252),  was  son  of  Alphonso  IX.  of 
Leon.  He  became  King  of  Castile  in  1217, 
and  of  Leon  in  1230.  Among  his  achieve- 
ments against  the  Moors  was  the  capture  of 
Cordova  in  1236,  and  of  Seville  in  1248. 

Ferdinand  IV.,  King  of  Castile  {b.  1285, 


d.  1312),  son  of  Sancho  IV.,  took  several 
important  positions  from  the  Moors,  includ- 
ing Gibraltar. 

Ferdinand  V.,  King  of  Castile  ("the 
Cathohc"),  the  second  of  Aragon  and  Sicily, 
and  third  of  Naples  (J>.  1452,  d.  1516), 
was  son  of  John  II.  of  Navarre  and 
Aragon,  was  bom  at  Sos.  By  his  mamage 
in  1469  with  Isabella  of  Castile  he  united 
the  two  kingdoms,  and  in  1479  became 
king  of  all  Spaiu,  except  Navarre  and 
Granada.  He  took  part  in  the  League  of 
Cambrai  formed  against  Venice  iu  1508, 
conquered  Gran  in  Africa  in  1509,  and  in 
1512  became  ruler  of  Spain  from  Gib- 
raltar to  the  Pyrenees.  His  reign  is 
memorable  not  only  for  the  expulsion  of 
the  Moors,  but  also  for  the  establishment 
of  the  Inquisition,  and  the  discoveries  of 
Columbus. 

Ferdinand  VL,  King  of  Spain  (b.  1713,  d. 
1759),  was  the  son  of  Philip  V.  and  Louisa 
Maria  of  Savoy,  and  succeeded  his  father 
in  1746. 

Ferdinand  VII.,  King  of  Spain  (6.  1784, 
d.  1833),  was  the  son  of  Charles  IV.  of 
Spain  and  Maria  Louisa  of  Parma.  It  was 
under  the  pretence  of  furthering  his  interests 
that  Napoleon  in  December,  1807,  invaded 
Spain ;  whereupon,  in  March,  1808,  the 
populace  arose  and  crowned  Ferdinand  king. 
Napoleon  enticed  him  to  Bayonne,  but  only 
to  force  him  to  abdicate,  and  to  keep  him 
prisoner  at  ValeiiQuy  during  the  war  of 
Spanish  Independence.  After  the  battle  of 
Vittoria,  however,  he  restored  him  to  the 
throne.  During  the  king's  reign  the 
American  colonies  revolted,  and  his  home 
policy,  under  clerical  influence,  was  so 
odious  that  he  was  only  delivered  from  the 
power  of  his  subjects  by  French  armies.  In 
1829  he  dished  the  Clericals,  who  had  fixed 
upon  Don  Carlos  as  his  successor,  by 
privately  marrying  J\I:iria  Christina  of 
Naples,  and  in  the  following  year  revoking 
the  Salic  law  in  favour  of  his  daughter 
Isabella,  the  present  ex-queen. 

Ferdinand,  King  of  Portugal  (b.  1345, 
d.  1383),  was  son  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1367.  The  war  he  waged 
against  Henry  of  Castile  ended  in  disaster, 
notwithstanding  his  alliance  with  the  Eng- 
lish. 

Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  Aragon.  [See 
Ferdinand  V.,  King  of  Castile.] 

Ferdinand  III.,  Grand-Duke  of  Tuscany 
(b.  1769,  d.  1824),  succeeded  his  father 
Leopold  in  1791,  when  the  latter  was 
raised  to  the  imperial  throne  of  Ger- 
many. He  refused  to  join  the  first  coa- 
lition against  the  French  republic,  but  in 
1793  was  frightened  into  doing  so  by  the 
threats  of  Russia  and  England.     In  1795, 


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however,  he  resumed  friendly  relations  with 
France,  but  by  the  uniutennitteut  intrigues 
of  the  French  was  forced  into  an  alUance 
with  Austria  in  1799.  He  was  driven  out 
by  French  troops,  and  in  ISOl  compelled  to 
formally  renounce  his  kingdom.  On  the 
Restoration  of  1814,  however,  he  returned, 
and  continued  the  liberal  rule  of  earlier 
days. 

Ferdinand,  Charles  Joseph  D'Este  {b. 
1781,  d.  1850),  Archduke  of  Austria,  Prince 
Royal  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  Prince 
of  Modena,  was  son  of  Ferdinand  Charles 
Antoine  Joseph,  and  nephew  of  the  emperors 
Joseph  and  Leopold.  He  commanded  the 
third  division  of  the  Austrian  army  in  1805, 
afterwai-ds  conducted  the  war  in  Bohemia 
and  Poland,  and  in  1830  became  governor 
of  GaUcia. 

Ferdusi.     [See  Firdausi.] 

Ferguson,  Adam  {b.  1723,  d.  1816),  Scotch 
philosopher,  a  native  of  Perthshire,  was  as 
a  young  man  chaplain  to  the  Black  Watch, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of 
Fontenoy.  In  1757  he  became  keeper  of 
the  Advocates'  library  in  Edinburgh,  in 
succession  to  David  Hume,  in  1759  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  at  Edinburgh,  after- 
wards (1704)  of  moral  philosophy,  and  later 
of  mathematics.  His  History  of  the  Pro- 
gress and  Te^'tmnation  of  the  Roman  Republic 
appeared  in  1782 ;  his  Principles  of  Moral 
and  Political  Science  in  1792. 

Ferguson,  James  (b.  1710,  d.  1776), 
Scottish  astronomer,  bom  at  Rothiemay, 
was  entirely  self-taught.  He  displayed 
an  early  genius  for  mechanics,  discovered 
for  himself  the  principle  of  the  lever,  and 
amused  himself  by  majjping  out  the  stars, 
forming  a  terrestrial  globe,  and  construct- 
ing little  models  of  machinery.  In  1748 
he  made  his  appearance  as  a  lecturer  on 
astronomy  and  mechanics,  and  quickly 
acquired  great  popularity.  In  1761  a 
pension  of  £50  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
George  III.,  and  in  1763  he  was  elected 
F.R.S. 

Ferguson,  Patrick  {b.  1744,  d.  1780),  a 
native  of  Aberdeenshire,  was  the  inventor 
of  the  breech-loading  rifle,  which  was 
patented  in  1776.  He  headed  a  corps  of 
loyalists  in  the  American  War  of  Indepen- 
dence, and  was  slain  while  defending  King's 
Moimtain,  South  Carolina,  with  800  men 
against  1,300  Americans. 

Ferguson,  Robert  (b.  circa  1637,  d.  1714), 
politician,  a  native  of  Aberdeenshire,  is 
known  as  "the  Plotter."  For  ten  years 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  almost  every 
conspiracy  against  Charles  II.  and  James  II., 
and  after  the  revolution  pursued  the  same 


trade,  though    on   the  opposite  side.    He 
died  in  lamentable  poverty. 

Ferguson,  Sir  Samuel  (b.  1810,  d.  1886), 
antiquary  and  poet,  born  at  Belfast,  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  ap- 
pointed first  deputy  keeper  of  the  records 
in  Ireland  in  1867,  and  for  his  eminent 
services  to  Celtic  archaeology  was  knighted 
in  1878.  His  poem.  The  Forging  of  the 
Anchor,  appeared  in  1883. 

Fergusson,  James  [b.  1808,  d.  1886), 
writer  on  architecture,  spent  the  first  years 
of  his  manhood  in  business,  and  then  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  architecture, 
Eastern  as  well  as  Western.  His  most  con- 
siderable work  is  his  History  of  Ancient  and 
Modern  Architecture  (1865).  In  1871  he 
received  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  In- 
stitute of  British  Architects. 

Fergusson,  Sir  James,  Bart.  (i.  1832), 
statesman,  was  under-secretary  tor  India 
1866-1867,  under-secretary  at  the  Home 
Office  1867-1868,  governor  of  South  Aus- 
tralia 1868-1872,  of  New  Zealand  1872-1874, 
of  Bombay  1880-1885.  In  1885  he  again 
entered  Parliament  for  North-East  Man- 
chester, in  the  following  year  became 
Foreign  under-secretary,  and  in  1891  Post- 
master -  General. 

Fergusson,  Robert  {b.  1750,  d.  1774), 
Scottish  poet,  was  educated  at  Dundee 
Grammar  School  and  St.  Andrew's  Univer- 
sity. Having  ruined  his  constitution  by 
intemperance,  he  become  affected  with  reli- 
gious melancholia,  culminating  in  complete 
insanity.  Fifteen  years  after  his  death, 
Bums  erected  a  memorial  stone  with  a 
poetical  inscription  over  his  grave.  Among 
his  poems  are  Tlie  Farmer^ single,  upon  which 
T}ie  Cottar'' s  Saturday  Night  is  modelled. 

Fergusson,  Sir  William,  Bart.  (b.  1808, 
d.  1877),  surgeon  and  surgical  wiiter,  after 
a  distinguished  career  in  Edinburgh,  was  in 
1840  appointed  professor  of  surgery  in  King's 
College,  London,  and  surgeon  of  King's  Col- 
lege Hospital.  In  1855  he  became  surgeon- 
extraordinary,  and  in  1867  serjeant-surgeon, 
to  the  Queen,  while  in  1861  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 
His  chief  contributions  to  surgery  are  the 
closing  of  the  cleft  palate,  excision  of  the 
head  of  the  femur  in  incurable  disease  of 
the  hip- joint,  excision  of  the  scapula  in 
disease  of  the  bone,  and  excision  of  _th« 
joint  in  incurable  disease  of  the  hip-joint, 
in  place  of  amputation. 

Ferishta,  Mohammed  Kasim  (b.  1570,  d. 
circa  1611),  a  native  of  Astrabad,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian,  is  the  author  of  a 
history  of  the  rise  of  the  Mohammedan 
power,  which  has  been  twice  translated  into 
English. 


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Ter 


Fennat,  Rerre  de  {b.  1608,  d.  1664), 
Freuch  mathematician  and  poet,  wrote 
poems  in  several  languages,  and  prose  works 
which  were  published  collectively  as  Opera 
Varia  Mathematica. 

Fermor,  "William,  Count  (b.  1704,  d. 
1771),  Russian  general,  succeeded  General 
Apraxin  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Russian  army  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and 
captured  Thorn  and  Elbing,  and  besieged 
Ciistrin,  from  which,  after  the  battle  of 
Zomdorf,  he  was  obliged  to  retire.  In 
October,  1760,  he  invaded  Prussia,  and 
occupied  Berlin,  but  only  for  a  few  days. 

Fernandez,  Juan  (d.  1576),  Spanish  navi- 
gator, discovered  the  island  which  bears  his 
name  in  1563,  and  colonised  it  in  1572. 

Fernandez,  Ximenes  de  Navarete  Juan 
(6.  1526,  d.  1579),  Spanish  painter,  was 
a  pupil  of  Titian,  and  became  painter  to 
PhUip  II.  Being  deaf  and  diunb,  he  was 
sumamed  El  Mudo. 

Ferracino,  Bartolomeo  {b.  1695,  d.  1764), 
Italian  mechanician,  invented  a  number  of 
ingenious  contrivances,  and  built  the  bridge 
over  the  Brenta  at  Padua. 

Ferrar,  Nicholas  [b.  1592,  d.  1637), 
Anglican  divine  and  mystic,  was  elected 
fellow  of  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1610, 
and  in  1624  entered  Parliament,  but  in  the 
following  year  abandoned  public  life  and 
founded  the  "Nunnery  "  at  Little  Gidding, 
Huntingdonshire,  described  in  John  Ingle- 
sant.  The  community  was  broken  up  by 
the  Puritans  in  1647. 

Ferrar,  Robert  (b.  1555),  prelate  and 
martyr,  was  prior  of  St.  Oswald  untU  the 
monastery  was  dissolved,  when  he  threw 
in  his  lot  with  the  reformers  and  was  made 
Bishop  of  St.  David's.  Early  in  the  Marian 
persecution  he  was  sent  to  the  stake  at 
Caemiarthen  by  Bishop  Gardiner  as  a 
heretic. 

Ferrara,  Andrea,  was  a  broad-sword 
maker  at  Belluno,  North  Italy,  towards  the 
end  of  the  16th  century.  Nothing  is  known 
of  him  beyond  this  fact.     One  tradition  re- 

E resents  him  to  have  been  by  birth  a 
pauiard,  but  he  is  more  generally  believed 
to  have  been  bom  in  the  city  after  which  he 
is  named. 

Ferrari,  Gaudenzio  (b.  1484,  d.  1549), 
Italian  painter,  bom  at  Valduggia,  Pied- 
mont, belongs  to  the  Lombard  school.  The 
frescoes  in  the  Cappella  della  Pieta  at 
Varallo  are  considered  to  be  his  best  works. 

Ferrari,  Paolo  (*.  1822,  d.  1889),  Italian 
dramatist,  became  professor  of  history  at 
Modena,   his  native  city,   in   1860,    and  at 


Milan  subsequently,  where  a  collection  of 
his  dramatic  works  in  fourteen  volumes  ap- 
peared in  1877-80. 

Ferrars,  George  {b.  1512,  d.  1579),  lawyer 
and  poet,  bom  near  St.  Albans,  is  cele- 
brated less  for  his  achievements  iu  either  of 
these  capacities  than  because,  when  arrested 
under  the  orders  of  the  City  magistrates  for 
debt  while  in  discharge  oi  his  duties  as  a 
member  of  the  Commons,  the  House,  sup- 
ported by  the  House  of  Lords,  demanded  his 
release,  and  imprisoned  the  sheriffs  and 
others  who  had  taken  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings against  him. 

Ferreira,  Antonio  (b.  1528,  d.  1560),  a 
Portuguese  poet,  bom  at  Lisbon,  is  the 
author  of  Ines  de  Castro,  one  of  the  two  or 
three  earliest  of  extant  tragedies  in  modem 
Uterature. 

Ferrers,  Lawrence  Shirley,  Earl  {b.  1720,  d, 
1761),  is  notorious  as  the  last  nobleman  who 
died  a  felon's  death.  He  was  hanged  at 
Tyburn,  after  sentence  by  his  peers  for 
having  in  the  preceding  January  slain  his 
steward  in  a  fit  of  passion. 

Ferrey,  Benjamin  {b.  1810,  d.  1880),  archi- 
tect, studied  under  Pugin,  and  from  1841  to 
his  death  was  honorary  dioceean  architect 
of  Bath  and  Wells.  In  that  capacity  he 
restored  the  nave,  transepts,  and  lady 
chapel  of  Wells  cathedral,  and  also  the 
bishop's  palace.  His  last  work  was  the 
mansion  for  the  Duke  of  Counaught  at 
Bagshot  Park. 

Ferrier,  David  {b.  1843) ,  physiologist,  bom 
at  Aberdeen,  became  demonstrator  of  physi- 
ology at  King's  College,  London,  in  1871, 
professor  of  forensic  medicine  there  in  1872, 
physician  to  King's  College  Hospital  and  to 
the  National  Hospital  for  the  Paralysed 
and  Epileptic  in  1880,  F.R.C.P.  in  1877,  and 
F.R.S.  in  1876.  He  was  one  of  the  foun- 
ders and  is  one  of  the  editors  of  Brain. 
His  great  work  on  the  Functions  of  tht 
Brain  appeared  in  1876. 

Ferrier,  James  Frederick  (/;.  1808,  d.  1864), 
metaphysician,  was  appointed  professor  of 
civn  history  at  Edinburgh,  his  native  city, 
in  1842,  and  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
at  St.  Andrew's  in  1845.  His  Institutes 
of  Metaphysics  was  published  in  1854.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  "Christopher  North," 
and  was  a  nephew  of  Susan  Edmonston 
Ferrier  (see  below) . 

Ferrier,  Susan  Edmonston  (Jb.  1782,  d. 
1854),  Scottish  novelist,  a  native  of  Edin- 
burgh, is  authoress  of  The  Inheritance  (1824) 
and  Destiny  (1831),  which  were  attributed 
to  her  friend  Sir  Walter  Scott. 


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Fic 


Ferry,  Jules  Francois  Camille  {h.  1832), 
Freuch  statesman,  a  native  of  St.  Di^,  Vosges, 
entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1869  as 
one  of  the  members  for  Paris,  ami  at  once 
distinguished  himself  by  liis  brilliant  at- 
tacks upon  the  OUivier  ministry.  During 
the  siege  of  Paris  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Government  of  the  National  Defence,  and 
from  1872  until  the  fall  of  Thiers  was 
minister  resident  at  Athens.  As  leader  of 
the  Republican  Left,  he  did  much  to  bring 
to  nought  the  insidious  projects  of  the 
Broglie  and  Rochebouet  cabiuets.  In  1879 
he  entered  M.  Waddingtou's  cabinet  as 
minister  of  public  instruction,  and  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  the  Jesuits  in 
connection  with  schools.  In  1880,  having 
formed  a  cabinet  of  his  own,  he  proceeded 
to  execute  the  March  decrees  against  the 
Jesuits  with  great  severity.  By  his  acqui- 
sition of  Tunis  he  raised  a  storm  of  unpopu- 
larity, and  in  November  of  the  same  year 
had  to  resign.  In  1883  he  was  recalled  to 
power,  and  at  once  reverted  to  his  previous 
colonial  policy,  making  claims  upon  Tonquiu 
and  Madagascar  which  involved  the  Re- 
public in  two  wars,  neither  of  them  success- 
ful. The  reverses  suffered  by  the  French 
arms  in  Tonquin  in  1885  led  to  his  fall  in 
April  of  that  year.  On  the  retii-ement  of 
M.  Grevy  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  pre- 
sidency, but  found  himself  so  unpopular 
that  he  retired.  In  1888  he  was  challenged 
by  General  Boulanger,  but  no  duel  fol- 
lowed. 

Fesch,  Giuseppe  {b.  1763,  d.  1839), 
French  cardinal  and  statesman,  was  half- 
brother  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  mother. 
From  his  nephew  he  received  a  series  of 
ecclesiastical  dignities,  culminating  in  1802 
in  the  archbishopric  of  Lyons.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate. 
At  a  conference  of  clergy  in  1810  he  op- 
posed some  of  Napoleon's  schemes,  and  so 
incuiTed  the  emperor's  hostility.  The  rest 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  semi-banishment  at 
Lyons. 

Festing,  Francis  Worgan,  Sir  {b.  1833,  d. 
1886),  general,  was  in  command  of  the  Bri- 
tish forces  at  Cape  Coast  Castle  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Ashantee  war  in  1873,  and 
destroyed  the  town  of  Elmina.  After  Sir 
Garnet  Wolseley's  arrival  to  take  command, 
he  was  severely  wounded  while  defending 
the  fortified  camp  of  Dunquah.  From  1876 
to  1883  he  was  assistant  adjutant- general 
to  the  marines. 

Festus,  Porcius,  succeeded  Felix  as  Pro- 
curator of  Judaea  in  the  year  60  A.D. ,  and  in 
62  presided  at  the  tribunal  before  which  St. 
Paul  defended  himself.  His  death  occuz'red 
a  few  years  later. 

Festus,    Sextus    Pompeius,  probably  of 


the  second  century,  Latin  grammarian,  is 
known  chietiy  by  his  epitome  of  the  Be 
I'l-rhorum  ISigniJicatione  of  Verrius  Flaccus, 
to  the  surviving  half  of  which  we  are 
greatly  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  Latin 
grammar  and  antiquities. 

Fetis,  Fran9ois  Joseph  {b.  1784,  d.  1871), 
Belgian  composer  and  musical  critic  and 
historian,  was  appointed  professor  of  coun- 
terpoint and  fugue  at  Paris  1821,  and  director 
of  the  Brussels  Conservatory  and  musical 
director  to  the  king  in  1833.  Among  his 
literary  works  the  best  known  is  a  General 
Hifitori/  of  Music  (1869-76). 

Feuerbach,  Ludwig  Andreas  {b.  1804,  d. 
1872),  philosopher,  a  native  of  Landshut, 
was  the  fourth  son  of  the  following.  Having 
abandoned  theology  for  philosophy,  he  in 
1832  published  his  Thoughta  on  Death  and Ini- 
mortalitij,  in  which  he  limited  immortality 
to  personal  influence  on  the  human  race.  In 
1841  appeared  The  Essence  of  Christianity, 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  George 
Eliot,  and  this  was  followed,  among  other 
works,  by  The  Essence  of  Religion.  The 
tendency  of  his  speculation  is  to  identify 
God  with  natui-e,  and  to  deny  the  possi- 
bility of  purely  spiritual  existence. 

Feuerbacb,  Paul  Johann  Anselm  von 
(4.  1775,  d.  1833),  German  jurist,  born  at 
Hainichen,  was  in  1804  appointed  to  di-aw 
up  a  criminal  code  for  Bavaria,  which 
was  the  basis  of  penal  codes  afterwards 
adopted  by  other  German  states.  He  was 
father  of  Ludwig  Andreas  Feuerbach  (see 
above). 

Feuillet,  Octave  Q).  1822),  French  novelist 
and  dramatist,  born  at  St.  L6,  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  1862,  and 
from  1865  to  1870  was  librarian  of  the  im- 
perial academies.  His  masterpiece,  the 
Roman  d^un  jeune  Homme  pamre,  ap- 
peared in  1858.  His  style  is  finished,  hia 
humour  refined,  and  his  pathos  usually  sin- 
cere. 

F6val,  Paul  Henri  Corentin  {b.  1817,  d. 
1887),  French  novelist,  published  his  best 
known  work,  Les  Mysteres  de  Londres,  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Francis  Trollope.  It 
was  an  immediate  success,  was  exten- 
sively translated,  and  quickly  went  through 
twenty  editions.  About  1876  its  author 
was  converted  to  Roman  Catholicism  of 
the  strictest  tj'pe,  and  his  new  convic- 
tions have  materially  affected  his  subsequent 
writings. 

Feydeau,  Ernest  {b.  1821,  d.  1872),  French 
novelist,  is  the  author  of  several  romances, 
including  Sylvie. 

Fichte,     Immanuel    Hermann    von    (fi. 


Fie 


(  305  ) 


Pie 


1797,  d.  1879),  philosopher,  sou  of  the 
following,  was  bom  at  Jeua,  held  professor- 
ships at  Bonn  and  Tubingen,  and  was  en- 
nobled ia'  1867.  His  works  deal  with 
theology,  ethics,  anthropology,  psychology, 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

Fichte,  Johann  Gottlieb  (h.  1762,  d. 
1814),  German  philosopher  and  patriot,  a 
native  of  Rammenau,  was  intended  for 
the  ministry,  but  his  poverty  stood  in 
the  way,  and  he  was  not  gi-eatly  drawn 
to  the  profession.  In  1790  the  reading 
of  Kant's  Critique  of  Fare  lieason  re- 
vealed to  him  his  vocation.  In  1792  he 
published  his  Critique  of  all  Revelation,  in 
which  he  expounds  on  Kantian  Hnes  the 
relation  of  religion  to  moraUty.  In  1793  he 
was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Jena,  and  here  his  principal 
works,  in  which  he  develops  Kantianism  in 
an  idealistic  direction,  appeared.  In  1799, 
in  consequence  of  a  charge  of  atheism,  he 
removed  to  Berlin,  and  in  1810  became  a 
professor  of  the  newly-founded  University 
of  BerUn,  of  which  in  1811  he  became 
rector.  After  the  humiliation  of  Prussia 
by  Napoleon  in  1806,  Fichte  contributed 
powerfully  to  the  moral  regeneration  of  his 
country  by  his  impassioned  Address  to  the 
German  Nation.  The  exclusively  moral 
attitude  of  his  first  works  gave  place  in  his 
later  ones  to  a  more  religious  view  of  ex- 
perience, as  the  process  of  the  divine  Ufe  en- 
compassing our  hves,  and  working  itself  out 
to  its  own  issues. 

Pick,  August  {b.  1833),  German  pliilo- 
logist,  was  in  1876  appointed  to  an  extra- 
ordinary professorship  of  comparative  phi- 
lology at  Gottingen.  He  has  written  several 
works. 

Field,  CjTus  West  {b.  1819,  d.  1892), 
American  merchant,  bom  at  Stockbridge, 
Mass.,  brother  of  David  Dudley  Field  and 
Stephen  Johnson  Field,  was  instrumental 
in  laying  the  telegraph  cable  between 
England  and  America. 

Field,  Da\'id  Dudley  [b.  1805),  American 
jurist,  and  brother  of  Cjrus  Field  and 
"Stephen  Field,  was  in  18o7  appointed  to 
draw  up  a  poUtical,  civil,  and  penal 
code,  of  which  parts  have  been  adopted 
by  several  of  the  States.  To  him  is  due 
the  formation  of  an  association  for  the 
reform  of  the  law  of  nations,  and  for  the 
adoption  of  arbitration  in  place  of  war.  In 
1889  the  University  of  Edinburgh  conferred 
upon  him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 

Field,  James  Thomas  {b.  1817,  d.  1881), 
American  publisher  and  author,  a  native 
of  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshii'e,  was 
for  many  years  a  partner  of  the  firm  of 
Ticknor,  Reed,  and  Field,  Boston,  and  from 
1862  to  1870  edited  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 


Field,  John  {b.  1782,  d.  1837),  Irish  com- 
poser, born  in  Dublin,  is  known  as 
"Russian"  Field.  During  his  long  resi- 
dence in  Moscow  he  wrote  several  sonatas, 
but  is  better  known  to  the  present  gene- 
ration by  his  "noctiu-nes." 

Field,  Richard  [b.  1561,  d.  1616),  theo- 
logian, was  made  chaplain-in-ordinary  to 
Uueen  EUzabeth  in  1598,  and  became  Dean 
of  Gloucester  under  her  successor,  who  at 
one  time  intended  to  send  him  to  Germany 
to  reconcile  the  Lutherans  and  Cah'inists 
to  each  other. 

Field,  Stephen  Johnson  (b.  1816),  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  and  brother  of  Cyrus  Field  and 
David  Dudley  Field,  was  elevated  to  the 
supreme  bench  of  the  United  States  in  1863. 
In  1880  he  received  sixty-five  votes  as  a 
candidate  for  the  presidency. 

Field,  Hon.  Sir  William  Ventiis  {b.  1813), 
lawyer,  bom  at  Fielden,  Beds.,  was  ap- 
pointed Q.C.  in  1864,  became  leader  of  the 
midland  circuit,  and  in  1875  was  nominated 
a  justice  of  the  Queen's  Bench. 

Fielding,  Anthony  Vandyke  Copley, 
always  known  as  Copley  Fielding  [b. 
1787,  d.  1855),  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  English  water-colour  school,  born 
near  Halifax,  studied  under  John  Var- 
ley,  whose  sister-in-law  he  mairied  in 
1806.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  for 
fourteen  years  been  in-esident  of  the  Water 
Colour  Society,  to  which  he  had  for  forty- 
five  years  been  a  constant  contributor.  N'o 
one  has  more  faithfully  portrayed  certain 
elements  of  English  scenery,  but  much  of 
his  work  is  marred  by  mannerism,  crudeness 
of  colour,  and  confusion  of  detail. 

Fielding,  Hemy  {b.  1707,  d.  1754), 
novelist,  dramatist,  and  political  writer, 
was  born  at  Sharpham  Park,  Glaston- 
bury, the  son  of  Lieuteiiaut- General  Ed- 
mund Fielding,  and  great-grandson  of 
William,  3rd  earl  of  Denbigh,  He  was 
educated  fii'st  at  Eton,  then  at  Leyden, 
where  he  went  to  study  civil  law.  Re- 
turning to  London,  he  produced  in  quick 
succession  a  number  of  comedies  and  bur- 
lesques. They  were  marked  by  a  good  deal 
of  wit  and  humour,  but  his  heart  was  not 
in  them,  and  it  was  clear  that  they  were 
only  written  to  gain  a  livelihood.  In  1785 
he  married  Miss  Charlotte  Cradock,  of 
Salisbury,  who  brought  him  a  fortune  of 
£1,500,  and  when  to  this  was  added  £200  a 
year  bequeathed  to  him  by  his  mother,  he 
found  himself  in  comfortable  circumstances. 
He  now  left  town  and  lived  the  life  of  a 
country  gentleman  at  East  Stour  in  Dorset- 
shire, but  in  a  few  months  dissipated  the 
greater  part  of  his  means  and  returned  to 
London,  and  to  the  drama.  But  in  1742 
appeared  his  great  novel,  The  Adventures  of 


Fie 


(  306) 


Pil 


Joseph  Andrews.  This  was  followed  by 
A  Journey  from  This  World  to  the  Next,  and 
The  History  of  Jonathan  Wild.  In  1749  he 
again  astonished  the  literary  world  with  his 
Tom.  Jones,  and  this  was  succeeded  in  1751 

%  Amelia.  Between  the  appearance  of 
seph  Andrews  and  T'om  Jones  he  had 
written  some  political  pamphlets  in  the 
interests  of  the  government,  but  the  only 
reward  he  received  was  a  Middlesex  justice- 
ship of  the  peace.  Being  obliged  by  failing 
health  to  seek  a  warmer  climate,  he  in 
1754  sailed  to  Lisbon,  but  only  survived 
his  arrival  there  two  mouths.  He  ranks 
among  the  very  greatest  of  English  novelists, 
and  has  beeu  termed  by  Byron  "  the  prose 
Homer  of  human  nature." 

Fielding,  Sarah  {b.  1714,  d.  1768),  sis- 
ter of  Henry  Fielding  (q.v.),  wrote  Bavid 
Simple,  and  other  novels,  and  translated 
Xenophon's  Memorabilia. 

Fiennes,  Nathaniel  {b.  1608,  d.  1669^ 
politician,  was  son  of  William  Fiennes  (q.v.). 
In  1640  he  represented  Banbury  in  Parlia- 
ment, acting  with  the  Presbyterians.  He 
held  a  commission  as  colonel  under  Essex, 
and  was  appointed  governor  of  Bristol,  but 
surrendered  the  city  to  Prince  Rupert,  and 
was  sentenced  to  death  for  cowardice.  His 
life  being  spared,  he  joined  the  Indepen- 
dents, aud  sat  in  nearly  all  Cromwell's 
parliaments.  He  was  appointed  a  commis- 
sioner of  the  Great  Seal,  became  one  of 
Cromwell's  lords,  and  ultimately  Speaker  of 
the  Upper  House.  On  the  abdication  of 
Richard  CromweU,  whom  he  had  assisted  ia 
proclaiming,  he  retired  from  pubhc  Hfe. 

Fiennes,  William  ib.  1582,  d.  1662),  Lord 
Say  and  Sele,  Puritan  statesman,  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  by  Charles  I.,  but  joined  the 
Parhamentarians.  For  his  share  in  bringing 
about  the  Restoration  he  was  made  Lord 
Privy  Seal  and  Chamberlain  of  the  House- 
hold. 

FiescM,  Giovanni  Luigi  de.  Count  (b.  circa 
1523,  d.  1547),  Genoese  noble,  was  organiser 
of  a  plot  against  Andrea  Doria,  who  had 
driven  out  Francis  I.  and  re-established  the 
republican  government.  The  attempt  was 
a  success,  the  port  being  captured  and  Doria 
put  to  flight ;  but  it  all  came  to  nothing  in 
consequence  of  Fieschi's  disappearance.  It 
afterwards  appeared  that  in  stepping  from 
one  galley  to  another  in  the  darkness  he  had 
fallen  overboard  and  been  drowned. 

FiescM,  Joseph  Marie  {b.  1790,  d.  1836), 
revolutionist,  bom  in  Corsica,  attempted  on 
the  28th  July,  1835,  to  assassinate  King 
Louis  Phihppe.  For  this  he  and  three 
accomplices  were  executed. 

Fiesole,  Fra  Giovanni  da  [Fra  Angelico] 
{b.    1387,    d.    1455),    painter,    born    near 


Florence,  went  to  Rome  to  decorate  the 
chapel  of  the  Vatican.  Noted  as  a  painter 
of  saints  and  angels. 

Figueras,  Stanislas  {b.  1819,  d.  1882), 
Spanish  repubUcan  politician,  bom  at 
Barcelona,  was  exiled  for  several  months 
for  his  part  in  the  revolution  of  1866, 
but  after  the  revolution  of  1868,  which 
drove  Isabella  from  Spain  ;  he  returned 
and  joined  Castelar  in  opposing  the  res- 
toration of  monarchical  government.  On 
the  abdication  of  Amadeus  of  Savoy  in 
1873  he  became  one  of  the  provisional 
government,  but  was  unable  to  m.aintain 
order,  and  in  April  fled  the  country.  On 
the  accession  of  Alfonso  he  retired  altogether 
from  pubhc  Ufe. 

Figuier,  Guillaume  Louis  {b.  1819),  popu- 
lar French  scientific  writer,  was  appointed 
to  a  professorship  in  Paris  in  1852.  The 
World  before  the  Deluge,  and  others  of  his 
works,  have  been  translated  into  Enghsh. 

Figuier,  Julliette,  nee  Bouscareau  {b. 
1829,  d.  1879),  wife  of  the  preceding,  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  novels  and 
plays. 

FUangieri,  Gaetano  (b.  1752,  d.  1788), 
Itahan  political  economist  and  jurist,  is  re- 
membered mainly  for  his  Science  of  Legis- 
lation, which,  though  never  completed, 
shows  its  author  to  have  been  both  a  pro- 
found scholar  and  a  vigorous  thinker. 

Fildes,  Luke  [b.  1844),  figure  painter, 
a  native  of  Lancashire,  studied  in  the  South 
Kensington  school  and  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  where  he  first  exhibited  in  1868. 
He  became  A.R.A.  in  1879,  and  R.A.  in 
1887. 

Filicaia,  Vincenzo  (b.  1642,  d.  1707), 
lyiic  poet,  born  at  Florence,  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  patriotic  son- 
nets, and  also  of  odes  celebrating  the 
deliverance  of  Vienna  in  1683  from  the 
besieging  Turks.  His  works  were  pub- 
lished in  a  complete  edition  at  Florence 
in  1864. 

Fillan,  St.  {d.  Til),  was  son  of  Fere- 
dach,  a  prince  of  Mimster,  and  of  St. 
Kentigema.  He  became  abbot  of  the 
monastery  on  the  Holy  Loch,  in  succession 
to  St.  Mund,  but  afterwards  retired  to 
Strathfillan  and  died  there.  His  bronze  bell 
aud  the  head  of  his  pastoral  staif  are  pre- 
served in  the  Antiquarian  Muse>*m  of 
Edinburgh. 

Fillans,  James  (*.  1808,  d.  1852),  Scotch 
sculptor,  bom  at  Wilsontown,  Lanark- 
shire, is  still  remembered  for  his  Boy  and 
Faiim,  his  Blind  Teaching  the  Blind,  and  his 
busts  of  Allan  Cunningham,  Professor 
Wilson,  etc. 


Fil 


(307) 


Fis 


FiUmore,  Millard  (*.  1800,  d.  1874), 
American  statesmaB,  bom  at  Sununer- 
MU,  New  York,  was  apprenticed  to 
a  wool  carder,  but  became  a  clerk  in 
a  judge's  office,  and  then  found  entrance 
to  the  bar.  He  entered  Congi-ess  iu  1832, 
was  appointed  chairman  of  the  committee 
of  ways  and  means  in  1840,  and  was 
author  of  the  taiiii  of  1842.  He  became 
controller  of  the  state  of  New  York  ui  1S44, 
was  elected  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  iu  1848,  and  succeeded  to  the  presi- 
dency on  the  death  of  General  Taylor  iu 
18.50.  By  signing  the  act  for  the  sun-euder 
of  fugitive  slaves  he  brought  about  the 
utter  defeat  of  the  Whig  party  iu  1853.  In 
1856  he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency, 
but  received  only  scanty  support. 

Filmer,  Sir  Robert  {d.  circa  1653),  political 
writer,  a  native  of  East  Sutton,  Kent,  was  the 
author  of  a  niimber  of  treatises  ui  favour  of 
arbitrary  power  iu  kings.  One  of  these, 
Fatriarchu,  or  the  Natural  Power  of  the 
Kings  of  England  Asserted,  was  refuted  by 
Locke  in  his  Civil  Government. 

nnch,  Daniel,  second  Earl  of  Nottingham 
(i.  1647,  d.  1730),  statesman  and  theological 
writer,  was  eldest  son  of  the  first  Earl  (q.v.). 
In  1680  he  was  appointed  Eii'st  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  and  afterwards  became  Secretary 
of  State,  holding  that  office  imder  "William 
and  Mary,  and  also  under  Queen  Anne, 
after  whose  death  he  was  one  of  the  lords 
justices  for  the  administration  of  affairs, 
and  later  president  of  the  council.  Dis- 
missed from  this  post  in  171 6  for  speaking  in 
favour  of  the  Scottish  lords  condemned  for 
their  share  in  the  affair  of  1715,  he  gave 
himself  up  to  literature,  and  wrote  a 
refutation  of  Whiston's  views  on  the 
Trinity. 

Fincb,  Heneage,  first  Earl  of  Nottingham 
(b.  1621,  d.  1682),  lawyer  and  politician, 
was  son  of  Sir  Heneage  Finch,  recorder  of 
London,  was  educated  at  Westminster 
school  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1645.  He  sat  as  a 
Royalist  for  Canterbury  in  1660,  was 
appointed  Solicitor- General  with  a  baronet's 
degree  on  the  Restoration,  and  had  the  prin- 
cipal conduct  of  the  proceedings  against  the 
regicides.  In  1670  he  was  made  Attorney- 
General,  in  1673  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Seal, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Finch  of  Daventry, 
and  in  1675  Lord  Chancellor  and  Earl  of 
Nottingham.  Blackstone  describes  him  as 
"a  person  of  the  greatest  abilities,  and  most 
imcorrupted  integrity,  a  thorough  master 
and  zealous  defender  of  the  laws  and  con- 
stitution of  his  coimtry." 

Flndlater,   Andrew  (b.    1810,  d.   1885), 

miscellaiieous    writer,  a   native    of    Aber- 

deensliire,  was  editor  of  the  first  edition 
TJ2 


of  Chambers^  Encyclopedia,  and  con- 
tributed to  it  many  of  its  most  im- 
portant articles.  He  also  wrote  manuals 
on  astronomy,  language,  physical  geo- 
graphy, and  physiographer.  In  1864  he 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the 
Aberdeen  University. 

FineUi,  Carlo  (J.  1780,  d.  1854),  ItaJian 
sculptor,  produced  the  Triumph  of  Ccesar, 
Raphael.,  and  other  examples  of  the  mas- 
sively impressive  but  imfinished  style  of 
sculpture. 

Finiguerra,  Tommaso  {d.  1475),  Floren- 
tine goldsmith  and  sculptor,  is  credited  with 
the  invention  of  copper-plate  printing,  and 
was  specially  famous  for  his  niello  work. 

Ftolay,  George  {b.  1799,  d.  1875),  his- 
torian, bom  at  Faversham,  accompanied 
Byron  to  Greece  in  1823,  and  thence- 
forward lived  at  Athens,  corresponding 
for  The  Times,  and  studying  the  history  of 
Greece  under  foreign  rule.  This  he  dealt 
with  in  several  works,  which  were  re- 
published in  1880  under  the  title  of  History 
of  Greece,  from  its  Conqtiest  by  the  Romans  to 
1864. 

FiDlay,  Robert  Bannatyne  {b.  1842), 
lawyer  and  poHtician,  was  made  a  Q.C.  in 
1882.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons  iu 
1885  as  Liberal  member  for  the  Inverness 
Burghs,  "V  and  later,  declaring  himself  a 
Liberal  Jnionist,  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  on  Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish 
Bills. 

Firdausi,  Abii'l  Kasim  Mansur  {h.  941, 
d.  1020),  Persian  epic  poet,  is  known  to 
fame  cmefly  as  author  of  the  Shah  Nameh, 
or  Book  of  Kings. 

Firenzuola,  Agnolo  {b.  1493,  d.  circa 
1545),  Florentine  dramatist  and  romance 
writer,  entered  the  Church  and  became 
abbot  of  Prato.  He  had  written  a 
number  of  works  distinguished  by  their 
elegance  of  style  and  impurity  of  senti- 
ment. 

Fischart,  Johann  {b.  circa  1545,  d. 
1614),  German  satirist,  was  the  author  of 
a  number  of  works  directed  chiefly  against 
the  Roman  Church,  including  one  based  on 
Rabelais'  Gargantiia,  thought  by  Richter  to 
be  superior  to  the  original. 

Fischer,  Johann  Bemhard  {b.  1650,  d. 
1724),  German  architect,  was  chief  architect 
to  Joseph  I.,  who  made  him  Baron  von 
Erlach.  Among  his  works  are  the  palace  of 
Schonbruim,  and  the  Chiu:ch  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  at  Vienna. 

FlBcHer,  Karl  von  {b.  1782,  d.  1820), 
German  architect,  was  professor  of  ar- 
chitecture   at   Munich   from  1809   till   his 


Pis 


(  308) 


Pit 


death.  His  chief  work  is  the  Eof 
T'i'''iU^r  at  Munich,  which,  when  burnt 
down  alter  his  death,  was  rebuilt  according 
to  the  original  design. 

Fischer,  Kuno  {b.  1824),  philosophic 
critic,  born  at  Sandewalde.  Silesia,  was 
appointed  to  lecture  on  philosophy  at 
Heidelberg  in  1850,  but  in  1853  was  for- 
bidden by  the  government  to  continue  his 
course.  He  was  restored  to  his  chair  in 
1872,  and  still  occupies  it.  He  is  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  New  Hegelian  school, 
and  one  of  the  most  lucid  interpreters  of 
Kant. 

Fish,  Hamilton,  LL.D.  {b.  1808),  Ameri- 
can statesman,  was  lieutenant-governor  of 
New  York  1847-49,  and  governor  1849-51. 
In  1851  he  was  elected  United  States  sena- 
tor, and  in  1869  was  called  by  President 
Grant  to  the  position  of  Secretary  of  State, 
which  he  held  until  the  end  of  the  Presi- 
dent's second  term. 

Fisher,  John  (b.  circa  1459,  d.  1535), 
divine,  bom  at  Beverley,  entered  Michael 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1483;  became  a 
fellow  in  1491,  and  master  in  1497.  In 
1502  he  was  chosen  by  Margaret,  Countess 
of  Eichmond  (Henry  VII. 's  mother)  as  her 
chaplain  and  confessor;  the  next  year  he 
was  appointed  the  first  Lady  Margaret  pro- 
fessor of  divinity,  the  office  having  been 
created  by  his  patroness.  In  1504  he  was 
elected  chancellor  of  the  university,  and 
was  also  raised  to  the  bench  as  bishop  of 
Rochester.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of 
the  new  learning,  and  of  reformation  ;  but 
contended  that  the  refoi-m  should  come 
from  within,  and  was  a  strong  opponent  of 
Luther.  He  bravely  opposed  the  divorce 
which  Henry  VIII.  was  seeking  from 
Catherine  of  Aragon,  and  so  fell  under  the 
royal  displeasure,  which  was  intensified  by 
his  opposition  to  the  king's  ecclesiastical 
supremacy  in  March,  1534.  Having  shown 
some  encouragement  to  the  Holy  Maid  of 
Kent,  he  was  attainted  of  misprision  of 
treason,  and  in  April  of  the  same  year  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  for  refusing  the 
oath  of  succession.  When  in  May  of  the 
following  year  he  was  made  a  cardinal,  the 
king  grimly  remarked  to  Cromwell,  "  Let 
the  p""ipe  send  him  a  hat,  but  I  will  so  pro- 
vide that  he  shall  wear  it  on  his  shoulders, 
fur  a  head  he  shall  have  none  to  set  it  on." 
The  brave  old  man  was  tried  on  the  17th  of 
the  following  June  for  denial  of  the  king's 
ecclesiastical  supremacy,  and  was  executed 
on  Tower  Hill.  His  remains  now  lie  in  the 
chapel  of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula  in  the 
Tower. 

Fitch,  John  {b.  1743,  d.  1798),  inventor, 
bom  at  South  Windsor,  Connecticut,  is 
the    creator    of    the    steamboat.     In    1787 


he  built  a  steamer  which  made  its 
trial  trip  on  the  Delaware  at  Phil- 
adelphia. He  endeavoured  to  get  the 
French  to  take  up  his  invention,  but 
his  design  was  checkmated  by  the 
Revolution ;  and  he  is  believed,  in  his 
poverty  and  disappointment,  to  have  ulti- 
mately put  an  end  to  his  life.  The  principle 
which  he  established  was  developed  by 
Robert  Fulton  iq.v.),  who  is  alleged  to  have 
had  access  tc  lus  plans  and  specifications 
while  they  were  in  the  custody  of  the 
American  Cousu   at  Lorient. 

Fitzgerald  Edward  (*  1809,  d.  1883), 
translator,  a  native  of  Bradfield,  Suf- 
folk, published  six  dramas  of  Calderon 
in  1853,  and  then  in  consequence  of  au 
unfavourable  review  withdrew  the  book. 
His  subsequent  translations  were  issued 
anon3'mously,  including  his  famous  versions 
of  "Omar  Khayyam,"  the  Persian  poet, 
now  a  recognised  English  classic. 

Fitzgerald,  Lord  Edward  (b.  1763,  d. 
1798),  Irish  politician,  was  a  younger  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Leinster  Entering  the  army, 
he  served  with  distinction  in  America.  On 
the  conclusion  of  the  War  of  Independence 
in  1783,  he  became  a  n\ember  of  the  Irish 
Parliament;  but  in  1788  again  joined  the 
ai-my,  and  saw  service  in  "Nova  Scotia.  In 
1790  he  once  more  entered  the  Irish  House 
of  Commons.  During  a  stay  in  Taris, 
under  the  influence  of  revolutionary  ideas, 
he  renounced  his  title,  and  about  the  same 
time  married  Pamela  {d.  1831),  daughter 
of  Egalite  Orleans  and  Madame  de  Genlis. 
In  1796  he  joined  the.  society  of  United 
Irishmen,  and  returned  to  France  to  make 
arrangements  for  the  projected  French  in- 
vasion. When  the  conspiracy  was  f  dis- 
covered, soon  after  his  return,  he  went  into 
hiding  in  Dublin,  but  was  tracked  out  and 
arrested  after  resistance,  in  which «  he 
received  wounds  that  proved  fatal  a  few 
days  afterwards  His  life  has  been  vrritten 
by  Moore  (1831) 

Fitzgerald,  John  David,  Lord  (J.  1816), 
Irish  lawyer,  was  Lord  Palmerston's  So- 
licitor-General for  Ireland  in  1865,  and  in 
the  following  year  became  Irish  Attorney- 
General.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  a 
judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench  in  Ireland, 
and  in  1882  was  made  a  lord  of  appeal 
in  ordinary,  with  the  dignity  of  baron  for 
life. 

Fitzgerald,  Percy  Hethrington  {b.  1834), 
Irish  miscellaneous  writer,  is  the  author 
of  many  works  of  fiction,  etc.,  and  joint 
author,  with  W.  G.  Wills,  of  Vander- 
decken,  produced  by  Mr.  Irving  at  the 
Lyceum. 

Fitzgerald,  Lord  Thomas,  ninth  Earl 
of  Kildare    {d.    1536),    was  vice-deputy  of 


Fit 


(309) 


Fla 


Ireland  in  1534,  when,  hearing  that  his 
father,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  Tower,  had 
been  put  to  death,  and  that  the  same  fate 
awaited  t^im  and  his  uncles,  he  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion,  seized  Dublin,  and 
laid  siege  to  the  castle.  After  the  rising 
had  been  suppressed,  he  unconditionally 
gave  himself  up,  and,  with  his  five  uncles, 
was  hanged. 

Fitzgibbon,  John,  first  Earl  of  Clare 
{b.  174y,  d.  lGU2),  Irish  statesman,  became 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  in  ITbU  as  Baron 
Fitzgibbon,  and  in  1795  was  elevated  to  the 
peerage  under  the  title  of  Earl  of  Clare. 

Fitzherbert,  Sir  Anthony  (d.  1538),  law- 
yer and  author,  a  native  of  Derbyshire, 
became  a  judge  in  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  m  1523.  Among  his  works,  which  are 
all  on  legal  subjects,  are  The  Grand 
Abndyement,  The  Office  and  Authority  of 
Justu-es  of  the  Peace,  and  Tlie  Office  of 
Sheriffs. 

Fitzherbert,  Maria  Anne,  nee  Smythe 
(J.  1756.  d.  1837),  "the  lass  of  Rich- 
mond HiU,"  was  married  in  1775  to 
Edward  Weld,  of  Lulworth  Castle,  who 
died  without  offspring,  as  did  her  second 
husband,  Thomas  Fitzherbert.  Four  years 
after  the  latter' s  decease,  namely  in 
1785.  she  was  privately  married  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV. 
Through  Fox,  her  royal  husband  denied 
the  marriage,  which,  however,  has  been 
placed  beyond  question.  His  attach- 
ment to  Lady  Jersey  led  to  a  sepa- 
ration ;  and  a  marriage  contracted  by  one 
of  the  royal  family  without  the  king's 
consent  or  twelve  months'  notice  to  the 
Privy  Council  being  invalid,  George  was 
free  to  enter  upon  his  marriage  with  Caro- 
line of  Brimswick.  The  connection  with 
Mrs.  Fitzherbert  was  afterwards  resumed, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Pope,  she  being  a 
Roman  Catholic,  but  it  was  again  broken  off 
in  1806,  owing  to  the  king's  infatuation  with 
Lady  Jersey.  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  always  be- 
haved with  admirable  discretion,  and  was 
treated  by  the  royal  family  with  great  con- 
sideration. 

Fitzjames, James.  [5(?«Bervnck, Dukeof .] 

Fitzmaurice,  Lord  Edmund  George  Petty 
(J.  1S4G).  politician,  is  second  son  of  the 
fourth  Marquis  of  Lansdowne.  In  1868 
he  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  mem- 
ber for  Calne,  and  in  1882  succeeded  Sir 
Charles  Dilke  as  under-secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs.  In  1885  he  was  compelled  by  ill- 
health  to  temporarily  retire  from  public  life, 
but  has  since  taken  part  in  the  Irish  contro- 
versy as  a  moderate  Home  Ruler. 

Fitzroy,  Robert  {h.  1805,  d.  1865),  ad- 
miral and  meteorologist,  bom  at  Ampton 


Hall,  near  Bury  St.  Edmunds  ;  he  com- 
manded the  Beagle  in  the  Darwin  ex- 
pedition to  South  America  in  1831,  and 
in  1843  was  appointed  governor  of  New 
Zealand,  but  his  sympathy  with  the  natives 
made  him  impopular  in  the  colony,  and  he 
was  recalled  in  1845.  In  1854,  having 
become  vice-admiral,  he  was  apjioiuted 
meteorological  statist  to  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  established  the  system  of  storm -signals 
which,  though  at  first  held  up  to  ridicide, 
has  proved  of  the  greatest  practical  value. 
Shortly  after  publishing  his  Weather  Book 
his  nerves  gave  way  from  overwork,  and  he 
committed  suicide. 

Fitzwilliam,  William  Wentworth,  fourth 
Earl  (b.  1748,  d.  1833),  statesman,  in- 
herited, besides  his  father's  estates,  the 
fortune  and  lands  of  the  Marquis  of 
Rockingham.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  revolution,  he,  vdth  many  other 
Whigs,  transferred  his  support  to  Pitt,  and 
in  1794  was  rewarded  with  the  post  of  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  A  wann  supporter 
of  Catholic  emancipation,  he  was  received 
m  Ireland  with  enthusiasm ;  his  sudden 
recall  the  next  year  made  the  rebellion 
inevitable.  On  Pitt's  death,  in  1806,  he 
became  Lord  President  of  the  Council,  but 
retired  with  the  Grenville  ministry  the  next 
year,  and  never  afterwards  took  active  part 
in  public  life. 

FlaccUB,  Cains  Valerius,  Roman  poet  of 
the  time  of  Vespasian,  is  known  chiefly  as 
author  of  the  Arijonautica,  an  epic  poem 
which  was  translated  into  English  by 
Nicholas  Whyte  in  1565. 

Flacius,  Matthias  {b.  1520,  d.  1575), 
Lutheran  divine,  a  native  of  Albona, 
Illyria,  was  a  puj^il  of  Luther  and 
Melauchthon  ;  the  latter  he  opposed  on 
the  subject  of  the  Leipzig  Interim.  For 
this  action  he  was  deprived  of  his  professor- 
ship of  Hebrew  Scriptures  at  Wittenberg. 
In  1557  he  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Jena,  but  was  ejected  from  his  chair  in 
1561,  because  of  his  doctrine  that  original 
sin  belongs  to  the  essence  of  man's  nature, 
and  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  Hfe 
wandering  about  between  Antweqi,  Frank- 
fort, and  Strasburg. 

Flahault  de  la  Billarderie,  Auguste 
Charles,  Comte  de  ('/.  1785.  d.  1870), 
French  soldier  and  diplomatist,  was  an 
aide-de-camp  of  Napoleon  the  Great, 
and,  having  gained  honour  in  the  Penin- 
sular war  and  the  Russian  campai^, 
was  in  1813  ennobled  with  the  title 
of  count,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division.  Becoming  an  exile 
after  Napoleon's  fall,  he  came  to  Eng- 
land, and  here  married  the  Baroness 
Keith  and  Nairne.      The  revolution  of  1830 


ria 


(310) 


Pie 


restored  him  to  French  soil  aud  service,  and 
from  1S12  to  184S  he  was  ambassador  at 
Yieuua.  He  held  tlie  same  post  in  London 
from  1360  to  1862.  and  became  grand  chan- 
cellor of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

Flambard,  Ralph  or  Rannulf  (d.  1123), 
of  Xorman  birth,  justiciar  of  Eng- 
land under  William  11.,  was  elevated  to 
the  bishopric  of  Durham  in  1099.  Though 
an  able,  he  was  not  a  scrupulous  man,  nor 
was  he  regardful  of  the  interests  of  the 
Church,  for  it  was  at  his  instance  that  the 
king  extended  feudalistic  customs  to  eccle- 
siastical property. 

Flaminius,  Caius(^.  cirm217B.c.), Roman 
general,  was  iirst  tribune  of  the  people,  then 
praetor  in  Sicily,  and  in  223  consul.  During 
his  consulship  he,  in  disobedience  to  the 
senate,  fought  against  the  Insubres  aud 
conquered  them.  Again  elected  consul  in 
217,  he  went  out  to  oppose  Hannibal,  and 
was  defeated  and  slain  in  the  battle  of 
Thrasymenus.  While  censor,  between  his 
two  terms  of  office  as  consul,  he  constructed 
the  Via  Flaminia. 

Flaminius,  T.  Quiutius  {d.  circa  175  B.C.), 
Roman  general,  was  made  consul  in  193, 
and  in  the  following  year  brought  the  Mace- 
donian war  to  an  end  by  defeating  Pliilip 
at  Cynoscephalse.  In  196  he  issued  a  pro- 
clamation restoring  Greece  to  independence. 
After  waging  a  successful  war  with  Nabis, 
tyrant  of  Sparta,  he  returned  to  Rome  and 
had  a  three  days'  triumph.  In  183  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Bithynia  to  demand 
the  surrender  of  Hannibal. 

Flanimarion,  Camilla  (b.  1842),  French 
astronomer,  entered  the  Paris  observatory 
in  1858.  His  most  successful  work,  The 
Plurality  of  Inhabited  Worlds,  has  been 
through  more  than  thirty  editions.  His 
Travels  in  the  Air,  describing  his  ballooning 
experiences,  has,  like  others  of  his  books, 
been  translated  into  English. 

Flamsteed,  John  [b.  1646,  d.  1719),  as- 
tronomer, bom  near  Denby,  was  ap- 
pointed astronomical  observator  to  the 
king  in  1675,  aud  for  his  use  the  Royal 
Observatory  was  built  in  the  following  year. 
It  was  he  who  compiled  the  first  reliable 
catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars.  His  most 
\ax^oxta.ntvroT\,HistoriaC<£lestisBritannica, 
appeared  in  three  volumes  in  1723.  Being 
in  holy  orders,  he  in  1684  was  presented  to 
the  living  of  Burstow,  Surrey,  where  he 
continued  to  pursue  his  astronomic£d 
investigations. 

Flandrin,  Jean  Hippolyte  {b.  1809, 
d.  1864),  French  historian  and  por- 
trait-painter, bom  at  Lyons,  studied 
at  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris,  and 
also  under  Ingres.    In  1832  he  won   the 


Prix  de  Rome  by  his  Recognition  of  Theseus, 
and  during  his  live  years'  residence  in  Italy 
painted  his  St.  Clair  Healing  the  Blind,  now 
in  the  cathedral  of  Nantes.  Some  of  his 
best  work  is  to  be  found  in  the  church  of 
St.  Germain-des-Pres,  Paris. 

Flaubert,  Gustave  {b.  1821,  d.  1880), 
French  novelist,  born  at  Rouen,  at 
first  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Victor 
Hugo,  but  afterwards  became  a  convert  to 
realism.  Plis  masterpiece,  Madame  Bovary, 
was  prosecuted  in  1856  by  the  government 
as  an  immoral  aud  auti-religious  work,  but 
without  success.  Salambo  appeared  in 
1862,  and  La  Tentation  de  St.  Antoine  in 
1874. 

Flavel,  John  (b.  circa  1630,  d.  1691), 
Nonconformist  divine,  born  at  Broms- 
grove,  was  educated  at  University  College, 
Oxford,  took  Presbyterian  orders  in  1650, 
and  was  ejected  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
in  1662.  After  the  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence he  laboured  at  Dartmouth  as  a  Non- 
conformist minister  vmtil  his  death.  His 
works,  which  are  mostly  devotional,  were 
collected  into  a  complete  edition  in  1820  (six 
volumes) . 

Flavianus,  {d.  449),  Archbishop  of  Con- 
stautiuople,  was  appointed  such  in  447.  In 
the  following  year  he  convened  a  synod,  at 
which  Eutyches  aud  his  monophysite  doc- 
trines were  condemned.  But  a  General 
Council  was  convoked  at  Ephesus  in  449  at 
the  instigation  of  the  friends  of  Eutyches, 
and  by  this  "  robber-synod,"  as  it  has  been 
called,  Flaviauus  was  deposed  and  sentenced 
to  exile.  Before  the  sentence  could  be 
executed  he  died  from  the  violence  of  which 
he  was  the  victim. 

Flaxman,  John  (*.  1755,  d.  1826), 
classical  sculptor,  bom  at  York,  was 
in  his  early  years  employed  by  the  Wedg- 
woods, and  made  many  of  their  most 
famous  designs.  On  the  completion  of  his 
monument  to  Lord  Mansfield  in  Westminster, 
in  1797,  he  became  A.R.A.,  in  1800  R.A., 
and  professor  of  sculpture  to  the  Academy  in 
1810.  Among  the  works  from  his  chisel  are 
the  monuments  in  St.  Paul's  to  Captain 
Montague,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Earl 
Howe,  and  Lord  Nelson.  The  Flaxman 
Gallery  in  University  College,  London,  with 
the  famous  group  of  Michael  Vanquishing 
Hntan,  was  founded  by  his  wife's  sister  and 
Miss  Deuman,  his  adopted  daughter.  No 
other  English  sculptor  has  been  so  deeply 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  antique 
world. 

necMer,  Esprit  (b.  1632,  c?.  1710),  French 
prelate,  preacher,  and  writer,  a  native  of 
Avignon,  was  received  at  the  French 
Academy  in  1673,  after  having  gained  great 
renown  as  a  pulpit  orator.  In  1685  he  became 


Fie 


(311) 


Fie 


bishop  of  Lavour,  and  afterwards  of  Nimes. 
His  works  include  lives  of  Theodosius  the 
Great  and  Cardinal  Ximenes. 

Flecknoe,  Eichard  {d.  circa  1678),  prose 
and  dramatic  writer,  was  a  well-known 
man  of  letters  in  London  from  about  1650 
to  the  time  of  his  death ;  but  is  now  remem- 
bered only  from  his  connection  with 
Drj'den's  satire  MacFlecknoe,  directed 
against  Shadwell. 

Fleetwood,  Charles  {b.  circa  1620,  d. 
1692),  Parliamentary  general  and  states- 
man, was  son  of  Sir  William  Fleet- 
wood, who  held  office  in  Charles  I.'s 
household.  By  1644  he  had  become  com- 
mander of  a  regiment  of  cavalry  ;  at 
the  battle  of  Worcester  he  fought  as 
lieutenant-general.  Having  man-ied  Crom- 
well's daughter,  Bridget,  after  the  death 
of  her  first  husband,  Ireton,  he  was 
sent  to  Ireland  as  lord-deputy  in  1654, 
and  remained  there  till  1657.  Though 
he  was  one  of  those  who  prevailed  upon 
Kichard  Cromwell  to  abdicate,  and  favoured 
Rthe  estoration,  he  was  excepted  from  the 
Act  of  pardon  and  indemnity. 

Fleischer,  Heinrich  Lebrecht  (6.  1801), 
first  of  Uviug  Arabic  grammarians,  a  native 
of  Schandau,  Saxony,  has  been  since  1835 
Oriental  professor  at  Leipzig. 

neming,  George,  LL.D.,  F.R.G.S.  {b. 
1833),  veterinarian  and  traveller,  bom  at 
Glasgow,  entered  the  army  in  1855,  and  saw 
active  service  in  the  Crimea,  in  North  China, 
and  elsewhere.  In  1883  he  was  appointed  to 
his  present  post  of  priucipal  veterniary  sur- 
geon to  the  forces.  He  has  also  been  for  seve- 
ral consecutive  years  president  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  was  first 
president  of  the  British  National  Veterinary 
Medical  Association,  and  has  received  many 
honours  from  learned  institutions  in  various 
countries  in  recognition  of  his  services  to 
veterinary  science.  He  has  also  been  pre- 
sented with  testimonials  by  the  veteriuary 
profession  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
colonies,  and  the  United  States. 

Fleming,  John  (6.  1785,  d.  1857), 
naturalist  and  divine,  a  native  of  Bath- 
gate, Liuhthgowshire,  was  professor  of 
natural  history  at  Aberdeen,  1832-43,  and 
of  natural  science  in  New  College,  Edin- 
burgh, 1845-57.  His  works  deal  mainly 
with  zoology  and  geology. 

Fleming,  Paul  {h.  1609,  d.  1640),  German 
lyrical  poet,  is  the  author  of  many  popular 
patriotic  and  love  songs. 

Fleming  or  Flemmyng,  Richard  (6. 
circa  1370,  d.  1431),  prelate,  and  foun- 
der of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford ;  he  be- 
came a  prebendary  of   York  in  1420,  and 


afterwards  bishop  of  Lincohi.  For  the  part 
he  took  iu  the  Council  of  Constance,  which 
commissioned  him  to  bum  the  bones  of 
WycHffe,  whose  adherent  he  had  once  been, 
he  would  have  been  rewarded  by  the  Pope 
with  the  northern  archbishopric  but  for  the 
opposition  of  the  Royal  Council. 

Fleming,  Sandford  (b.  1S27),  a  native  of 
Kirkcaldy,  civil  engiueer,  settled  in  Canada 
in  1845,  and  surveyed  and  superintended  the 
construction  of  the  Intercolonial  Railway. 
He  also  surveyed  the  line  of  route  for  the 
Pacific  Railway.  In  1881  he  advocated  the 
adoption  of  a  prime  meridian  to  be  common 
to  aU  nations,  which  has  since  been 
approved  by  the  International  Congi-ess  of 
Scientists. 

Fletcher,  Andrew  (Fletcher  of  Saltoun) 
{b.     1655,     d.     1716),     Scottish     pubhcist, 
a     direct     descendant     on     his     mother's 
side  of  Robert  Bruce.    Entering  the  Scot- 
tish ParUament  in   1681,   he    opposed  the 
crown    so    formidably    that    he    was  out- 
lawed,  and  his  property  confiscated.      He 
returned  to  London  in  1683,  but  again  fled 
to  Holland  on  the  discovery  of   the    Rye 
House  plot.     In  1685  he    came    over  with 
Monmouth  ;  but  having  shot  the  Mayor  of 
Lyme  in  a  personal  quarrel,  was  obliged  to 
abandon  the  expedition.     He  then  travelled 
in  Spain  and  in  Hungary,  where  he  fought 
as  a  volunteer  against  the  Turks,  and  again 
settled  in  Scotland  after  the  revolution  of 
1688.     He  was  a  strong  opponent  of  the 
union  between  the  northern  and  southern 
kiagdoms,  and  when  it  had  become  an  ac- 
complished fact,  withdrew  from  pubhc  life 
and  gave  himself  up  to  agriculture.     The 
remark  by  which  he  is  now  best  known  :  "I 
knew  a  very  wise  man  that  believed  that  if 
a  man  were  permitted  to  make  all  the  ballads, 
he  did  not  care  who  should  make  all  the 
laws,  of  a  nation,"  occurs  in  his  Account  of  a 
Conversation  concerning  a  Right  Regulation 
of  Government  for  the  Common  Good  of  Man- 
kind. 

netcher,  Giles  {h.  circa  1588,  d.  1623), 
poet  and  divine,  the  yoimger  brother  of 
Phineas  Fletcher  (q.v.),  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  for  many 
years  held  the  living  of  Alderton  in  Suffolk. 
His  sacred  poem.  Christ's  Victory  and 
Triumph,  appeared  iu  1610,  and  is  remark- 
able because  of  the  influence  which  it  can 
be  traced  to  have  exercised  upon  Milton. 

netcher,  John  {b.  1576,  d.  1625),  dra- 
matist, was  the  son  of  Richard  Fletcher 
(■l.v.),  and  cousin  of  Giles  and  Phineas 
Fletcher  (q.v.).  On  leaving  Cambridge 
for  London,  he  came  into  association 
with  Ben  Jonson  and  Francis  Beaumont ; 
and  witli  the  latter  of  these  formed  a  literary 
alliance  which  led  to  the  production  of  the 


rie 


(312) 


Plo 


numerous  dramas  that  bear  their  names. 
Before  this  ho  had  written  The  Woman 
Hater,  and  Thierry  arid  Theodoret.  After 
the  death  of  Beaumont,  he  wrote  a  nuni- 
ber  of  dramas  aloue,  and  others  in  con- 
junction with  Massinger  and  Eowley,  and 
last  of  all  The  Tiro  yoble  Kinsmen  in  col- 
laboration with  Shakesjieare.  He  died  of 
the  plague. 

netcher,  Phiueas  {b.  1582,  d.  16.50), 
poet  and  divine,  was  elder  brother  of  Giles 
Fletcher  (q.v.).  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  from 
1621  till  his  death  was  rector  of  Hilgay, 
Norfolk.  In  addition  to  The  I'urple  Ls/at/d, 
or  the  Isle  of  Man,  published  iu  1633,  he 
wrote  Sicelides,  a  drama. 

Fletcher,  Richard  {b.  circa  1525,  d. 
1596),  English  divine,  father  of  John 
Fletcher  (q.v.),  was  bishop  of  Bristol  in 
1589.  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Worcester 
in  1592,  and  to  that  of  London  in  1594.  He 
was  chosen  by  Elizabeth  to  attempt  the 
conversion  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and 
was  present  at  the  unfortunate  queen's 
execution. 

Fleury,  Andre  Hercules  de.  Cardinal 
{b.  1653,  d.  1743),  French  ecclesiastic 
and  statesman,  bom  at  Lodeve,  Lan- 
guedoc,  was  at  first  almoner  to  Louis  XIV. , 
then  in  1698  Bishop  of  Frejus,  and  in  1715 
was  appointed  tutor  to  the  dauphin, 
who  in  that  year,  a  child  of  five,  succeeded 
as  Louis  XV.  He  gained  complete  influence 
over  the  young  king's  mind,  and  in  1726 
succeeded  the  Duke  of  Bourbon  as  prime 
minister  and  was  made  cardinal.  Though  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning,  his  administra- 
tion must  be  held  largely  accountable  for 
the  disasters  of  the  Eevolution. 

Fleury,  Claude  (*.  1640,  d.  1723), 
French  historian,  was  at  first  abbot  of 
Loc-Dieu,  and  was  afterwards  prior  of 
Argenteuil.  His  chief  work  is  his  Histoire 
Ecclesiastique,  which  was  published  in  Paris 
between  1691  and  1720,  and  was  the  first 
attempt  to  write  a  systematic  history  of  the 
Church  and  its  origin.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  Fleury  had  got  down  to  the  year 
1414. 

Fliedner,  Theodor  (*.  1800,  d.  1864),  bom 
at  Epstein,  was  founder  of  the  Protestant 
order  of  deaconesses. 

Flinders,  Matthew  (J.  1774,  d.  1814), 
navigator,  a  native  of  Donington,  Lin- 
colnshire, went  to  Australia  in  1795,  and, 
exploring  the  coast  south  of  Port  Jackson, 
discovered  Bass  Strait,  between  the  con- 
tinent and  Tasmania.  In  1801  he  surveyed 
)  the  Australian  coast  from  Cape  Leeuwin  to 
Bass  Strait,  then  northwards  to  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,   then  across   to    Timor,  then 


back  to  Cape  Leeuwin,  and  round  to  Port 
Jackson.  On  his  return  voyage  in  1803  he 
was  captured  by  the  French  and  imprisoned 
for  six  years  in  the  Isle  of  France.  His 
Voyage  to  Terra  Australis  was  published  ia 
1814. 

Hint,  Robert,  D.D.  (i.  1837),  Scotch 
theologian,  was  elected  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  and  political  economy  at  St. 
Andrew's  in  1864,  and  La  1876  became  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Edinburgh.  His  Anti- 
theistic  Theories  and  Theism  both  appeared 
in  1S77  ;  they  were  preceded  by  his 
Philosojjhy  of  History  in  France  and 
Germany. 

nood,Heiiry  (/;.  1732,  <^.  1791),  Irish  patriot 
and  orator,  was  son  of  Warden  Flood,  chief 
justice  of  the  King's  Bench  in  Ireland,  and 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  entered 
the  Irish  Parliament  as  member  for  Kilkenny 
in  1759,  and  in  1761  was  elected  for  Callan. 
In  1775  he  received  from  Lord  Harcourt  the 
post  of  vice-treasurer  for  Ireland,  which  he 
held  until  1781,  when  his  advanced  Nation- 
alist views  led  to  retirement.  Soon  after- 
wards he  was  pitted  against  his  great  rival 
Grattan,  upon  the  right — which  Flood 
denied — of  the  English  Parliament  to  bind 
that  of  Ireland.  The  contest  was  carried 
on  with  eminent  ability,  but  with  great 
acrimony,  and  nearly  resulted  in  a  duel. 
Finding  his  political  influence  declining, 
Flood  sought  entrance  to  the  English  House 
of  Commons,  and  was  returned  for  Win- 
chester in  1783,  still,  however,  retaining  his 
seat  in  the  Irish  Parliament.  Though  a 
brilliant  orator,  he  found  less  recognition  at 
Westminster  than  at  Dublin,  but  in  1787 
his  opposition  to  Pitt  was  such  as  to  extort 
the  highest  praise  from  even  his  opponents. 
In  his  will  he  bequeathed  £5,000  a  year  to 
his  Irish  alma  mater.  It  should  be  added 
that  he  killed  an  electioneering  opponent 
in  a  duel,  for  which  he  was  tried  but 
acquitted. 

Floquet,  Charles  Thomas  (i.  1828),  French 
statesman,  first  attained  notoriety  by  shout- 
ing "Vive  la  Pologne,  Monsieur!  "  to  the 
Czar  Alexander  on  the  occasion  of  the 
latter's  visit  to  Napoleon  III.  In  1S71  he 
was  imprisoned  for  several  months  on  a 
charge  of  having  played  into  the  hands  of 
the  Commune  in  the  previous  year  as  a 
member  of  the  Government  of  Paris.  He 
entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1876, 
for  the  11th  arrondissement  of  Paris,  and 
at  once  set  himself  with  marked  ability  to 
oppose  the  reactionary  designs  then  in 
course  of  development.  In  1885  he  suc- 
ceeded M.  Brisson  as  president  of  the 
Chamber.  In  April,  1888,  he  formed  a 
ministry,  and  in  the  following  July, 
challenged  by  General  Boulanger,  he  fought 


Plo 


(313) 


Poi 


a  duel  with  that  personage,  and  gave  him  a 
serious  wound  in  the  neck.  Being  defeated 
on  the  question  of  the  revision  of  the 
Senate,  he  resigned  in  February,  1889.  In 
November  of  the  same  year  he  again 
became  president  of  the  Chamber. 

Florence  of  Worcester  {d.  1118),  English 
chronicler,  was  a  monk  in  the  city  after 
which  he  is  nanjt  d.  He  wrote  a  Chronicon 
which  comes  oown  to  withia  two  years  of 
his  (Jcath,  and  is  of  special  authority  be- 
tween that  time  and  the  year  1030.  It  has 
been  edited  for  the  English  Historical 
Society  (two  volumes,  1848),  and  has  foimd 
translators  in  Forester  (1847)  and  Stevenson 
(1853). 

Flores,  Antonio  {b.  1833),  South  Ameri- 
can statesman,  is  son  of  the  following. 
After  representing  the  republic  of  Ecuador 
at  Washington,  Paris,  Loudon,  and  Brus- 
sels, he  was,  in  1888,  elected  president. 

Flores,  Juan  Jos^  {b.  1800,  d.  1864), 
first  president  of  Ecuador,  was  elected  to 
that  post  iu  1830  after  having  participated 
in  the  War  of  ludependeuce.  He  resigned 
in  1835,  and  was  re-elected  iu  133y,  and 
again  in  1843. 

Florian,  Jean  Pierre  Claris  de  (Jb.  1755, 
d.  1794),  French  fabulist  and  romancist, 
was  a  disciple  and  friend  of  Voltaire. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  comedies,  prose 
romances,  etc.,  but  is  seen  at  his  best  m  his 
Fables. 

norio,  Franz  (Jb.  1520,  d.  1570),  Flemish 
painter,  has  been  called  the  Raphael  of 
Flanders.  His  Nativity  is  in  the  cathedral 
of  Antwerp,  his  native  city. 

Florio,  John  (5.  circa  1553,  d.  1625),  trans- 
lator of  Montaigne,  was  the  son  of  an  Italian 
Protestant  exile,  and  was  born  in  London.  In 
1581  John  Florio  was  admitted  a  member  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  set  up  as  a 
teacher  of  Italian  and  French.  In  1598  he 
published  an  Italian  and  English  dictionaiy 
imder  the  title  of  A  World  of  Words.  His 
translation  of  Montaigne  appeared  in  1603. 
The  British  Museum  library  contains  two 
copies  of  this  work,  one  bearing  Shakes- 
peare's autograph,  and  the  other  that  of 
Ben  Jonson,  and  it  is  clear  from  the  Tempest 
that  the  former  had  read  the  work. 

FlotOW,  Friedrich  Adolphus  von  (J. 
1812,  d.  1883),  operatic  composer,  bom 
at  Rentendorf,  Mecklenburg  -  Schwerin, 
leapt  into  fame  with  his  Naufraye  de 
la  Mlduse,  produced  in  Paris  in  1839. 
Among  the  numerous  operas  that  followed 
it,  the  only  one  that  became  generally  popu- 
lar was  Mnrtn.  fii'st  performed  at  Vienna 
in  1847.  Flotow's  music  has  Uttle  but  melody 
to  recommend  it. 


Flourens,  Marie  Jean  Pierre  {b.  1704,  d. 
1867),  French  anatomist  and  physiologist, 
was  bom  at  MaureLlhan,  Herault.  After  pub- 
lishing some  remarkable  works  dealing  with 
the  nervous  system  in  its  relation  to  sen- 
sation, he  was  appointed  to  a  professorship 
in  the  museum  of  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  in 
1855  at  the  College  de  France.  In  IS33  he 
became  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy 
of  Science,  and  iu  1840  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  in  succession  to 
Midland.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  but 
found  time  also  for  politics,  being  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1838,  and 
becoming  a  peer  of  France  in  1846. 

Flower,  William  Henry,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

(6.  1831),  zoologist,  was  bom  at  Stratford- 
on-Avon.  After  holding  several  important 
appointments,  and  gaining  a  royal  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society,  he  succeeded  Sir 
Richard  Owen  in  1884  as  superintendent 
of  the  natm-al  history  collections  in  the 
British  Museum.  His  contributions  to 
scientific  literature  have  been  mainly 
ethnological. 

Fludd,  Robert  (J.  1574,  d.  1637),  physician 
and  mystic,  bom  at  Milgate,  Kent,  was  the 
author  of  a  system  of  theosophy  which  had 
enough  vogue  to  evoke  criticisms  from 
Kepler  and  others. 

Fliigel,  Gustav  Lebrecht  (6.  1802,  d. 
1870).  Arabic  scholar,  was  for  some  years 
professor  at  Meissen.  His  greatest  work 
IS  his  edition  and  Latin  translation  of 
Hajjy  Khalfa's  Bibliographical  Dictiotiari/, 
which  he  executed  for  the  Oriental  Text 
Committee  of  Loudon,  1835-58,  in  seven 
vols,  quarto. 

Foggo,  George.     [See  Foggo,  James.] 

Foggo,  James  {b.  1790,  d.  1860),  painter, 
was,  with  his  brother  George  {b.  1793,  d. 
1869),  educated  in  the  school  of  the  French 
Academy.  Returning  to  England  (he  was 
born  in  London),  the  brothers  worked 
together  in  the  production  of  historical 
pictures,  but,  though  winning  the  ad- 
miration of  some  of  the  greatest  artists 
of  the  day,  their  work  was  never  popular. 

Foix,  Count  de  (d.  1064),  was  the  founder 
of  the  celebrated  French  family  of  this  name, 
which  took  its  title  from  what  is  now  the 
department  of  Ariege,  in  the  south  of 
France. 

Foix,  Gaston  III.  {b.  1331,  d.  1391),  sur- 
named  Phcebus  from  his  personal  beauty, 
was  the  most  distinguished  member  of  his 
family.  In  1345  he  was  made  governor  of 
Languedoc  and  Gascony  as  a  reward  lur  his 
services  against  the  English,  and  when 
superseded  by  the  Due  de  Berri  (1381)  he 
maintained  his  position  by  force,  defeating 


Foi 


(314) 


Foo 


the  duke  at  Eevel.  In  the  end  the  cardinal 
of  Ajuieus  etYected  a  reconciliation,  and 
Gaston  retii-ed  to  his  own  court.  Before 
this  he  had  joined  in  a  crusade  against  the 
heathen  Letts  of  Prussia,  and  had  also 
released  certain  members  of  the  royal 
familj''  when  besieged  by  Jacquerie  insur- 
gents at  Meaux.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
work  on  hunting,  Miroir  de  Fhebus. 

Foix,  Gaston  IV.  (d.  1472),  co-operated 
with  Charles  VII.  in  his  wars  against 
England,  and  was  invested  with  the  seign- 
iory of  Carcassonne  and  the  countships  of 
Roussillon  and  Cerdagne. 

Fotx,  Eoger  Raymond  {d.  1223),  accom- 
panied King  Philip  Augustus  to  Palestine, 
and  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Acre. 
Later  he  became  a  follower  of  the  Albi- 
genses,  for  which  his  estates  were  confis- 
cated by  Simon  de  Montfort. 

Folard,  Jean  Charles  {b.  1669,  d.  1752), 
tactician,  bom  in  Avignon,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  several  of  the  wars  of  his  age,  wrote 
works  on  military  and  other  subjects,  and 
edited  F'jhjbius.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the 
Eoyal  Society  of  London. 

Foley,  John  Henry  {b.  1818,  d.  1874), 
sculptor,  bom  in  Dublin,  entered  the  schools 
of  the  Eoyal  Academy  in  1835.  His  Youth 
at  a  Stream  was  exhibited  in  the  national 
competition  at  Westminster  Hall,  and  his 
statue  of  Hampden  appeared  at  the  same 
place  in  1847.  In  1848  he  became  A.R.A., 
and  in  1858  R.A.  The  figure  of  Prince 
Albert  for  the  Albert  Memorial  in  Kensing- 
ton Gardens  is  fiom  his  chisel. 

Foley,  Sir  Thomas  (b.  1757,  d.  1833), 
British  admiral,  commanded  the  St.  George 
in  1793,  and  assisted  in  the  recapture 
of  the  St.  Jago,  of  the  ga  Ira,  and  of  the 
Censcur.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battles  of  Cape  St.  Vincent  and  the  Nile, 
and  in  the  bombardment  of  Copenhagen. 
In  1812  he  became  vice-admiral,  and  in  1830 
commander-in-chief  at  Portsmouth,  where 
he  died. 

Folgore,  Italian  poet,  of  whom,  although 
a  number  of  his  sonnets  have  come  down  to 
us,  notliing  is  known  except  that  he  lived  at 
the  end  of  the  13th  century. 

Folkes,  Martin  {b.  1690,  d.  1754),  English 
antiquary,  bom  in  London,  was  president 
of  the  Eoyal  Society  in  1741,  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  in  1750,  and  also  of  the 
Paris  Academy  of  Science,  and  compiled  A 
Table  of  English  Gold  Coins  (1736),  and  A 
Table  of  English  Silver  Coins  (1745). 

FoUett,  Sir  "William  Webb  (6.  1798,  d. 
1845),  lawyer,  bom  at  Topsham,  Devon, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1823,  and  quickly 
became  leader  of  the  western  circuit.  In  1835 


he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for 
Exeter,  and  in  1834  became  Sir  Eobert 
Peel's  Solicitor-General,  an  ofiice  to  wliich 
he  was  reappointed  on  a  later  occasion, 
becoming  Attorney-General  in  1844.  Had 
not  his  health  broken  down,  he  would  no 
doubt  have  risen  to  higher  distinction. 

Fonblanque,  Albany  William  {b.  1793,  d. 
1872),  journalist  and  statistician,  born  in 
Loudon,  was  editor  of  the  Examiner  from 
1830  until  he  received  the  office  of  statis- 
tical secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1847. 
In  1854  he  represented  England  at  the  Paris 
International  Statistical  Congress. 

Fontaine,  Pierre  Fran(jois  Leonard  [b. 
1762,  d.  1853),  French  architect,  was 
appointed  architect  of  the  Tuileries  in  1801, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  Percier  and  Ber- 
nier,  directed  the  pubUc  works  of  France  for 
more  than  half  a  centuiy,  being  employed 
in  the  extension  and  restoration  of  the 
palaces  of  the  'Louvre,  Saint  Cloud,  and 
Fontainebleau. 

Fontaines,  Madame  de  {d.  1730),  French 
novelist,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire,  and 
wrote,  among  other  works.  La  Comtesse  de 

Savoie. 

Fontana,  Domenico  (6. 1543.  <^.  1607),  archi- 
tect and  engineer,  bom  at  Mili,  near  'Lake 
Como,  was  for  some  years  papal  architect 
at  Eome,  and  built  the  Lateran  palace  and 
the  Vatican  library.  After  the  death  of  his 
patron.  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  he  went  to  Naj^les, 
where  he  was  royal  architect  and  engineer 
until  his  death. 

FonteneUe,  Bernard  le  Bovier  de  {b. 
1657,  d.  1757),  French  poet,  dramatist, 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Eouen, 
was  a  nephew  of  Comeille,  his  mother 
being  that  poet's  sister.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  in  1691,  and 
in  1697  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
Academy  of  Science.  For  some  time  be- 
fore the  close  of  his  life  he  was  the 
oldest  member  of  three  academies,  and 
came  to  be  known  as  "  the  Nestor  of  Litera- 
ture." His  tragedy  of  Aspar,  produced 
early  in  his  career,  fell  flat,  nor  was  his 
poetry  a  success,  but  his  Dialogues  of  the 
Bead,  his  Ideas  on  the  Plurality  of  Worlds, 
and  other  works,  which  aimed  at  the  popu- 
lai-isation  of  scientific  knowledge,  brought 
him  much  fame, 

Fontanes,  Louis,  Marquis  de  (b.  1757, 
d.  1821),  French  politician,  poet,  and  writer, 
translated  Pope's  Essay  on  Man  in  1783. 
In  1804  he  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Corps  Legislatif,  and  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation as  an  orator. 

Foote,  Sir  Edward  James  {b.  circa  1767, 
d.   1833),   British   admiral,  was  placed   by 


Poo 


(315) 


For 


Nelson  in  charge  of  the  blockade  of  the  Bay 
of  Naples  in  1799,  and  signed  a  treaty  with 
the  rebels  which  Nelson  thought  it  necessary 
to  annul.  He  became  rear-admii'al  in  1812, 
and  vice-admiral  in  1821. 

Foote,  Samuel  {b.  1720,  d.  1777), 
comedian,  dramatist,  actor,  and  humorist, 
born  at  Truro,  studied  at  Worcester 
College,  Oxford,  where,  however,  he 
failed  to  take  his  degree.  After  spend- 
ing his  patrimony  in  the  gaieties  of 
London  Ufe,  he  took  to  the  stage,  but 
was  not  successful  iu  either  tragedy  or 
comedy.  In  17i7,  however,  in  a  small 
theatre  in  the  Hajonarket,  he  began  to 
give  variety  entertainments,  cousistiug  of 
imitations  of  the  principal  actors  and  other 
celebrities  of  the  day,  and  at  once  found 
himself  famous,  so  exquisite  were  his  powers 
of  mimicry.  He  continued  to  give  such 
entertaiuments  in  Loudon,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin,  and  his  professional  career  was  not 
brought  to  an  end  even  when,  iu  1766,  one 
of  his  legs  had  to  be  amputated.  Among 
his  comedies  are  The  Mayor  of  Garratt  and 
The  Liar. 

Forbes,  Alexander,  fourth  Lord  Forbes  of 
Pitsligo  {b.  1678,  d.  1762),  soldier  and  author, 
took  part  in  the  risings  of  1715  and  1745, 
and  after  Culloden  fled  to  France, 
retmiiing  to  his  native  land,  however,  in 
1749.  He  wrote  Moral  and  Philosophical 
Egsfrtjs,  and  has  the  still  greater  Uterary 
interest  of  being  the  supposed  prototype  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  Baron  of  Bradwardine. 

Forbes,  Alexander  Penrose  [b.  1817,  d. 
1875) ,  Scotch  prelate,  born  at  Edinburgh,  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Brechin  in  1817,  and 
in  1860  was  censured  and  admonished  by 
his  brothers  of  the  Scottish  episcopacy 
for  a  charge  in  which  he  advocated  the 
ideas  associated  with  the  name  of  Dr. 
Pusey. 

Forbes,  Archibald  (b.  1838),  war  cor- 
respondent, the  son  of  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Morayshire,  and 
was  educated  at  Aberdeen  University. 
After  an  adventurous  career,  part  of  it 
as  a  private  in  the  Royal  Dragoons,  he 
took  to  journalism.  Duriug  the  siege  of 
Paris  he  corresponded  for  the  Daily  News, 
and  represented  the  same  paper  in  the  Car- 
hst  war,  and  later  in  the  Russo-Turkish 
war,  sending  home,  at  great  personal  risk, 
his  famous  accounts  of  the  crossing  of  the 
Danube,  of  the  battles  around  Plevna  and 
in  the  Shipka  Pass.  He  was  also  present  at 
the  first  battles  in  the  Afghan  war,  and,  after 
interviewing  Thibaw,  king  of  Bm-mah, 
posted  off  to  Zululand,  and  was  present  at 
the  victory  of  L^lundi,  riding  110  miles  in 
fifteen  hours,  in  order  to  be  the  first  to 
transmit  the  news  of  the  battle  to  England. 


He  then  went  on  to  Pietei-maritzburg,  where 
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  was  anxiously  expect- 
ing news  from  the  front,  the  280  miles 
being  covered  in  ninety-six  hours. 

Forbes,  Duncan  (*.  1685,  d.  1747), 
Scotch  politician,  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Paris,  and  began 
to  practise  as  an  advocate  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1709.  In  1717  he  became  So- 
licitor-General for  Scotland,  in  1722  was 
elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Inver- 
npss-shire,  in  1725  was  appointed  Lord 
Advocate,  and  in  1737  became  Lord 
President  of  the  Court  of  Sessions.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  suppression 
of  both  the  rebellions  of  the  century, 
and  to  him  the  Government  were  in- 
debted for  the  plan  of  raising  Highland 
regiments.  His  loyalty,  however,  was  ill- 
rewarded,  and  the  refusal  of  the  ministry  to 
reimbiu'se  the  losses  he  incurred  in  opposing 
Charles  Edward  in  1745  is  said  to  have 
fretted  him  into  the  fever  of  which  he 
died.  He  is  to  be  held  in  honour  for  the 
many  reforms  he  effected  in  the  Scottish 
courts. 

Forbes,  Edward  (b.  1815,  d.  1854), 
naturalist,  born  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man, 
published  his  History  of  the  Starfishes, 
his  cliief  work,  embodying  the  result 
of  researches  carried  on  for  many  years, 
in  1841.  In  1842  he  became  palaeon- 
tologist to  the  Geographical  Survey;  in 
1851  professor  of  natural  historj-  to  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  in  1853  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Edinburgh. 

Forbes,  James  David  (b.  1809,  d.  1869), 
physicist,  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  at  Edinburgh — his  native  city — 
when  only  twenty- four.  In  1859  became 
principal  of  the  United  Colleges  of  St.  An- 
di'ews,  and  here  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  days  in  scientific  research,  dealing 
chiefly  with  the  phenomena  of  light  and 
heat.  He  is  well  known  as  an  early  Alpine 
traveller  and  investigator  of  the  movement 
of  glaciers. 

Forbes,  Sir  John  (b.  1787,  d.  1861), 
physician,  bom  at  Cuttlebrae,  Banffshire, 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Cyclo- 
pcedia  of  Practical  Medicine,  and  in  1836 
founded  the  British  and  Foreign  Jfedical 
Review,  which  ultimately  lost  its  iufluence 
in  consequence  of  its  advocacy  of  homoe- 
opathy and  other  doctrines  obnoxious  to  the 
profession. 

Forbes,  Sir  William,  of  Pitsligo  {b. 
1739,  d.  1806),  banker  and  author,  bom 
at  Edinburgh,  was  founder  of  the  bank 
which,  in  1830,  became  the  Union  Bank 
of  Scotland.  He  ^\Tote  a  life  of  Beattie 
the  poet  iu  1805,  and  also  Memoirs  of  a 
Banking  JEouse  (1803). 


For 


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Tor 


Forbes-Mackenzie,  William  (h.  1801,  d. 
1862),  Scotch  politician,  was  author  of  the 
Act  passed  in  18.53  regulatuig  public-houses 
in  Scotland,  and  still  known  as  the  Forbes- 
Mackenzie  Act. 

Forcellini.     [See  Facciolati.] 

Ford,  E.  Onslow  (b.  1852),  English 
sculptor,  was  born  in  London,  and  studied 
at  Antwerp  and  Munich.  His  statues  in- 
clude Sir  Rowland  Hill  (1882),  Mr.  Glad- 
stone (1883),  and  Mr.  Irving  as  Hamlet 
(1883). 

Ford,  John  (b.  1586,  d.  circa  1639), 
dramatist,  bom  at  Ilsington,  Devon, 
was  a  maternal  nephew  of  Chief  Justice 
Popham.  After  studying  for  a  time  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  he,  in  1602,  en- 
tered the  Middle  Temple,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar,  but  turned  aside  to  literature. 
His  first  productions  were  poems,  and 
it  was  not  tiU  1629  that  he  ap^jeared  be- 
fore the  public  as  a  dramatist  with  the 
comedy.  The  Lover'' s  Melancholy.  His  finest 
tragedy,  ^Tis  Pity  She's  a  Whore,  was  pub- 
lished in  1633,  as  were  also  The  Broken 
Heart  and  Love's  Sacrifice.  The  Chronicle 
History  of  Perkin  Warhcck  appeared  in  1634, 
The  Fancies  Chaste  and  Noble  and  The  Lady's 
Trial  in  1638.  He  also  wrote  several  other 
plays,  some  of  them  in  co-operation  with 
Dekker,  William  Rowley,  and  Webster.  His 
works  were  edited  by  William  Oifford  in 
1827,  and  this  edition  was  revised  by  Alex- 
ander Dyce  in  1869.  In  1840  they  found 
another  editor  iu  Hartley  Coleridge. 

Ford,  Richard  (b.  1796,  d.  1858),  traveller 
and  scholar,  born  in.  London,  spent  mucH  of 
his  time  in.  Spain,  collecting"  books  and 
works  of  art,  etc.  In  1845  he  wrote  the 
Handbook  on  Spain  for  Mm-ray's  series,  and 
in  1846  Gatherings  from  Spain. 

Fordun,  John  de,  Scotch  chronicler,  was 
a  secular  priest  and  a  cancm  of  the  cathedral- 
church  of  Aberdeen.  Having,  it  is  said, 
travelled  on  foot  through  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  for  materials,  he  began  to  write  his 
Scotichronicon,  extending  from  the  eai'liest 
times  down  to  the  death  of  King  Da^'id  I. 
in  1153.  His  work  was  continued  in  1441 
by  Walter  Bower,  who  utilised  the  ma- 
terials he  had  left,  and  brought  down  the 
chronicle  to  the  year  1437.  The  most  recent 
edition  of  Fordun's  own  work  is  that 
edited  by  Mr.  W.  F.  Skene,  and  published 
1871-72. 

Forey,  Louis  EKe  Frederic  [b.  1804. 
d.  1872),  French  gelieral,  born  in  Paris, 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  conp 
d'etat  of  1851,  and  during  the  Cri- 
mean war  held  for  x  time  command 
of  the  besieging  army  before  Sebastopol. 
In  the  Itahan    war  of   1860  ae  defeated 


the  Austrians  at  Montebello ;  while  in 
1861,  being  in  command  of  the  Mexican 
expedition,  he  stormed  the  stronghold  of 
Puebla,  for  which  he  was  made  marshal  of 
France. 

Forkel,  Johann  Nicholas  (b.  1749,  d.  1818), 
musical  historian  and  composer,  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  General  History  of 
Music,  in  two  vols,  quarto. 

Formes,  Karl  J.  {b.  1810,  d.  1884), 
Gennan  operatic  singer,  bom  at  Miihlheim, 
made  his  dcbiit  in  opera  at  Cologne  in  1842 
as  Sarastro  in  the  ZauberJKte.  He  frequently 
appeared  at  Covent  Garden,  and  was,  per- 
haps, the  most  popular  bass  singer  of  his 
time. 

Formes,  Theodor  {b.  1826,  d.  1874),  Ger- 
man tenor  singer,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
made  his  iust  appearance  at  Of  en  in  1846 
as  Edgai'do  in  Lucia. 

Forrest,  Alexander  (5.  1849),  Australian 
explorer,  born  at  Bunbury,  Western  Aus- 
tralia, is  a  younger  brother  of  John 
Forrest  (q.v.).  In  conjunction  with  Hill, 
he  in  1879  discovered  the  pastoral  region 
now  known  as  the  Kimberley  district,  and 
ascended  the  Fitzroy  for  a  distance  of  some 
250  miles. 

Forrest,  Edwin  (J.  1806,  d.  1872), 
American  tragedian,  bom  at  Philadelphia, 
made  his  debut  in  New  York  in  No- 
vember, 1820,  and  in  1834  visited  Eng- 
land. His  favourite  roles  were  those  of 
Othello,  Macbeth,  Richard  III.,  and  Spar- 
tacus. 

Forrest,  John  (b.  1847),  explorer,  and 
brother  of  Alexander  Forrest  (q.v.),  con- 
ducted several  expeditions  in  Western  Aus- 
tralia, which  were  described  in  his  Explor- 
ations in  Australia,  published  in  London  in 
1875. 

Forrester,  Alfred  Henry  [b.  1804,  d. 
1872),  miscellaneous  writer  and  etcher, 
better  known  as  Alfred  Crowquill,  was  one 
of  the  original  contributors  to  Bei'tley's 
Magazine  and  Punch. 

Forster,  Ernst  {jb.  1800,  d.  1885),  art 
writer  and  painter,  and  brother  of  Fried- 
rich  Christoph  Forster  (q.v.),  was  born  at 
Miinchengosserstadt,  and  was  a  voluminous 
writer  on  art.  Among  his  works  is  a  His- 
tory of  German  Art,  published  in  five 
volumes  1851-60. 

Forster,  Friedrich  Christoph  (J.  1791, 
d.  1868).  German  poet  and  historian, 
and  brother  of  Ernst  Forster  (q.v.).  was 
born  near  Kamburg,  Saxe  -  Meiningen, 
and  was.  from  1829  until  his  death,  cus- 
todian of  the  Royal  Art  museum  at  Berlin. 
His  historical  works  are  mainly  concerned 


For 


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For 


with  the  history  of  Prussia  and  the  War  of 
Liberation. 

Forster,  Johann  Georg  Adam  {b.  1754, 
d.  1794),  ti-aveller  and  zoologist,  was  bom 
near  Dantzic,  and  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Johann  Reinhold  Forster  (q.v.),  whom  he 
accompanied  on  his  voyage  round  the  world 
with  Captain  Cook.  For  some  time  he 
was  professor  of  natural  liistory  at  Cassel 
and  at  Wilna,  and  in  1788  was  appoiated 
librarian  to  the  Elector  of  Mayence.  His 
works  were  collected  into  a  complete  edition 
in  1843. 

Forster,  Johann  Reinhold  (b.  1729,  d. 
1798),  bom  at  Dirschau,  Prussia,  ac- 
companied Captain  Cook  as  natm'alist  on 
his  second  expedition  iu  1772.  In  1780 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
history  at  HaUe.  His  Observations  made 
during  a  Voyage  Round  the  World  ap- 
peared in  1778. 

Forster,  John  {b.  1812,  d.  1876), 
biographer  and  journalist,  was  the  son 
of  a  Newcastle  butcher.  He  came  to 
London  in  1828,  and  was  soon  appointed 
literary  critic  of  the  Examiner.  His 
Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Eng- 
land, collected  in  1840,  brought  him  in- 
crease of  literary  reputation.  He  suc- 
ceeded Dickens  in  1846  as  editor  of  the 
Daily  JVeivs,  but,  after  a  year,  transferred 
his  services  to  the  Examiner,  which  he 
edited  from  1847  to  1856.  His  Life  of  Sir 
John  Eliot  appeared  in  1864  ;  his  Goldsmith 
in  1848 :  and  his  Walter  Savage  Landor  in 
1869.  The  three  volumes  ol  his  Life  of 
Dickens  were  published  between  1871  and 
1874.  His  valuable  collection  of  MSS.  and 
books  was  bequeathed  to  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum. 

Forster,  William  Edward  (h.  1818,  d. 
18S6),  statesman,  was  bom  at  Bradpole, 
Dorset,  and  was  the  son  of  a  minister 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  a  nephew 
of  Sir  FoweU  Buxton.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Friends'  school,  Tottenham,  and 
received  an  appointment  in  a  woollen 
maniifactory  at  Bradford.  In  1850  he 
marrieil  Jane,  eldest  daughter  of  Dr.  Arnold 
of  Rugby.  Elected  for  Bradford  in  1861,  ho 
was  under- secretary  for  the  Colonies  from 
November,  1865,  to  December,  1868.  In 
1863  he  became  vice-president  of  the  Edu- 
cation Committee,  and  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet  in  1870.  Of  the  great  measures 
then  carried  into  law,  he  had  charge  of 
the  Education  Bill  and  the  Ballot  Bill. 
He  displayed  great  ability  and  industry 
in  piloting  them  through  the  committee 
stages,  but  his  insistence  upon  the  twenty- 
fifth  clause  of  the  former  measure  gave 
offence  to  the  Xonconformist  supporters  of 
the  ministry.  But  for  this  he  would  prob- 
ably have  succeeded  Mr.  Gladstone  in  the 


leadership  of  the  Liberal  party  in  1875.  In 
November  of  that  year  he  was  elected  Lord 
Rector  of  Aberdeen  University.  When  the 
Liberals  retm-ned  to  power  in  1880,  Mr. 
Forster,  who  was  held  to  be  both  a  strong 
aud  a  benevolent  man,  and  who,  during  the 
famine,  had  visited  Ireland  as  distributor  of 
a  relief  fund  raised  by  the  Friends,  accepted 
the  most  difficult  post  in  the  Government — 
that  of  Irish  Secretary.  His  path  proved  to 
be  even  thornier  than  he  had  anticipated. 
The  Compensation  for  Disturbance  Bill  was, 
to  his  great  indignation,  rejected  by  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  while  Mr.  Forster  was 
pressing  forward  the  great  Land  Bill  of 
1881,  the  social  state  of  Ireland  went  from 
bad  to  worse.  A  drastic  Coercion  Bill  was 
carried,  the  Land  League  was  suppressed, 
and  Mr.  PameU  and  many  others  of  the 
Nationalist  leaders  were  imprisoned.  In 
April,  1882,  the  Government  decided  upon  a 
more  conciliatory  policy,  and  released  the 
"suspects,"  and,  as  Mr.  Forster  was  not 
satisfied  with  the  conditions  exacted  from 
Mr.  Pamell,  he,  together  with  the  Lord- 
lieutenant,  Earl  Cowper,  resigned.  As  an 
independent  member,  he  criticised  the 
general  policy  of  the  Government  with 
great  severity,  and  became  very  popidar 
with  the  Opposition.  He  strongly  con- 
demned the  Government  for  the  condition 
into  which  Bechuanaland  had  been  allowed 
to  lapse,  and  also  joined  in  the  censure  upon 
their  Egyjitian  policy  after  the  death  of 
General  Gordon  in  January,  1885.  At  the 
general  election  in  that  year  he  was  once 
more  returned  for  Bradford  by  a  large 
majority,  although  too  ill  to  address  the 
electors.  He  died  in  April  of  the  following 
year.  Among  the  subjects  in  which  he 
specially  interested  himself  after  leaving 
office  was  that  of  Imperial  Federation. 

Forsyth,  Alexander  John  (i.  1769,  d.  1843), 
chemist,  was  a  Presbj-terian  minister  at  Bel- 
helvie,  near  Aberdeen,  and  there  made 
chemical  experiments,  which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  percussion  principle.  He 
was  rewarded  by  the  Government  with  an 
annuity  of  £200^  but  this  was  only  a  year 
before  his  death. 

Forsyth,  Sir  Thomas  Douglas  [b.  1827, 
d.  1886),  Anglo-Indian  statesman,  bom 
at  Liverpool,  was  created  C.B.  for  his 
services  in  the  suppression  of  the  Indian 
Mutiny.  In  1870  he  conducted  a  diffi- 
cult mission  to  Yarkand,  in  Eastern 
Turkesttin,  and  in  1873  negotiated  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  the  ruler  of  that 
country.  In  1874  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Legislative  Council  of  India,  and 
in  1878  was  sent  as  envoy  to  the  King  of 
Burmah,  and  succeeded  for  the  time  in 
averting  war. 

Forsyth,  WilHam,  Q.O.,  LL.D.  (b.  1812), 


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Fos 


lawyer  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at 
Greenock,  became  a  Queen's  Counsel  in 
1857,  and  a  bencher  of  the  Inner 
Temple.  He  was  standing  counsel  to  the 
Secretary  of  State  iu  Council  of  India, 
and  is  commissary  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge.  From  1874  to  1880  he  repre- 
sented the  borough  of  Marylebone  in  the 
House  of  Commons. 

Fortegnerri,   Niccolo.    [See  Fortiguerra, 

Niccolo.] 

Fortescue,  Sir  John  {b.  circa  1395,  d. 
circa  1485),  judge  and  jurist,  a  native 
of  Somersetshire,  became  sergeant-at- 
law  in  1441,  and  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  iu  1442.  He  was  an  ad- 
herent of  the  House  of  Lancaster,  and 
during  exile  ia  Holland  in  1463  wrote  De 
Zand  I  bits  Legum  AnglicB  for  the  behoof  of 
the  young  Prince  Edward,  his  pupil.  After 
the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  however,  he  sub- 
mitted to  Edward  IV. 

Fortiguerra,  Niccolo  {b.  1674,  d.  1735), 
Italian  scholar  and  poet,  lived  chiefly  at 
Rome,  where  he  wrote  his  satirical  epic, 
Ricciardetto,  of  which  an  edition  appeared 
at  Milan  in  1813. 

Fortune,  Eobert  (*.  1813,  d.  1880), 
botanist,  a  native  of  Berwickshire,  was 
in  1842  appointed  collector  of  plants  in 
northern  China  by  the  Botanical  Society  of 
London.  In  1848  he  was  sent  to  India  to 
make  investigations  respecting  the  tea  plant. 
Afterwards  he  resumed  his  researches  in 
China. 

Fortimy  y  Carbo,  Mariano  (b.  1839,  d. 
1874),  Spanish  painter,  studied  at  Bar- 
celona and  in  Italy,  and  found  many 
subjects  for  his  brush  during  the  Spanish 
expedition  against  the  Sultan  of  Morocco. 
The  most  famous  of  his  works,  perhaps,  is 
The  Spanish  Marriage. 

Fosbrooke,  Thomas  Dudley  {b.  1770,  d. 
1842),  archaeologist,  bom  in  London, 
though  for  thirty-six  years  he  had  to 
content  himself  with  the  curacies  of  Hors- 
ley  and  Walford,  and  then  with  the 
incumbency  of  the  latter  parish,  was 
an  antiquary  of  great  learning,  who 
wrote  valuable  works  on  the  antiquities 
of  Gloucester  county  and  city,  as  well  as  on 
more  general  aspects  of  his  favourite  study. 

Foscari,  Francesco  (b.  circa  1370,  d. 
1457),  Doge  of  Venice,  was  elected  to 
that  office  it  1423,  and  waged  successful 
war  with  the  Turks  and  the  Milanese. 
The  persecution  of  his  son,  Giacopo,  who 
was  thrice  tortured  in  his  father's  presence, 
and  then  banished  at  the  instance  of 
the  Council  of  Ten,  saddened  his  last 
days,  and  led  him  in  1457  to  resign   his 


oifice.  The  history  of  father  and  son,  the 
latter  of  whom  died  in  exUe  in  Canea,  has 
been  handled  by  Byron  in  The  Two  Foscari. 

Foscaiini,  Marco  {b.  1698,  d.  1763), 
Venetian  statesman  and  historian  of  Vene- 
tian Hterature,  was  head  of  the  university  of 
Padua  for  some  time,  and  became  doge  of 
Venice  in  1762.  His  collection  of  MSS.  is 
preserved  in  the  Imperial  library  of  Vienna. 

Foscolo,  Ugo  (b.  1778,  d.  1827),  Italian 
wi'iter  and  patriot,  born  near  Zante,  an  Ionian 
island,  translated  Sterne's  Sentimental  Jour- 
ney into  Italian  in  1805.  After  an  adven- 
turous career  he  came  to  England,  and  being 
already  known  by  his  poetical  works,  as  well 
as  his  patriotic  deeds,  was  received  with 
enthusiasm.  Although  he  made  a  great 
deal  of  money  as  a  lecturer  and  writer,  his 
extravagance  reduced  him  to  abject  poverty, 
and  when  he  died,  at  Tumham  Green,  he 
did  not  leave  siiihcient  to  pay  for  his  funeral. 
He  was  buried  at  Chiswick,  but  forty-four 
years  afterwards  his  remains  were  dis- 
interred and  conveyed  to  the  church  of 
Santa  Croce  at  Florence. 

Foster,  Bu-ket,  E.I.  (b.  1825),  draughts- 
man and  water-colour  painter,  bom  at 
North  Shields,  has  illustrated  several  chil- 
dren's books,  and  also  Longfellow's  Evan- 
geline, Beattie's  Minstrel,  Goldsmith's 
poems,  and  other  works.  He  is  the  most 
widely  known  of  English  landscape  artists 
in  water-coloiu-. 

Foster,  George  Carey  {b.  1835),  physicist, 
was  appointed  professor  of  physics  at  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  in  1867.  He  was 
president  of  the  Physical  Society  1876-8,  and 
in  1877  president  of  the  Mathematical  and 
Physical  section  of  the  British  Association. 

Foster,  James,  D.D.  (b.  1697,  d.  1753), 
Baptist  divine,  a  native  of  Exeter,  was 
for  many  years  minister  of  the  Barbican 
chapel,  London.  In  1746  he  attended 
Lord  Kilmarnock  on  the  scaffold.  He 
defended  Revelation  against  the  attacks 
of  Tindal  and  others,  and  is  favourably 
referred  to  in  Pope's  satires. 

Foster,  John  {h.  1770,  d.  1843),  essayist, 
born  at  Hebden  Bridge,  near  Halifax,  was 
at  first  a  Baptist  minister  ;  in  1806  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  essays,  including  the 
celebrated  one  on  Decision  of  Character.  He 
then  became  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
Eclectic  Review.  His  essay  on  Popular 
Ignorance  appeared  in  1820. 

Foster,  Michael,  M.A.  (hon.)  {b.  1836), 
physiologist,  was  in  1867  appointed  lecturer 
on  practical  physiology  at  University  Col- 
lege, London,  and  in  1869  professor.  In 
1870  he  became  prselector  in  physiology  at 
Trinity  College,   Cambridge,  and  in   1882 


Fos 


(319) 


Fou 


was  made  first  professor  of  physiology  at 
the  University,  P.K.S.  in  1872,  and  secre- 
tary in  1881.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Frimer 
of  Fhysiology,  Elements  of  Embryology,  and 
joint  author  of  the  Handbook  for  the  Fhy- 
stological  Laboratory. 

Foster,  Stephen  Collings  [b.  1826,  d.  1864), 
American  song  writer,  bom  at  Pittsburg, 
New  York,  was  the  author  of  The  Old 
Folks  at  Home,  Old  Log  Tray,  Willie,  tie 
have  missed  You,  Come  Where  my  Love  lies 
Breaming,  among  other  popular  songs,  and 
also  composed  the  airs  to  which  they  were 
simg. 

Foucault,  Jean  Bernard  Leon  {b.  1819, 
d.  1868),  French  physicist  and  mechanician, 
a  native  of  Paris,  demonstrated  the  ro- 
tation of  the  earth  in  1851  by  what 
is  known  as  "Foucault's  pendulum."  In 
1857  he  invented  a  polariser,  and  in 
1859  made  a  reflector  for  the  great 
telescope  at  Paris.  In  1864  he  became 
a  foreign  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London. 

FoucJi^,  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto  (b. 
1763,  d.  1820),  French  revolutionist  and 
poUtician,  after  taking  part  in  most  of 
the  excesses  of  the  revolution,  became 
minister  of  police  in  1800,  and  was 
one  of  Napoleon's  agents  fin  the  over- 
throw of  the  Directory.  Although  dis- 
missed in  1802,  he  had  made  himself  and  his 
spy  system  indispensable,  and  he  was  restored 
to  office  and  made  also  minister  of  the 
interior.  In  1809  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Otranto,  but  in  the  following  year  was 
again  dismissed,  having  been  detected 
intriguing  on  his  own  account  with  the 
English  court,  and  during  the  remainder  of 
the  empire  had  to  content  himself  with  the 
empty  honour  of  governor  of  Rome  and 
then  of  Illyria.  On  the  entry  of  the  Allies 
into  Paris  he  at  once  made  his  peace  with 
the  new  government,  and  as  promptly 
deserted  to  Napoleon  during  the  Hundred 
Days.  The  morrow  of  Waterloo  found  him 
once  more  minister  of  police,  and  he  became 
one  of  Louis  XVIII. 's  ministers,  but  had  to 
resign,  and  was  then  exiled  as  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  was 
absolutely  without  moral  feeling,  and  by 
establishing  his  system  of  espionage  exerted 
an  influence  for  evil  which  by  no  means 
ceased  with  his  death. 

Fould,  Achille  (b.  1800,  d.  1867),  poli- 
tician and  financier,  of  Jewish  parentage, 
bom  in  Paris,  was  four  times  minister 
of  finance  under  Louis  Napoleon  be- 
tween 1849  and  1852,  and  although 
he  then  resigned,  he  was  soon  afterwards 
brought  back  as  minister  of  state  and 
of  the  imperial  household.  From  1861  to 
1867  he  was  again  minister  of  finance. 


Foulis,  Andrew  [b.  1712,  d.  1775),  Scottish 
printer,  was  the  younger  brother  of  Robert 
Fouhs  (q.v.). 

Foulis,  Robert  (^>.  1707,  d.  1776),  Scot- 
tish printer,  was  appointed  printer  to  the 
Glasgow  University  m  1743,  and  in  1753 
founded  an  academy  in  that  city  for  en- 
graving, modeUing,  etc. 

Fouque,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Karl,  Baron 
de  la  Motte  {b.  1777,  d.  1843),  German- 
author,  a  native  of  Brandenburg- on- 
Havel,  was  one  of  the  leading  mem- 
bers of  the  romantic  school  of  poets. 
In  his  later  days  he  abandoned  liimself  to 
the  gloom  of  Evangelical  pietism,  from 
which  his  art  only  fitfully  emerged.  But 
this  was  not  until  he  had  produced  in- 
numerable stories,  dances,  lyrics,  hymns, 
and  romances.  His  trilogy,  the  A'orthland's 
Hero,  appeared  in  1808,  Undine  in  1811,  and 
the  Magic  Hing  in  1813. 

Fouquet,  Jehan  [b.  circa  1415,  d.  after 
1475),  French  paiater,  was  painter  and 
illumiuator  to  Louis  XL,  and  is  known 
chiefly  by  his  illustrations  to  the  Li,vre 
d''Heurs,  executed  for  his  patron,  Estienne 
Chevalier. 

Fouquet,  Nicolas,  Viscoimt  of  Melun 
and  Vaux,  and  Marquis  of  Belle  Isle 
(b.  1615,  d.  1680),  French  financier,  bom 
in  Paris,  was  from  1653  till  after  the 
death  of  Mazarin  superintendent  of  fi- 
nance. In  1661  the  intrigues  of  his  rival, 
Colbert,  led  to  his  arrest  and  condem- 
nation to  imprisonment  for  hfe  in  the 
fortress  of  Pignerol.  He  has  been  er- 
roneously identified  with  the  Man  with 
the  Iron  Mask. 

Fouquier-Tiuville,  Antoine    Quentin  (ft. 

1747,  d.  1705),  revolutionist,  born  at  He- 
rouelles,  Aisne,  was  appointed  by  Robes- 
pierre and  Danton  public  prosecutor  to  the 
revolutionary  tribunal  in  March,  1793,  and 
became  conspicuous  by  his  brutality  and 
cruelty,  which  were  exceptional  for  even  the 
Reign  of  Terror.  When  that  regime  was  over- 
thrown, he  in  turn  became  a  victim  of  the 
guillotine. 

Fourier,  Francjois  Charles  Marie  (ft. 
1772,  d.  1837),  French  socialist,  a  native 
of  Besan^on,  was  one  of  the  first 
writers  to  observe  the  benefits  resulting 
from  co-operation,  from  wholesale  over 
retail  deahng,  and  from  machinery.  The 
system  he  advocated  is  known  as  phalau- 
sterianism.  His  idea  was  to  divide  the 
world  into  communities  or  phalanxes 
of  about  1,800  persons— a  number  suf- 
ficient to  include  the  whole  range  of 
human  activities,  and  yet  not  large 
enough  to  be  unwieldy.  The  phalanx 
was     to     be     divided     into     series,     and 


Ton 


(  320) 


Fox 


subdivided  into  groups  of  seven  or  more 
individuals.  The  dwelling  of  the  phalanx 
was  to  be  the  plialanstere,  to  stand  in  the 
centre  of  a  beautiful  domain.  There  was  to 
be  no  rigid  equality  in  the  division  of  wealth ; 
but  Fourier  calculated  that,  things  being 
thus  arranged,  a  man  could  do  enough  work 
bet\>"een  eighteen  and  twenty-eight  to  enable 
him  to  Uve  in  comfort  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  Unsuccessful  attempts  to  realise  this 
scheme  have  been  made  in  France  and 
America. 

Fourier,  Jean  Baptists  Joseph,  Baron 
de  (b.  1768,  d.  1830),  mathematician,  bom 
at  Auxei're,  accompanied  Bonaparte  to 
Egypt  in  1798,  in  both  a  military 
and  scientific  capacity.  Whilst  on  ac- 
tive service  he  was  elected  secretary 
of  the  Institut  d'Egypte,  and  after  his 
retui-n  was  made  prefect  of  Grenoble, 
member  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and 
in  1S03  baron.  In  1816  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  and 
afterwards  co-secretary.  His  observations 
on  the  laws  of  heat  are  embodied  in  his 
Theorie  Analytiqne  de  la  Chalexir. 

Fourtou,  Marie  Francois  Oscar  Bardy  de 
{h.  18>;6),  French  statesman,  a  native 
of  Eiberac,  entered  the  National  As- 
sembly as  a  Bonapartist  in  1871,  and 
was  successively  minister  of  public  works 
and  of  public  worshi}?.  In  1874,  and  again 
in  1877,  he  was  minister  of  the  interior,  and 
in  both  instances  was  suspected  of  being 
one  of  the  main  agents  in  the  reactionary 
intrigues  which  were  carried  on  under  Mac- 
Mahon's  auspices.  In  1878  he  fought  a 
bloodless  duel  with  Gambetta.  In  1880  he 
was  elected  a  senator  for  the  department  of 
Dordogne. 

Fowke,  Francis,  R.E.  (*.  1823,  d. 
1865).  architect  and  engineer,  designed  the 
Raglan  barracks  at  Devonport,  the  Indus- 
trial Museum  of  Scotland,  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  and  the  Dublin  Inter- 
national Gallery. 

Fowler,  Henry  Hartley,  M.P.  {h.  1830), 
statesman,  born  at  Sunderland,  was  mayor 
of  Vv'olverhampton  in  1863,  and  first 
chairman  of  the  Wolverhampton  school 
board.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
formation  of  the  National  Liberal  Fede- 
ration. In  1880  he  was  returned  for 
Wolverhampton.  In  December,  1884,  he 
was  appointed  under-secretary  for  the 
Home  Department.  In  Mr.  Gladstone's 
ministry  of  1886  he  was  financial  secretary 
to  the  Treasury,  and  in  June  of  that  year 
was  created  a  Privy  Councillor,  and  in 
J  892  President  of  the  Local  Government 
Board. 

Fowler,  Sir  John  {h.  1817),  civil  en- 
gineer,   bom    at    Sheffield,    was,    at    the 


early  age  of  twenty  -  seven,  appointed 
engineer  for  the  construction  of  the 
Manchester,  Sheffield  and  Lincolnshire 
line,  and  has  since  carried  out  many 
other  works  of  great  magnitude,  iucludiug 
the  Metropolitan  and  District  Railways  and 
the  Severn  Valley  Railway.  He  was 
knighted  in  1885.  ' 

Fowler,  Rev.  Thomas,  LL.D.  (i.  1832), 
logician,  a  native  of  Liucolushire,  is  the 
author  of  Elements  of  Beductive  Logic, 
Elements  of  Inductive  Logic,  and  many 
other  works,  and  has  edited  Bacon's 
JS'orum  Urgamim,  etc.  In  1881  he  was 
elected  president  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford. 

Fox,  Sir  Charles  (jb.  1810,  d.  1874), 
civil  engineer,  born  at  Derby,  carried 
out  many  important  works  of  construction, 
iucluding  the  building  in  Hyde  Park 
for  the  groat  exhibition  of  1851,  for 
which  he  worked  out  most  of  the  details, 
although  the  idea  itself  was  suggested 
by  Paxton.  For  this  he  was  knighted. 
He  afterwards  took  down  the  building 
and  re-erected  it  at  Sydenham. 

Fox,  Sir  Charles  Douglas  {b.  1840),  civil 
engineer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of 
the  engineers  of  the  Mersey  Tunnel.  He 
was  knighted  in  1886. 

Fox,  Charles  James  (b.  1749,  d.  1806), 
statesman,  born  at  Westminster,  was 
the  third  son  of  Heiu-y  Fox,  Lord 
Holland,  who  early  inducted  him  into 
gambling  and  the  other  fashionable  vices, 
which  clung  to  him  through  life.  Edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  at  Hertford  College, 
Oxford,  he  entered  Parliament  at  the 
age  of  nineteen  as  member  for  Midhurst, 
and,  having  immediately  made  his  mark 
as  a  debater,  became  a  lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty, and  was  in  1773  nominated  Lord 
of  the  Treasurj\  He  soon,  however,  quar- 
relled with  Lord  North.  In  1782  Fox 
became  Secretary  of  State  under  Lord 
Rockingham,  but  on  the  latter's  death  (in 
the  same  year)  refused  to  serve  under  Lord 
Shelburne.  On  the  collapse  of  the  Shel- 
burne  administration  in  1783,  he  entered 
into  a  coalition  with  Lord  North.  The 
ministry  thus  formed  was  defeated  on  Fox's 
India  Bill  owing  to  the  machinations  of 
George  III.  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  it 
was  twenty-two  years  before  Fox  was  again 
called  to  office,'  so  deep-seated  was  the 
king's  dislike  to  him.  In  the  interval  he 
threw  himself  into  an  enthusiastic  advocacy 
of  the  French  revolution.  At  first  he 
found  himself  in  company  with  most  of  ' 
the  Whig  party,  but,  as  the  revolution 
ran  into  wild  excesses,  there  was  a  large 
defection  of  Whigs  to  the  Tory  party, 
and    Fox   was    left    with   a    scanty   and 


Fox 


(321) 


Fox 


dispirited  band  of  followers.  His  name 
was  struck  off  the  Ust  of  privy  councillors, 
and  in  1797  he  retired  from  parliamentary- 
life  to  superintend  the  education  of  his 
nephew,  Lord  Holland,  and  to  write  the 
History  of  the  Reign  of  James  II.  When 
his  great  rival,  Pitt,  formed  his  last  adminis- 
tration, he  wished  Fox  to  join  it,  but  the 
king  gave  a  steady  refusal.  On  Pitt's 
death,  in  1806,  he  was  at  last  obliged  to 
admit  >iiTn  to  office,  and  Fox  became  Foreign 
Secretary  in  Grenville's  ministry  of  "All 
the  Talents."  But  the  term  of  his  life  had 
nearly  run  out,  and  he  had  no  time  to 
realise  the  high  expectations  of  his  followers. 
His  last  motion  in  Parliament  was  directed 
against  the  slave  trade,  and  he  died  (at 
Chiswick)  within  a  few  months  of  the 
measure  founded  upon  it  being  passed  into 
law.  He  was  admittedly  the  first  orator 
of  his  time ;  he  was  also  a  man  of  wide 
reading,  and  he  showed  himself  equal  to 
sacrifices  to  principle  such  as  few  statesmen 
have  cared  to  make. 

Fox,  George  (b.  1624,  d.  1690),  founder 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  a  native  of 
Drayton,  Leicestershire,  was  the  son  of 
a  woollen  weaver,  and  as  a  boy  was 
employed  in  tending  sheep.  At  the  age 
of  nineteen  he  believed  himself  to  have  a 
divine  call,  and  left  home  and  friends 
to  live  a  life  of  privation,  wandering  about 
and  meditating  upon  the  Scriptures.  The 
central  idea  of  his  doctrine  was  that  of 
the  "Inner  Light,"  which  doctrine  he  re- 
garded as  specially  revealed  to  him  from 
the  Scriptures.  He  first  pubUcly  declared 
his  views  at  Manchester  in  1648,  and  the 
name  "Quaker"  was  given  to  his  fol- 
lowers at  Derby,  from  the  fact  of  his  bidding 
the  magisterial  authorities  there  "  to  tremble 
at  the  Word  of  God."  Among  his  outward 
peculiarities  was  a  refusal  to  take  oath,  or  to 
remove  his  hat  as  a  mark  of  deference  to 
those  in  authority.  He  was  several  times 
arrested  and  imprisoned,  but  on  one  occasion, 
when  examined  by  Oliver  Cromwell  in  per- 
son, he  was  acquitted,  the  Protector  being 
satisfied  both  of  liis  sincerity  and  of  the 
harmlessness  of  his  teaching.  He  travelled 
extensively  not  only  in  the  United  King- 
dom, but  also  in  America,  Barbadoes, 
Jamaica,  Holland,  and  Germany,  accom- 
panied by  Penn  and  others.  The  incoherence 
of  his  writings  has  been  exposed  by  Lojrd 
Macaulay,  who,  however,  has  done  him 
much  less  than  justice,  for  he  unquestionably 
succeeded  in  penetrating  to  the  essence  of 
religion,  while  in  dealing  with  such  matters 
as  the  rehef  and  education  of  the  poor  he 
showed  himself  to  have  a  vigorous  and  com- 
prehensive mind.  His  works  were  collected 
into  three  volxmies  and  published  1694- 
1706. 

Fox,  Henry,  first  Lord  Holland  {b.  1705, 
V 


d.  1774),  statesman,  and  father  of  Charles 
James  Fox  (q.v.),  was  war  secretary  in 
1746,  gave  place  to  the  elder  Pitt  in  1756, 
became  paymaster  of  the  forces  in  1757, 
and  in  1763  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Fox,  William  Johnson  {h.  1786,  d.  1864), 
orator  and  miscellaneous  writer,  a  native  of 
Suffolk,  was  trained  at  Homerton  College  for 
the  Independent  ministry,  but  afterwards  be- 
came a  Unitarian  of  the  advanced  tjrpe,  and 
for  many  years  officiated  at  South  Place 
Chapel,  Finsbury.  He  was  a  leader  in  most 
of  the  poUtical  movements  of  his  day,  and, 
after  Mr.  Cobden  and  Mr.  Bright,  was  the 
greatest  personal  force  in  the  Anti-Corn  Law 
movement.  In  brilliance,  indeed,  his  ora- 
tions were  superior  to  those  of  any  other 
leader  in  the  agitation,  and  they  have  been 
cited  by  M.  Guizot  as  the  most  finished 
specimens  of  oratory  which  the  controversy 
produced.  In  the  same  cause  were  written 
his  Letters  of  a  Norwich  Wearer  Boy,  which 
had  an  immense  effect.  He  was  also  one  of  the 
first  contributors  to  the  JVestminster  Review, 
and  was  for  many  years  editor  of  the  Monthly 
Repository.  From  1847  till  1863  he  repre- 
sented Oldham  in  Parliament.  A  memorial 
edition  of  his  works,  in  twelve  volumes,  was 
published  1865-68. 

Foxe,  John  {b.  1517,  d.  1587),  martjTolo- 
gist,  a  native  of  Boston,  was  educated 
at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  elected 
fellow  of  Magdalen  in  1543,  a  position 
which  he  resigned  in  1545  in  conse- 
quence of  accusations  of  heresy.  He  then 
became  tutor  in  the  family  of  William 
Lucy,  of  Charlecote,  Warwickshire,  and 
afterwards  in  that  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  was  restored  to 
his  fellowship,  but  when  Mary  came  to  the 
throne  he  thought  it  discreet  to  leave 
England,  and  resided  for  some  time  at 
Basle.  In  1563,  Elizabeth  having  succeeded 
her  sister,  he  was  made  prebendary  of  Salis- 
bury, and  afterwards  vicar  of  St.  Giles's, 
Cripplegate,  where  he  was  buried.  His 
Hook  of  Martyrs,  the  proper  title  of  which 
is  History  of  the  Acts  and  Monuments  of  the 
Chiirch ,  Vf&s  pubUshed  in  England  in  1563, 
but  the  first  part  of  it  had  already  appeared 
in  Latin  at  Strasburg  (in  1554),  and  had 
been  reprinted  at  Basle  in  1559.  It  went 
through  four  editions  in  its  author's  life- 
time, and  was  not  only  formally  approved 
by  the  bishops,  but  was  ordered  by  a  canon 
of  the  Anglican  convocation  in  1571  to  be 
placed  in  the  hall  of  every  episcopal  palace 
in  England.  No  one  now  doubts  that 
Foxe  was  often  betrayed  into  the  acceptance 
of  untrustworthy  statements  by  his  strong 
sympathy  with  the  martyrs  whose  sufferings 
he  describes,  but  his  work,  none  the  less, 
deserves  the  great  popularity  which  it  has 
always  retained  as  an  admirable  spedmen  of 
Elizabethan  English. 


Foy 


(322) 


Fra 


Foy,  Maximilien  Sebastien  {b.  1775, 
d.  18-5),  French  general  and  orator,  bom 
at  Ham,  served  as  an  artillery  officer  in 
the  earlier  revolutionary  wars,  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  adjutant-general.  In 
the  Italian  campaign  (1801)  he  commanded 
a  brigade,  and  in  the  Austrian  campaign 
(1805)  a  division  of  artillery.  In  1807, 
having  been  sent  by  Xapoleon  to  assist 
Sultan  SeUm  against  tlio  British  and  Rus- 
sians, he  forced  Admiral  Duckworth  to  re- 
tire from  the  Dardanelles.  He  also  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Peninsular  war,  of 
which  he  wrote  an  account,  published  by  his 
wife  after  his  death.  From  1819  to  1825  he 
represented  the  department  of  Aisne  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  took  high  rank 
among  the  orators  of  that  assembly. 

Fra  Angelico.     [See  Fiesole.] 

Fra  Bartolommeo.     [See  Baccio.] 

Fracastoro  Girolamo  {b.  1483,  d.  1553), 
physician,  poet,  and  scholar,  a  native  of 
"Verona,  was  at  first  professor  of  logic  at 
Padua,  then  practised  medicine,  and  finally 
gave  himself  up  to  letters,  writing  among 
other  poems  Syphilidis,  sive  de  Morbo  Gal- 
ileo, Libri  Tres,  in  which  he  proved  himself 
to  have  a  rare  mastery  of  the  Latin  tongue. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  prose  works  was 
published  at  Venice  in  1555,  and  of  his 
poetical  works  at  Padua  in  1728. 

Fra  Diavolo  {b.  1760,  d.  1806),  a  noto- 
rious Italian  brigand,  whose  real  name 
was  Michele  Pezza,  was  bom  at  Itri,  in 
the  Terra  di  Laboro,  and  was  at  first  a 
soldier,  and  then,  until  expelled  from  his 
order  for  misbehaviour,  a  monk.  He  next 
became  the  leader  of  a  band  of  brigands  in 
the  mountains  of  Calabria,  and  for  years 
succeeded  in  avoiding  capture.  For  his  ser- 
vices against  the  French  in  the  defence  of  the 
Neapolitan  state,  he  and  his  followers  were 
pardoned  and  reinstated  in  their  civil  rights, 
while  he  himself  received  a  colonel's  commis- 
sion in  the  army.  He  was  executed  for  en- 
deavoiuing  to  excite  Calabria  against  the 
French. 

Fraehn,  Christian  Martin  {b.  1782,  d. 
1857),  the  first  of  Oriental  numismatists, 
a  native  of  Rostock,  Germany,  became 
professor  at  the  university  of  Kasan,  Russia, 
in  1807.  In  1815  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg 
as  director  of  the  Asiatic  museiun,  chief 
librarian  and  member  of  the  Imperial 
Academy,  and  there  died  after  nearly  half  a 
century  of  valuable  work.  He  was  the 
founder  of  oriental  studies  in  Russia.  In  its 
oriental  branches  he  may  be  called  the 
creator  of  numismatics. 

Fragonard,  Jean  Honore  {b.  1732,  d.  1806), 
French  painter  of  genre  pictures  and  land- 
scapes, gained  the  prix  de  Rome  in  1762.   In 


1765  he  completed  his  CalUrrho'4,  commis- 
sioned by  Louis  XV.  for  reproduction  in 
tapestry. 

Frances,  Xavier.     [See  Xavier.] 

Francesca,  Piero  della,  or  Piero  Borghes© 
{b.  circa  1410,  d.  after  1493),  Italian 
painter,  was  bom  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro, 
and  was  for  a  time  Domenico  Veneziano's 
assistant  at  Florence  and  Loreto.  He  is 
represented  in  the  National  Gallery,  London, 
by  a  portrait  and  a  Baptism  of  Christ. 

Francesca  da  Eimini  {d.  1285),  daughter 
of  Guido  da  Polenta,  Lord  of  Ravenna,  was 
bom  after  the  middle  of  the  thuteenth  cen- 
tury, and  became  the  wife  of  GianciottoMala- 
testa.  Lord  of  Rimini.  Her  guilty  love  for 
her  brother-in-law,  Paolo,  for  whom  she  had 
formed  an  attachment  before  her  marriage,^ 
and  her  husband's  revenge  upon  them  both, 
form  the  subject  of  a  passage  in  the  fifth 
canto  of  Dante's  Inferno. 

Francesco  di  Paula,  or  St.  Francis  of 
Faola  {b.  1416,  d.  1607),  a  native  of  Paola, 
Calabria,  was  founder  of  the  order  of  the 
Minims,  of  which  he  established  many 
commimities  on  the  Continent.  He  wa» 
canonised  in  1519. 

Francia,  Francesco.     [See  Raibolini.] 

Francia,  Jose  Gaspar  Rodriguez  {b.  1757^ 
d.  1840),  Paraguayan  statesman,  joined  th© 
revolutionists  in  1811,  was  appointed  con- 
sul by  the  Junta  in  1813,  and  dictator  in 
1814.  When  his  first  term  of  three  yeara 
had  expired,  the  title  was  renewed  for  life, 
with  an  income  of  9,000  piastres,  of  which, 
he  refused  to  receive  more  than  a  third.  He 
lived  in  complete  isolation,  and  ruled  as  a 
despot,  but  his  administration,  though  a 
severe,  was  a  just  one,  and  was  also  marked 
by  great  energy. 

Francillon,  Robert  Edward  {b.  1841), 
novelist  and  song  writer,  a  native  of 
Gloucester,  was  editor  of  the  Lau-  Maga- 
zine in  1867,  and  in  the  following  year 
published  his  first  work  of  fiction,  Grace 
Owen's  Engagement.  In  addition  to  several 
novels  andf  some  popular  songs,  he  is  the 
author  of  the  libretti  of  Mr.  Cowen's  can- 
tatas, The  Rose  Maiden  and  The  Corsair. 

Francis  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany  [b.  1708, 
d.  1765),  was  son  of  Leopold,  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine, to  whose  dominions  he  succeeded  in 
1729.  In  1736  he  married  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  and 
on  the  latter's  death,  in  1740,  contested  the 
empire  with  Charles  VII.,  and  was  elected 
in  1745.  The  reins  of  government,  however, 
were  really  held  by  Maria  Theresa. 

Francis  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  [Set 
Francis  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria.] 


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Fra 


Francis  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria  (b.  1786, 
d.  1835),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Leopold  II., 
then  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  hut  after- 
wards Emperor  of  Germany.  On  his 
father's  death,  in  1792,  he  was  crowned 
Mng  of  Hungary,  and  in  the  following 
month  was  elected  emperor  under  the  title 
of  Francis  II.  Compelled  by  Napoleon  to 
conclude  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  with 
France  in  1797,  he  renewed  the  war  in  con- 
cert with  England  and  Russia  in  1799,  but 
was  obliged,  by  the  defeats  of  Marengo 
and  HohenHnden,  to  agree  to  the  ti'eaty  of 
LuneviUe  in  1801.  On  August  11th,  1804, 
he  proclaimed  himself  emperor  of  Austria 
(Francis  I.),  and  in  August,  1806,  after  the 
disastrous  campaign  of  1805,  and  the 
establishment,  under  Napoleon's  protection, 
of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  he  issued 
a  manifesto  abandoning  the  title  of  Geiman 
Emperor  and  the  dignity  of  the  head 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  A  fresh 
outbreak  of  hostilities  with  France  in  1809 
was  followed  by  the  humiliating  peace  of 
Schonbrunn,  and  Francis  reluctantly  gave 
Napoleon  the  hand  of  his  daughter,  Maria 
Xouisa.  In  the  German  "  war  of  liberation '' 
(1812-14)  Francis  took  a  personal  part,  and, 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Paris,  all 
"his  losses  were  made  good  to  him.  His  sub- 
sequent policy  under  the  influence  of  Met- 
ternich  was  one  of  rigid  conservatism.  He 
was  four  times  married. 

Francis  I.,  King  of  France  (ft.  1494,  d. 
1547),  was  the  son  of  Charles  of  Orleans, 
Comte  d'Angouleme,  and  Louisa  of  Savoy, 
and  succeeded  his  uncle  and  father-in-law, 
Louis  XII.,  on  January  1st,  1515.  He  almost 
immediately  plunged  into  war,  from  which 
during  his  reign  the  realm  was  scarcely 
ever  free.  Crossing  the  Alps,  with  intent 
to  seize  the  duchy  of  Milan,  he  defeated 
the  Swiss  at  Marignano,  and  forced  Pope 
Leo  X.  to  come  to  terms  with  him.  On 
the  death  of  Maximilian,  in  1319,  he  con- 
tested with  Charles  V.  the  succession  to  the 
imperial  crown,  and  vainly  endeavoured  to 
form  an  alliance  with  Henry  VIII.  After 
meeting  with  varied  fortune  in  the  field,  he 
was  defeated  and  captured  at  Pavia  (24th 
February,  1525).  Having  suffered  imprison- 
ment for  more  than  a  year,  he  was  set  free 
on  very  humihating  conditions,  but  at  once 
disregarded  them,  and  renewed  the  war, 
which,  in  spite  of  the  peace  of  Cambrai 
(July,  1529),  was  not  definitively  concluded 
till  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Crespy 
(1 8th  September,  1544),  which  left  matters 
pretty  much  in  statu  quo.  Though  not  a 
sagacious  or  honourable  prince,  Francis 
showed  some  sense  of  chivalry,  and  was 
a  liberal  patron  of  letters  and  art, 
and  founder  of  the  College  de  France. 
His  private  life,  however,  was  utterly  licen- 
hous,  and  his  cruel  persecution  of  the 
v2 


Vaudois  and  others  is  a  continual  reproach 
to  his  memory. 

Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Bretagne  {b.  1414,  d. 
1450),  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  VI.  of  Bre- 
tagne and  of  Jeanne,  daughter  of  Charles  VI. 
of  France.  He  joined  Charles  VII.  in  driving 
the  English  out  of  Normandy. 

Francis  XL,  Duke  of  Bretagne  {b.  1435,  d. 
1488),  eldest  son  of  Richard,  Count  of 
Etampes,  succeeded  his  uncle  Arthur  in 
1458.  In  the  war  with  Louis  XI.  of  France 
he  was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace. 

Francis  I.,  King  of  Naples  {b.  1111,  d. 
1830),  son  of  Ferdinand  IV.,  in  early  life 
sympathised  with  Liberal  ideas,  but  later 
became  an  absolutist.  During  his  reign 
every  branch  of  the  pubhc  administration 
fell  into  confusion  and  disorder. 

Francis  II.,  ex-King  of  Naples  {b.  1836), 
son  of  Ferdinand  11.,  succeeded  his  father 
in  1859.  _  When,  in  the  following  year. 
Garibaldi  arrived  at  the  gates  of  his 
capital,  he  fled  to  Gaeta,  afterwards  re- 
I  tiling  to  Rome,  and  then  setting  out  on 
a  course  of  travel.  On  November  24th, 
1859,  he  married  Marie,  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Saxony.  He  is  an  arch-duke  of 
Austria,  and  a  prince  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia. 

Francis  IV.,  Duke  of  Modena  {b.  1119,  d. 
1846),  succeeded  to  the  dukedom  in  1815.  In 
1830,  after  giving  indication  of  sympathy 
with  the  national  party,  he  fell  back, 
through  fear,  upon  the  pohcy  of  reaction, 
and  the  leaders  of  the  national  move- 
ment were  either  put  to  death  or  driven 
into  exile. 

Francis  V.,  last  Duke  of  Modena  {b. 
1819,  d.  1875),  succeeded  to  the  domain 
in  1846,  and  was  expelled  in  1859. 

Francis  Joseph,  Charles,  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  Xing  of  Hungary  (b.  1830), 
is  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I., 
and  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand 
I.  The  revolution  of  1848  compelled  Fer- 
dinand to  abdicate,  and  his  brother  re- 
signing his  claims  to  the  throne  in  favour 
of  his  own  son,  the  latter  was  at  the  early 
age  of  eighteen  called  to  rule  an  empire 
shaken  by  civil  war.  He  took  part  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Hungarians,  and  was 
present  at  the  capture  of  R;uib  in  June,  1849. 
Restored  to  the  mastery  of  his  dominions,  he 
proceeded  to  undo  the  work  of  1848.  The 
Hungarian  constitution  was  suspended,  tlie 
absolute  authority  of  the  Hapsburg  mon- 
archy in  the  Austrian  dominions  proclaimed, 
and  the  imperial  ministers  were  declared  re- 
sponsible only  to  the  emperor.  The  abso- 
lutist rigime  was  maintained  during  the 
first  ten  years  of  his  reign,  though  his  own 


Fra 


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Fra 


seutiiiieuts  iucliued  to  a  more  liberal  rule. 
It  was  not  till  Austria  had  sustained  severe 
reverses  abroad  that  the  system  fell. 
The  demand  of  Napoleon  III.  that  the 
question  of  the  Lombardo- Venetian  states 
should  be  referred  to  a  European  conference 
being  refused,  was  was  declared.  The 
Austrians  were  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Solferino  on  June  '24th,  1859,  and  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  sign  the  treaty  of 
Villafranca,  by  which  all  claims  to  Lom- 
bardy  were  resigned.  A  partial  return  to 
constitutionalism  was  then  attempted,  and 
representative  diets  were  restored  in  the 
different  states,  but  the  Hungarians  did  not 
cease  to  demand  restoration  of  their  old 
national  institutions  in  their  iategrity.  A 
dispute  between  Austria  and  Prussia  as  to 
Schleswig-Holstein  led  to  war  between  the 
two  nations  in  1866.  Here  again  the 
Austrians  were  completely  defeated,  and 
were  compelled  to  accept  the  North  G-erman 
Confederation  under  the  leadership  of 
Prussia,  and  to  give  up  Venice  to  Italy. 
After  these  disasters  the  emperor  restored 
national  self-government  to  Hungary,  and  in 
June,  1877,  was  declared  king  of  that  coun- 
try. In  later  years  the  emperor's  influence 
in  foreign  politics  has  been  chiefly  directed 
to  forming  a  closer  alliance  with  Germany 
and  Italy.  In  1878  the  treaty  of  Berlin 
allowed  Austria  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  the 
Herzegovina.  In  1887  the  emperor  took 
part  in  a  series  of  military  councils  held  to 
provide  for  the  defence  of  Galicia  against 
Russia.  By  the  suicide  of  the  Crown  Prince 
Rudolph  in  February,  1889,  he  was  deprived 
of  all  hope  of  a  direct  successor,  and  the 
crown  wiU  pass,  on  his  death,  to  his  nephew, 
Francis  Ferdinand,  son  of  his  brother, 
Charles  Louis. 

Francis  d'Assisi,  St.  {b.  1182,  d.  1226), 
founder  of  the  order  of  Mendicant  Friars, 
was  son  of  Pietro  Bemardone,  a  rich  mer- 
chant of  Assisi,  who  brought  him  up  to 
trade.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four,  after 
an  illness,  he  turned  from  the  gay  and 
prodigal  life  of  his  youth,  and  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  religion  and  charity,  re- 
nouncing self  and  ease,  going  about  in  rags, 
performing  the  most  menial  oiRces,  and 
even  waiting  upon  lepers  in  hospital.  His 
example  found  a  few  imitators,  and  in  1210 
a  brotherhood  was  formed,  which  received 
the  approval  of  Pope  Innocent  in.,  and  was 
afterwards  formally  sanctioned  by  Honorius 
m.  After  a  preaching  tour  the  brethren 
returned  to  Assisi  in  1212,  and  definitely 
arranged  the  constitution  of  the  order,  its 
distinguishing  note  being  the  emphasis  it 
placed  upon  the  vow  of  poverty.  The  Men- 
dicants, as  they  came  to  be  known,  spread 
rapidly  throughout  Christendom.  Francis 
himself,  with  twelve  companions,  went  to 
Syria  and  Egypt  in  1219.    On  his  return  to 


Italy  lie  imposed  still  stricter  rules  upon  his 
order,  and  gave  himself  up  to  a  life  of 
solitude  on  Monte  Alvemo,  which  be- 
came tlie  scene  of  the  so-called  miracle  of 
the  stiymata — his  belief  being  that,  while  in 
prayer,  he  both  felt  and  received  on  his 
hands,  feet,  and  side  the  wounds  of  the 
Redeemer.  He  died  two  years  later,  leaving 
behind  him  a  great  reputation  for  sanctity 
and  benevolence.  He  was  canonised  by 
Pope  Gregory  IX.  in  1228.  His  works, 
published  in  1739,  consist  of  both  prose  and 
poetry,  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  an  ex- 
tremely devotional  chai-acter. 

Francis  de  Sales  (6.  1557,  d.  1622),  divine 
and  saint,  a  native  of  Sales,  Savoy,  studied 
at  the  Jesuit  College  in  Paris,  and  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  doctor  in  law  from 
Padua,  but  ui  1593  entered  the  priesthood, 
and  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Protestantism 
with  remarkable  success.  In  1602  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Geneva,  and  steadfastly 
refused  to  leave  his  diocese  to  accept  a 
French  bishoi^ric.  He  also,  in  1607,  declined 
the  cardinalate  offered  him  by  Leo  XI.  He 
was  canonised  by  Alexander  VII.  in  1665. 
His  devotional  works  have  had  great  popu- 
larity ;  the  best  known  of  them  are  The 
Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life  and  a  Treatise 
on  the  Love  of  God. 

Francis,  John  {b.  1811,  d.  1882),  pub- 
lisher, was  from  1831  until  his  death 
publisher  of  the  AthencBum.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  all  movements  for 
establishing  the  economic  freedom  of  the 
press. 

Francis,  Sir  Philip  (b.  1740,  d.  1818), 
administrator  and  political  writer,  a  native 
of  Dublin,  was  in  1773  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  Bengal.  His  two 
colleagues  having  died,  he  came  into 
violent  conflict  with  Warren  Hastiags,  re- 
sulting in  a  duel  (17th  August,  1780), 
in  which  Francis  was  severely  injured. 
On  his  recovery  he  resigned,  retiumng  to 
England  in  1781.  In  1784  he  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Yar- 
mouth, Isle  of  Wight,  and  soon  dis- 
played his  great  abUity  and  extensive  know- 
ledge of  Indian  affairs,  allying  himself  with 
Fox  and  Burke.  In  1787  he  carried  his 
motion  for  the  impeachment  of  Hastings, 
but  was  not  appointed  on  the  Committee  of 
Management.  He  strongly  opposed  the  war 
with  France,  contended  for  the  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade,  and  was  an  able  advocate  of 
reform.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Comwallis  it 
was  expected  that  he  would  be  appointed 
Governor-general  of  India  ;  instead  of  this 
he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Bath.  Two 
years  before  his  death  he  was  publicly 
credited  with  the  authorship  of  the  Letters 
ofJicnius,  but  he  never  sanctioned  the  identi- 
fication, and  the  question  is  still  in  suspense. 


Fra 


(  32'5  ) 


Fr-i 


Franck,  Sebastian  {b.  1499,  d.  1542), 
German  writer  and  moral  reformer,  was  a 
native  of  Donauworth. 

Francke,  August  Hermann  (6.  1663,  d. 
1727),  divine  and  pMlanthropist,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  oriental  languages  at 
Halle  in  1692,  and  of  theology  in  1(398.  He 
is  also  known  as  the  founder  of  a  number 
of  educational  institutions.  He  was  a  native 
of  Liibeck,  and  died  at  Halle. 

Frankland,  Edward  (6.  182.5),  chemist, 
bom  at  Churchtown,  Lancashire,  was 
elected  F.R.S.  in  1853,  has  been  presi- 
dent of  the  Chemical  Society,  and  of 
the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  and  in  1868 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission for  inquiring  into  the  pollution  of 
rivers.  He  has  also  held  several  professor- 
ships of  chemistry,  including  that  in  the 
School  of  Science  at  South  Kensington. 

Franklin,  Benjamin  (6.  1706,  <^.  1790), 
statesman,  philosopher,  and  publisher,  was 
the  fifteenth  of  seventeen  children  of  a 
Boap-boiler  of  Boston,  Mass.  Quarrelling 
with  his  brother,  he  went  to  Philadelphia 
almost  penniless.  Here,  in  1729,  he  pur- 
chased the  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  formed 
a  club  called  "The  Jimto,"  and  began  to 
acquire  political  influence.  He  was  chosen 
clerk  of  the  provincial  assembly  in  1736, 
and  in  1753  became  postmaster-general  for 
British  North  America.  In  1754,  when  a 
rupture  with  France  was  expected,  he  sat  as 
a  delegate  in  the  Congress  at  Albany,  and 
in  1756  for  a  third  time  held  a  military 
command.  In  1757  he  was  sent  to  England 
as  agent  for  Pennsylvania,  and  his  reputation 
as  a  practical  philosopher  having  preceded 
him,  he  was  received  with  great  respect, 
Edinburgh,  Oxford,  and  St.  Andrews  con- 
ferring upon  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws. 
In  1764  he  revisited  England  as  colonial 
agent,  and  was  mainly  instrumental  in  secur- 
ing the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  When  the 
rupture  with  England  took  place  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  American  Con- 
gress, signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  subsequently  aided  in 
framing  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  France,  and  held  the  post  until 
1785.  He  returned  to  America  to  assume 
the  office  of  president  of  Pennsylvania,  to 
which  he  was  twice  re-elected,  retiring  from 
public  life  in  1788.  Among  his  scientific 
discoveries  was  the  identity  of  lightning 
with  electricity,  which  he  demonstrated  by 
his  famous  kite  experiment.  He  also  dis- 
covered the  course  taken  by  storms  over  the 
North  American  continent. 

Franklin,  Sir  John  (*.  1786,  d.  1847), 
celebrated  Arctic  navigator,  was  a  native 
of  Spilsby,  Lincolnshire.    He  entered  the 


navy  in  1800  as  a  midshipman ;  took 
part  in  the  battles  of  Copenhagen,  Tra- 
falgar, and  New  Orleans,  and  in  1819  pene- 
trated as  far  north  as  80".  He  was  next 
sent  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  way  of  Hudson's 
Bay  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  as  much 
as  possible  about  the  coast  between  the 
Coppermine  river  and  eastward  along  Coro- 
nation Gulf.  The  expedition  occupied  three 
and  a  half  years,  returning  in  1822.  In  1825 
Franklin  set  out  on  a  second  journey,  with 
the  view  of  co-operating  with  the  naval 
expedition  of  Beechey,  who  was  penetrating 
from  Behring  Strait,  and  that  of  Parry, 
from  Lancaster  Sound.  After  taking  part 
in  the  Greek  war  of  independence,  and 
holding  the  governorship  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land  (Tasmania),  he  was,  in  1845,  sent 
with  the  Erebus  and  Terror  to  ascertain 
whether  a  water-way  really  existed  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  The  vessels 
started  in  May,  manned  by  134  officers  and 
men.  In  July  of  the  same  year  they  were 
observed  at  the  entrance  to  Lancaster  Sound, 
but  this  was  the  last  that  was  ever  seen  of 
them.  In  1848  the  search  for  them  was 
begun,  and  was  continued  almost  without 
intermission  for  eleven  years,  upwards  of  a 
milUon  sterling  being  spent  upon  the  work ; 
but  it  was  not  untU  1859  that  the  party  des- 
patched by  Lady  Franklin  in  the  yacht  Fox 
ascertained  that  the  vessels  had  been  aban- 
I  doned  in  the  ice  off  King  William  Sound  in 
1847,  and  that  aU  the  officers  and  crew  died 
of  hunger  and  cold  and  toil  in  trjdng  to  reach 
the  Great  Fish  river. 

!      Franklin,  Jane,  Lady  {b.  1800,  d.  1875), 
I  was  second  wife  of  the  preceding,  whom 
!  she    married    in    1828.       She  never  rested 
from  her    endeavours    to    maintain  public 
interest   in   her    husband's  fate    until  the 
return  of  the  Fox  put    the    question    be- 
yond doubt.     She  was  present  at  the  un- 
veiling of  the  monument  to  the  lost  navi- 
gators   in    Waterloo    Place ;     and    on    the 
marble   tablet  in  Westminster   Abbey   are 
'  inscribed   these  words: — "Erected    by  his 
1  widow,  who,  after  long  waiting  and  sending 
j  of  many  in  search  of  him,  lierself  departed 
to  find  him  in  the  realms  of  life." 

Franks,  Augustus  Wollaston,  F.R.S.  (b. 
1826),  antiquary,  was  appointed  keeper  of 
mediaeval  antiquities  at  the  British  Museum 
when  the  present  department  was  created. 
In  1858  he  became  director  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  of  which  he  has  for  many  years 
been  vice-president.  He  has  presented  to 
the  nation  his  splendid  collection  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  porcelain  and  pottery.  A  great 
authority  on  many  departments  of  art,  he  is 
specially  at  home  in  the  arts  of  the  Re- 
naissance. 

Franz,  Robert  {b.  1815),  German  song 
composer,    a    native    of    Halle,    pubUshed 


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hia  first  songs  in  1843.  Soon  after- 
wards he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the 
Sing-Academie  at  Halle,  and  lecturer  on 
music  to  the  students  of  the  university, 
but  was  compelled  in  1868  to  give  up  his 
appointm.ents. 

Fraser,  Alexander  Campbell,  D.C.L., 
LL.D.  (b.  1819),  philosopher,  a  native 
of  Argyllshire,  became  professor  of  philo- 
sophy at  New  College,  Edinbuigh,  in 
1846,  aud  in  1856  succeeded  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton  in  the  chair  of  logic  at 
Edinburgh.  From  1850-57  he  was  editor  of 
the  North  British  Review.  Among  other 
works  written  or  edited  by  him  is  a  collected 
edition  of  the  writings  of  Bishop  Berkeley. 

Fraser,  James   {b.  1818,  d.  1885),  Eng- 
lish diviue,   a   native   of   Prestbury,    was 
educated    at   Bridgenorth    and    afterwards 
at    Shrewsbury,    and    at    Oxford     gained 
the    Ireland    scholarship   and    a  first  class 
in     classics.      In     1840    he    was    elected 
fellow  of  Oriel,  and  in  1847  entered  holy 
orders,   and    was    appointed    to    a    coUege 
living  near    Salisbury.      In    1860    he    was 
nominated   by    Mr.   Gladstone  to    succeed 
Dr.  Prince  Lee,  the  first  bishop  of  Man- 
chester.    The  appointment  was  chiefly  due 
to  the  energy  he  had  shown  in  the  cause  of  i 
education,  beginning  with  his  appointment  { 
in  1858-60  as  assistant  commissioner  in  the  j 
Duke  of  Newcastle's  conunission  of  inquiry  [ 
on  popular  education.     At  Manchester  he 
threw  himself  enthusiastically  into  all  the 
interests,  secular  as  well  as  sacred,  of  his 
fellow-citizens.      Deserting  his  palace  and   i 
park  in  the  country,  and  making  his  home   \ 
in  the  city,  he  came  to  be  known  as  the  lay- 
man's bishop,  and,  from  his  brotherly  co- 
operation with  the  Nonconformists,  as  the 
"  Bishop  of  aU  Denominations."     After  his   j 
death  a  statue  was  decreed  to  him  by  the 
town  council. 

Fraser,  Simon.    \_See  Lovat,  Lord.] 

Fraser,  Sir  William,  author  of  histories  of 
several  Scottish  houses,  became  assistant- 
keeper  of  the  general  register  of  Sasines 
for  Scotland  in  1852,  and  deputy  keeper 
of  records  in  1880.  In  1885  he  was  made 
C.B.,  and  in  1887  a  K.C.B. 

Frauenstadt,  Christian  Martin  Julius  (Jb. 
1813,  d.  1879),  German  philosopher,  is 
known  chiefly  for  his  great  edition  of 
the  works  of  his  friend  Schopenhauer, 
and  for  his  numerous  writings  on  the 
subject. 

Frauohofer,  Joseph  von  (Jb.  1787,  d. 
1826),  Bavarian  optician,  invented  a  num- 
ber of  optical  instruments,  ^eatly  im- 
proved the  telescope,  and  discovered  in 
the  spectrum  the  daxk  lines  which  bear 
hia  name. 


ill- 


Frechette,  Louis  HonortS,  LL.D 
1839),  French -Canadian  poet  and  po 
tician,  entered  the  Dominion  parliament 
in  1874.  In  1882  two  volumes  of  his 
poems  were  crowned  by  the  French 
Academy. 

Fredegond  (6.  circa  545,  d.  597),  wife  of 
ChUperic  I.,  was  of  obscure  birth.  Having 
attracted  the  notice  of  Chilperic  while  in 
attendance  on  the  queen,  she  induced  hira 
to  divorce  his  wife.  By  violence  she  got 
rid  of  the  unfortunate  queen's  successor, 
Galswintha,  and  in  565  was  married  to  the 
king.  Her  career  was  full  of  intrigue  and 
crime,  aud  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  her  feud 
with  Brunhilda,  wife  of  Sigbert,  king  of 
Austrasia,  and  sister  of  Chilperic  of 
Neustria. 

Frederick  I.,  of  Hohenstaufen,  "Bar- 
barossa  "  ("  Red-beard  "),  Emperor  (Jb. 
circa  1123,  d.  1190),  was  grandson  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  and  son  of 
Frederick,  Duke  of  Saxony,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1 147.  The  prince  had  been  well 
educated,  and  early  took  part  in  public 
affairs.  On  the  death  of  Conrad  III.,  in 
1152,  he  was  crowned  emperor  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  Having  arranged  his  affairs  in 
Germany,  he,  in  1154,  marched  into  Italy, 
captured  Milan  and  other  cities,  took  Borne 
by  storm,  and  was  crowned  there  by  Adrian 
IV.  in  1155.  On  the  death  of  Adrian  the 
Papal  throne  was  contested  by  Victor  TV., 
the  nominee  of  the  empire,  and  Alex- 
ander III.,  the  choice  of  the  people.  In  the 
end,  Frederick,  after  a  great  defeat  at 
Legnano  (1176),  made  peace  with  the  con- 
federate cities.  The  Italian  complications 
came  to  an  end  in  1183  with  the  peace  of 
Constance.  Towards  the  close  of  his  reign 
the  emperor  joined  in  a  crusade,  and  led 
across  the  Hellespont  150,000  men,  but,  after 
gaining  several  victories  over  the  Moslems, 
was  drowned  while  crossing  the  Calycadnus, 
in  Pisidia. 

Frederick  XL,  of  Hohenstaufen,  Em- 
peror (b.  1194,  d.  1250),  was  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Henry  VI.  and  Constance  of  Sicily. 
He  was  declared  king  of  the  Itomans 
in  1196.  His  father  died  when  he  was 
in  his  fourth  year,  but  it  was  not  until 
1215  that  he  secured  possession  of  the 
empire,  and  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
having  had  to  contend  for  his  dominions 
with  Otho  of  Brunswick  and  Philip  of 
Swabia.  In  1228,  in  fulfilment  of  a  promise 
made  to  the  Pope,  he  set  forth  on  a  cru- 
sading expedition,  and  obtained  possession 
of  Jerusalem,  of  which  he  crowned  himself 
king  on  the  18th  of  March,  1229.  He  returned 
to  find  Italy  in  rebellion,  due,  in  part,  to  the 
hostility  of  Pope  Gregory  IX.  Temporary 
reconciliation  took  place  in  1230,  but  during 


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the  rest  of  his  reign  he  was  frequently 
harassed  by  the  opijosition  of  Gregory  and 
of  his  successor,  Innocent  IV.,  and  was 
twice  excommunicated.  The  revolt  spread 
from  Sicily  to  Lombardy,  and  parts  of  Ger- 
many, and  was  comphcated  by  the  desertion 
of  his  own  son,  Henrj',  and  of  his  chancellor, 
Peter  de  Vinis.  The  emperor  died  suddenly 
in  the  midst  of  his  troubles. 

Frederick  in.,  of  Hapsburg,  "the 
Pacific,"  Emperor  (b.  1415,  d.  1493), 
was  son  of  Ernest,  Duke  of  Austria,  of 
the  StjTian  branch  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  was 
called  to  govern  Styria,  Camiola,  and 
Carinthia,  and  in  1440  was  chosen  long  of 
the  Germans  in  succession  to  Albert  II.,  but 
it  was  not  till  1452  that  he  was  crowned 
emperor  by  the  Pope.  By  his  indolence  and 
want  of  resolution  he  lost  considerable  por- 
tions of  his  empire,  and  refused  to  take 
arms  against  the  Turks,  even  when  they 
had  penetrated  so  far  as  Camiola.  By  the 
marriage  of  his  son  Maximilian  to  Mary  of 
Burgundy,  however,  the  power  of  his  house 
was  greatly  increased. 

Frederick  I.,  King  of  Prussia,  and  third 
elector  of  Brandenburg  of  the  name 
{b.  1667,  d.  1713),  was  second  son  of 
Frederick  WilHam,  the  great  elector,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1688.  He  sent  six  thou- 
sand men  to  aid  the  Prince  of  Orange  in 
his  English  expedition,  and  twenty  thou- 
sand to  aid  the  emperor  against  the 
French.  On  the  18th  of  January,  1701,  he 
was  crowned  first  king  of  Prussia,  having 
increased  the  power  of  iiis  house  by  the  pur- 
chase of  some  principalities,  and  also  by  his 
services  to  other  princes.  After  the  decease 
of  his  first  wife,  Elizabeth  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
he  married  Sophia  Charlotte,  sister  of  the 
elector  of  Hanover,  afterwards  George  I.  of 
England,  and  by  her  became  the  father  of 
Frederick  William  I.  He  founded  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle,  and  also  the  academy  of 
sciences  and  the  academy  of  painting  and 
sculpture  in  Berlin. 

Frederick  XL,  King  of  Prussia,  "the 
Great"  {b.  1712,  d.  1786),  was  son  of 
Frederick  William  I.,  and  of  Sophia 
Dorothea  of  Hanover.  By  his  father's 
well-meant  brutahty  he  was  driven  to 
attempt  fliglit  to  England,  but  through  the 
indiscretion  of  his  confidant,  Lieutenant 
Katte,  he  was  arrested,  condemned  to  death 
for  desertion,  and  kept  in  prison  for  two 
years,  until  released  at  the  soHcitation  of 
foreign  princes.  He  then  made  a  show  of 
submission  to  his  father,  and  in  1733  con- 
sented to  a  marriage  with  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  Christina  of  Brunawick-Wolfen- 
biittel,  though  never  treating  her  as  his 
wife.  He  was  fond  of  literature  and  study, 
for  which  his  coarse  and  illiterate  father  had 


nothing  but  contempt.  From  his  marriage 
till  his  father's  death  Frederick  Uved  in  the 
castle  of  Eheinsberg,  gave  himself  up  to 
literature  and  music,  and  to  the  society  of 
learned  men  whom  he  gathered  around  him. 
During  this  period  began  his  correspondence 
with  Voltaire,  which  was  followed  up  later 
by  personal  acquaintance.  In  1740,  the 
year  of  his  accession  to  the  throne,  Charles 
VI.  of  Germany  died,  and  Frederick  took 
the  opportunity  to  wrest  Silesia  from  that 
prince's  daughter.  This  act  proved  to  be  the 
beginning  of  three  wars,  of  which  the  last, 
breaking  out  in  1756,  is  known  the  Seven 
Years'  war.  During  this  conflict  his  capital 
was  taken,  and  twice  he  was  reduced  to 
such  straits  that  he  meditated  suicide,  but 
the  sudden  death  of  his  enemy,  Elizabeth  of 
Russia,  saved  him,  her  sou,  Peter  III.,  not 
only  withdrawing  from  the  league  against 
him,  but  sending  to  his  help  a  force  of 
24,000  men.  After  1763,  when  the  war 
came  to  an  end,  Frederick  set  himself  with 
extraordinary  energy  to  repair  its  ravages, 
and  lived  long  enough  to  witness  a  state  of 
considerable  prosperity.  Before  his  death 
he  organised  a  confederation  of  German 
princes  as  a  safeguard  against  Austrian 
pretensions. 

Frederick  III.,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Niko- 
laus  Karl,  King  of  Prussia  and  German 
Emperor  (b.  1831,  d.  1888),  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Emperor  WiUiam.  He 
was  educated  partly  by  Dr.  Ernest  Cur- 
tius,  and  partly  at  the  University  of 
Bonn.  In  January,  1858,  he  married 
Princess  Victoria  Adelaide,  Princess  Royal 
of  England.  He  went  through  the  Danish 
war,  and  commanded  the  second  army 
in  the  war  with  Austria,  penetrating 
through  the  mountains  into  Bohemia,  and 
arriving  just  in  time  to  supi^ort  the  first 
army.  In  the  Franco-German  war  he 
commanded  the  first  army.  The  assault 
at  Weissenburg  on  August  4th  was  two 
days  later  followed  by  the  memorable 
action  of  Worth,  in  which  the  greater  part 
of  MacMahon's  army  was  annihilated.  He 
also  highly  distinguished  himself  by  his 
passage  of  the  Meuse  on  the  day  of  Sedan. 
During  the  siege  of  Paris  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  field-marshal,  and  it  would 
appear  from  his  diary  that,  in  the  proceed- 
ings which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the 
German  Empire,  he  played  a  part  hardly 
inferior  to  that  of  Bismarck.  When,  on  the 
9th  of  March,  1888,  he  ascended  the  German 
throne,  he  had  for  some  time  been  aft'ected 
with  a  malignant  formation  in  the  throat; 
but,  though  dangerously  ill  within  a  fort- 
night of  his  accession,  he  rallied  sufficiently 
to  be  able  to  perform  the  greater  part  of  his 
duties.  After  terrible  suffering,  borne  with 
heroic  resignation,  the  disease  proved  fatal. 
The  closing  months  of  his  life  were  greatly 


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vexed  by  a  dispute  with  Prince  Bismarck  as 
to  the  proposed  marriage  between  his 
daughter,  the  Princess  Victoria,  and  Prince 
Alexander  of  Batteuberg.  The  emperor 
was  a  man  of  wide  knowledge,  of  enUghtened 
views,  and  of  admirable  temper,  and  his 
death  was  a  great  disappointment  to  those 
who  looked  to  him  to  liberaUse  the  insti- 
tutions of  Germany  and  foster  her  arts. 

Frederick  I.,  Elector-Palatine,  "  the  Vic- 
torious" [b.  1425,  d.  1476),  was  second  son 
of  the  Elector  Louis  III.  He  had  to  fight 
hard  to  secure  his  kingdom,  but  was  finally 
victorious  at  Seckendorf  in  1462. 

Frederick  II.,  Elector  -  Palatine,  "  the 
"Wise"  {b.  1483,  d.  1556),  was  fourth  son  of 
the  Elector  Philip,  and  succeeded  his  brother, 
Ludwig,  in  1544.  He  commanded  the  Im- 
perial army  in  1529,  when  Vienna  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Turks  and  saved  by  the  King 
of  Poland. 

Frederick  III.,  Elector-Palatine  {b.  1515, 
d.  1576),  succeeded  in  1559,  adopted  the  new 
religious  views  under  the  influence  of  Mel- 
ancthon,  and  was  of  great  service  to  the 
Reformation. 

Frederick  IV.,  Elector  Palatine,  "the 
Upright,"  succeeded  his  father,  the  Elector 
Louis,  in  1583,  under  the  regency  of  his  uncle, 
John  Casimir. 

Frederick  V.,  Elector-Palatine  (6.  1596, 
d.  1632),  was  son  of  Frederick  IV.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1610.  In  1613  he  mar- 
ried the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
James  I.  of  England.  In  1619  he  was 
elected  king  of  Bohemia,  but  his  army  wa.s 
destroyed  at  Prague,  and  the  electorate 
conferred  by  the  empire  upon  the  Duke 
of  Bavaria.  The  rest  of  his  Hfe  was  spent 
in  exile.  One  of  his  thirteen  children  was 
the  fiery  Prince  Rupert  of  CavaHer  fame ; 
his  second  son,  Charles  Loius,  eventually 
became  elector. 

Frederick  I.,  Frederick  William  Charles, 
King  of  Wiirtemberg  {b.  1754,  d.  1816), 
succeeded  to  the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg 
in  1797,  was  made  elector  in  1804,  and, 
having  come  to  terms  with  Napoleon,  ob- 
tained the  title  of  king,  which  he  contrived 
to  retain  by  joining  the  allies  in  good 
time. 

Frederick  L,  "  the  Warlike,"  Elector  and 
Duke  of  Saxony  (b.  1369,  d.  1428),  was  son 
of  Duke  Frederick  "  the  Severe,"  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1423.  In  the  conflict  with  the 
Hussites  he  met  with  a  disastrous  defeat  at 
Aussig  in  1426. 

Frederick  H,  "the  Good,"  Elector  and 
Duke  of  Saxony  {b.  1412,  d.  1464),  was  son 
of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1428. 
He  was  engaged  in  continual  wars  with  the 


Hussites,    and  with    members  of    his  own 
family. 

Frederick  III.,  "the  Wise,"  Elector  and 
Duke  of  Saxony  {b.  1463,  d.  1525),  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ernest,  in  1485.  A  wise 
and  humane  prince,  he  was  the  founder  of 
the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  the  pro- 
tector of  Luther. 

Frederick  III.,  "the  Handsome,"  Duke 
of  Austria  {b.  1286,  d.  1330),  was  the  son  of 
the  Emperor  Albert  I.,  and  of  Elizabeth  of 
Cariuthia.  In  1315  he  was  elected  emperor 
of  Germany  at  Cologne  in  succession  to 
Henry  VII.,  but  at  the  same  time  Louis  of 
Bavaria  was  also  elected  at  Aix-la-ChapeUe  ; 
and  in  the  war  which  followed,  Frederick 
was.  in  the  end,  beaten  and  captured  at 
Miihldorf  in  1322.  He  was  kept  in  detention 
for  three  years,  but  was  then  released,  and 
the  two  monarchs  came  to  an  arrangement 
by  which  the  empire  was  shared  between 
them. 

Frederick  V.,  Duke  of  Austria  (6.  1380, 
d.  1436),  lost  most  of  his  dominions 
by  throwing  in  his  lot  with  Pope  John 
XXIII. 

Frederick  I.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way {h.  1471,  d.  1533),  was  son  of  Christian  I. 
Against  his  desire  he  was  called  to  the  throne 
by  the  nation,  to  whom  the  tyranny  of 
Christian  II.  had  become  intolerable.  He 
gave  the  Danes  a  constitution  and  proclaimed 
religious  liberty,  became  a  Lutheran,  aban- 
doned all  claim  to  Sweden,  and  made  peace 
with  Gustavus  Vasa. 

Frederick  II.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way (J).  1534,  d.  1588),  son  of  Christian  III., 
came  to  the  throne  in  1550.  He  subdued 
Ditmarsh,  and  waged  a  seven  years'  war 
with  Eric  XIV.  of  Sweden,  which  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Stettin,  Sweden  having  to 
pay  all  the  military  expenses.  When  peace 
came,  Frederick  turned  it  to  good  accoimt  in 
improving  his  kingdom.  He  was  a  patron 
of  art  and  science,  and  gave  Tycho  Brahe  the 
island  of  Huen,  where  the  astronomer 
erected  his  observatory. 

Frederick  III,  of  Denmark  (6.  1609,  d. 
1670),  was  elected  king  of  Denmark  and 
Norway  on  the  death  of  his  father. 
Christian  IV.  During  his  reign  Denmark 
was  invaded  by  Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  and, 
though  the  attack  was  repulsed,  the  drain 
upon  the  national  resources  brought  about  a 
revolution,  which  resulted  in  important 
constitutional  changes. 

Frederick  IV.,  of  Denm««xk  {b.  1671,  d. 
1730),  ascended  the  throne  of  Norway  in 
1699,  in  succession  to  his  father.  He  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Saxony  and  Russia 
against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  but  the 


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Pre 


war  resulted  in  his  having  to  pay  a  large 
indemnity. 

Frederick  V.,  of  Denmark  {b.  1722,  d. 
1766),  succeeded  his  father,  Christian  VI., 
in  1746.  He  was  a  great  patron  of  art  and 
letters,  and  stimulated  the  industrial  enter- 
prise of  his  subjects,  but  left  the  state  bur- 
dened with  a  considerable  debt. 

Frederick  VI.,  of  Denmark  (b.  1768,  d. 
1839),  began  to  rule  in  1784  as  regent  for  his 
father.  Christian  VII.,  and  as  king  in  1808. 
His  adhesion  to  the  armed  neutrality 
arranged  by  Xapoleon  led  to  the  bombard- 
ment of  Copenhagen  in  1801,  and  iinaUy  to 
the  loss  of  Norway.  In  1834  he  created  a 
new  constitution. 

Frederick  VII.,  of  Denmark  (b.  1808,  d. 
1863),  only  son  of  Christian  VIII.,  was  the 
last  of  the  Oldenburg  Une,  and  was  called  to 
the  throne  in  1848.  His  whole  reign  was 
troubled  by  the  revolt  of  Schleswig-Holstein, 
but  it  was  left  to  his  successor  to  see  the 
province  torn  from  the  country  by  Austria 
and  Prussia. 

Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales  (6.  1707,  d. 
1751),  eldest  son  of  George  II.,  came  into 
conflict  with  his  father  over  his  marriage, 
and  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Opposition. 
On  his  death  the  eldest  of  his  nine  children 
became  Prince  of  Wales,  and  afterwards 
came  to  the  throne  as  George  III. 

Frederick  Augustus  L,  first  King  of 
Saxony  (6.  1750,  d.  1827),  was  son  of  the 
Elector  Frederick  Christian.  He  joined 
the  league  formed  by  Frederick  the  Great 
in  1778,  and  in  1791  refused  the  crown 
of  Poland.  He  assumed  the  title  of  king 
of  Saxony  on  making  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  Napoleon,  whom  he  then  followed. 
After  Leipzig,  however,  he  was  driven  out 
of  his  kingdom,  a  portion  of  which  was 
irrecoverably  lost  to  him. 

Frederick  Augustus  n.,  King  of  Saxony 
(b.  1797,  d.  1854),  nephew  of  the  former, 
was  a  wise  and  skilful  ruler.  In  1830, 
his  father,  Prince  Maximilian,  abdicating, 
he  was  made  co-regent  with  his  uncle, 
Anthony.  He  became  sole  ruler  in  1836, 
and  in  1848  made  considerable  concessions 
to  popular  feeling. 

Frederick  Augustus  III.,  Elector  of 
Saxony  and  King  of  Poland  {b.  1696,  d. 
1763),  succeeded  his  father  as  elector  of 
Saxony  in  1733,  and  the  following  year  was 
crowned  king  of  Poland.  Of  this  latter 
kingdom  he  lost  a  considerable  portion, 
owing  to  the  encroachment  of  his  neigh- 
bours, Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

Frederick  Charles,  Prince  of  Prussia 
(b.  1828,  d.  1885),  known  as  the  "Red 
Prince"  from  the  colour  of  hia  favourite 


hussar  uniform,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Prince  Charles,  brother  of  the  German 
emperor  William,  his  mother  being  a  sister 
of  the  Empress  Augusta.  He  served  in  the 
first  Schleswig-Holstein  war,  and  having 
become  a  general  of  cavalry,  with  command 
of  the  third  army  corps,  he  commanded  the 
right  vring  of  the  Prussian  army  during  the 
Danish  war  of  1864.  In  the  Austrian  war 
of  1866  he  commanded  the  first  army,  and  to 
him  the  crowning  victory  of  Sadowa  was 
mainly  due.  In  the  Franco-German  war  he 
commanded  the  second  army,  which  he  led 
to  victories  at  ThionviUe,  Gravelotte,  and 
St.  Privat,  and  thus  blockaded  Bazaine  in 
the  entrenchments  of  Metz.  After  Bazaine's 
surrender  with  170,000  men,  the  Prince 
hastened  westward  to  check  the  armies  of 
Chanzy  and  D'AureUes  de  Paladine  in  their 
attempts  to  relieve  Paris  from  the  south. 
A  series  of  battles  lasted  almost  uninter- 
ruptedly from  the  middle  of  November  till 
the  middle  of  January,  when  the  French 
army  of  the  west  was  rendered  impotent  at 
Le  Mans.  In  the  previous  October  he  had 
been  created  field-marshal  Pnnce  Frederick 
was  father  of  the  Duchess  of  Connaught. 

Frederick  William  I.,  King  of  Prussia 
{b.  1688,  d.  1740),  succeeded  his  father, 
Frederick  I.,  in  1713,  and  at  once  entered 
upon  a  policy  of  severe  economy,  and 
even  parsimony.  For  learning  and  all 
the  refinements  of  life  he  had  nothing 
but  contempt;  but  the  effect  of  his 
thoroughly  practical  policy  in  developing 
the  resources  of  his  country  was  enormous, 
and  when  he  died  he  left  an  army  of  80,000 
men,  brought  to  a  state  of  the  highest  dis- 
cipline, and  a  reserve  of  9,000,000  thalers. 
By  Sophia  Dorothea,  daughter  of  George  I., 
he  was  father  of  Frederick  "  the  Great." 

Frederick  William  II.,  King  of  Prussia 
(b.  1744,  d.  1797),  son  of  August  Wilhelm, 
the  second  son  of  Frederick  William  I., 
succeeded  his  uncle  Frederick  the  Great 
in  1786.  He  was  too  much  occupied  in 
unworthy  pleasures  to  be  a  successful  ruler, 
and  although  by  the  second  and  third 
partitions  of  Poland,  and  also  by  acquir- 
ing Anspach  and  Baireuth,  he  added  to 
his  territory,  he,  on  the  other  hand,  lost 
the  trans-Rhenish  provinces  to  the  French 
republic.  He  wasted  the  treasure  left  by 
his  uncle,  lowered  the  reputation  of  Prussia 
among  foreign  nations,  and  displeased  his 
subjects  by  taking  from  their  Uberties  and 
adding  to  their  taxation. 

Frederick  William  HI.,  King  of  Prus- 
sia {b.  1770,  d.  1840),  was  the  eldest  son 
of  the  Prince  of  Prussia,  who  afterwards 
became  king  as  Frederick  William  II.,  by 
his  second  wife,  Louisa  of  Hesse.  Trained, 
like  all  the  IlohenzoUems,  to  the  pro- 
fession   of    arms,    he    went    through   tha 


Fre 


330) 


Pre 


campaigns  of  1792  and  1793.  He  married 
the  Princess  Louisa  of  Mecklenburg-Stre- 
litz,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  No- 
vember 16th,  1797 ;  and,  though  adverse 
to  any  constitutional  improvement,  at  once 
entered  upon  a  series  of  administrative  re- 
forms. After  long  delay,  he,  in  1806,  joined 
the  coaUtion  agaiust  Napoleon.  VVitliiu  a 
week  the  Prussians  were  totally  defeated  at 
Jena  and  Auerstadt,  and  the  kingdom  lay 
helpless  at  the  feet  of  France.  The  work  of 
national  regeneration  was  then  quietly  and 
steadily  pursued,  and  when  the  remains  of 
the  Grande  Armee  were  in  full  retreat  through 
Germany,  the  king  concluded  an  alliance 
with  Russia  and  Austria,  and  declared  war 
against  Napoleon.  He  was  present  at  head- 
quarters during  the  eventful  campaign  of  the 
autumn  of  1813,  and  also  took  part  in  the 
invasion  of  France  in  1814.  On  peace  being 
restored,  the  king  showed  some  tendency  to- 
wards constitutional  reform,  but  fell  under 
the  influence  of  reactionary  counsellors  ;  and 
after  1818  a  period  of  arbitrary  government 
began,  and  Prussia  joined  the  Holy  AlHance. 
Although  his  home  policy  was  unpopular 
with  many  of  his  subjects,  the  king  personally 
was  greatly  esteemed. 

Frederick  William  IV.,  King  of  Prussia 
(b.  1795,  d.  1861),  was  eldest  son  of  the 
preceding.  After  a  careful  education,  not 
only  in  arms,  but  also  in  the  sciences 
and.  arts,  and  having  in  1823  married 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  King  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1840  with  a  reputation  for  liberal  sympa- 
thies, but  was  filled  with  consternation  by  the 
revolution  of  1840,  and  both  at  home  and 
abroad  his  policy  was  marked  by  irresolution. 
He  was  an  active  supporter  of  the  United 
Germany  movement,  but  when  in  1849  the 
Frankfurt  National  Assembly  offered  him  the 
imperial  crown,  he  declined  it.  During  the 
last  three  years  of  his  life  he  was  afB^icted 
with  paralysis  and  partial  insanity,  and  the 
administration  was  carried  on  by  his  brother, 
Prince  WilUam,  afterwards  King  of  Prussia 
and  German  Emperor. 

Frederick  WilUam,  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg, "the  Great  Elector"  {b.  1620,  d. 
1688),  succeeded  to  the  electorate  in  1640, 
and  at  once  set  himself  to  repair  the 
ravages  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war.  In  1657 
he  secured  from  Poland  the  independence 
of  Prussia.  In  1672  he  formed  a  league 
against  Louis  XIV.,  and  although  he  defeated 
the  Swedes,  whom  Louis  induced  to  invade 
Brandenburg,  he  was  in  the  end  forced  by 
the  desertion  of  allies  to  sign  the  treaty  of 
St.  Germain  (1679).  The  rest  of  his  reign 
was  devoted  to  the  development  of  the  re- 
sources of  his  kingdom,  and  the  encomrage- 
ment  of  leamins. 

Frederick  William  Louis,  Grand  Duke  of 


Baden  (b.  1826),  succeeded  his  father,  the 
Grand  Duke  Leopold,  as  regent  on  April 
24th,  1852.  In  September,  1866,  he  nar- 
rowly escaped  assassination.  He  assumed 
the  title  of  Grand  Duke  on  the  5th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1856,  and  married  a  daughter  of 
William  I.  of  Prussia  on  the  20th  of  the  same 
mouth.  In  the  Franco -German  war  he  threw 
in  liis  lot  with  Prussia,  having  long  been  an 
advocate  of  German  unity. 

Freeman,  Edward  Augustus,  D.C.L.  (b. 
1823,  d.  1892),  historian,  was  born  at  Har- 
bome,  Staffordshire,  and  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  gained  a  second 
class  in  classics  in  1845,  and  was  elected  to  a 
fellowship.  He  first  made  his  mark  as  a 
student  of  mediaeval  architecture  with  a 
History  of  Architecture  pubUshed  in  1849. 
In  1856  appeared  the  History  and  Antiqui- 
ties of  St.  Bavids,  in  which  he  collaborated 
with  the  Rev.  W.  B.  Jones.  In  1863  came 
the  first  volume  of  a  History  of  Federal 
Government.  His  greatest  work,  the  History 
of  the  Norman  Conquest,  in  five  large  vol- 
umes, appeared  between  1867  and  1876,  and 
the  Reign  of  William  liufus  and  Accession  of 
Henry  I.  in  1882.  He  has  also  written  the 
History  and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens  and 
the  Ottoman  Power  in  Europe  (1877),  the 
History  of  the  Cathedral- Church  of  Wells 
(1870)  and  several  other  works,  some  of 
them  in  the  nature  of  popular  exposition. 
In  1884  he  succeeded  Dr.  Stubbs  as  Regius 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford.  In 
politics  he  is  an  ardent  Liberal,  and  has 
rendered  great  services  to  the  principle  of 
nationality  in  south-eastern  Europe. 

FreUigratll,  Ferdinand  [b.  1810,  rf.  1876), 
German  poet,  bom  at  Detmold,  twice  foimd 
it  necessary  to  retire  to  England  because 
of  his  political  views,  and  while  there 
translated  Bums,  Moore,  and  Longfellow 
into  German.  When  he  returned  to  Ger- 
many he  was  received  with  acclamation, 
and  during  the  war  of  1870  wrote  some 
stirring  battle  songs.  As  a  writer  of  lyrics 
he  stands  in  the  front  rank. 

Frelingtiuysen,  Frederick  {b.  1753,  d. 
1804),  American  statesman. 

Frelinghuysen,  Frederick  Theodore  {b. 
1817,  d.  1885),  American  statesman,  nephew 
of  Frederick  Frelinghuysen,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  Senate  from 
1866  to  1869,  and  from  1871  to  1877;  and 
during  1881  to  1885  was  secretary  of  state 
in  President  Arthur's  cabinet. 

Frelinghuysen, Theodore  {b.  \l%l,d.  1861), 
American  statesman,  was  second  son  of  Fred- 
erick Frelinghuysen,  and  sat  in  the  Senate 
from  1821  to  1825.  In  1849  he  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  New  York, 
and  in  1844  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  the 
vice-presidency  of  the  States. 


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Pre 


Fremont,  John  Charles  {b.  1813,  d. 
1890),  American  general,  explorer,  and 
politician,  was  born  at  Savannah.  After 
engaging  in  several  exploring  expeditions 
for  the  Government,  he  fitted  out  one 
at  his  own  expense,  with  the  object 
of  finding  a  practicable  route  over  the 
mountains  to  California.  This  was  in 
October,  1848:  he  reached  Sacramento,  after 
enduring  great  privations,  in  the  spring  of 
1819,  and  acquiied  a  large  estate  containing 
valuable  gold  mines.  In  1856  he  was  one 
of  the  Republican  candidates  for  the  presi- 
dency of  the  United  States,  but  was  un- 
successful. The  Civil  war  having  broken 
out,  he  was  made  a  major-general,  and 
placed  in  command  of  the  western  depart- 
ment, but  was  recalled  for  issiiing  a  pro- 
clamation freeing  slaves  in  his  district.  He 
then  received  another  command,  but,  being 
superseded  by  General  Pope,  resigned  his 
commission.  In  1864  he  was  again  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency,  but  withdrew  his 
name.  For  transactions  in  connection  with 
the  promotion  of  a  r.iilway  he  was  sentenced 
by  a  French  tribunal  to  fine  and  imprison- 
ment, but  as  he  was  no  longer  in  France, 
the  penalty  was  not  enforced.  From  1878 
to  1881  he  was  governor  of  the  territory  of 
Arizona. 

Freppel,  Monseigneur  Charles  !^mi1e  (jb. 
1827,  ^d.  1891),  Bishop  of  Angers,  bom  at 
Obemai,  was  appointed  professor  of  sacred 
eloquence  at  Paris  in  1854,  and  soon  acquired 
fame  as  a  teacher,  writer,  and  preacher.  At 
the  general  election  of  1881  he  was  returned 
as  Legitimist  deputy  for  Brest,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1885. 

Frere,  Sir  Henry  Bartle  {b.  1815,  d. 
1884),  diplomatist  and  statesman,  was 
nephew  of  John  Hookham  Frere.  Hav- 
ing distinguished  himself  in  Indian  ad- 
ministration, he,  in  1850,  became  chief  com- 
missioner of  Scind.  After  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Mutiny,  to  which  he  greatly 
contributed  by  his  occupation  of  the  for- 
tress of  Moultan,  he  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  reconstruction  of  Indian  finance. 
From  18G2  to  1867  he  was  Governor  of  Bom- 
bay, and  entered  upon  a  policy  of  energetic 
reform.  On  his  return  to  England  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Indian  Council.  In 
1872,  having  held  the  presidency  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  in  the  interval, 
he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  Sultan  of 
Zanzibar  by  which  the  slave  traflic  in  the 
interior  was  abolished.  For  this  he  was  re- 
warded with  a  seat  in  the  Privy  Council.  In 
1877  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  the 
Cape  and  High  Commissioner  for  the  settle- 
ment of  native  affairs  in  South  Africa. 
His  attempt  to  confederate  the  South  African 
colonies  failed,  and  his  subsequent  attack 
upon  Cetewayo  was  censured,  not  only  by 
the  Liberals  but  also  by  the  Govenmient. 


In  1880  he  was  recalled,  and  took  no  fur- 
ther part  in  ofiicial  Ufe. 

Frere,  John  Hookham  (J.  1769,  d.  1841), 
diplomatist  and  author,  uncle  to  the  pre- 
ceding, vras  bom  in  London.  He  en- 
tered Parhament  in  1796  as  member  for 
Looe,  and  in  1799  succeeded  Canning  as 
Foreign  under-secretary.  In  1800  he 
was  appointed  envoy-extraordinary  and 
plenipotentiary  to  Lisbon,  and  in  18u2  was 
transferred  to  Madrid.  For  persuading 
Sir  John  Moore  to  advance  toward  Madiid 
with  totally  inadequate  forces,  he  was 
greatly  blamed  and  had  to  be  recalled. 
Refusing  a  peerage  and  the  post  of  am- 
bassador to  St.  Petersburg,  he  retired  to 
Malta,  and  there  occupied  himself  until  his 
death  with  Uterary  labours,  among  them 
being  a  brilliant  translation  of  the  plays 
of  Aristophanes. 

Fr^re,  Pierre  Edouard  (J.  1819,  (^.1886), 
French  figure  painter,  bom  in  Paris,  ex- 
hibited at  the  Salon  of  1843,  and  in 
1855  became  a  knight  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour. 

Fr^ron,  Ehe  Catherine  {b.  1718,  d.  YJIQ), 
French  critic,  bom  at  Quimper,  waa 
brought  up  by  the  Jesuits,  and  defended 
the  Church  against  Voltaire  and  the  Ency- 
clopaedists. 

Fresnel,  Augustin  Jean  (6.  1789,  d.  1827), 
French  geometer  and  optician,  bom  at 
Broglie,  extended  to  a  large  class  of  op- 
tical phenomena  the  imdulatory  theory  of 
light  enunciated  by  Hooke.  He  was  also 
the  first  to  construct  compound  lenses  as  a 
substitute  for  mirrors. 

Freimd,  Wilhelm  {b.  1806),  German  phi- 
lologist, bom  at  Kempen,  Posen,  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  Worterbuch  der  Latemis- 
chen  Sprache,  which  is  the  foundation  of  our 
leading  English-Latin  dictionaries. 

Freyomet,  Charles  Louis  de  Saulces  de 
{b.  1828),  French  statesman,  bom  at  Foix, 
was  in  1870  chosen  by  Gambetta  as  chief  of 
the  military  cabinet  formed  to  resist  the  in- 
vading Germans,  and  with  rare  devotion  set 
himself  to  work  to  raise  armies  and  organise 
the  commissariat.  In  1876  he  was  elected 
senator  by  the  department  of  the  Seine ;  in 
1877  he  became  minister  of  public  works ; 
and  in  December,  1879,  formed  a  cabinet  of 
his  own,  himself  hokling  the  portfolio  of 
foreign  affairs.  In  the  followmg  year  he 
resigned,  and  in  1882,  when  he  had  a  second 
time  formed  a  ministry,  again  becoming 
minister  for  foreign  affairs,  his  tenure  of 
office  was  even  shorter,  for  he  was  defeated 
on  the  Egyptian  question  in  July  of  the 
same  year.  In  April,  1885,  he  was  foreign 
minister  in  the  cabinet  of  M.  Brisson,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  year  formed  his  third 


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ministry,  which  came  to  an  end  in  1886.  He 
•was  minister  of  war  in  the  Floquet  and 
second  Tirard  cabinets  (1SS8  and  1889),  and 
afterwards  became  for  the  fourth  time 
prime  minister,  being  at  the  same  time  war 
minister.  In  1890  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy. 

Freycinet,  Louis  Claude  de  Saulces  de 
(i.  1779.  d.  1842),  French  navigator,  joined 
the  expedition  sent  out  under  Captain 
Baudin  in  1800  to  explore  the  south  and 
south-west  coasts  of  Australia;  and  in  1817 
commanded  the  Uranie  in  its  scientific  expe- 
dition to  South  America  and  the  Pacific 
islands.  The  result  of  the  voyage,  which 
lasted  for  three  years,  was  published  under 
his  supervision,  imder  the  title  of  Voyage 
Autour  du  Monde  (1825-44). 

Fres^tag,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich  (J>. 
1788,  d.  1861),  German  Arabic  lexico- 
grapher, bom  at  Lunsberg,  was  professor 
of  oriental  languages  at  Bonn  from  1819 
till  his  death.  His  chief  work  is  his 
Arabic  dictionary,  Lexicon  Arahico-Latinum 
(1830-37). 

Freytag,  Gustav  {b.  1816),  novelist  and 
historian,  bom  at  Kreuzberg,  Prussian 
Silesia,  has  produced,  in  addition  to  come- 
dies, etc.,  some  novels  distinguished  by 
sincerity,  himiour,  and  keen  delineation 
of  character.  Debit  and  Credit  appeared 
in  1855,  and  The  Lost  Manuscript  in 
1864. 

Frideswide,  patron  saint  of  Oxford, 
flourished  in  the  8th  century.  She  was 
canonised  in  1481. 

Friedlander,  IVIichael  {b.  1833),  Hebraist, 
has  published  several  commentaries  on  the 
Talmud  and  other  branches  of  Hebraic 
literature. 

Friedrich,  Johann  (J.  1836),  Eoman 
Catholic  divine,  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Munich  in  1865,  and  took  part  in 
the  Vatican  council  in  1870,  but  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  excommunicated  for  having 
allied  himself  with  Dr.  DolUnger  in  the  Old 
CathoUc  movement. 

Fries,  Elias  Magnus  {b.  1794,  d.  1878), 
celebrated  Swedish  botanist,  bom  at  Smaa- 
land,  was  appointed  professor  of  rural 
economy  at  Upsala  in  1836,  and  in  1851 
professor  of  botany.  Amongst  Swedish 
naturalists  he  was  second  only  to  Lmnseus. 
He  gave  special  attention  to  the  order 
fungi. 

Fries,  Jacob  Friedrich  (b.  1773,  d.  1843), 
German  philosopher,  a  native  of  Barby, 
Prussian  Saxony,  was  professor  at  Jena 
and  Heidelberg.  It  was  his  aim  to  re- 
strain philosophy  within  the  strict  limits 
laid  down  by  Kajit. 


Frith,  John  (b.  circa  1503,  d.  1533),  re- 
former, a  native  of  Westerham,  Kent,  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  treatises  in 
advocacy  of  Protestantism.  He  was  burnt 
at  Smithfield. 

Frith,  William  Powell,  E.A.  (6.  1819), 
a  native  of  Studley,  near  Eipon,  studied 
at  Sass's  academy  and  in  the  Eoyal 
Academy  schools  in  1835.  In  1840  he 
exhibited  Othello  and  Desdemona  at  the 
British  Institution,  and  Malvolio  before  the 
Countess  Olivia  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
His  first  important  work  was  Coming  of  Age 
in  the  Olden  Time,  which  was  engraved,  and 
became  immensely  popular.  Among  the 
best  known  of  his  works  are  his  Ramsgate 
Sands  (1854),  The  Derby  Day  (1858),  Claude 
Duval  (I860),  The  Mailway  Station  (1862), 
and  King  Charles  IL.^s  Last  Stmday  (1867). 
He  is  the  author  of  some  charming  volumes 
of  reminiscences.  He  was  made  A.B.A.  in 
1846,  and  R.A.  in  1852. 

Fritigem,  Visigoth  leader  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury, and  predecessor  of  Alaric,  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Romans,  cul- 
minating in  the  triumph  of  Hadrianople  in 
378,  in  which  the  Roman  general  Valens 
and  two-thirds  of  his  troops  were  slain. 
These  results  were  largely  due  to  the  success 
with  which  he  promoted  union  among  the 
Gothic  tribes. 

Frobel,  Friedrich  Wilhebn  August  (J). 
1782,  d.  18-32),  German  educationist,  bom 
at  Ober  Weissbach,  was  the  origina- 
tor of  the  Kindergarten  system.  In 
1825  he  published  a  work  in  exposition 
of  his  theory  of  the  education  of  children, 
and  in  1836  established  a  school  at  Blan- 
kenberg,  with  a  view  of  putting  it  into 
practice.  For  the  most  part  his  system  was 
received  with  ridicule,  but  since  his  death, 
in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Prussian 
government,  who  objected  to  its  supposed 
"  socialistic  tendencies,"  it  has  been  widely 
adopted  in  Geimany,  and  even  more  so  in 
America  and  England. 

Frbtoel,  Julius  (6.  1806),  political  writer, 
and  nephew  of  the  preceding,  bom  at 
Greishem,  in  the  Thuringian  Forest,  was  one 
of  the  democratic  leaders  in  the  revolution  of 
1848.  Afterwards  he  retired  to  America, 
and  on  his  return  to  Germany  was  banished. 
He  has  since  lived  in  England. 

Frobenius,  Johannes  {b.  1460,  d.  1527), 
printer,  was  a  native  of  Franconia. 

Frobisher,  Sir  Martin  {b.  circa  1535,  d. 
1594),  mariner,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  made 
his  first  voyage  iu  1576  under  the  patronage 
of  Earl  Dudley,  vrith  the  object  of  dis- 
covering a  north-west  passage  to  China,  and 
proceeded  as  far  as  Frobisher's  Bay.  In 
1677  and  1578  he   conducted   two   HimilaT 


Pro 


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Pro 


expeditions.  In  1585  he  served  under  Drake 
in  the  attack  upon  the  Spanish  settlements 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  the  conflict  with 
the  Spanish  Armada  commanded  the 
Trmmph,  and  so  distinguished  himself  as  to 
gain  knighthood.  In  defending  Brest 
against  the  Spaniards  he  received  a  wound, 
from  which  he  died  a  few  days  afterwards 
at  Plymouth.  His  Three  Voyages  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Hakluyt  Society  in  1867. 

Froissart.Jean  (6. 1337, «?.  1410),  chronicler 
of  the  wars  between  France  and  England, 
was  the  son  of  a  painter  of  arms.  In  his 
twentieth  year  he  undertook  to  write  the 
history  of  the  wars  of  France,  England,  and 
Spain  for  Robert,  Lord  of  Beaufort:  and 
having  come  to  England  to  tear  himself  from 
a  love  affair,  he  presented  a  portion  of  the 
work  to  Philippa,  wife  of  Edward  III.  He 
thus  became  attached  to  the  English  court 
till  the  death  of  the  queen  in  1369,  and  during 
the  interval  he  travelled  extensively.  After- 
wards his  friend  and  patron,  the  Count  de 
Blois,  procured  for  him  a  treasurership  and 
canonry  at  Chimay.  In  1395,  when  he  again 
came  to  England  collecting  materials  for  his 
history,  he  was  received  with  great  distinction 
by  Richard  II.  His  Chronicles,  written  in 
French,  extend  from  1326  to  1400. 

Fromentin,  Eugfene  {b.  1820,  d.  1876), 
French  painter  of  Eastern  scenes,  a  native 
of  La  RocheUe,  became  a  chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honoiir  in  1859,  and  an  officer 
in  1869. 

Frontenac,  Louis  de  Buade,  Comte  de  (b. 
1620,  d.  1698),  French  administrator,  became 
governor  of  the  French  territory  in  North 
America  in  1672,  and  again  in  1689,  when  he 
brought  the  Iroquois  to  submission,  and 
successfully  defended  Quebec  against  the 
British. 

Frontinus,  Sextus  Julius  {d.  circa  104), 
Roman  general  and  author,  became  gov- 
ernor of  Britain  in  75  and  subdued  the 
Silures,  and  was  also  twice  consul.  His 
works  deal  with  the  art  of  war,  and  the 
water-supply  of  Rome.  , 

Fronto,  Marcus  Cornelius  (b.  circa  100, 
d.  circa  170),  Roman  general  and  rhetorician, 
bom  in  Numidia,  was  tutor  of  Marcus  Aure- 
liu3  and  Lucius  Verus.  In  143  he  was 
consul. 

Frost,  Edward  William  {b.  1810,  d. 
1877),  painter,  was  bom  at  Wandsworth. 
After  studying  in  Sass's  academy,  he 
was  in  1829  admitted  a  student  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  In  the  cartoon  compe- 
tition of  1843  he  gained  a  prize  of  £100 
for  his  Vna  Alarmed  by  the  Fauns  and 
Satyrs.  He  was  made  A.R.A.  in  1816  and 
R.A.  in  1871.  The  field  to  which  he  chiefly 
devoted  himself  was  mythology. 


Frost,  Thomas  (6.  1821),  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  bom  at  Croydon,  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Chartist  agitation, 
and  has  published,  among  other  works, 
Secret  Societies  of  the  European  Revolution 
(1876). 

Frothmgham,  Octavius  Brook  (*.  1822), 
American  theological  writer  and  axt  critic, 
a  native  of  Boston,  Mass.,  was  for  some 
years  a  Unitarian  minister,  but  in  1881 
formally  withdrew  from  church  connec- 
tion, and  has  since  given  himself  up  en- 
tirely to  literature.  One  of  his  best  known 
books  is  his  Life  of  Theodore  Parker 
(1874). 

Froude,  James  Anthony  {b.  1818),  his- 
torian and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  bom 
at  Dartington,  Devon,  a  son  of  an  arch- 
deacon of  Totnes,  and  was  educated  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  fell  under 
the  influence  of  the  Tractarian  leaders. 
Intended  for  an  ecclesiastical  career,  he 
was  elected  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  and 
received  deacon's  orders,  but  a  fundamental 
change  of  his  views,  explained  in  his  Nemesis 
of  Faith,  led  him  to  abandon  his  fellowship 
and  devote  himself  to  literature.  His  great 
work,  The  History  of  England  from  the  Fall 
of  TFolsey  to  the  Defeat  of  the  Spanish 
Armada,  appeared  between  1856  and  1869, 
and,  although  it  has  been  greatly  criticised 
on  the  score  of  accuracy,  its  brilUant  literary 
qualities  have  secured  for  it  a  wide  popu- 
larity. Among  Mr.  Fronde's  other  works 
are :  Sho7-t  Studies  on  Great  Subjects,  The 
English  in  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth  Century 
(1872-1874),  Oceana  (1886),  the  English  in 
the  West  Indies  (1888),  and  a  monograph  on 
lord  Beaconsfeld  {1890).  In  1889  he  made 
his  appearance  as  a  novelist  with  The  2'uo 
Ch  iefs  of  Bunboy.  He  is  also  the  biographer 
of  ms  mend,  Thomas  Carlyle,  and  none  of 
his  works  has  provoked  more  controversy 
than  his  Life  oj  Carlyle,  Carlyle' s  Reminis- 
cences, and  The  Letters  and  Memorials  of  Jane 
Welsh  Carlyle.  Mr.  Froude' s  is  a  singularly 
brilliant  yet  simple  style.  His  great  rhe- 
torical power,  vivid  imagination,  strong  per- 
ception of  character,  and  keen  eye  for  the 
picturesque  invest  all  that  he  has  written 
with  high  artistic  merit. 

Froude,  Richard  Hurrell  {b.  1803,  d.  1836), 
theoloji^an,  brother  to  the  preceding,  was  also 
a  native  of  Dartington,  and  was  educated  at 
Ottery,  at  Eton,  and  at  Oriel  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  became  fellow  and  tutor. 
He  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  Tract- 
arian movement,  and  the  author  of  the  cele- 
brated Tracts  Nos.  IX.  and  LXIII.  His 
Remains,  published  in  1839  by  Keble  and 
Newman,  created  much  commotion  on  ac- 
coiuit  of  their  advanced  teaching. 

Froude,    William     (J>.    1810,    d.     1879), 


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mathematician,  military  and  naval  engineer, 
■was  a  brother  to  the  preceding.  His  edu- 
cation be^an  at  Westminster.  At  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  a  pupil 
of  John  Henry  Newman,  he  took  a  first  class 
in  mathematics  in  1832.  For  a  few  years  he 
was  the  assistant  of  the  younger  Brunei, 
and  was  engaged  in  the  construction  of  the 
Bristol  and  Exeter  Railway.  On  his  retire- 
ment from  professional  work  he  gave  his 
attention  to  questions  of  naval  engineering, 
and,  in  the  long  run,  most  of  his  conclusions 
were  adopted  by  the  Admiralty. 

Frugoni,  Carlo  Innocenzo  {b.  1692,  d. 
1688),  Italian  lyric  poet,  was  a  native  of 
Genoa. 

Fmmentius,  St.  {d.  circa  360),  Bishop  of 
Axum,  introduced  Christianity  into  Ethiopia 
(Abyssinia),  and  is  also  said  to  have  trans- 
lated the  Scriptures  into  Ethiopian. 

Frundsberg,  Georg  von  (*.  1473,  d.  1527), 
German  general,  bom  in  Swabia,  fought 
in  the  Italian  wars  of  the  Emperors 
Maximilian  and  Charles  V.,  and  was  largely 
instrumental  in  the  victory  of  Pavia. 

Fry,  Sir  Edward  {b.  1827),  lawyer  and 
theological  writer,  bom  at  Bristol,  was 
educated  at  the  Bristol  college,  and  at 
University  College,  London.  He  took  sUk 
in  1869,  and  ia  1877  was  appoiuted  a  judge 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  and  knighted. 
In  1883  he  was  appointed  to  a  lord  justice- 
ship of  appeal.  He  has  been  an  examiner 
in  law  to  the  University  of  London,  as  well 
as  to  the  Council  of  Legal  Education. 

Fry,  Elizabeth  (b.  1780,  d.  1845),  phi- 
lanthropist, bom  at  Norwich,  was  the 
daughter  of  John  Gumey,  a  wealthy  mer- 
chant and  banker.  In  1813  she  began  to 
visit  the  prison  of  Newgate,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  active  members  of  the  ladies' 
association  started  four  years  later  "for  the 
improvement  of  female  prisoners  in  New- 
gat°."  In  1818,  accompanied  by  her  brother, 
she  went  the  roimd  of  the  prisons  in  the 
north  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  in  1827 
visited  those  of  Ireland.  In  1838-39  she 
inspected  the  more  important  French  prisons, 
and  in  1840-41  travelled  through  Belgium, 
Holland,  Prussia,  and  Denmark  on  the  same 
mission.  Her  persevering  efforts  brought 
about  a  great  improvement  in  prison  disci- 
pline, and  also  in  the  hospital  system  and 
the  treatment  of  the  insane. 

_  Fryxel,  Anders  (*._  1795,  d.  1881),  dis- 
tinguished Swedish  historian,  is  best  known 
by  his  Narratives  from  Su-edish  History, 
of  which  an  English  translation  appeared 
in  1844. 

Fuad  Pasha,  Mahmud  {b.  1814,  d.  1869), 
TurkiBh  etatesmaq  and  author,  abandoned 


the  practice  of  medicine  for  a  diplomatic 
career.  After  holding  some  minor  appoint- 
ments he,  in  1848,  was  named  Ottoman  com- 
missioner to  settle  the  revolutionary  disputes 
in  the  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
chia.  In  1853,  for  a  short  time,  he  was  minis- 
ter for  foreign  affairs;  in  1860  he  became 
grand  vizier ;  in  1863  war  minister ;  and  a 
little  later  was  again  foreign  minister. 
From  mistaken  views  of  the  credit  system 
he  was  instrumental  in  largely  increasing 
the  Porte's  financial  difficulties. 

Fuchs,  Leonard  {b.  1601,  d.  1566),  Bava- 
rian botanist  and  physician,  was  for  thirty- 
five  years  a  professor  at  Tubingen,  and 
wrote,  among  other  works,  a  History  of 
Plants.  The  genus  of  plants  which  includes 
the  fuchsia  is  named  after  him. 

Fulgentius,  St.  {b.  circa  468,  d.  633), 
more  foimally  inown  as  Fabius  Clau- 
dius Gordianus  I'ulgentius,  a  native  of 
Leptis,  North  Africa,  was  appointed  Bis- 
hop of  Ruspe  in  608,  but  was  almost 
immediately  banished  because  of  his  op- 
position to  Arianism,  and  it  was  not  till 
fourteen  years  had  been  spent  in  exile  that 
he  was  recalled.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works,  which  include  the  celebrated  treatise 
De  Fide,  was  published  at  Mayence  in 
1515. 

Fulk,  Coimt  of  Anjou  and  King  of  Jerusa- 
lem, succeeded  his  brother  as  ruler  of  Anjou 
in  1109.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  at  war 
with  Henry  I.  of  England,  but  in  1119  he 
gave  his  daughter's  hand  in  marriage  to 
Henry's  son  William,  who  perished  in  re- 
turning from  Normandy  to  England.  In 
1129  he  went  crusading,  and,  having  married 
a  daughter  of  Baldwin  II.,  became  king  of 
Jerusalem  in  1131. 

Fulk  of  Marseilles,  Bishop  of  Toulouse 
(d.  1231),  was  in  his  youth  a  troubadour,  but 
turned  aside  to  an  ecclesiastical  career,  and 
became  bishop  of  Toulouse.  While  holding 
this  office  he  sided  with  Simon  de  Montfort 
against  Count  Baymond  VI.,  and  helped 
the  former  to  pillage  his  diocese.  He  was 
one  of  the  bitterest  persecutors  of  his  age, 
and  his  cruel  fanaticism  was  the  least  of 
his  faults. 

Fuller,  Andrew  {b.  1754,  d.  1816),  Bap- 
tist preacher  and  theologian,  a  native 
of  Wicken,  Cambridgeshire,  was  the  first 
secretary  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  So- 
ciety, founded  in  1792.  In  1784  he  jmb- 
lished  The  Gospel  Worthy  of  all  Accepta- 
tion, which  had  the  effect  of  considerably 
modifying  the  hyper- Calvinism  then  pre- 
valent among  his  co-religionists.  In  1783 
appeared  a  powerful  treatise  dealing 
with  the  Calvinistic  and  Socinian  systems. 
He  also  wrote  The  Harmony  of  Scripturt 
(1817). 


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Fuller,  Maxgaret.  [See  Ossoli,  Countess 
of.] 

Fuller,  Thomas  (J,  1608,  d.  1661),  divine, 
historian,  and  wit,  was  a  native  of  North- 
amptonshire, and  was  educated  at  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated m  1628.  He  was  ordained  in  1630, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  chosen  fel- 
low of  Sidney  Sussex  College.  After  hold- 
ing several  positions  in  the  Church,  he, 
in  1641,  became  minister  of  the  Savoy,  but 
his  EoyaUst  sentiments  bringing  him  into 
danger,  he  was  obUged  to  leave  London,  and 
in  1643  joined  the  king  at  Oxford.  His 
moderation,  however,  gave  offence.  Ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  Royal  army,  he 
showed  that  however  moderate  his  political 
action  might  be,  he  was  deeply  in  earnest  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties.  In  1647  he  re- 
turned to  London  to  preach  at  St.  Clement's, 
Eastcheap,  but  before  long  was  suspended. 
Soon  afterwards,  however,  he  was  presented 
by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  to  the  curacy  of 
Waltham  Abbey,  and  succeeded  in  satisfying 
Cromwell's  "  tryers."  In  1658  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  Cranf  ord,  Middlesex, 
and  after  the  Restoration  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  king,  and  made  doctor  of 
divinity.  Among  his  works  are  The  History 
of  the  Holy  War  (1639),  The  Holy  and  Pro- 
fane State  (1642),  Good  Thoughts  in  Bad 
Times  (1645),  A  Pisgah-sight  in  Palestine 
(1650),  Church  History  of  Britain  (1655), 
and  The  Worthies  of  England,  published 
posthumously  in  1662. 

Fullerton,  Lady  Georgiana  (6.  23rd  Sep- 
tember, 1812,  d.  19th  January,  1885),  reli- 
gious novelist,  was  bom  at  Tixall  Hall, 
Staffordshire,  daughter  of  the  first  Earl 
Granville,  and  in  1833  was  married  to 
Alexander  Fullerton.  Her  first  story,  Ellen 
Middleton,  appeared  in  1844.  In  1846  she 
seceded  to  the  Roman  Church. 

Fulton,  Robert  (Jb.  1765,  d.  24th  February, 
1815),  a  native  of  Little  Britain,  Pennsyl- 
vania, invented  a  miU  for  sawing  and  polish- 
ing marble,  a  machine  for  spinning  flax,  a 
dredging-machine,  etc.,  but  his  reputation 
chiefly  rests  upon  his  being  the  first  to  apply 
steam  to  navigation  with  any  degree  of 
success,  though  the  actual  invention  of  the 
steamboat  is  claimed  for  John  Fitch  (q.v.). 
In  1814  he  constructed  the  first  war  steamer 
of  the  United  States. 

Fumiss,  Harry  (*.  1854),  artist  and 
caricatiiri'^t,  was  bom  at  Wexford,  the 
son  of  English  parents.  As  an  artist 
he  is  chiefly  self-taught,  and  started 
working  for  publishers  at  an  early  date. 


He  came  to  London  in  1873  and  joined  the 
staff  of  the  Illustrated  London  I^eios.  In 
1880  he  began  to  contribute  to  Punch,  and 
in  1884  was  promoted  to  the  regular  staff. 
In  1888  he  exhibited  a  series  of  caricatures 
of  the  pictures  of  our  leading  artists.  More 
recently  he  has  delivered  lectures  illustrating 
the  humours  of  Parliament. 

Fumivall,  Frederick  James,  LL.D.  (*. 
1825),  philologist,  entered  University  College, 
London,  in  1841,  and  subsequently  graduated 
B.A.  at  Cambridge  in  1846.  He  has  devoted 
himseK  to  the  study  of  Early  and  Middle 
English  literature,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  members  of  the  new  school  of 
English  philology.  For  many  years  he  was 
the  editor  of  the  Philological  Society's  new 
Engllfih  Dictionary,  now  being  pubhshed  by 
the  Clarendon  Press.  In  1885  his  philo- 
logical labours  were  rewarded  with  a  Civil 
List  pension  of  £150. 

Fiirst,  Julius  (A.  1805,  d.  1873),  Ger- 
man  Orientalist,  of  Jewish  parentage, 
was  from  1864  to  the  time  of  his  death 
professor  of  the  Aramaic  and  Talmudic 
languages  at  Leipzig. 

Fuseli,  Henry  [Johann  Heinrich  Fuseh] 
{h.  1741,  d.  1825),  historical  painter,  a  native 
of  Ziirich,  was  obliged  to  leave  his  native 
town  for  exposing  some  shortcomings  on 
the  part  of  the  chief  magistrate,  and  in 
1765  came  to  England,  and  on  the  advice  of 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  resolved  to  devote  him- 
self to  art.  For  nearly  nine  years  he  studied 
in  Italy.  His  work  always  suffered  from 
his  lack  of  early  training  in  drawing.  He 
was  elected  A.R. A.  in  1 788,  full  member  in 
1790,  lectui'er  on  paiating  in  1799,  and 
keeper  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1804.  He 
was  cynic,  wit,  poet,  and  enthusiast,  and 
his  published  lectures  on  painting  are 
still  read.  He  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral. 

Fust,  or  Faust,  Johann  {d.  circa  1466), 
to  whom,  in  company  with  Guttenberg  and 
Schoeffer,  is  attributed  the  invention  of 
printing,  was  a  goldsmith  of  Mayence.  He 
entered  into  partoership  with  Guttenberg  in 
1450,  and  they  printed,  among  other  works, 
the  Bihlia  Sacra  Latina. 

Fustel  de  Coulanges  {p.  1830,  d.  1889), 
French  antiquarv,  born  in  Paris,  was  the 
author  of  Xa  Cite  Antique  (1864),  which  was 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy,  and  went 
through  many  editions. 

F3rt,  Jan  {b.  1625,  d.  1671),  Dutch  painter, 
bom  at  Antwerp,  excelled  chiefly  in  depicting 
stilllife. 


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Gad 


Gaal,  Bemaert  {d.  1671),  Dutch  land- 
Bcape-painter   of    the   school   of    Wouver- 

maus. 

Qabbiani,  Antonio  Domenico  {b.  1652,  d. 
1726),  Florentine  painter,  patronised  by  the 
Grand  Duke  Cosimo  III.  ;  was  killed  by  a 
fall  from  a  scaffold  when  painting  the 
cupola  of  Castello. 

Gabelentz,  Hans  von  der  (b.  1807,  d.  1874), 
philologist  of  Altenberg,  who  mastered  more 
than  eighty  languages ;  his  chief  work  was 
a  book  oil  the  Melanesian  languages. 

Gabinius,  Aulus  {d.  between  50  and 
45  B.C.),  consul  and  tribune  ;  author  of  the 
lex  Gabinia,  by  which  Pompey  was  given 
the  command  of  the  great  expedition  against 
the  pirates.  He  was  afterwards  proconsul 
of  Syria,  but  was  on  his  return  to  Rome 
accused  of  treason  and  malversation,  and, 
though  defended  by  Cicero,  condemned  to 
exile. 

Gaboriau,  Emile  (6. 1835,  d.  1873),  French 
novehst,  son  of  a  notary,  served  in  a 
cavalry  regiment  and  as  a  carrier's  clerk 
before  he  began  to  write.  He  at  first  con- 
tributed to  minor  newspapers,  for  which  he 
wrote  hght  sketches  and  some  historical 
essays.  Eventually,  however,  he  became 
known  as  the  author  of  novels  having  for 
their  subject  crime  and  detectives.  Among 
these  were  L' Affaire  Lcrouge  (1866),  Le 
Crime  d'Orcival  (1867),  and  La  Beqringolade 
(1876). 

Gabriac,  Marquis  de  {b.  1792,  d.  1865), 
French  statesman ;  served  under  Napoleon  ; 
in  1823  named  plenipotentiary  in  Sweden  ; 
was  subsequently  sent  to  Rio  Janeiro,  where, 
in  conjunction  with  representatives  of  Eng- 
land and  Austria,  he  obtained  the  separation 
of  Brazilian  and  Portuguese  governments, 
and,  in  1828,  the  adoption  in  Brazil  of  French 
maritime  law.  He  was  then  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  Switzerland ;  on  his  return,  in 
1830,  retired  into  private  life  till  1841,  when 
he  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He  then 
agitated  for  freedom  of  education,  which 
became  law  in  1850.  Three  years  later  he 
was  named  senator  by  Napoleon  III.  He  was 
the  author  of  Les  Republiques  de  P Amerique 
du  Sud  considerees  dans  leur  Aveiiir,  and  of 
Dom  Pedro  I.,  Notes  et  Souvenirs  Personnels 
(1854). 

Gabriel,  Jacques  Ange  {d.  1782),  French 
architect  of  the  last  century ;  designed  the 
Ecole  Militaire  and  other  buildings.  His 
grandfather  and  father  were  also  eminent 
members  of  the  same  profession. 


Gabriel  de  Chinon  {d.  1670),  Capuchin 

monk  and  missionary,  passed  some  years  in 
Persia ;  set  on  foot  a  mission  to  Kurdistan, 
and  died  of  dysentery  at  Malabar.  His 
Relations  Nouvelles  du  Levant  was  published 
after  his  death. 

Gabriel  Sionita  (*.  1577,  d.  1648),  learned 
Marouite ;  was  professor  of  oriental  lan- 
guages at  Rome  and  Paris.  He  translated 
the  Psalms  from  Syriac  into  Latin. 

GabrieUe,  ' '  La  Belle. ' '     ISee  Estrees.] 

Gabrielli,  Cattarina  (*.  1730,  d.  1796), 
Italian  singer ;  adopted  by  Prince  Gabrielli, 
whose  cook  was  her  mother.  She  was  a 
pupil  of  Porpora. 

Gabrielli,  Francesca  {b.  1755,  d.  1795), 
singer ;  called  "  GabrielUna  "  to  distinguish 
her  from  Cattarina. 

Gagon,  Francjois  (6. 1667,  d.  1725),  French 
satirical  poet,  who  attacked  all  the  leading 
members  of  the  Academy,  including  Bossuet, 
and  underwent  imprisonment  for  writing 
Pv'ete  sans  Fard  (1696). 

Gadbury,  John  (6.  1627),  astrologer  and 
j)upil  of  Lilly.  Predictions  in  his  almanacks 
about  the  Popish  plot  brought  him  into 
trouble. 

Gaddesden,  John  of  (d.  circa  1350),  ap- 
pointed by  Edward  II.  the  first  court 
physician ;  wrote  Rosa  Anglica  seu  Practica 
Medimnae. 

Gaddi,  Taddeo  {b.  1300),  the  most  cele- 
brated of  a  family  of  Florentine  painters, 
and  a  pupil  of  Giotto.  He  finished  the 
campanile  of  the  cathedral  at  Florence, 
which  that  master  had  begun.  Gaddo  {d. 
1312),  father  of  Taddeo,  and  Angelo  (d. 
1387),  son  of  the  latter,  were  painters  of 
some  repute. 

Gade,  Niels  Wilhebn  (6.  1817,  d.  1890), 
Danish  composer ;  bom  at  Copenhagen ; 
gained  the  prize  of  the  Copenhagen  Musical 
Association  for  his  NachMdnge  von  Ossian 
in  1841  ;  studied  at  Leipzig  and  in  Italy  ; 
succeeded  Mendelssohn  as  director  of  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts,  and,  on  his  return  to 
Denmark,  became  organist  and  master  of 
the  Chapel  Royal.  In  1876  he  was  granted 
a  life  pension  of  3,000  crowns.  His  chief 
works  are  the  Erl  King^s  Daughter  and 
Springtide  Phantasy. 

Gadebusch,  Friedrich  (b.  1719,  d.  1788), 
German  historian,  author  of  the  Annals  of 
Livonia, 


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Gadsden,  Christopher  (b.  1724,  d.  1808), 
American  statesman  ;  correspondent  of 
Samuel  Adams,  and  one  of  the  framers  of 
the  constitution  of  South  Cai'olina. 

Gaekwar,  Kanhojee,  eldest  illegitimate 
sou  of  Goviad  Rao,  who  died  in  1800 ; 
usm-ped  the  state  authority,  and  tried  to 
obtain  English  support  by  territorial  con- 
cessions. The  governor  of  Bombay  sup- 
ported the  lawful  heir,  and  in  1818  Kanhojee 
surrendered.  Having  made  several  sub- 
sequent attempts  to  rebel,  he  was  imprisoned 
at  Madras,  where  he  died. 

Gaekwar,  Mulhar  Eao,  cousin  of  Govind 
Rao's  son  ;  supported  Kanhojee,  and  became 
involved  in  hostilities  with  the  English.  He 
was  defeated  in  1801  at  Kurree  and  sur- 
rendered, and  was  kept  under  surveillance 
by  the  Bombay  government  till  his  death. 

Gaelen,  Alexander  van  {h.  1670,  d.  1728), 
Dutch  artist,  most  of  whose  works  are  battle- 
pieces  ;  came  to  England  and  painted  the 
portrait  of  Queen  Anne. 

Gaertner,  Joseph  {b.  1732,  d.  1791), 
German  botanist,  native  of  Wurtemberg ; 
visited  almost  every  country  in  Europe, 
and  was  in  England  made  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  His  work.  Be  Fructibus  et 
Seminibus  Plantarum,  was  published  between 
1789  and  1791. 

Gaetano,  Giovanni,  Italian  mariner  of 
the  16th  century,  in  the  employ  of 
Charles  V.,  who,  after  returning  from  the 
New  World,  wrote  an  account  of  his  ad- 
ventures, which  was  reprinted  in  Ramusio's 
Raccolta  delle  Navigazioni  e  de^  Viaggi, 

Gafifarel,  Jacques  (i.  1601,  d.  1681), 
librarian  to  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His 
Curiosttes  Inouyes  sur  la  Sculpture  TnUsman- 
iqtie  des  Persans  was  translated  into  English. 

Gaforio,  or  Gafori,  Franchino  {b.  1451,  d. 
1522),  Itahan  writer  on  music ;  published 
Practica  Musicce  and  other  works. 

Gage,  Sir  Henry  (b.  1597,  d.  1645),  dis- 
tinguished Royalist  officer  in  the  great  Civil 
war  ;  relieved  Basing  House  in  September, 
1644,  but  was  killed  a  few  months  later  in  a 
skirmish  near  Abingdon. 

Gage,  Sir  John  {b.  1479,  d.  1556),  states- 
man and  soldier ;  commanded  at  the  battle 
of  Solway  Moss,  where  Jajraes  V.  was 
defeated,  but  is  believed  to  have  quarrelled 
with  Henry  VIII.  about  Catherine  of 
Aragon.  As  a  zealous  Catholic,  he  was  in 
great  favour  with  Queen  Mary,  who  ap- 
pointed him  Lord  Chamberlain. 

Gage,  Thomas  {d.  1656),  traveller  ;  became 
a  Dominican  monk  in  Spain,  whence  he  set 
out  as  a  missionary  for  the  Philippines.    He 
w 


never,  however,  arrived  there,  but  settled  in 
Guatemala,  and  engaged  in  missionary  work 
among  the  Indians  of  Central  America.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  pubHcly  abjured 
Romanism,  and  published  A  New  Survey 
of  the  West  Indien,  which  was  ordered  by 
Colbert  to  be  translated  into  French. 

Gage,  Thomas  {b.  1721,  d.  1787).  soldier, 
served  under  Braddock  in  1756.  In  1760  he 
was  governor  of  Montreal,  and  three  years 
later  succeeded  Lord  Amherst  as  commander 
of  the  British  forces  in  America.  As  gover- 
nor of  Massachusetts  he  was  instructed  to 
put  down  the  revolutionary  movement 
around  Boston,  and  his  seizure  of  the  rebel 
stores  at  Cambridge  and  other  places  led  to 
open  hostilities.  He  was  recalled  to 
England  in  October,  1775,  being  considered 
incompetent. 

Gagem,  Friedrich  von  {b.  1794),  son  of 
Johann ;  served  in  the  Austrian  and  Nether- 
land  armies,  and  was  killed  while  in  com- 
mand of  the  ti'oops  of  the  Duke  of  Baden 
in  the  Baden  revolutionary  movement  led  by 
Hecker  in  1848. 

Gagem,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  August  von 
{b.  1799,  d.  1880),  his  brother;  served  at 
Waterloo ;  supported  the  fonnation  of  a 
miion  of  German  states  under  Prussia,  and 
presided  at  the  Frankfort  assembly  of  1849, 
when  the  imperial  crown  was  offered  to 
Frederick  Wniiam  IV.  Again  at  Erfurt,  in 
1850,  he  advocated  the  same  views.  He  also 
took  part  in  the  Schles-vvig-Holstein  campaign 
of  1849-50,  after  which  he  retired  from 
public  life. 

Gagem,  Johann  Christopher  von  (5. 1766, 
d.  1852),  German  statesman  and  writer  ;  an 
opponent  of  Napoleon,  and  an  active 
advocate  of  German  unity.  He  took  part 
in  the  Tj'rol  rising  of  1812,  and  was  present 
at  the  congress  of  Vienna  as  representative 
of  the  Netherlands.  He  wi'ote  several 
political  works. 

Gagnier,  Jean  (6.  1670,  d.  1740),  French 
Orientalist;  took  orders,  but  wishing  to 
marry,  became  a  Protestant ;  he  came 
to  England,  and  was  made  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Oxford,  receiving  degrees  from 
that  university  and  from  Cambridge.  His 
chief  works  are  an  edition  of  Ben  Gorion'a 
History  of  the  Jews,  and  of  Abulfeda's  Life 
of  Mohammed  in  Arabic  and  Latin. 

Gagni  or  Gagn6,  Jean  de  {d.  1549),  reader 
to  Francis  I.,  whose  permission  he  obtained 
to  have  many  curious  manuscripts  pub- 
lished ;  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  the 
New  Testament  and  some  Latin  poems. 

Gaguin,  Robert  (6.  circa  1425,  d.  1502), 
French  chronicler  and  diplomatist.  His 
chief  work  is  Compendium  supra  Francorum 
gestts  usque  ad  annum  1491. 


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Gal 


Gail,  Jeau  Baptiste  {b.  1755,  d.  1S29), 
French  Hellenist;  translated  Theocritus  and 
Anacreon,  besides  many  other  classics ; 
narrowly  escaped  proscription  during  the 
Reign  of  Terror.  His  wife,  from  whom  he 
separated,  composed  some  operas. 

Gail,  Jean  Francjois  {b.  1795,  d.  184.5),  son 
of  the  preceding  ;  musician  and  Greek 
scholar,    his    chief    work  being   Geographi 

Minorcs. 

Gaillard,  Antoine,  pseudonym  of  the 
Sieur  de  la  Porte  Neille,  an  imitator  of 
Rabelais,  whose  (Euvres  Melees  were  pub- 
lished iu  1634. 

Gaillard,  Honore  Reynaud  de  (6.  1641,  d. 
1727),  eloquent  court  preacher ;  directed 
the  education  of  Turenne,  and  was  con- 
fessor to  Mary  of  Modena,  second  wife  of 
James  II. 

Gaine,  Hugh  {d.  1807),  journalist;  started 
the  New  York  Mercury  ia  1752,  at  first  as 
a  Whig  paper,  but  afterwards  made  it 
Royalist.  At  the  close  of  the  American  war 
he  became  a  bookseller,  and  acquired  a  large 
estate. 

Gaines  {b.  1777,  d.  1849),  American 
general,  took  part  ia  the  war  of  1812; 
was  severely  wounded  at  Fort  Erie 
(1814),  where  he  gained  the  rank  of 
brevet-major-general,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  Congress ;  was  also  in  the  battle 
of  Chrystler's  Field.  He  served  in  the 
Creek  war  of  1876  and  was  wounded.  He 
was  tried  by  court-martial  for  calling  out 
the  Southern  militia  without  orders  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Mexican  war,  but  escaped 
censure. 

Gainsborough,  Thomas  (b.  1727,  d.  1788), 
landscape  and  portrait  painter,  son  of  a 
draper,  was  bom  at  Sudbury.  At  the  age  of 
thirteen  he  came  to  London,  determined  to 
support  himself  by  painting,  and  took  lessons 
of  Gravelot.  He  soon  made  a  name  for  him- 
self by  his  portraits,  and  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen married,  and  resided  at  Ipswich.  Here 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Thicknesse, 
who  persuaded  him  to  go  to  Bath,  where 
occupation  had  been  found  for  him.  Gains- 
borough now  devoted  himself  to  landscape- 
painting,  his  success  in  which  procured  him 
admission  in  1768  to  the  Royal  Academy. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Joshua 
RejTiolds  and  other  artists  of  reiDute,  with 
whom,  however,  his  relations  were  never 
very  intimate.  His  best  known  portraits 
are  those  of  the  royal  family,  of  Kean,  and 
of  Abel,  the  musician.  Among  his  land- 
scapes are  The  Shepherd's  Boy  and  The 
Woodman  in  the  Stoym.  He  died  in  London. 

Gairdner,  James  {b.  1828),  historian,  son 
of  a  surgeon ;  was  bom  and  educated  at 


Edinburgh.  In  1846  he  obtained  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  Record  Office,  and  became  in 
1859  assistant-keeper  of  the  Public  Records. 
He  is  chiefly  known  as  the  euxtor  of  the 
Fasten  Letters  (1872-75),  but  he  has  also 
edited  Histuria  Regis  Henrici  Septinii,  Let- 
ters and  Papers  illustrative  of  the  licign  oj 
Richard  III.,  and  continued  Professor 
Brewer's  Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIII. 
for  the  ^^  Rolls  ^^  Series,  and  several  works 
for  the  Camden  Society.  Besides  these,  he 
has  done  original  work  in  his  Life  and  Reign 
of  Richard  III.  (1878),  and,  in  conjunction 
with  Mr.  Spedding,  Studies  in  English  His- 
tory, and  is  the  writer  of  Henry  VII.  ia 
Twelve  English  Statesmen  (1889). 

Gaisford,  Thomas  {b.  1780,  d.  1855),  clas- 
sical scholar ;  educated  at  a  private  school 
at  Winchester,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  was  elected  student  in  1800. 
While  tutor  at  the  college  he  published  an 
edition  of  the  Enchiridion  of  Hephsestion. 
In  1811  he  was  appointed  Regius  professor 
of  Greek,  and  in  1825  prebendary  of 
Worcester,  and  was  also  rector  of  Westwell, 
in  Oxfordshire,  from  1815  to  1847.  He 
also  held  prebends  at  St.  Paul's,  LlandafE, 
and  Durham,  the  last  of  which  he  exchanged 
in  1831  for  the  deanery  of  Christ  Church. 
He  was  a  learned  and  laborious  editor  and 
commentator,  the  chief  results  of  his  research 
being  an  edition  of  the  Lexicon  of  Suidas 
and  fixe  Etymologicon  Magnum.  The  "Gais- 
ford Prize,"  founded  after  his  death,  is 
awarded  annually  at  Oxford  for  Greek 
prose  and  verse. 

Gains  [Caius]  Roman  iurist  of  the  2nd  cen- 
tury ;  author  of  Libri  Institutiotiem  Quat- 
tuor,  discovered  in  1816  at  Verona,  and  first 
published  at  Berlin  ia  1821  by  Goschen  ;  a 
third  edition  appearing  by  Lachmann  in 
1841.  It  was  the  model  for  Justinian's 
Institutes. 

Galba,  Servius  Sulpicius  ((^.  after  138 B.C.), 
Roman  prastor ;  subdued  the  Lusitanians,  and 
then  massacred  and  enslaved  them  (150  B.C.); 
tried  but  pardoned ;  was  consul  144  B.C. 

Galba,  Servius  Sulpicius  (Jb.  3,  d.  69), 
successor  of  Nero  as  emperor  of  Rome,  but 
was  in  power  little  more  than  seven  months 
before  being  murdered  by  the  soldiers  of 
Otho. 

Galbraitli,  William  (b.  1786,  d.  1850),  Scot- 
tish mathematician  and  divine ;  published 
astronomical  and  barometrical  tables  be- 
tween 1827  and  1834,  and  many  mathe- 
matical papers. 

Gale,  Benjamin  {b.  1715,  d.  1790),  phy- 
sician, bom  at  Killingworth,  Connecticut; 
invented  an  improved  drill-plough,  and 
wrote  many  political  essays.  About  1750 
he  published  A  Dissertation  on  Inoculation. 


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Gale,  John  (i.  1680,  d.  1721),  Baptist 
minister;  studied  at  Leyden  and  obtained 
degrees  of  M.A.  and  Ph.D. ;  read  under 
Limborch  at  Amsterdam  ;  wrote  an  answer 
to  WaU's  Hcitory  of  Infant  Baptism.  Some 
of  his  works  were  printed  by  subscription 
after  his  death. 

Gale,  Roger  (b.  1672,  d.  1744),  antiquarian, 
member  of  Parliament,  and  commissioner 
of  stamps  and  excise ;  was  first  vice- 
president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  He 
published  ^ntonlni  Itinerarium  Britan- 
niarum,  and  the  Knowledge  of  Medals. 

Gale,  Samuel,  brother  of  the  preceding 
(&.  1682,  d.  1754),  edited  Lord  Clarendon's 
History  of  Winchester  Cathedral,  and  con- 
tributed some  papers  to  the  Archmologia 
and  the  Bibliotheca  Topographia  Britannica. 

Gale,  Theophilus  (b.  1628,  d.  1678),  In- 
dependent minister;  lost  his  fellowship  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford  at  the  Restora- 
tion ;  was  then  tutor  to  Lord  Wharton's  sons, 
and  afterwards  minister  in  Holbom.  His 
chief  works  are  The  True  Idea  of  Jansenism 
and  The  Court  of  the  Gentiles. 

Gale,  Thomas,  father  of  Roger  and 
Samuel  {b.  1636,  d.  1702),  scholar  and  anti- 
quary ;  was  Regius  professor  of  Greek  at 
Cambridge  for  six  years,  after  which  he 
became  master  of  St.  Paul's  school,  and  in 
1697  dean  of  York.  He  was  also  fellow  and 
secretary  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  published 
many  classical  and  antiquarian  works. 

Galen,  Christopher  van  (6.  1600,  d.  1678), 
Prince-bishop  of  Mimster  ;  led  an  army 
against  the  Turks  in  1664 ;  was  called  a 
"  mitred  brigand." 

Galenus  [Galen]  {b.  130),  physician;  bom 
atPergamos ;  lived  some  time  at  Alexandria 
and  Rome,  whither  he  was  recalled  by  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  when  travelling  in  Asia ;  is 
supposed  to  have  died  at  Pergamos.  His 
chief  work  is  that  on  The  Use  of  the  different 
Parts  of  the  Human  Body,  which,  with  his 
other  works,  was  regarded  as  authoritative, 
and  used  as  a  text-book  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Galeotti,  Marzio  {d.  1494),  Italian  writer ; 
celebrated  for  his  knowledge  of  occult 
science ;  is  chiefly  kno%vn  as  having  collected 
the  bon  mots  of  Mathias  Corvinus,  king  of 
Hungary. 

Galeotti,  Sebastiano  (d.  1746),  Tuscan 
painter ;  bom  about  1676, 

Galerius.     \_See  Maximianus.] 

_  Galeswinthe  {d.  568),  daughter  of  Athana- 
gilde,  king  of  the  Goths;  was  married  to 
Chilperic,  king  of  Neustria,  who  poisoned 
her  in  568. 
■w2 


^Galiani,  the  Abbe  Fernando  {b.  1728,  d. 
1787),  savant ;  wrote  several  economical  and 
political  treatises,  among  which  are  a  Dia- 
logue^sur  les  Bles  and  a  work  on  The  iJuties 
of  Neutral  Princes.  He  has  been  called 
"  MachiaveUino." 

Galignani,  John  Anthony  (b.  1796,  d. 
1873),  jovirnalist;  established  and  edited, 
with  his  brother  M'illiam,  Galiynayii's 
Messenger;  also  founded  the  Galignani  Hos- 
pital at  Paris,  and  joined  with  William  in 
defraying  the  cost  of  building  the  hospital  at 
CorbeU.     The  latter  died  in  1882. 

Galilei,  Galileo  {b.  1564,  d.  1642),  as- 
tronomer and  natural  philosopher  ;  born  at 
Pisa;  was  educated  first  at  Florence,  but 
afterwards  returned  to  Pisa  to  study  medi- 
cine, for  which  profession  his  father  designed 
him.  Here,  after  becoming  known  as  an 
opponent  of  the  Aristotehan  maxims,  he 
discovered  in  1582  the  law  of  the  vibrations 
of  the  pendulum.  Soon  afterward  he  began 
to  study  mathematics,  and  was  appointed 
professor  at  Pisa  when  only  twenty-five. 
Thence  he  removed  to  Padua  in  1593,  and 
during  his  residence  there  invented  a  ther- 
mometer and  constructed  his  first  telescope, 
the  invention  of  which  he  had  heard  of  at 
Venice.  He  also  made  astronomical  dis- 
coveries, and  was  re-established  in  1610  at 
Pisa  by  his  patron,  Cosimo  de'  Medici.  Here 
it  was  that  his  opposition  to  traditional 
views,  and  especially  his  advocacy  of  the 
Copemican  doctrine  that  the  sun  was  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  brought  him  into 
conflict  with  the  Inquisition,  but  proceedings 
were  dropped  on  Galileo's  promise  not  to 
teach  the  obnoxious  doctrine.  On  the  pub- 
lication, however,  in  1632,  seventeen  years 
after,  of  his  Lialogue  on  the  same  subject, 
he  was  again  sxmimoned  to  Rome,  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  for  life,  and  re- 
quired to  solemnly  recant  his  opinion.  He 
was  confined  at  first  in  the  house  of  one  of 
the  Inquisitors,  his  pupil,  but  was  after- 
wards allowed  to  Hve  in  Florence,  where  he 
died,  having  been  blind  four  years.  His 
works  were  published  in  Florence  in  the 
years  1843-6. 

Galilei,  Vincenzo  {b.  1606,  d.  1649),  son  of 
Galileo  ;  taught  by  his  father ;  proposed 
the  application  of  pendulums  to  clocks 
about  1640. 

Galitzin,  Alexander,  son  of  Mikhail  Qj. 
1718,  d.  1783),  general,  and  favourite  of 
Catherine  II. ;  defeated  the  Turks  at  Choc- 
zim  in  17G9. 

Galitzin,  Dmitri  (b.  1770,  d.  1840),  Rus- 
sian noble  and  missionary :  served  in  the 
Austrian  army,  but  in  1792  resolved  to 
travel  in  America ;  was  ordained  Roman 
Catholic  priest  in  1795;  foimded,  under  the 
name    of    "Father    Smith,"    the  Catholic 


Gal 


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Gal 


colony  of  Loretto,  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
settled  there  for  life,  making,  however, 
frequent  journeys.  His  name  is  given  to  a 
village  near  Loretto,  and  a  monument  was 
erected  to  him  there  in  184S. 

Galitzin,  Dmitri  (6.  1721,  d.  1773),  Rus- 
sian statesman ;  endowed  a  hospital  at 
Moscow,  which  was  opened  in  1802. 

Galitzin,  Emanuel  (b.  1804,  d.  1853), 
soldier  and  author  ;  was  born  and  educated 
at  Paris,  but  in  1825  went  to  Russia ;  joined 
the  army,  and  served  with  distinction  in 
Turkey,  being  wounded  at  Varna  in  1828. 
After  his  return  in  the  next  year,  he  retired 
from  the  service,  and  devoted  himself  to 
literature — his  chief  works  being  Za  Fin- 
lande  en  1S48,  the  result  of  a  tour  through 
that  country,  and  Contes  Russes,  a  French 
translation,  with  biographical  notices,  of 
the  chief  Russian  fable- writers.  Prince 
Galitzin  was  also  an  eminent  geographer 
and  corresponding  member  of  the  Geogra- 
phical Society  of  London. 

Galitzin,  Georg  Bulyakov  (d.  1585), 
general ;  carried  out  the  vengeance  of  Ivan 
the  Terrible  against  Wenden  in  1577. 

Galitzin,  Mikhail  {d.  after  1514),  general; 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Poles,  but  released  by  the  king ;  was  in 
great  favour  with  the  Tsar. 

Galitzin,  Mikhail  {b.  1675,  d.  1730),  general 
and  statesman  \mder  Peter  I. ;  served 
against  the  Turks,  and  was  wounded  at 
Azov  at  the  age  of  twelve ;  commanded 
against  the  Swedes  in  1700,  and  was  again 
wounded,  but  succeeded,  as  governor  of 
Finland,  in  driving  them  out  of  the  province, 
and  in  1720  gained  one  of  the  first  victories 
of  the  Russian  navy  over  them.  He  nego- 
tiated for  Peter  the  Great  the  treaty  of 
Neustadt ;  was  made  field-marshal  in  1724, 
and  was  named  senator  by  the  Tsarina  Anne 
in  1730,  in  which  year  he  died  at  Moscow. 

Galitzin,  VassiHi  (<?.  1619),  a  supporter  of 
the  pretender  Dmitri  (Demetrius) ;  mur- 
dered the  royal  family  in  1605  ;  afterwards 
conspired  against  Dmitri,  and  also  against 
his  successor. 

Galitzin,  Vassilii  {b.  1633,  d.  1713),  gene- 
ral and  statesman,  sumamed  "  the  Great "  ; 
reorganised  the  army,  and,  as  minister, 
assisted  the  Tsar  Feodor  in  reducing  the 
power  of  the  nobles,  and  in  other  reforms  ; 
was  chancellor  during  the  regency  under 
Princess  Sophia,  for  whom  he  suppressed 
the  rebellion  of  the  Stretlitz,  preparing 
their  suppression  by  Peter  the  Great.  He 
served  that  Tsar  as  statesman  and  soldier, 
but  incurred  his  jealousy  on  his  return  from 
a  successful  expedition  against  the  Tartars 
of  the  Crimea,  and  was  in  1689  disgraced. 


having,  probably,  also  been  engaged  in  a 
plot  with  me  jirincess  Sophia  against  the 
Ufe  of  Peter.  He  died  at  Moscow,  having 
been  allowed  to  return  from  his  place  of 
exile. 

Gall,  Franz  Josef  (6.  1758,  d.  1828),  with 
Spurzheim,  the  first  propounder  of  phren- 
ology ;  born  at  Pforzheim,  in  Baden ; 
studied  at  Baden,  Strasburg,  and  Vienna, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.,  and 
began  to  practise.  In  1798  he  began  to 
put  forth  his  theories  in  Wieland's  Beutscher 
Mercur,  and  to  give  lectures  on  the  subject 
of  phrenology.  His  success  was  checked  by 
an  interdiction  from  the  government  on  the 
ground  of  irreligion,  and  he  left  the  city 
with  his  pupil,  Spurzheim,  and  entered 
on  a  lecturing  tour  throughout  Germany, 
arriving  in  1807  in  Paris,  where  he  practised 
as  a  doctor,  but  failed  to  obtain  recognition 
as  a  man  of  science.  A  visit  to  London  in 
1823  was  also  unsuccessful,  and  he  returned 
to  Paris,  where  be  lived  untU  his  death.  His 
Anatomic  et  Physiologie  du  Systeme  Nerveux 
appeared  between  1810  and  1818 ;  and  his 
work  Sur  les  Fonctions  des  Cerveaux  between 
1822  and  1825,  both  in  conjunction  with 
Spurzheim. 

Gall,  St.  (b.  551,  d.  646),  Irish  abbot; 
evangelised  the  Swiss,  and  built  a  monastery 
in  the  Canton  which  now  bears  his  name. 

Galla  Placidia.     \_See  Placidia.] 

Gallagher,  William  D.  (6.  1808),  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  poet;  son  of  a  rebel 
of  '98 ;  edited  the  Cincinnati  Mirror  (1831), 
the  Western  Literary  Journal  (1836),  and 
was  co-editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Gazette 
from  1839  to  1850.  In  1841  he  published 
Selections  from  the  Poetry  of  the  West, 
having  previously  written  Erato.  He  has 
also  written  upon  agriculture,  and  especially 
upon  the  development  of  the  resources  of 
the  North-West.  Another  poem,  Miami 
Woods,  was  published  in  1881. 

Galland,  Antoine  {b.  1646,  d.  1715),  French 
Orientalist ;  went  to  Constantinople  in  1670 
to  study  Greek  theology,  bringing  back 
some  marbles  on  his  return  nine  years 
later.  He  translated  The  Thousand  and  One 
Nights  into  French,  and  also  the  Indian 
fables  of  Bidpai  and  Lokman. 

Gallatin,  Abraham  Albert  (6.  1761,_  d. 
1849),  American  statesman  and  economist; 
born  at  Geneva ;  went  to  America  and 
fought  in  the  war  of  Independence  ;  became 
a  senator  in  1793,  and  secretary  to  the 
treasury  in  1801 ;  opposed  the  war  of  1812, 
and  signed  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  with  which 
it  ended,  in  1814 ;  was  American  minister  in 
France  from  1815  to  1823,  and  was  sent  on  a 
special  mission  to  England  in  1826.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Free  Trade  convention  at 


Gal 


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Gal 


Phfladelphia  in  1831,  and  was  fovmder  of 
the  Ethnological  Society.  He  opposed  the 
Mexican  war  in  a  popular  pamphlet,  and 
was  in  Congress  a  leading  member  of  the 
Democratic  party.  He  was  a  successful 
financier,  doing  all  in  his  power,  by  pam- 
phlets and  administration,  to  check  the  in- 
crease of  the  national  debt.  Reminiscences  of 
Mr.  Gallatin,  by  J.  R.  Bartlett,  were  pub- 
lished in  1841. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  (*.  1787,  d.  1851), 
American  clergyman  of  Huguenot  birth ; 
bom  at  Philadelphia  ;  becoming  interested 
in  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
he  visited  Europe  in  1815 ;  became  on  his 
return  principal  of  an  asylum  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  and,  on  resigning  this,  chaplain 
to  a  similar  institution  at  Hartford  for  the 
insane.  He  edited  six  volumes  of  the  Annals 
of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Galle,  Andre  (6.  1761,  d.  1844),  French 
medallist,  employed  by  the  republic,  the 
emperor,  and  the  Bank  of  France. 

GaUe,  PhiUppe  (6.  1537,  d.  1612),  Flemish 
engraver,  bom  at  Haarlem,  but  lived  chiefly 
at  Antwerp,  where  he  was  engaged  in  com- 
merce. His  sons,  Theodore  {b.  1560)  and 
Comeille  "  le  Vieux  "  (6.  1570)  his  pupils, 
greatly  surpassed  him  in  his  art,  especially 
the  latter,  among  whose  works  are  several 
portraits  after  Van  Dyck  and  Rubens.  Cor- 
neUle  was  also  an  engraver. 

Gallienus,  Roman  Emperor  {d.  268),  asso- 
ciated with  him  by  his  father  Valerianus  in 
253 ;  sole  emperor,  260  ;  was  slain  by  the 
praetorians  in  268. 

Gallissoniere,  Rolland  Michael  Barrin, 
Marquis  de  la  (*.  1693,  d.  1756),  French  ad- 
miral, entered  the  navy  ia  1710,  and  served 
with  distinction;  was  French  governor  of 
Canadafroml747tol749;andinl755defeated, 
off  Martinique,  the  English  fleet  under  Byng 
sent  to  capture  it.  In  1751  he  published  a 
memoir  of  the  French  colonies  in  America. 

Gallo,  Marzia  duca  di  (*.  1753,  d.  1833), 
Neai)olitan  statesman;  in  his  early  years  a 
diplomatist  in  the  service  of  the  Austrians  at 
Naples  and  Vienna,  signed  the  preliminaries 
of  Leoben  and  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio, 
after  which  he  returned  to  Naples.  In  1805 
he  obtained  from  Napoleon  the  evacuation 
of  Naples  by  the  French,  but  next  year, 
when  Ferdinand  IV.  was  driven  out  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte  became  king,  the  Miir- 
quis  de  Gallo  became  his  minister,  accom- 
panying him  also  to  Spain  in  1808.  On  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815  he  re- 
turned to  Naples,  re-entered  their  service 
after  a  short  interval,  and  accompanied  Fer- 
dinand to  the  congress  at  Laybach,  where 
he  opposed  Austrian  intervention.  When 
the  Austrians  again  entered  Naples  the  duca 
di  Gallo  retired  into  private  bf  e. 


Galloche,  Louis  {b.  1670,  d.  1751),  French 
painter,  and  instructor  of  Lemoyne.  Hia 
pictures  deal  with  historical  subjects. 

GaJlois,  Charles  Andre  (b.  1789,  d.  1851), 
French  historian  and  publicist ;  wrote  His- 
toire  d«s  Journalistesde  la  Ricolution  (1845), 
and  published  Biopraphie  des  Contemporains 
par  Napoleon  (1824),  Histoire  de  Napoleon 
par  lui-mime  (1825),  and  Histoire  dela  Con- 
vention Nationale  apres  lui-mime  (1835). 

Gallois,  Jean  Antoine  (d.  1828),  French 
politician;  president  of  the  Tribunate  in 
1802,  and  secretary  from  1804  to  1813  ;  was 
also  employed  by  Louis  XVIU.  on  his  re- 
turn. 

Gallonio  {d.  1605),  Italian  priest ;  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  modes  of  torture  practised  by 
the  pagans  on  the  early  Christians,  and  a 
Uf  e  of  St.  Philip  Neri  and  other  saints. 

Galloway,  Joseph  (A.  1730,  d.  1S03), 
American  loyalist :  advocated,  in  opposition 
to  Dickinson,  the  conversion  of  the  Penn- 
sylvanian  government  into  royal  form ;  pro- 
posed a  plan  of  settlement  with  the  mother- 
country  in  the  Congress  of  1774 :  on  the 
declaration  of  independence  joined  the 
Royal  army,  and  in  1778  went  to  England, 
where  in  the  next  year  he  was  examined 
before  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  conduct 
of  the  war,  the  failure  of  which  he  declared 
to  be  due  to  the  incompetency  of  Lord  Howe. 
In  1788  Galloway  was  attainted  by  the 
Pennsylvania  legislature,  and  his  estates 
ordered  to  be  sold.  Besides  several  pam- 
phlets, he  was  author  of  Historical  and 
Folitical  Reflections  on  the  American  Re- 
bellion, and  some  curious  works  on  the  alle- 
gorical meaning  of  prophecies. 

Gallucci,  Giovanni,  Italian  astronomer  of 
the  16th  century  ;  author  of  Theatrttm 
Mundi  et  Temporis  (1589). 

Galluppi,  Pasquale  [b.  1770,  d.  1848), 
Italian  philosopher  of  reactionary  tendencies ; 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  at  Naples ; 
author  of  a  criticism  of  Fichte's  views  and 
of  Elementi  di  Filosofia  (1832). 

Gallus,  Cnaeus  Cornelius  {d.  circa  26 B.C.), 
Roman  poet:  made  prefect  of  Egypt  by 
Augustus  in  31  B.C.;  recalled  and  condemned 
to  exile  for  misgovemment,  he  put  an  end 
to  his  hfe.  His  works  are  lost,  but  he  is 
known  to  posterity  from  Virgil's  dedication 
to  him  of  Georgics,  book  iv. 

Gallus,  Roman  Emperor  {d.  453  or  454), 
succeeded  Decius  by  election ;  made  a  himiili- 
ating  peace  with  ithe  barbarians,  and  was 
murdered  by  his  soldiers. 

Gaily,  Henry  {b.  1696,  d.  1769), theologian, 
chaplain  to  the  king;  author  of  Considera- 
tions upon  Clandestine  Marriage,  a  translation 


Gal 


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Gam 


of  Theophrastus,  and  Dissertations  against 
Pronouncing  Greek  according  to  Accents. 

Gait,  Sir  Alexander  T.  [b.  1817),  distin- 
guished Canadianstatesman,  son  of  John  Gralt, 
was  born  at  Chelsea,  and  educated  in  England 
and  Canada,  to  which  latter  country  he  early 
emigrated,  entering  the  service  of  the  British 
and  American  Land  Company,  and  being 
appointed  commissioner  in  1844.  In  1849 
he  entered  political  life,  and  signed  the  ' '  An- 
nexation "  manifesto.  After  an  interval  of 
retirement,  he,  in  1853,  again  appeared  in 
public  life,  and  continued  to  take  part  in 
affaii-s  till  1872,  being  especially  active  in 
promoting  federation  of  the  North  American 
colonies  and  intercolonial  railway  com- 
munication. He  was  minister  of  finance 
from  1858  to  1862  ;  again  from  1864  to  1866, 
when  he  resigned  on  account  of  his  opposition 
to  the  educational  policy  of  miuisters,  but 
again  nest  year  for  a  few  months  held  the 
same  office,  and  was  privy  councillor.  He 
was  delegate  to  the  Colonial  Conference  at 
London  of  1875-7,  and  in  the  following  year 
accompanied  Sir  Charles  Tupper  on  a  mission 
to  London  to  confer  on  the  Nova  Scotia 
question.  He  was  a  fourth  time,  in 
1879,  finance  minister ;  was  a  member  of 
the  Fisheries  Commission  of  1877,  and  in  1881 
Canadian  delegate  at  the  International 
Monetary  Conference  at  Paris.  From  1880 
to  1883  he  was  high  commissioner  to  Great 
Britain.  His  name  is  also  connected  with 
the  Grand  Trunk  railway  as  one  of  its  chief 
founders  ;  and  he  was  the  author  of  Canada 
from  1849  to  1859.  After  1859  he  acted  with 
the  Liberal-Conservatives,  having  previously 
been  a  Liberal. 

Gait,  John  {b.  1779,  d.  1839),  Scottish 
novelist,  born  at  Irvine,  Ayrshire ;  after 
failing  in  trade,  he  travelled  on  the  Conti- 
nent, and  on  his  return  to  London  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  Besides  several  novels, 
he  wrote  lives  of  Byron  and  Benjamin  "West, 
some  tragedies,  and  books  on  travel. 

Galton,  Francis,  F.R.S.  {b.  1822),  scientific 
writer;  educated  at  King's  College,  London, 
and  Trinity,  Cambridge ;  obtained  the  medal 
of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  for  his 
Narrative  of  an  Explorer  of  Tropical  South 
Africa,  in  which  he  described  his  travels, 
and  soon  after  (1855)  published  his  Art  of 
Travel.  He  then  devoted  himself  to  mete- 
orology, embodying  the  results  of  his  in- 
vestigations, in  Meteoragraphia  (1863).  He 
has,  however,  gained  his  reputation  as  a 
student  of  heredity,  his  chief  works  on  the 
subjecrt  being  Hereditary  Genius  :  its  Laws 
and  Consequences,  which  appeared  in  1869  ; 
Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  and  its  De- 
velopment (1883),  the  Record  of  Family 
Faculties  (1834),  and  Natural  hiheritance 
(1889).  He  took  active  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of    the    British   Association,  and 


was  in  1885    president  of   the  Anthropo- 
logical Society. 

Galuppi,  Baldassare  {b.  1703,  d.  1785), 
Italian  musician ;  employed  by  Catherine  II. 
of  Russia ;  composed  four  Symphonies. 

Galvani,  Aloisio  {b.  1737,  d.  1798),  dis- 
coverer of  galvanism ;  born  at  Bologna,  at 
which  university  he  studied  anatomy,  and 
took  his  doctor's  degree,  becoming  professor 
in  1762.  In  1790  he  was  deprived  of  his 
professorship,  being  unable,  through  re- 
ligious scruples,  to  take  the  oath  required  of 
hirn  by  the  government  of  the  Cisalpine  Re- 
public, who,  however,  shortly  before  his 
death  offered  to  make  an  exception  in  his 
favour.  His  Commentary  on  the  Forces  of 
Electricity  in  31u>icular  Action,  which  de- 
scribed his  great  discovery,  was  published  in 
1791. 

Gama,  Jos^  Basilio  da  (b.  1740,  d.  1795), 
Brazilian  poet,  his  chief  work  being  Uruguay 

(1769). 

Gama,  Vasco  da  {d.  1525),  Portuguese 
navigator,  of  noble  family  ;  discovered  the 
route  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
•in  1497  ;  appointed  viceroy  of  India  on  the 
death  of  Albuquerque  in  1524  by  John  III. 
of  Portugal.  His  first  voyage  is  celebrated 
in  the  Lusiad  of  Camoens,  who  was  with 
him. 

Gamaches,  iEtienne  (d.  1756),  French 
j)hilosopher ;  wrote  under  pseudonym 
"  Chariguy,"  Systeme  du  Cosur,  and  As- 
tronomic Physique. 

Gamaclies,  Philippe  de  {b.  1568,  d.  1625), 
French  theologian,  his  chief  works  being  a 
commentary  on  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  Theologia  Practica  (printed  in 
1629). 

Gamaliel  (1st  century),  Jewish  rabbi; 
teacher  of  St.  Paul ;  advised  the  release  of 
the  apostles  in  33  (Acts  v.). 

Gamba,  Jacques  (6. 1763,  d.  1833),  French 
traveller ;  author  of  Voyage  dans  la  Russie 
Meridionale  (1820-24). 

Gamba,  Pietro,  Contedi  ((J.  1801, <f.  1826), 
Italian  patriot,  brother  of  the  Countess 
Guiccioli,  mistress  of  Lord  Byron,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Greece ;  was  taken  by  a 
Turkish  corsair,  but  released,  and  rejoined 
BjTon  at  Missolonghi ;  wrote  Narrative  of 
Lord  Byron'' s  Last  Journey  in  Greece,  where 
he  died. 

Gambacorta,  Francesco  {d.  1355),  Italian 
noble,  "conservator  of  Pisa";  offered  the 
signiory  to  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  but  after- 
wards intrigued  against  him  ;  was  executed 
with  his  two  brothers  on  a  charge  of  con- 
spiracy. 


Gaun 


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Gan 


Gambacorta,  Pietro  {d.  1392),  nephew  of 
Francesco,  exiled  after  his  death  ;  recalled  in 
1369,  and  made  captain -general ;  obtained 
from  Chai'les  IV.  recognition  of  the  liberty  of 
Pisa  ;  made  alliance  with  Florence  ;  assassi- 
nated by  order  of  his  friend,  the  chancellor 
Appiani. 

Gambacorta,  Giovanni,  nephew  of  Pietro, 
last  lord  of  Pisa,  after  whose  death 
he  was  exiled;  he  was  recalled  in  1405 
to  aid  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Florentines, 
who  held  the  citadel  of  Pisa  ;  but  in  March, 
1406,  treacherously  opened  the  gates  to  a 
Florentine  army,  and  went  to  live  at 
Florence. 

Gambara,  Lorenzo  {b.  1506,  d.  1595), Latin 
poet,  dependent  of  Cardinal  Farnese  ;  author 
of  foirr  books,  Be  Navigatione  Christophori 
Columbi, 

Gambara,  Veronica  (fi.  1485,  d.  1550), 
Itahan  poet,  whose  letters  and  poems  were 
printed  in  1759;  was  visited  by  Charles  V. 
in  1530. 

Gambart.Jean  F€lix  (6.  1800,  d.  1836), 
French  astronomer,  director  of  the  Marseilles 
observatory  ;  discovered  thirteen  comets  be- 
tween 1820  and  1833. 

Gambetta,  Leon  Michel  {b.  1838,  d.  1882), 
French  statesman ;  son  of  a  grocer  of  Cahors ; 
went  as  a  young  man  to  Paris  with  the  ob- 
ject of  jiractising  at  the  bar,  but  did  notliing 
remarkable  till  his  thirtieth  year.  In  1868 
he  attracted  notice  by  his  conduct  of  the 
defence  in  the  proces  Belescluze,  and  in  the 
next  year  was  elected  deputy  for  both  Paris 
and  Marseilles,  when  he  immediately  became 
the  most  influential  member  of  the  Oppo- 
sition. After  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  in 
the  midst  of  the  siege  of  Paris,  he  went  to 
Tours  in  a  balloon,  and  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  organising  the  government,  and 
the  conduct  of  the  war.  During  the  years 
between  the  peace  and  1879  Gambetta  was 
chiefly  occupied  with  his  idea  of  the  re- 
vanche and  vnth  the  development  of  Oppor- 
tunism. In  the  latter  year  it  was  his  in- 
fluence which  in  the  main  brought  about  the 
abdication  of  Marshal  Macmahon.  On  the 
election  of  M.  Gr^vy,  he  became  president 
of  the  Chamber,  and  in  1881  prime  minister 
of  France,  but  only  held  office  a  few  months, 
resigning  on  January  27,  1S82,  after  which 
he  took  very  little  part  in  affairs.  He  died 
on  December  31  of  the  same  year  from  a 
wound  accidentally  inflicted  on  himself  by  a 
pistol  shot. 

Gambier,  James,  Baron  (5.  1756,  d.  1833), 
British  admiral,  bom  in  the  Bahamas,  of 
which  his  father  was  lieutenant-governor ; 
early  entered  navy ;  present  at  repulse  of 
French  from  Jersey  in  1791,  and  afterwards 
served  on  American  coast ;   rear-admii-al  in 


1796,  having  been  with  Lord  Howe  in  his 
victory  of  the  preceding  year.  In  1807  he 
was  given  the  command  of  the  fleet  sent  to 
Copenhagen,  and  was  created  a  baron  in 
recognition  of  his  skilful  conduct ;  he  refused 
at  the  same  time  a  pension.  Two  years  later, 
in  consequence  of  a  misunderstaudiug  with 
Lord  Cochrane  on  the  occasion  of  an  attack 
on  a  French  fleet  in  the  Aix  roads,  Lord 
Gambier  was  tried  by  court-martial,  but 
acquitted.  On  the  accession  of  William  IV. 
he  became  admiral  of  the  fleet. 

Gfambold,  J.  {d.  1771),  English  philologist; 
joined  the  Moravians  and  became  bishop  ; 
carried  out  their  principles  by  working  as 
corrector  of  proofs ;  was  author  of  several 
philological  and  theological  works. 

Gamon,  Christophe  de  {b.  1576,  d.  1612), 
French  poet,  his  chief  works  being  Le  Tresor 
des  Tresors  and  Les  Pescheries,  the  first  cele- 
brating his  achievements  as  an  alchemist. 

Gandolphy,  Pierre  {d.  1816),  Eomanist 
priest,  author  of  Z^ne  Defense  de  la  Foi  An- 
cienne ;  censured  for  a  sermon  which  he 
preached  on  the  relations  between  temporal 
and  spiritual  authority  in  1816. 

Gandon,  James  (6.  1741,  d,  1824),  English 
architect;  the  first  who  received  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Eoyal  Academy  ;  designed  the 
Custom  House,  and  other  buildings  in  Dub- 
lin ;  edited  part  of  Vitnivhis  Britannicus. 

Ganganelli.     \_See  Clement  XIV.,  Pope.] 

Ganilli,  Charles  (6.  1758,  d.  1826),  French 
statesman  and  economist ;  one  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Seven  who  sat  at  the  H6tel  de  Ville 
on  the  day  of  the  taking  of  the  Bastille ;  was 
imprisoned  under  the  Reign  of  Terror,  but 
saved  from  transportation  by  the  death  of 
Robespierre ;  member  of  the  Tribunate  under 
the  Consulate,  but  excluded  in  1802  ;  as 
deputy  for  lie  Cantal  at  the  Restoration,  op- 
posed several  of  the  government  measures  ; 
wrote  several  economical  works,  among 
which  were  Systeme  d'Economie  Fiiblique 
(1809-21)  and  Theorie  d^£conomie  Folitique 
(1816-22). 

Gannal,  Jean  Nicholas  (6.  1791,  d.  1852), 
French  chemist ;  employed  in  the  organisa- 
tion of  military  hospitals  ;  present  with  the 
"GrandArmy"  in  Russia  in  1812,  andseveial 
times  taken  prisoner  ;  employed  at  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique ;  afterwards  worked  privately, 
and  applied  his  chemical  knowledge  to  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  candles, 
ink,  lint,  and  paper,  and  published  in  1837 
Histoire  des  Embattmements,  a  work  which 
involved  him  in  controversy  with  several 
physicians. 

Gans,  Edward  (6.  1798,  d.  1839),  German 
jurist ;  appointed  lecturer  on  law  at  Berlin 
m  1820,  and  maintained  philosophical  as 


Gau 


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Gar 


opposed  to  historical  views  of  his  subject ; 
visited  France  aud  England  in  1830.  On  his 
return  in  1835  he  began  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  Sistory  of  the  Last  Fifty  Years, 
•which  was  cut  short  by  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment on  account  of  their  constitutional  ten- 
dency. Besides  several  books  on  jurispru- 
dence, Gaus  edited  the  works  of  Hegel,  to 
whose  school  he  belonged. 

Gantheaume,  Comte  Honors  (b.  1755,  d. 
ISIS),  Freuch  admiral ;  entered  the  navy  at 
a  very  early  age  ;  served  in  America  under 
d'Estaing,  in  India  under  Suffren,  aud  was 
present  at  the  captoi'e  of  Grenada.  In  1794 
he  was  wounded  when  under  the  command 
of  Villaret-Joyeuse ;  after  various  other 
services,  was  appointed  chief-of-staff  to 
Brueys,  and  afterwards  to  the  chief  naval 
command  ou  the  Nile  and  Egyptian  coasts, 
in  which  capacity  he  took  part  in  the  siege 
of  Acre,  the  battle  of  Gaza,  and  the  attack 
on  Aboukir,  and  escorted  Bonaparte  in  his 
flight  from  Egypt.  He  was  appointed  head 
of  the  ocean  fleet  which  was  to  have  pro- 
tected the  invasion  of  England  in  1805. 
Subsequently  he  directed  many  other  naval 
operations  under  Napoleon,  and  was  charged 
by  Louis  XVIII.  to  bring  about  the  sub- 
mission of  Marshal  Brune,  for  which  service 
he  was  made  peer  of  France,  and  received 
the  Cross  of  St.  Louis. 

Garampi,  Giuseppe  {b.  1723,  d.  1792), 
Italian  antiquary,  cardinal,  and  bishop ; 
visited  Germany,  Flanders,  France,  and 
England  with  the  view  of  discovering  manu- 
scripts ;  collected  an  immense  library,  and 
prepared  materials  for  a  great  episcopal 
history  under  the  title  of  Orbis  Christianus. 
The  catalogue  of  his  library,  with  a  bio- 
graphical notice,  was  published  at  Rome  in 
1796. 

Garasse,  Franqois  {b.  1585,  d.  1631), 
Jesuit  controversialist,  author  of  numerous 
works,  chiefly  in  defence  of  his  society  or 
directed  against  its  opponents,  the  chief  of 
which  are  Elixir  Calvinisticum,  Le  Rabelais 
Refortne,  and  La  Doctrine  Curieuse  des  Beaux 
Esprits  de  ce  Temps  (1623). 

Garat,  Dominique  Joseph  (6.  1749,  d. 
1833),  French  statesman  ;  worked  for  Panc- 
koucke,  who  introduced  him  to  Rousseau  and 
the  Encyclopaedists.  He  pronounced  the 
eloge  on  Fontenelle,  and  was  made  professor 
of  history  at  Paris  in  1785.  He  was  elected 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and 
reported  its  proceedings  in  the  Journal  de 
Paris.  He  succeeded  Danton  as  minister  of 
justice  after  the  massacres  of  September, 
which  he  defended,  and  notified  officially  to 
Louis  XVI.  his  condemnation.  In  May, 
1793,  he  was  transferred  to  the  ministry  of 
the  interior  as  successor  to  Roland,  and  by 
his  weak  conduct  contributed  to  the  fall  of 


the  Girondins,  trying  in  vain  to  save  his 
friend  Condorcet.  Garat  was  also  employed 
imder  the  Dii-ectory,  the  Consulate,  and  the 
Empii'e.  As  a  member  of  the  senate  he 
voted  for  the  abdication  in  1814;  in  1816  he 
was  expelled  from  the  Institut  as  a  revolu- 
tionist. He  was  the  author  of  many  works, 
the  best  known  of  which  is  Memoires  sur  la 
involution. 

Garat,  Jean  Pierre  (6.  1764,  d.  1833), 
Freuch  vocalist ;  nephew  of  Dominique ; 
educated  for  the  bar,  but  soon  devoted  him- 
self to  music,  and  became  a  great  tenor; 
became  secretary  to  the  Comte  d'Artois, 
and  was  presented  to  Marie  Antoinette, 
who  gave  him  a  pension.  In  1793  he  left 
France  in  company  with  the  violinist  Roele, 
but  returned  in  1794,  and  on  the  formation 
of  the  Paris  conservatoire  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  singing,  and  trained  several  of  the 
most  noted  vocalists.  He  first  made  known 
in  France  the  music  of  Mozart,  besides  him- 
self composing  some  very  popular  pieces. 

Garbett,  James  (6.  1802,  d.  1879),  scholar 
aud  theologian ;  in  1841  succeeded  Keble  as 
professor  of  poetry ;  Bampton  lecturer  in 
1842,  his  subject  being  a  Vindication  of  the 
Church  of  England,  against  the  Tractarians; 
became  archdeacon  of  Chichester  on  the 
resignation  of  Mr.  (Cardinal)  Manning. 

Garbieri,  Lorenzo  (6.  1580,  d,  1654), 
Italian  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school, 
friend  of  Spaela,  his  chief  pictures  being 
St.  Peter  at  Prayer,  Circe,  and  the  Martyr- 
dom of  Saint  Cecilia,  at  Bologna,  and  several 
oils  and  frescoes  at  Modena. 

Garbo,  RafFaelino  del  {b.  1476,  d.  1534), 
Florentine  painter,  pupil  of  Lippi,  the 
greater  part  of  whose  frescoes  are  lost; 
several  of  his  oil-paintings  are  at  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Berlin. 

Garcam,  or  Gargao,  Pedro  Dorrea  (&.  1724, 
d.  1772),  Portuguese  lyric  poet;  thrown  by 
Pombal  into  prison,  where  he  died.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  1778. 

Garcia,  First  Count  of  Castile  (6.  908,  d. 
990),  defeated  the  Moors  under  Almanzar 
in  984,  but  was  soon  after  himself  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner,  and  died  of  his  wounds. 
His  son,  the  second  count  (h.  1008),  was 
assassinated  in  1022  by  one  of  the  Velee, 
pretenders  to  the  throne  of  Castile. 

Garcia,  Manuel  de  Populo  Vincente  {b. 
1775,  d.  1832),  Spanish  musician:  gained 
reputation  as  a  singer  in  the  theatres  of 
Cadiz  and  Madrid,  and  subsequently  at 
Paris  and  in  Italy.  Between  1816  and  1824 
he  lived  alternately  in  London  and  Paris, 
after  which  he  went  to  New  York  and  from 
thence  to  Mexico.  Having  been  robbed  just 
before  his  return  to  Europe,  he  was  obUged 


(xar 


(346) 


Crar 


to  devote  himself  to  teaching,  among  his 
pupUs  being  his  daughter,  Madame  Malibran. 
He  composed  everal  operas,  the  best  known 
of  which  is  H  Calif o  di  Bagdad.  His  son 
Manuel  (bom  at  Madrid  in  1805)  was 
professor  of  music  at  London  and  Paris,  and 
author  of  Metnoire  sur  la  Voix  Humaine 
(1840),  and  Ecole  di  Garcia  (1841). 

Garcia,  Marie.     \See  Malibran.] 

Gaxcia  di  Mascarenhas  (6.  1596,  d.  1656), 
Portuguese  poet;  escaped  from  prison  at 
Coimhas,  and  after  a  year  at  Madrid  wan- 
dered through  Italy  and  France,  passing 
thence  to  Brazil,  where  he  remained  nine 
years  and  fought  agaiost  the  Dutch.  On 
his  return  to  Portugal  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  tower  of  Sabujat  for  some  years,  on 
account  of  a  supposed  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  the  Spaniards,  but  was 
liberated  on  restoration  of  Portuguese  inde- 
pendence, and  honoured  by  Joao  IV.  A 
poem  which  he  wrote  in  Brazil  is  lost,  but 
his  Viriato  Tragico  was  much  admired,  and 
was  reprinted  in  1854. 

Garcia  y  Paredes,  Diego  (6. 1466,  d.  1530), 
Spanish  soldier;  served  against  the  Portu- 
guese and  Moors  in  1478 ;  killed  messengers 
sent  by  his  family  to  bring  hini  home  after 
Ms  father's  death,  and,  having  proceeded  to 
Rome,  entered  the  service  of  Alexander  VI. ; 
afterwards  aided  the  Venetians  against  the 
Turks,  by  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but 
escaped,  and  in  1501  returned  to  serve  the 
pope,  and  fought  for  him  against  the  Orsini 
and  the  French.  Eetuming  to  Spain,  he 
defended  his  friend  Gonsalva  di  Cordova, 
and  in  1508  was  sent  to  the  help  of 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  in  his  war  with 
Venice.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Pavia  (1525).  Don  Diego  Garcia  is  one  of 
the  national  heroes  of  Spain ;  his  auto- 
biography was  printed  in  the  Claros  Varones 
de  Espdna. 

GarcUasso  de  la  Vega  (b.  1503,  d.  1536), 
Spanish  poet  and  soldier ;  bom  at  Toledo  of 
a  noble  family;  followed  Charles  V.  to 
Italy;  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Vienna 
by  the  Sultan  Solyman,  after  which  he  fell 
into  disgBace  for  tr3Tng  to  bring  about  the 
marriage  of  one  of  his  nephews  with  a  lady 
of  the  imperial  house.  After  a  short  im- 
prisonment on  an  island  in  the  Danube,  he 
returned  to  court,  and  in  1535  was  wounded 
in  the  siege  of  Tunis.  After  his  return  he 
accompanied  Charles  V.  on  his  campaign  in 
Provence,  and  died  from  wounds  received  at 
Frejus.  His  poems,  in  which  he  imitated 
the  Italians,  were  first  pubhshed  with  those 
of  Boscan  in  1543. 

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  id.  1568),  Spanish 
traveller  and  ^vriter  (called  "the  Inca," 
from  his  mother  being  a  Peruvian  princess) ; 
Bon  of  a  Spanish  captain  who  had  served 


under  Cortes  and  Pizarro ;  explored  Peru, 
and  published  the  result  in  his  Comentaries 
Jteales  que  tratan  del  Origen  de  los  Incas ; 
excited  the  suspicions  of  Philip  II.  by  his 
influence  over  the  Peruvians,  and  was  re- 
called to  Spain  and  imprisoned. 

Gardiaer,  Allen  Francis  (6. 1791.  d.  1851), 
English  sailor  and  missionary ;  after  serv- 
ing some  years  in  the  navy,  devoted  himself 
to  missionary  work:  went  to  Zululand  in 
1834,  then  to  South  America ;  after  a  short 
time  in  England  founded  the  Patagonian 
Missionary  Society,  and  in  1850  went  again 
to  South  America,  whence  he  and  his  party 
never  returned,  having  died  of  starvation. 

^^Gardiner,  James,  Colonel  {b.  1688,  d. 
1745),  Scottish  military  officer;  served  with 
distinction  at  EamilUes ;  killed  at  Preston- 
pans  ;  said  by  his  biographer.  Dr.  Doddridge, 
to  have  had  supernatural  intimation  of  his 
death. 

Gardiner,  Samuel  Eawson  (*.  1829),  Eng- 
lish historian  ;  was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
Christ  Church.  In  1884  he  was  elected  fellow 
of  All  Souls',  and  was  for  some  years  pro- 
fessor of  modem  history  at  King's  CoUege, 
London.  His  historical  works  include  The 
History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of 
James  I.  to  the  IJisgrace  of  Chief  Justice  Coke 
(1863),  Frince  Charles  and  the  Spanish 
Marriage  (1869),  England  under  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  and  Charles  I.  (1875),  The 
Personal  Government  of  Charles  /.,  and  the 
Fall  of  the  Monarchy  of  Charles  /.,  aU  these 
being  republished  as  a  continuous  work  in 
1883-4 ;  An  Fntroduction  to  the  Study  of 
English  History  (with  J.  B.  Mullinger), 
History  of  the  Great  Civil  War,  and  a  com- 
plete History  of  England  in  three  volumes. 
In  1882  a  Civil  List  pension  of  £150 
was  granted  him  ia  recognition  of  his 
valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of 
England. 

Gardiner,  Stephen  {h.  1483,  d.  1555), 
English  ecclesiastical  statesman  ;  natural 
son  of  Dr.  Woodville,  Bishop  of  Salis- 
bury, brother  of  Edward  IV.'s  queen ; 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  was 
employed  to  negotiate  the  divorce  from 
Catherine  of  Ai'agon,  and  was  named  Bishop 
of  Winchester  in  1531  and  secretary  of 
state :  adopted  the  king's  supremacy  over 
the  Church,  and  defended  it  in  Jje  Vera 
Obedientin,  but  opposed  Cromwell  and  the 
Protestants  ;  was  imprisoned  under  Edward 
VI.  and  deprived  of  his  bishopric,  but  was 
restored  and  made  chancellor  under  Mary ; 
first  opposed  and  afterwards  forwarded  the 
Spanish  marriage  :  directed  the  persecution, 
in  the  midst  of  wliich  he  died. 

Gardiner,  William  (*.  1770,  d.  1853), 
musical  writer:  one  of  the  first  English 
admirers  of  Beethoven;    he   had  a    large 


Gar 


(346) 


Gtar 


acquaintance  with  literary  men  of  the  day, 
induding  Terry,  of  the  'Morning  Chronicle, 
Robert  Hall,  Dr.  Parr,  and  Moore ;  published 
Sacred  Melodies  in  1812,  and  between  that 
year  and  his  death.  Lives  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  Judah  (oratorio),  the  Music  of 
Nature,  Music  and  Friends,  and  other  works. 

Gardner,  Allan,  Lord  {b.  1742,  d.  1808), 
English  admiral;  distinguished  himself  as 
captain  of  the  I)iike  in  Eodney's  victory 
over  the  French  in  1782;  became  rear- 
admiral  in  1793,  and  nest  year  received  a 
baronetcy  for  his  services  under  Lord  Howe 
on  June  1 ;  attempted  to  put  down  the 
mutiny  at  Portsmouth  at  great  personal 
risk  ;  was  created  in  1800  an  Irish  peer,  and 
afterwards  became  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom;  succeeded  Earl  St.  Vincent  in 
the  command  of  the  Channel  fleet.  He  sat 
in  thi'ee  successive  parliaments. 

Gardner,  Percy  {b.  1846),  archaeologist, 
M.A.  of  Oxford  and  Litt.  Doc.  of  Cam- 
bridge ;  was  appointed  assistant  in  the 
Department  of  Antiquities  at  the  British 
Museum  in  1871 ;  elected  fellow  of  Christ's 
CoUege,  Cambridge,  1872,  and  Disney  pro- 
fessor of  archaeology  in  1880.  In  1887  he 
became  Merton  professor  at  Oxford. 
Among  his  works  are  The  Types  of  Greek 
Coins  (1883),  and  several  volumes  of  cata- 
logues of  Greek  coins  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  edited  the  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies 
from  its  coromencement. 

Garengeot,  Ren6  (6. 1688,  d.  1759),  French 
surgeon ;  author  of  Traite  des  Operations  de 
Ghirurgie,  published  in  1723. 

Garet,  Jean  {b.  1627,  d.  1694),  French 
Benedictine  ;  editor  of  Cassiodorus  (1676). 

Garfield,  James  Abraham  (i^.  1831,  d. 
1881),  youngest  child  of  Abram  Garfield, 
who  died  at  the  age  of  thirty  -  three ;  was 
educated  at  Chester  and  Hiram,  Ohio  (his 
native  state),  and  WilUams  College,  where 
he  graduated  with  high  honours  in  1856 ; 
became  president  of  Hiram  College  next 
year,  and  studied  law  while  he  taught 
classics;  began  public  life  as  a  member  of 
the  Ohio  Senate  in  1859,  and  gave  special 
attention  to  the  military  organisation  of  the 
state.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war 
Garfield  received  a  commission  as  colonel  of 
Ohio  volunteers,  and  won  the  battle  of 
Middle  Creek  in  1862,  after  which  he  was 
named  brigadier-general.  In  1863  he  was 
made  major-general  for  his  gallantry  at 
Chickamauga,  but  at  the  end  of  the  year 
resigned  his  commission  in  order  to  sit  in 
Congress.  He  was  immediately  placed  upon 
the  committee  of  military  affairs,  but  gave 
his  attention  to  other  matters  also.  At  the 
end  of  the  war  he  was  transferred  to  the 
finance  committee,  where  he  was  zealous  for 
the  resumption  of  cash  payments.    In  1868 


he  was  chairman  of  the  new  committee  on 
banking  and  currency.  He  opposed  Presi- 
dent Johnson's  views  on  the  treatment  of 
the  Confederates,  and  made  notable  speeches 
on  these  and  other  matters.  On  the  retire- 
ment of  Mr.  Blaine  to  the  Senate  Garfield 
became  leader  of  the  Republican  party  in 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  was 
successful  in  defeating  the  attempts  of  the 
Democrats  to  interfere  with  the  conduct  of 
elections.  In  1880  he  supported  Sherman's 
candidature  for  the  presidency,  but  was 
himself  elected.  On  July  2nd,  1881,  he  was 
shot  by  a  disappointed  place-hunter,  when 
about  to  set  out  on  a  trip  to  New  England. 
His  wife  {nee  Rudolph)  received  a  large 
subscription  after  his  death.  Many  of  Gar- 
field's speeches  have  been  published;  the 
best  hie  of  him  is  by  J.  R.  Gihnore  (New 
York,  1880). 

Garibaldi,  Giuseppe  (b.  1807,  d.  1882), 
Italian  soldier,  born  at  Nice;  entered  the 
Piedmontese  navy,  but  was  obliged  to  leave 
Italy  in  1834,  on  account  of  his  participation 
in  the  Young  Italy  movement.  He  went  at 
first  to  France,  but  afterwards  took  service 
with  the  Bey  of  Tunis  as  captain  of  a 
frigate.  He  next  went  to  America,  and 
supported  the  rising  of  Uruguay  against  the 
Brazilians,  by  whom  he  was  made  prisoner 
in  1842.  After  his  liberation  he  again  served 
in  the  navy  of  Uruguay,  and  in  the  course 
of  operations  his  wife,  a  Creole,  was  taken 
prisoner,  but  escaped.  In  1844  Garibaldi 
fought  for  Montevideo  against  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  performed  many  brilliant  feats. 
Hearing  of  the  state  of  affairs  in  Europe  in 
1847,  he  left  Montevideo,  and  on  arriving  at 
Genoa  offered  his  sword  to  Charles  Albert, 
who,  however,  declined  the  offer.  Garibaldi 
then  went  to  Milan,  where  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety  gave  him  the  command  of 
3,000  men,  and  sent  him  to  the  relief  of 
Bergamo.  He  was  not  able  to  achieve  much 
at  this  time,  and  retired  into  Switzerland, 
whence  he  came  to  Nice,  which  had  elected  him 
as  representative,  and  proclaimed  himself  a 
repubUcan.  Next  year  he  was  summoned 
by  Mazzini,  after  the  fiight  of  Pius  IX.,  to 
Rome,  and  was  entrusted  with  the  defence 
of  the  city  against  the  French  and  Austrians. 
From  thence  he  dealt  several  severe  blows  to 
the  Neapolitans,  but  was  unable  to  save 
Rome.  He  now  attempted  a  guerilla  war- 
fare with  the  Austrians,  but  soon  had  to 
take  refuge  at  Genoa,  whence  he  once  mora 
sailed  for  America.  On  his  arrival  he 
settled  at  New  York  as  a  chandler,  then 
went  to  California,  and  afterwards  on  a 
voyage  to  China.  In  1854  he  returned  to 
Genoa,  bought  part  of  the  island  of  Caprefl-a, 
and  settled  there  as  a  farmer  for  five  years. 
In  1859  he  took  part  in  the  war  against  the 
Austrians,  and  after  the  peace  of  Villafranca 
landed  in  Sicily  with  his  "  thousand  heroes," 


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and  defeated  the  Neapolitans.  On  his  way 
to  Naples  he  first  met  Victor  Emmanuel.  In 
1862  he  attempted  to  induce  the  Hungarians 
to  revolt  against  Austria,  but  was  unsuc- 
cessful, and  himself  marched  on  Rome.  He 
was  opposed  by  the  Italian  govemment, 
wounded,  and  captured,  but  was  allowed  to 
retire  to  Caprera.  In  1S64  he  visited  Eng- 
land ;  in  1866  fought  against  Austria  in  the 
Tyrol,  and  obtained  the  cession  of  Venice. 
Next  year  he  tried  to  free  Rome  from  the 
papal  government,  but  was  arrested  by  the 
Italian  government  and  imprisoned  in  Ales- 
sandria. Soon  he  was  allowed  to  hve  under 
sui-veillance  at  Caprera,  whence  he  escaped 
with  his  son-in-law  in  a  small  boat  (October 
14th),  and,  joining  the  insurgents,  defeated 
the  papal  troops  at  Monte  Rotonda  (October 
16th),  but  having  been  himself  defeated  at 
Montana  he  was  again  imprisoned.  Gari- 
baldi's last  appearance  in  arms  was  on  the 
side  of  the  French  in  the  war  of  1870.  He 
was  elected  deputy  for  Nice,  Dijon,  and 
Paris,  but  being  prevented  as  foreigner  from 
addressing  the  Assembly,  he  returned  to 
Caprera,  where,  with  his  third  wife  and 
family,  he  lived  till  his  death.  His  first 
wife  had  died  in  the  disastrous  flight  from 
Rome  in  1849.  In  1876  Garibaldi  received  a 
pension  from  the  nation,  and,  as  representa- 
tive of  Rome,  occasionally  appeared  in  the 
ItaUan  parliament. 

Gariel,  Pierre  {d.  1670),  French  historian, 
author  of  L^Origine,  les  Changements,  et 
V Etat  present  de  VUglise  Cathklrale  de  Saint 
Pierre  de  Mont  pettier,  and  other  works  about 
Montpellier,  where  he  was  born,  and  of 
which  at  his  death  he  was  doyen. 

Garisolles,  Antoine  (6.  1587),  French  Pro- 
testant theologian  and  Latin  poet ;  presided 
over  the  national  synod  at  Charenton  in 
1645,  and  resisted  the  demands  of  the 
government ;  author  of  La  Voie  du  Saint, 
and  Adolphide,  a  Latin  poem,  in  recognition 
of  which  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  sent 
him  her  portrait,  but  he  died  before  re- 
ceiving it. 

Garland,  Augustus  H.  (b.  1832),  Ameri- 
can statesman  ;  was  prominent  as  a 
lawyer  at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the 
CivQ  war,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Arkansas  Convention  of  1861,  which  voted 
secession  from  the  Union,  but  \\as  personally 
opposed  to  the  measure.  He  became,  how- 
ever, a  member  of  the  Confederate  States 
Congress,  and  sat  in  the  Lower  House  from 
1861  to  1864;  on  its  dissolution  he  resumed 
his  profession.  In  1867  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate,  but,  as 
a  Confederate,  was  not  then  allowed  to  sit. 
In  1874  he  became  governor  of  Arkansas; 
in  1877  he  became  a  United  States  senator, 
and  in  1885  was  attornej^-general  to  Presi- 
dent Cleveland's  administration,  after  the 


conclusion   of  which  he  recommenced   his 
professional  pursuits. 

Garlande,  Jean  de,  English  poet  and  gram- 
marian of  the  13th  century;  studied  philo- 
sophy at  Oxford ;  author  of  Be  Contemptu 
Mundi  (sometimes  attiibuted  to  St.  Bernard), 
De  Triumphis  EcclesicB,  and  Be  Bictionibus 
Obscuris. 

Garneray,  Jean  Fran9ois  (6. 1755,  d.  1837), 
French  painter,  pupil  of  David,  his  chief 
pictures  being*i3ortraits  of  Charlotte  Corday 
(painted  while  she  was  before  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal) ,  of  Catherine  de  Medicis, 
of  Louis  XVI.  on  the  terrace  of  the  Temple, 
of  Baron  Trenck,  and  of  Diane  de  Poitiers 
asking  from  Francis  I.  the  pardon  of  her 
father. 

Garnerin, Andrd  Jacques  {b.  1769,  d.  1823), 
French  aeronaut ;  went  up  in  Moutgolfier'a 
baUoou  in  1790;  became  an  army  inspector 
in  1793,  and  was  captured  by  the  Austrians ; 
invented  the  parachute,  making  his  first  suc- 
cessful trial  of  it  in  1797  in  the  park  of  Mon- 
ceaux ;  subsequently  made  descents  at  St. 
Petersburg  (1800),  and  London  (1807)  ;  was 
patronised  by  Napoleon  ;  died  from  a  blow 
on  his  head.  His  elder  brother,  Jean  Bap- 
tiste  {d.  1849),  contested  with  him  the  inven- 
tion of  the  parachute,  and  made  improve- 
ments in  it. 

Garnet,  Henry  {b.  1555,  d.  1606),  Jesuit; 
was  executed  in  1606  on  the  charge  of  com- 
plicity in  the  Gunpowder  Plot. 

Gamett,  Richard  (h.  1789,  d.  1850),  philo- 
logist and  divine ;  educated  for  commerce,  but 
took  orders  in  1813,  and  became  a  master  at 
Blackburn  grammar  school ;  taught  himself 
German.  In  1838  he  was  appointed  assist- 
ant-keeper of  printed  books  at  the  British 
Museum,  having  previously  devoted  himself 
to  philology.  His  philological  essays  were 
collected  by  his  son  in  1858.  He  also  con- 
tributed to  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Institution  an  able  paper  on  The  Formation 
of  Ice  at  the  Bottom  of  Rivers.  His  younger 
brother,  Thomas  (d.  1878),  a  cotton  manu- 
facturer, devoted  his  leisure  to  experiments 
in  agriculture  and  natural  history ;  and 
another,  Jeremiah  {d.  1870),  was  known  in 
Lancashire  as  a  journalist  and  politician. 

Gamett,  Richard  (6.  1835),  verse-writer 
and  literary  editor;  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, to  whose  post  at  the  British 
Museum  he  succeeded,  being  appointed 
keeper  of  printed  books  in  1890.  He  took 
great  pnrt  in  the  improvements  effected  at 
the  British  Museum,  especially  in  the  form- 
ation of  the  General  Catalogue.  Among  his 
works  are  lo  in  Egypt  and  Other  Poems 
(1859';,  Idylls  and  Epigrams,  chiefly  from 
the  Greek  Anthology  (1869),  Iphigentn  in 
Delphi  (1890),  besides  biographies  of  Carlyle, 


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Emerson,  and  Milton  in  the  Great  Writers 
series,  manj'  contributions  to  encyclopaedias, 
and  editions  of  his  father's  Philological  Es- 
says, De  Quincey's  Opium  Eater,  and  Melics 
of  Shelley. 

Gamett,  Thomas  (6.  1756,  d.  1802),  first 
professor  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great 
Britain,  where  he  gave  the  first  lecture  in 
1801. 

Gamier,  Charles  Georges  (6. 1746,  d.  1795), 
French  writer,  author  of  Nouveaux  Proverbes 
Dramatiques    (1784),    Voyages    Imaginaires 

(1787). 

Gamier,  fitienne  Barthelemy  {b.  1759,  d. 
1849),  French  painter,  his  chief  pictures 
being  historical.  The  Emperor  Maurice  De- 
throned by  the  Usurper  Fhocas,  Socrates  draw- 
ing Akibiades  ^away  from  a  Souse  whose 
Pleasures  would  iveaken  his  Courage,  and  the 
Desolation  of  Priam's  Family,  painted  at 
Eome  ;  Napoleon  in  his  Cabinet  meditating 
upon  a  Map  of  Europe,  and  others,  painted  at 
Paris  and  exhibited  at  the  Salon. 

Gamier,  Germain  (6. 1754,  d.  1821),  French 
economist ;  brother  of  Charles,  procureur  to 
the  chatelet ;  was  a  member  of  the  Club 
Monarchique  in  1790,  and  refused,  two  years 
later,  the  ministry  of  justice,  after  which  he 
left  France.  On  his  retirrn  he  held  several 
offices  under  the  Directory  and  Consulate. 
On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  named 
minister  and  member  of  the  conseil  prive, 
and  supported  freedom  of  exportation  and  of 
the  press.  He  translated  the  Wealth  of 
nations,  and  published  several  economical 
works. 

Gamier,  Jean  (J.  1612,  d.  1681),  French 
Jesuit  philosopher ;  author  of  various  philo- 
gophical  and  historical  works,  among  which 
were  Liber  Diurnus  Romanorum  Pontificum 
and  Organi  Philosophic  Rudimenta. 

Gamier,  Jean  Giullaume  {b.  1766,  <?.  1840), 
French  mathematician  ;  professor  in  1788  at 
the  Protestant  Academie  Militaire  of  Colmar ; 
examiner  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  from 
1795  to  1800,  and  assistant  to  Lagrange. 
Subsequently  professor  at  St.  Cyr  and  Ghent. 
He  wrote  and  edited  numerous  works.  One 
of  his  pupUs  was  Poisson. 

Gamier,  Jean  Jacques  {b.  1729,  d.  1805), 
French  historian;  went  to  Paris  with  twenty- 
four  sous  in  his  pocket ;  was  received  into 
the  College  d'Harcourt,  and  took  minor 
orders ;  patronised  by  the  Comte  de  Saint 
Florentin,  and  appointed  inspector  of  the 
College  Royal  in  1768 ;  in  1781  elected  pen- 
sionary of  the  Academie  des  Inscriptions, 
but  lost  this  in  1790  by  refusing  to  take  the 
oath  to  the  new  constitution,  became  a 
royalist,  and  lived  in  indigence  during  the 
revolution,  but  was  granted  a  pension  by 


the  consular  government.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works  are  Traite  de  VOrigine  du 
Gouvernetnent  Civile,  and  De  V£ducation 
Civile. 

Gamier,  Jean  Louis  Charles  {b.  1825), 
French  architect;  bom  at  Paris,  where  he 
studied  at  the  Ecole  Speciale  de  Dessin  and 
the  £cole  des  Beaux-Ajrts,  gaining,  in  1848, 
the  great  prize  for  his  design  for  a  Conserva- 
toire pour  les  Arts  et  Metiers.  He  afterwards 
travelled  in  Greece,  and  on  his  return  ex- 
hibited a  polychromatic  design  for  the  re- 
storation of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  in^gina, 
a  paper  on  which  he  published  in  the  Revue 
Archiologique  in  1856.  In  1861  his  plan  for 
the  new  Paris  Opera  House  was  unanimously 
adopted  by  the  jury,  and  on  the  occasion  of 
its  opening  in  1S75  the  architect  was  deco- 
rated with  the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
M.  Gamier  designed  also  the  theatre  at 
Monaco,  and  on  his  visit  to  London  in  1886 
received  the  gold  medal  of  the  Institute  of 
British  Architects. 

Gamier,  Jean  de  Saintes  {b.  1754,  d.  1820), 
French  revolutionist ;  member  of  the 
National  Convention,  and  a  violent  montag- 
narc?  /  proposed  the  law  against  ^e  emigres 
of  October  22;  voted  for  death  without 
appeal  of  the  king ;  an  active  proscriptionist 
in  1793,  and  a  chief  organiser  of  the  comite 
de  salut  public.  On  August  7  he  proposed 
that  Pitt  should  be  declared  "  ennemi  du  genre 
humain."  He  was  sent  on  a  mission  against 
the  royalists  of  the  west  and  the  Vendeans ; 
supported  the  proscription  of  the  Dantonists, 
and  became  president  of  the  Jacobin  club  in 
1794.  He  tried  to  save  Carrier;  but  from 
this  time  became  more  moderate.  Afterwards 
member  of  the  Conseil  des  Cinq  Cents,  and 
member  of  the  representative  Chamber 
during  the  Hundred  Days.  He  was  arrested 
at  the  restoration,  sent  to  Belgium,  and  from 
thence  to  the  United  States,  where  he  was 
drowned  in  the  Ohio. 

Gamier,  Marie  Joseph  Francois  {b.  1839, 
d.  1873),  French  traveller ;  entered  the  navy, 
and  was  in  1862  appointed  inspector  of  the 
natives  in  Cochin  China.  He  suggested  and 
accompanied  a  mission  to  Thibet,  which  tra- 
versed country  hitherto  unknown  to  Eiu-o- 
peans,  and  took  careful  observations.  On 
the  death  of  the  commander  of  the  expedition. 
Gamier  took  his  place,  and  led  it  to  the 
Yang-tze-Kiang  and  the  coast  of  China. 
After  a  brief  stay  in  France,  he  returned,  and 
traced  the  course  of  the  Yang-tze-Kiang, 
and  afterwards  was  employed  by  the  governor 
of  Cochin  China  to  establish  a  French  pro- 
tectorate over  Tonkin.  He  took  Hanoi  (No- 
vember, 1873),  but  was  assassinated  soon 
afterwards.  He  was  the  author  of  Za 
Siege  de  Paris  (1871),  and  his  expedition  is 
described  in  Voyage  d' Exploration  en  Indo- 
Chine  pendant  1866-7-8  (published  1873). 


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Gamier, Robert  {h.  1534,  d.  1590),  French 
poet ;  destined  for  the  bar  and  practised  for 
a  short  time ;  anthor  of  Porcie  and  other 
tragedies. 

Gamier-Pag^s,  Etienne  Joseph  Louis  {b. 
1801,  d.  1841),  French  politician;  after  being 
engaged,  through  his  poverty,  in  many  menial 
occupations,  became  in  1822  bookkeeper  in 
a  commercial  house.  Subsequently  he  be- 
came an  advocate,  and  soon  began  to  mix 
in  poUtical  affairs,  and  especially  in  the 
revolution  of  1830.  Xext  year  he  obtained 
a  seat  in  the  Assembly,  and  became  con- 
spicuous as  a  republican  and  opponent  of  the 
government  of  Louis  PhiUijpe.  His  speeches 
La  the  session  of  1839  were  very  remarkable. 

Gamier-Pag^s,  Louis  Antoine  (b.  1803, 
d,.  1878),  French  politician,  half-brother  to 
Etienne ;  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830, 
and  on  the  death  of  his  brother  took  his 
place  in  the  Chamber  as  leader  of  the  c6te 
Gauche.  During  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
was  elected  mayor  of  Paris  and  finance 
minister  to  the  provisional  government. 
His  failure  in  the  latter  capacity  led  to  his 
retirement  for  some  time  from  political  Ufe, 
during  which  time  he  occupied  himself  in 
writing  Spisode  de  la  Revolution  de  I848, 
which  was  a  defence  of  his  conduct.  Li  1864 
he  was  returned  for  one  of  circumscriptions 
of  Paris,  and  was  prosecuted  as  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Democratic  Electoral  Com- 
mittee. His  views  were,  however,  now  too 
moderate  for  his  party,  and  he  retired  from 
public  Ufe  soon  after  the  German  war,  having 
been  a  passive  member  of  the  government  of 
national  defence. 

Garrick,  David  (A.  1716,  d.  1779),  English 
actor,  son  of  a  captain  in  the  army ;  was  bom 
at  Hereford,  and  came  to  London  with  Dr. 
Johnson  in  1736  to  study  law.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  however,  he  joined  his  brother, 
a  wine  merchant,  but  soon  gave  this  up  to  go 
on  the  stage.  He  made  his  first  appearance, 
under  the  name  of  Lyddal,  at  Ipswich,  in 
1741,  and  soon  after  played  "Richard"  in 
the  theatre  of  Goodman's  Fields,  where  his 
success  enabled  him  to  get  an  engagement  at 
Drury  Lane.  In  1743  he  went  to  Dublin; 
in  1747  became  joint  patentee  of  Drury  Lane, 
two  years  later  marrying  Mademoiselle 
Violette.  He  acted  at  Drury  Lane  until 
1776,  when  he  retired  and  sold  his  share  in 
the  concern.  His  last  appearance  was  on 
June  10  as  Don  Felix  in  The  Wonder.  He 
died  on  January  20,  1779,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  His  Correspondence  was 
pubUshed  in  1831. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd  (A.  1805,  d.  1879), 
American  abolitionist,  of  humble  Vjirth  ;  was 
apprenticed  at  the  age  of  thirteen  to  the 
printer  of  the  Newhuryport  {Massachusetts) 
herald,  for  which  paper  he  afterwards  wrote. 


In  1826  he  became  owner  and  editor  of  tha 
Free  Press,  and  in  the  next  year  editor  of  the 
National  Philanthropist,  in  which  temper- 
ance and  emancipation  were  advocated.  In 
1831  he  started  The  Liberator,  and  from 
henceforth  devoted  himself  entirely,  at  great 
personal  risk,  to  the  cause  of  slavery  abolition. 
He  visited  England  tliree  times — in  1833, 
1840,  and  1866,  and  was  weU  received.  In 
1847  Sonnets  and  other  Poems  from  his  pen 
were  pubUshed,  and  in  1852  a  selection  from 
his  speeches  and  writings. 

Garrod,  Alfred  Baring,  Sir  (6. 1819),  Eng- 
Ush  physician  (physician  extraordinary  to 
the  Queen),  was  first  in  medicine  at  both 
the  M.B.  and  M.D.  examinations  of  London 
University  (1842  and  1843).  In  1851  he  was 
appointed  physician  and  professor  of  thera- 
peutics at  University  College  Hospital ;  in 
1863  physician  at  King's  College  Hospital, 
and  in  1874  consulting  physician.  In  1856 
he  became  feUow  of  the  Royal  CoUege  of 
Physicians,  and  was  vice-president  in  1888. 
He  deUvered  the  Gulstonian  lectui-es  in  1858, 
and  the  Lumbian  lectures  in  1883.  In  1858 
he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Among  his  works  are  On  the  Conversion  of 
Benzoic  into  Mippuric  Acid  in  the  Animal 
Ecotwmy  {Chemical  Society^s  Transactions, 
1843)  ;  Eesearches  on  the  Pathological  Con- 
dition of  the  Blood  in  Chohra  (^London  Journal 
of  Medicine,  1849) ;  On  the  Condition  of  the 
Blood  and  Urine  in  Gout,  Rheumatics,  and 
BrighVs  Disease,  etc.  {Medico- Chirurgical 
Transactions  (1849-56) ;  The  Essentials  of 
Materia Medica  and  Therapeutics  (1855) ;  and 
On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Gout  and 
Rheumatic  Gout,  the  last  of  which  has 
been  translated  into  French  and  German. 
He  first  introduced  Uthia  as  an  internal 
remedy. 

Garsault,  Francois  de  {b.  1691,  d.  1778), 
French  writer,  author  of  the  Nouveau  Parfait 
Marichal,  the  leading  French  work  on 
horses ;  also  contributed  to  the  Recueil  de 
V  Academie  des  Sciences  papers  on  similar  sub- 
jects. 

Garth,  Richard,  Sir  {b.  1820),  EngUsh 
lawyer ;  educated  atEton  and  Christ  Church; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1847,  and  sat  in 
Parliament  for  Guildford  from  1866  to  1868. 
In  1875  he  was  named  chief  justice  of  Ben- 
gal, which  ofiice  he  resigned  in  1886.  He  is 
a  privy  councillor. 

Garth,  Samuel,  Sir  {b.  1660,  d.  1719), 
English  physician ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ; 
came  to  London :  became  a  f eUow  of  the 
Royal  CoUege  of  Physicians  in  1693,  and 
gained  a  large  practice ;  was  a  member  of 
the  Kit- Cat  Club,  and  a  friend  of  Addison 
and  Pope.  His  chief  work  was  a  satirical 
poem,  The  Dispensary,  which  attained  great 
popularity. 


Gar 


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Gas 


Gartner.     [See  Gaertner.] 

Gaxve.  Christian  (6. 1742,  d.  1798),  German 
philosopher,  translated  the  De  Ojficiis  by  re- 
quest of  Frederick  the  Great;  wrote  De 
Matione  Scribendi  Historiam  Fhilosophicam, 
and  translated  several  English  authors. 

Garzi,  Lodovico  (6.  1640,  d.  1721),  Italian 
painter,  pupil  of  Andrea  Sacchi,  and  rival 
of  Carlo  Maratti. 

Garzom  [b.  1549,  d.  1589),  Italian  jurist 
and  writer,  author  of  numerous  works,  the 
chief  of  which  are  II  Theatro  de  Varii  e  Di- 
rersi  Cervelli  Mondani  and  L'' Sospidale  de' 
Pazzi  Inciirabili. 

Gasaprino,  Barizza  (6.  1370,  d.  1430), 
Italian  philologist;  patronised  by  Maria 
Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan  :  his  epistles,  pub- 
lished in  1470,  were  the  first  typographical 
productions  in  France,  and  he  did  much 
towards  the  revival  of  classical  studies. 

Gascoigne,  George  (6.  1537,  d.  1577), 
English  poet  and  dramatist,  entered  at 
Gray's  Inn,  but  was  obliged  by  extrava- 
gance to  leave  the  country  and  serve  in  the 
army  of  William  of  Orange.  He  was  made 
prisoner  at  Ley  den,  and,  after  his  return  to 
England,  engaged  in  literature,  writing 
masques  and  dramas,  the  best  known  of 
which  is  Princelye  Pleasures  at  the  Courte  of 
Kenihvorth  (1576). 

Gascoigne,  William  (6.  1621,  d.  1644), 
English  astronomer;  invented  the  micrometer 
and  improved  telescopes ;  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Marston  Moor. 

Gascoigne,  Sir  William  (6.  circa  1350,  d. 
1419),  English  judge;  appointed  a  king's 
Serjeant  in  1397,  and  chief  justice  in  1400 ; 
refused  to  pronounce  sentence  upon  Arch- 
bishop Scrope  and  Lord  Mowbray,  as  being 
peers,  in  1405 ;  is  said  to  have,  on  small 
authority,  committed  Piince  Henry  to  prison. 

Gaskell,_Mary  (fi.  1822,  d.  1865),  English 
novelist  {nee  Stevenson),  married  a  Unitarian 
minister,  and  wrote  Mary  Barton  (1848), 
Moorland  Cottage  (1850),  and  several  con- 
tributions to  Household  Words,  which  in- 
cluded Cranford  and  North  and  South; 
Wives  and  Daughters  was  appearing  in  the 
Cornhill  at  the  time  of  her  death.  She  also 
wrote  a  biography  of  Charlotte  Bronte.  She 
was  a  friend  and  helper  of  Thomas  Wright, 
and  was  very  active  in  charitable  works 
during  the  cotton  famine. 

Gasparin,  Thomas  Augustin  de  (6.  1750, 
d.  1793),  French  politician ;  entered  the 
army  ;  was  a  chief  instrument  in  uniting  the 
Comtat  and  Venaissin  to  France ;  was  mem- 
ber of  the  comite  militaire  in  the  Legislative 
Assembly ;  appeased  the  Soissons  mutiny  in 
August,  1792.    In  the  National  Convention 


he  acted  with  the  montagnards  ;  accused  the 
Girondins  ;  went  on  a  mission  to  the  army, 
deserted  by  Dumouriez  ;  on  his  return  be- 
came a  member  of  comitede  salutpublique,  and 
advised  the  sending  of  representatives  to  the 
armies,  himself  going  on  several  missions, 
among  the  rest  to  Toulon,  where  he  is  said 
to  have  brought  about,  by  his  influence,  the 
acceptance  of  Bonaparte's  plan.  He  was 
killed  at  his  native  place,  Orange,  in  an  en- 
counter with  the  royalists. 

Gasparini,  Francesco  (6.  1665,  d.  1752), 
Italian  composer  and  harpsichord  player, 
having  Benedict  Marcello  and  Domenico 
Scarlatti  as  his  pupils.  He  composed  many 
operas  and  cantatas,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on 
accompaniment. 

Gassendi,  Pierre  (6.  1592,  <?.  1655),  French 
mathematician  and  astronomer;  as  royal 
professor  at  Paris  was  the  first  to  observe 
the  transit  of  Mercury;  as  a  philosopher 
was  a  Baconian  and  opponent  of  Descartes, 
and  a  friend  and  supporter  of  Galiter. 
Among  his  works  are  Institutia  Astronomica 
(1647),  Tychonis  Brahcei,  Nicolai  Copernici, 
Georgii  Fuerbachii,  et  Joannis  Regiomon- 
tani  Vitce  (1654) ;  the  philosophical  Dis- 
quisitio  Metaphysica  adversus  Cartesium;  De 
Vita,  Moribus,  et  Flacitis  £pieuri,  and  many 
others. 

Gassion,  Jean  de  (b.  1609,  <?.  1647),  French 
Huguenot  soldier ;  served  in  the  army  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  on  his  return  to 
France  in  that  of  the  Prince  de  Conde,  being 
present  at  Rocroi.  He  became  a  Marshal  of 
France,  and  died  from  a  wound  at  the  siege 
of  Lens. 

Gassmann,  Fre'd^ric  Leopold  {b.  1729,  d. 
1774),  Bohemian  composer;  keeper  of  the 
imperial  library  of  music  at  Vientna;  died 
from  the  result  of  a  carriage  accident. 
Among  his  numerous  operas  are  Merope 
and  11  Trionfo  d'Amore. 

Gassner,  Johann  Josef  (6.  1727,  d.  1779), 
German  priest ;  laid  claim  to  extraordinary 
powers  of  healing  by  imposition  of  hands, 
and  practised  exorcism.  He  was  patronised 
by  the  Duke  Charles  of  Wurtemberg,  but 
was  forbidden  by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II. 
to  reside  at  Ratisbon. 

Gast,  John  {b.  1715,  d.  1788),  Irish  writer, 
author  of  the  Rudiments  of  Grecian  History, 
which  was  translated  into  French,  and  had 
much  vogue. 

Gastelier,  Rene  Georges  {b.  1741,  d.  1821), 
French  doctor  ;  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly ;  arrested  during  the  Terror,  and 
only  saved  by  death  of  Robespierre ;  author 
of  several  medical  works,  among  which  are 
Traite  sur  Us  Specifiques  en  Medicine, 
Traite  stir  les  Maladies  des  Femmes  en  CoucheSf 


Gas 


(  351  ) 


Gau 


and   Demonstratio   su/r    la    SuppUce   de   la 
Guillotine,  which  he  held  to  be  painless. 

Gaston  de  Foix.     \_See'Fo\s..'\ 

Gastrell,  Francis  {b.  1662,  d.  1725), 
EngHsh  divine,  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Chester ;  opposed  ia  the  House  of 
Lords  the  sentence  on  Atterbury,  Bishop  of 
Rochester ;  and  obtained  the  thanks  of  the 
university  of  Oxford  for  contesting  the 
validity  of  degrees  conferred  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  He  was  an  active 
opponent  of  the  Deists  in  the  Trinitarian 
controversy  of  1715,  and  was  also  the 
author  of  Uhristian  Institutes. 

Gates,  Horatio  (6.  1728,  d.  1806), 
American  general ;  born  in  England,  and 
accompanied  General  Braddock,  but  subse- 
quently purchased  an  estate  ia  Virgioia, 
where  he  lived  until  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
in  1775,  when  he  was  appointed  by  Congress 
adjutant-general.  He  performed  many  ser- 
vices to  the  American  cause,  the  greatest 
of  which  was  the  defeat  of  Burgoyne  at 
Saratoga.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  war  he 
held  a  command  in  the  south,  and  was  not 
so  successful,  being  defeated  by  Lord  Com- 
waUis  at  Camden. 

Gatling,  Richard  Jordan  (6.  1818), 
American  inventor ;  a  doctor  by  profession ; 
assisted  his  father  in  some  agricultural 
improvements,  and  himself  invented  a 
machine  for  sowing  rice,  subsequently 
adapting  it  to  wheat^sowing.  In  1850  he 
invented  a  double-acting  hemp-brake,  and 
in  1857  a  steam  plough ;  but  his  most  cele- 
brated invention  was  that  of  the  revolving 
gun,  which  bears  his  name,  the  conception 
of  which  came  to  him  in  1861.  In  1865  the 
gun  wa^  improved  and  tested,  and  was 
forthwith  brought  into  use  by  the  United 
States  service ;  and  several  European 
governments  also  adopted  it.  Among  Dr. 
Gatling's  later  inventions  are  an  improved 
method  of  casting  steel  cannon  and  a 
pneumatic  gun  for  discharging  explosives. 

Gatta,  Bartolommeo  della  {d.  1491), 
generally  known  as  Don  Bartolommeo 
d'Arezzo,  Tuscan  miniaturist  and  painter ; 
entered  the  order  of  Camaldoli,  and  became 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Arezzo  ;  worked 
with  Perugino  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at 
Rome.  His  chief  paintings  are  San  Roceo 
and  San  Girolamo  at  Arezzo ;  his  miniatures 
are  perhaps  lost,  but  some  may  possibly  be 
amongst  those  in  the  duomo  of  Lucca. 

Gatteaux,  Nicolas  Marie  (Jb.  1751,  d. 
18o2),  French  engraver  of  medals ;  son  of  a 
locksmith;  apprenticed  to  a  jewellery  en- 
graver ;  was  presented  by  a  friend  to  the 
director  of  the  Monnaie  des  medailles,  and 
modelled  in  wax  the  Battles  of  Alexander 


painted  by  Le  Brun.  In  1773  he  engraved 
the  portrait  of  Louis  XVI.  ;  in  1781  that  of 
the  Comte  de  Maurepas,  in  1785  d'Alembert. 
His  son,  Jacques  Edouard  (6.  1788),  was  also 
an  engraver  of  repute. 

Gatti,  Bernardino  (b.  1495,  d.  1575), 
Italian  painter:  pupil  of  Correggio;  called 
"  d  Sojaro  "  ;  his  chief  pictures  are  the  Loaves 
and  Fishes  at  Cremona,  and  a  Madonna  at 
Parma.  His  nephew,  Gervasio  Gatti  {d. 
1631),  was  a  great  imitator  of  Correggio. 

Gattinara.     {See  Arborio.] 

Gatty,  Alfred  (6. 1813),  English  writer  and 
divine  ;  wrote,  with  his  wife  Margaret  {nie 
Scott) ,  The  Old  Folks  from  Home,  an  account 
of  a  tour  in  Ireland  in  1861,  and  edited  a 
Life  of  Br.  Wolff, ^  besides  writing  a  Life  of 
Br.  Scott,  which  is  out  of  print.  After  the 
death  of  his  wife  (1873),  Dr.  Gatty,  besides 
several  volumes  of  sermons,  published  A  Key 
to  In  Memoriam  annotated  by  Lord  Ten- 
nyson. His  daughter,  Mrs.  Ewing,  wrote 
tales  for  the  young. 

Gau,  Fran9ois  Chretien  (6.  1790,  d.  1853), 
French  architect ;  made  a  tour  on  foot 
through  Egypt  and  Nubia  to  survey  the 
monuments,  and  published  an  account  of 
them  in  his  Antiquites  de  la  Nubie.  He 
also  wrote  a  work  on  the  ruins  of  Pompeii. 

Gauden,  John  {b.  1605,  d.  1662),  English 
Royalist  theologian ;  at  first  took  the  side  of 
the  Parliament,  and  became  chaplain  to  the 
Earl  of  Warwick ;  was  named  one  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines ;  after- 
wards opposed  the  trial  and  execution  of 
Charles  I.,  and  claimed  the  authorship  of 
Eikon  BasiUke.  After  the  Restoration  he 
became  successively  Bishop  of  Exeter  and 
of  Worcester. 

Gaudentius,  St.  (d.  427),  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Brescia  against  his  wiU ;  in  405 
went  to  Constantinople  to  intercede  with 
Arcadius  on  behalf  of  St.  Chrysostom. 

Gaudin,  Marc  Antoine  (6.  1804,  d.  1884), 
French  physician  and  chemist;  invented  a 
pneumatic  pump  in  1827,  and  wrote  many 
works,  among  which  are  Beux  31emoires  sur 
le  Groiipement  des  Atomes  dans  les  Molecules, 
printed  in  the  Annates  de  Chimie  et  de 
rhysique,  and  Trait'e  pratique  de  Photo- 
graphie  (1844-45). 

Gaudin,  Martin  Michel  (b.  1757,  d.  1844), 
French  fiuancier;  served  under  the  Directory 
and  Xapoleon  I.,  and  was  created  by  the 
latter  Due  de  Gaeta.  After  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  he  was  governor  of  the 
Bank  of  France  for  fourteen  years  (1820- 
34).  He  wrote  several  financial  works, 
among  which  the  chief  is  Notice  Historique 
sur  les  Finances  de  France  depuis  ISOO  jusqu'ai 
pr  Avril,  1814. 


Gau 


(352) 


Gaw 


Oanli.    [See  Baciccio.] 

Gaultier,  Garquille  Hugues  {b.  1574,  d. 
I634r),  French  comedian,  called  Guerin ;  said 
to  have  been  a  baker's  boy,  and  with  two 
of  his  comrades  to  have  re-established 
burlesque  on  the  French  stage.  He  vsrote 
Chansons,  and  prologues  called  Bu  Mensonge 
and  I)u  GaUmatias. 

Gaiintlett,  Henry  John  (b.  1806,  d.  1876), 
English  musician;  organist  in  his  father's 
church  at  Olney  at  the  age  of  nine;  was 
afterwards  articled  to  a  solicitor,  and  in 
1831  began  to  practise  in  London  in  partner- 
ship with  his  brother,  being  at  the  same 
time  organist  at  St  Olave's,  Southwark.  He 
brought  about  the  adoption  of  the  C  organ  ; 
did  much  to  spread  the  study  of  Handel, 
Bach,  Beethoven,  and  the  great  German 
composers  ;  and  was  chosen  by  Mendelssohn 
to  play  the  organ  part  in  the  production  of 
the  Elijah  in  lSi6.  In  183i3  he  became 
organist  at  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street, 
and  held  the  same  post  afterwards  at  several 
other  churches,  and  from  about  1842  gave 
himself  up  wholly  to  music.  He  composed 
and  edited  many  psalm  and  hymn  tunes, 
and  also  lectured  and  wrote  on  music. 
With  Charles  C.  Child  he  published  Rymnal 
for  Matins  and  Evensong  (Gregorian)  in 
1844;  with  Rev.  W.  J.  Blow  The  Church 
Symn  and  Tune  Book  (1844-51)  ;  with 
Keans  The  Comprehensive  Tune  Book  (1846- 
47),  etc. 

Gauss,  Karl  Friedrich  (6.  1777,  d.  1855), 
German  mathematician  aud  astronomer, 
patronised  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who 
defrayed  the  expenses  of  his  education  at 
Brunswick  and  Gottingen,  where  in  1801  he 
produced  Disquisit tones  Arithmeticae.  In 
1807  he  became  professor  and  director  of  the 
observatory  at  Gottingen,  and  held  the 
position  until  his  death.  During  this 
period  he  brought  out  many  works  on  pure 
mathematics,  astronomy,  and  other  sciences, 
among  which  the  chief  are  Theoria  Motus 
Corporum  Ccelestium,  in  Sectionibus  conicis 
Ambientium  {\%Q2), Recherches siir  la  Geodesic 
stiperieure  (1844-47)  i  and  invented  the 
Heliotrope. 

Gauthey,  Emilaud  Marie  (i.  1732,  d. 
1806),  French  engineer,  constructed  the 
Canal  du  Centre  (1783-91),  and  wrote 
Traite  sur  la  Consfruciion  des  Fonts  et  des 
Canaux. 

GautMer  (d.  1097),  Norman  knight 
called  "Sans  Avoir,"  went  on  the  first 
Crusade ;  on  his  way  from  Constantinople  to 
Palestine  was  MlleS  in  an  ambuscade  laid 
by  the  Sultan  of  Iconium. 

Gautier,  Theophile  {h.  1811,  d.  1872), 
French  poet  and  romance  writer;  a  leader 
of  the  romantic  school :  contributed  to  La 


Presse,  Revue  des  Beux  Mondes,  the  Moniteur, 
and  the  Journal  Official.  In  1858  he  was 
named  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour ; 
obtained  a  pension  in  1863,  and  in  1868 
became  librarian  to  the  Princesse  Mathilda. 
He  failed,  however,  in  gaining  admission  to 
the  Academy,  for  which  he  was  a  candidate 
in  1869.  He  was  the  author  of  Constanti' 
nople,  Voyage  en  Espagne,  and  Voyage  en 
Russie,  in  which  he  described  his  travels; 
Poesies  (1830),  La  Comedie  de  la  Mort  (1838), 
and  several  novels  and  plays,  besides  a 
series  of  articles  on  the  poets  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIIL ,  republished  under  the  name  of 
Les  Grotesques,  which  he  contributed  to 
La  France  Litter  aire,  edited  partly  by  him- 
self, and  Tresors  d'Art  de  la  Russie  written 
in  collaboration  with  Richebourg. 

Gautier  de  Coutances  (6.  1140,  d.  1207), 
Norman  statesman,  Bishop  of  Lincoln  and 
afterwards  of  Rouen  ;  sent  by  Henry  II.  as 
ambassador  to  France  ;  invested  Richard  I. 
with  duchy  of  Normandy,  and  accompanied 
him  on  the  Crusade;  went  home  as  justi- 
ciary ;  took  the  side  of  Philip  Augustus,  and 
helped  him  recover  Normandy  from  John. 

Gavaxni,  nom  de  plume  of  Sulpice  Guillaum 
Chevalier  (6.  \%Ql,  d.  1866),  French  carica- 
turist, who  illustrated  Eugene  Sue's  Juif 
Errant,  and  Balzac's  Biable  a  Paris. 

Gavazzi,  Alessandro  (6.  1809,  d.  1889), 
Italian  preacher  and  reformer ;  entered  the 
Bamabite  order  in  1825,  and  afterwards 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Naples.  He 
took  great  part  in  the  early  reforming 
schemes  of  Pio  Nono,  and  "was  chaplain- 
general  to  the  patriotic  legion  sent  to  Milan. 
On  the  pope's  becoming  reactionary, 
Gavazzi  withdrew  his  allegiance  from  him, 
and  joined  in  the  agitation  which  led  to  his 
flight.  Gavazzi  afterwards  came  to  Eng- 
land, where  his  lectures  against  the  papacy 
were  well  received ;  they  were  repeated  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  He  was 
with  Garibaldi  in  his  expedition  of  1860, 
and  in  1876  and  following  years  undertook 
another  lecturing  tour  in  England  to  pro- 
vide fimds  for  the  Italian  Free  Church,  of 
which  he  was  a  founder. 

Gaveston,  Piers  {d.  1312),  Gascon  fa- 
vourite of  Edward  II.,  who,  notwithstand- 
ing his  promise  to  his  father,  recalled  him 
to  England,  and  loaded  him  with  riches  and 
honours ;  was  twice  banished  through  the 
influence  of  the  barons,  to  whom  he  had 
made  himself  obnoxious,  and  was  finally 
seized  and  beheaded  by  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick. 

Gawan,  Khwaja  Mahmfid  (/;.  1403,  d. 
1481),  Indian  statesman,  of  Persian  descent; 
left  his  country  and  went  to  India,  where  he 
entered  the  service  of  Alla-oo-deen  Bah- 
muny  II.,   Nizam  of  Beeder;    was  prime 


Gay 


(  353  ) 


Ged 


minister  of  Hoomayoon  Shah,  his  successor, 
and  regent  durincr  the  minority  of  Nizam 
Shah  and  Mahmud  Shah,  sons  of  the  latter. 
He  organised  with  great  ability  the  revenues 
of  the  country,  built  and  endowed  many 
public  institutions,  and  was  a  patron  of 
learned  men,  himself  possessing  many  ac- 
complishments. He  was  destroyed  by  the 
intrigues  of  a  rival  minister,  who  obtained 
his  execution  through  the  affixing  of  liis 
seal  to  a  forged  letter,  which  was  afterwards 
acknowledged  as  such  by  Mahmud  Shah. 

Gay,  Claude  de  (6.  1795,  d.  1873),  French 
botanist  and  traveller;  explored  South 
America  in  1828  and  succeeding  years; 
Hintoriajiscia  y politica  de  Ch'de. 

Gay,  Delphine.     [See  Girardin.] 

Gay,  John  (6.  1685,  d.  1732),  English  poet ; 
at  first  an  apprentice  to  a  London  silk-mercer; 
in  1712  became  secretary  to  the  Duchess  of 
Monmouth,  and  while  in  her  service  was 
patronised  by  Swift  and  Pope,  to  the  latter 
of  whom  he  dedicated  a  poem  on  Rural 
Sports.  In  these  years  (1712-14)  he  also 
wrote  The  Shepherd's  Walk  and  Trivia. 
His  first  efforts  at  dramatic  writing  were 
not  successful,  but  the  Captives,  produced  in 
1724,  led  to  his  being  asked  to  write  his 
Fables  for  the  instruction  of  the  young 
Duke  of  Cumberland.  His  most  successful 
work  was  the  Beggar's  Opera,  played  at 
Covent  Garden  in  r727.  PolUj,  the  sequel, 
was  prohibited  by  the  Lord  Chamberlain,  but 
was  profitable  to  the  author,  who,  however, 
in  vain  tried  to  obtain  the  post  of  poet- 
laureate. 

Gay-Lussac,  Joseph  Louis  {b.  1778,  d. 
1850),  French  chemist  and  natural  philo- 
sopher; befriended  by  Berthollet;  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique  and  of  physics  at  the  Sorbonue ; 
made  improvements  in  barometric,  ther- 
mometric,  and  hygrometric  instruments ; 
and  by  his  balloon  ascents  of  1804,  when  he 
ascended  to  the  height  of  more  than  four 
imles,_  ascertained  valuable  facts  as,'  to  the 
electricity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  in- 
fluence _  of  terrestrial  magnetism  in  the 
upper  air. 

Gaydngos  y  Arce,  Pascual  de  {b.  1809), 
Spanish  Orientalist  and  historian,  sent  at  an 
early  age  to  France,  where  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Baron  de  Sacy  ;  came  to  England,- 
married  and  returned  to  Spain,  where  he 
was  made  interpreter  to  the  foreign  office. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Carlist  war  he  came 
again  to  England,  and  lived  in  London  till 
1843,  whence  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  oriental  languages 
at  Madrid.  In  1881  he  became  director  of 
public  instruction,  but  soon  after  returned 
to  England.  He  classified  the  Spanish 
MSS.    at  the   British  Museum;    translated 


into  English  the  History  of  the  Mohammedan 
Dynasties,  by  Almakkari;  and  contributed 
several  papers  to  Spanish  societies  on  the 
history  of  Mohammedan  Spain. 

Gayot  de  Pitaval,  Franqois  {b.  1673,  d. 
1743),  French  jurist,  author  of  Causes 
Celebres,  published  during  the  years  1734-43. 

Gayton,  Edmund  {b.  1609,  d.  1066), 
English  humorist ;  author  of  Pleasant  Notes 
on  Bun  Quixote  (1645),  and  the  Art  of 
Longevity  (1659). 

_  Gaza,  Theodore  {b.  1398,  d.  1478),  Byzan- 
tine scholar  and  reviver  of  Greek  literature ; 
after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks,  went  to  Italy  and  studied  Latin ; 
was  invited  to  Rome  by  Pope  Nicholas  V., 
in  order  to  translate  Greek  authors  into 
Latin,  having  previously  been  patronised  by 
the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  His  chief  work  was  a 
Greek  grammar,  praised  by  Scaliger  ;  it  was 
printed  in  1495  by  Aldus. 

Gazet,  Guillaume  {b.  1554,  d.  1611), 
French  ecclesiastical  historian ;  author  of  a 
Histoire  des  Saintes. 

Geach,  Charles  {b.  1808,  d.  1854),  English 
banker;  at  first  a  clerk  in  the  Bank  of 
England,  afterwards  chairman  of  the  Mid- 
laud  banking  company ;  entered  Parliament 
in  1851 ;  was  connected  with  many  manu- 
facturing establishments,  and  became  a 
managing  director  of  the  Crystal  Palace 
when  transferred  to  Sydenham.  He  also 
engaged  largely  in  English  and  foreign 
railway  enterprise. 

Gebeliu.     [See  Court.] 

Geber  or  Yeber  (d.  circa  675),  Arabian 
chemist,  many  of  whose  MSS.  are  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Imperiale  at  Paris. 

Gebhard  (*.  1547,  d.  1611),  Archbishop 
and  Elector  of  Cologne ;  having  become  a 
Protestant  and  married  Agnes  de  Mansfeld, 
was  excommunicated  and  deposed,  and 
came  to  England,  where  he  had  some  help 
from  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Gebbardl,  Johann  Ludwig  {b.  1699,  d. 
1764),  German  historian;  author  of  Der 
EuropcLischen  Kaiser  und Koniglichen  Hauser 
Historischen  und  Genealogische  Erlaiiterung, 
and  other  works. 

Ged,  William  {d.  1749),  Scottish  goldsmith, 
the  real  inventor  of  stereotype,  the  invention 
being  improved  by  M.  F.  Didot. 

Gedaliah  {d.  588  b.c),  Jewish  prince; 
made  governor  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and  slain  by  Ishmael. 

Geddes,  Alexander  (Jb.  1737,  d.  1802), 
Romanist  priest .  undertook  a  translation  of 
the  Bible  for  the  ose  of  his  co-religionists. 


Ged 


(354) 


Gel 


■who,  however,  suspected  his  orthodoxy; 
afterwards  wrote  Critical  Remarks  on  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  which  he  attacked  the 
character  of  Moses. 

Geddes,  James  ib.  1710,  d.  1749),  Scottish 
scholar,  author  of  an  Essay  on  the  Compo- 
sition of  the  Ancients. 

Geddes,  Michael  {b.  1640,  d.llU),  Scottish 
ecclesiastical  historian,  chaplain  of  the  Eng- 
lish factory  at  Lisbon  till  silenced  by  the  In- 
quisition ;  succeeded  Burnett  as  chancellor  of 
Salisbury ;  author  of  History  of  the  Church 
of  Malabar,  and  History  of  the  Church  of 
Ethiopia. 

Geddes,  WQliam  Duquiel  (*.  1828),  Scottish 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Glass,  Aberdeen ; 
became  by  competition  rector  of  Aberdeen 
grammar  school  in  1853,  was  elected  in 
1855  professor  of  Greek  at  Aberdeen  uni- 
versity, of  which  he  became  principal  in 
1885.  Among  his  works  are  A  Greek  Gram- 
mar (1855),  Problem  of  the  Homeric  Poems 
(1878),  Flosculi  Graci  Borealis  (1882),  and 
with  Mr.  P.  Duquiel,  a  book  on  The  Heraldic 
Ceiling  of  Aberdeen  Cathedral. 

Gedike,  Friedrich  (b.  1745,  d.  1803),  Ger- 
man scholar,  author  of  Gedanken  uber 
Purismus  und  Sprachbereicherung,  as  well  as 
of  many  educational  works  and  editions  of 
the  classics. 

Gedoyn,  Nicolas,  Abb^  de  {b.  1667,  d. 
1744),  French  critic  and  friend  of  Ninon  de 
I'Enclos;  translated  QuintiHan,  Pausanias, 
and  other  writers. 

Geefs,  GuiUaume  {b.  1806,  d.  1860), 
Belgian  sculptor;  maker  of  the  national 
monimient  in  the  Place  des  Martyrs, 
Brussels,  to  the  victims  of  the  revolution  of 
1830 ;  exhibited  in  the  exhibition  of  1851 
Group  of  Sleeping  Children,  and  the  Lion  in 
Love,  also  carved  some  of  the  woodwork  in 
Liege  cathedral. 

Geer,  Karl,  Baron  von  (5.  1720,  d.  1778), 
Swedish  naturalist ;  left  a  valuable  natural 
history  collection  to  the  Stockholm  Academy 
of  Science,  and  wrote  Memoires pour  servir  a 
VHistoire  des  Insectes. 

GefOraxd,  Fabre  [b.  1806,  d.  1867),  Haytian 
general ;  deposed  the  emperor,  Faustin  I. 
(Soulouque),  and  became  president  of  the 
Haytian  republic  in  1858;  suppressed 
several  revolts  of  Salnave,  but  was  deposed 
and  banished  by  him  iu  1867,  when  he  fled 
to  Jamaica  and  died  there. 

Gehler,  Adolf  Ferdinand  (i.  1775,  d. 
1815),  German  mineralogist  and  chemist, 
edited  Neues  Journal  fiir  Chimie,  founded 
£epertorium  der  Pharmacie. 

Gehler,  Johann  Hart  (A.  1732,  d.  1796), 


German  naturalist  and  physician ;  author  of 
Be  Characteribus  Fossilium  Externis. 

Gehler,  Johann  Samuel  {b.  1751,  rf.  1795), 
Gennan  physicist ;  author  of  Physikalisches 
Worterbuch  (1787-95). 

Geijer,  Erik  Gustav  (6.  1783,  d.  1847), 
Swedish  historian  and  poet ;  visited  England 
in  1809;  professor  of  history  at  Upsala  in 
1817;  sat  twice  in  the  diet;  declined  a 
bishopric ;  wrote  A  Complete  History  of 
Sweden  (Srenska  folkets  Historid),  The 
Viking,  as  well  as  songs  for  Jenny  Lind, 
whose  friendship  he  enjoyed. 

Geikie,  Archibald  (b.  1835),  Scotch  geolo- 
gist ;  bom  in  Edinbiirgh,  and  educated  at 
the  High  School  and  university ;  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Societies  both  of  London  and 
Edinburgh,  and  of  many  foreign  academies, 
was  appointed  in  1855  to  the  Geological 
Survey,  and  became  in  1807  director-general 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  United 
Kingdom;  was  in  1870  first  holder  of  the 
Murchison  professorship  of  geology  and 
mineralogy  in  Edinburgh  University,  and 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the 
latter  in  1885,  and  from  St.  Andrews  in 
1872.  Among  his  works,  besides  contribu- 
tions to  geological  periodicals,  are  the  f  ollow- 
ing-.—T/ie  Story  of  a  Boulder  (1858),  The 
Phenomena  of  the  Glacial  Drift  of  Scotland 
(1863),  A  Studenfs  Manual  of  Geology,  in 
conjimction  with  J.  B.  Jukes  (1871), 
Memoir  of  Sir  Rod.  Murchison,  with  Notices 
of  his  Scientific  Contemporaries,  etc.  (1874), 
Class-book  of  Physical  Geography  (1877),  A 
Text-book  of  Geology  (1882),  A  Class-book 
of  Geology  (1886),  as  well  as  two  volumes  in 
the  Science  Primers,  and  (in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  G.  Wilson)  Life  of  Professor 
Edward  Forbes  (1861). 

Geikie,  James  (3.  1839),  Scotch  geologist, 
brother  of  preceding,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E., 
etc.,  joined  the  Geological  Siurvey  in  1861, 
and  became  district  surveyor,  which  post  he 
resigned  on  his  appointment  in  succession  to 
his  brother  as  professor  of  geology  at  Edin- 
burgh. In  1876  he  accompanied  Sir  A. 
Ramsay  to  Gibraltar  to  report  on  the  water- 
supply  of  that  place.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Scottish  Geographical 
Society,  and  was  elected  in  1890  president  of 
the  Geographical  Society.  His  chief  works 
are  The  Great  Lee  Age  and  its  Relation  to 
the  Antiquity  of  Man  (1874),  Prehistoric 
Europe  (1881),  Outlines  of  Geology  (1886), 
Songs  and  Lyrics  of  Heine  and  other  Ger- 
man Poets  (1887). 

Gelasius  I.  {d.  492),  Pope,  elected  492 ;  is 
said  to  have  held  a  coimcil  at  Borne  to 
decide  what  books  were  canonical. 

Gelasius  II.  {b.  1050,  <f.  1119),  Pope;  was 
opposed  by  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  who  set 


Gel 


(355) 


Gen 


np  Burdiu  as  Gregory  VIII.,  and  compelled 
him  to  fly  to  Clugny,  where  he  died.  He 
wrote  a  life  of  Erasmus  and  six  epistles. 

Geldenhaur,  Gerard  {b.  1480,  d.  1542), 
"  Gerard  of  Nimeguen ;  "  Dutch  theologian ; 
sent  by  Maximilian  of  Burgundy  to  Witten- 
berg ;  became  a  Protestant,  and  thereby  lost 
the  friendship  of  Erasmus. 

Gelder,  Arnold  van  {b.  1645,  d.  1727), 
Dutch  painter  of  the  school  of  Rembrandt, 
whose  pupil  he  was.  His  best  picture,  Kinff 
Solomon  on  his  Throne  surrounded  by  his 
Court,  is  at  Dort. 

Gel^e,  Claude     \_See  Lorraine.] 

Gelimer.last  king  of  the  Vandals  (flourished 
6th  century) ;  conquered  by  Belisarius,  and 
came  to  Rome ;  was  given  by  Justinian  a 
home  in  Gulatia,  where  he  died. 

GeU,  Sir  WiUiam  (6.  1777,  d.  1836), 
English  archaeologist ;  accompanied  Queen 
Caroline  to  Italy  as  her  chamberlain,  and 
settled  there ;  gave  an  account  of  his  dis- 
coveries in  Fompeiana,  Topographia  Tro- 
jana,  and  Topographia  Grceca. 

Gellert,  Christian  Fiirchtegott  (b.  1715,  d. 
1769),  German  poet;  author  of  Fables,  Die 
Schwedisehe  Grdfin,  and  Lieder.  His  brother 
Christian  Ehregott  {d.  1795)  wrote  a  book 
on  the  Frinciples  of  Metallurgical  Chemis- 
try. 

Gem,  Giovanni  Battista  (b.  1498,  d.  1563), 
Italian  writer ;  son  of  a  tailor,  which  occu- 
pation he  himself  pursued;  gave  a  course 
of  lectures  explanatory  of  the  Divina  Coin- 
tnedia  at  Florence,  whose  academy  he 
founded,  and  became  first  president  of. 
His  best  works  were  I  Capricci  del  Bottaja, 
and  La  Circe. 

Gellibrand,  Henry  {b.  1597,  d.  1636), 
English  clergyman  ;  devoted  his  time  rather 
to  mathematics  than  to  his  profession ; 
became  professor  of  astronomy  in  Gresham 
college,  and  continued  Briggs's  Trigono- 
metria  Britannica. 

Gellius,  Aulus,  Latin  author  of  the  2nd 
century  ;  wrote  Nodes  Atticce,  composed  at 
Athens,  and  containing  fragments  of  many 
works  now  lost. 

Gelon  or  Gelo  {d.  478  b.c),  tyrant  of 
Syracuse ;  served  in  the  guard  of  Hippo- 
crates of  Gela,  whose  children  he  dis- 
possessed, and  seized  power  for  himself; 
repulsed  Carthaginian  invasion  of  Sicily. 

Gemelli-Carreri  (b.  1651),  Italian  travel- 
ler ;  made  a  voyage  roimd  the  world,  which 
he  described  on  his  return  in  Giro  del 
Mondo. 


Geminiani,  Francesco  {b. 
x2 


1680,  d.  1762), 


violinist  and  composer,  pupil  of  Corelli; 
came  to  England  in  1714,  and  settled  there, 
receiving  the  patronage  of  George  I.  and  of 
Walpole,  who  saved  him  from  ruin  caused 
by  his  extravagance  in  buying  pictures ; 
author  of  Dizionario  Armonico,  and  Art  of 
Flaying  on  the  Violin  (1740),  the  latter  being 
the  first  work  ever  published  on  the  subject, 
besides  several  sonatas  and  concertos.  He 
died  at  Dublin. 

Geminiani,  Giacinto  or  Gemignano  {b. 
1611,  d.  1681),  Italian  painter,  pupil  of 
Ponssin  ;  painted  some  of  the  subjects  from 
the  life  of  Constantine  in  the  baptistery  of 
St.  John  Lateran. 

Gemistius,  Georgius,  called  "Pletho" 
{b.  13W,  d.  1491),  Byzantine  writer;  de- 
fended the  Greek  Church  against  the  Latin, 
and  attended  the  council  of  Florence  in 
order  to  reconcile  them;  founded  a  Pla- 
tonic school  at  Florence,  and  wrote  many 
works,  of  which  I)e  Gestis  Gracorum  (in 
Greek)  is  the  chief. 

Gemma,  Frisius  (J.  1508,  d.  1555),  Dutch 
mathematician ;  favourite  of  Charles  V. ; 
wrote  Methodus  Arithmeticce  (1540). 

Gempak,  Sougita,  Japanese  physician  of 
the  18th  century;  learnt  Dutch,  and  in- 
troduced many  European  discoveries  in 
China  and  Japan, 

Gence,  Jean  Baptiste  (5.  1755,  d.  1840), 
French  scholar ;  edited  The  Imitaiio  Christt, 
of  which  he  maintained  that  Gerson  and 
not  a  Kempis  was  the  author.  He  devoted 
thirty  years  to  his  researches  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

Genebrard,  GUbert  (fi.  1537,  d.  1597), 
French  divine ;  Archbishop  of  Aix ;  author 
of  De  Sacrarum  Flectionum  Jure,  for  which 
he  was  banished — the  object  of  the  book 
having  been  to  support  appointment  of 
bishops  by  clergy  and  people  and  not  by 
royal  nomination. 

Genest,  Charles  Claude  (i.  1639,  d.  1719), 
French  verse-writer ;  made  a  poet  by  fashion 
rather  than  merit ;  author  of  Frincipes  de 
Fhilosophie. 

Genet,  Francois  (*.  1640,  <^.  1707),  French 
divine ;  Bishop  of  Vaison ;  incurred  royal 
displeasure  by  befriending  the  Jansenists ; 
drowned  while  crossing  a  torrent.  He 
wrote  TJieologie  Morale,  ou  Solution  des  Cas 
de  Conscience. 

G^nevi6ve,  St.  {d.  512),  patron  saint  of 
Paris  ;  said  to  have  predicted  the  invasion  of 
the  barbarians;  encouraged  the  people  to 
resist  Attila.  In  1^52  the  first  church  was 
dedicated  to  her  in  Paris. 

Genga,  GLrolamo  {b.  1476,  d.  1551),  Italian 


Gren 


(366) 


Gen 


painter  and  architect ;  pupil  of  Perugino ; 
painted  scenery  for  the  theatre  of  Urbino, 
and  did  much  work  at  Kome  and  Florence, 
at  which  latter  place  there  is  an  altar-piece 
by  liim  in  St.  Catherine's  Church.  His  son, 
Bartolomeo  (d.  1558),  completed  some  of  his 
works,  and  designed  fortifications  for  the 
knights  of  St.  John  at  Malta. 

Gengis  Khan  (*.  1162,  d.  1227),  Emperor  of 
the  Mongols,  whose  real  name  was  Temout- 
chin,  the  title  meaning  "the  chief  of  the 
most  powerful."  Havmg  consolidated  the 
Tatar  tribes,  he  marched  against  the 
Emperor  of  China,  whose  general  he  was, 
overran  his  empire  (1212-1214),  ravaged 
northern  India,  which  he  temporarily  sub- 
dued, and  penetrated  into  Russia  through 
Persia.  Having  reached  the  Crimea, 
sacked  numerous  towns,  and  slaughtered 
millions  of  men,  the  Tatars  returned  and 
Gengis  died. 

Genlis,  Stephanie  F^licit^,  Comtesse  de, 
(*.  1746,  d.  1830),  French  writer;  daughter 
of  the  Marquis  de  St.  Aubin ;  married 
Comte  de  Genlis  when  very  young ;  edu- 
cated herself  after  marriage,  and  taught 
the  children  of  the  Due  de  Chartres, 
including  Louis  Philippe,  writing  mean- 
while several  educational  works.  In  1790 
she  accompanied  the  Princess  Adelaide  to 
England,  and  afterwards  went  with  her 
royal  pupils  to  Switzerland.  She  dissuaded 
Louis  Philippe  from  accepting  the  crown, 
thinking  him  unfit  for  the  throne.  In  1800, 
after  travelling  through  Europe  and  being 
expelled  from  Russia,  she  returned  to 
France,  and  was  well  received  by  Napoleon, 
but  never  gained  the  favom-of  Louis  XVIII. 
Her  chief  works  were  Za  Religion  Con- 
sidere  comme  V  Unique  Base  de  Bonheur,  a 
book  ridiculed  by  Buffon,  Zes  Meres  Rivales, 
Mademoiselle  de  Clermont,  and  Dictionnnire 
des  Etiquettes  de  la  Cour,  and  other 
romances. 

Genuadius,  Georgius  Scholarius  {b.  1400, 
d.  1460),  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  ;  as  a 
layman  accompanied  the  Emperor  John 
Palaeologus  to  the  Council  of  Ferrara,  and 
delivered  three  orations  in  favour  of  union 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  but 
afterwards  advocated  the  contrary  views. 
He  was  elected  patriarch  after  the  capture 
of  Constantinople,  by  the  express  wish  of  the 
sultan,  and  delivered  before  him  an  apology 
for  the  Christian  faith.  He  retired  from 
the  patriarchate  two  or  three  years  before 
his  death.  He  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
Gennadius,  another  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  died  in  471. 

Gennari,  Benedetto  "the  Elder"  {b. 
1550,  d.  IGIO),  Italian  painter;  thought  the 
best  of  his  time ;  his  finest  picture  is  Bapthne 
d''un  Roi  par  St.  Amien,  in  the  church  of 
San  Giovanni,  Bologna. 


Gennari, Benedetto,  "the  Younger"  (i. 
1633,  d.  1715),  Italian  painter;  grandson  of 
the  preceding,  and,  like  him,  a  native  of 
Bologna,  nephew  and  pupil  of  Guercino, 
whose  style  he  followed ;  vras  employed  in 
Paris  by  Louis  XTV.,  and  in  London  by 
Charles  II.  and  James  11.  His  pictures 
were  chiefly  portraits,  and  he  inixoduced 
the  Flemish  style  into  Italy. 

Gennari,  Cesare  (fi.  1641,  d.  1688), 
Bolognese  painter ;  brother  of  preceding ; 
exceUed  chiefly  in  landscape  and  historical 
painting.  The  father  of  Cesare  and  hia 
brother  Ercole  (d.  1658)  was  also  a  painter, 
and  married  Guercino's  sister. 

Gennaro,  Giuseppe  (6.  1701,  d.  1761), 
Italian  jurist ;  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  wrote  Republica  Juris  Consultorum,  tak- 
ing  part   also   in  many  legal  reforms  at 

Naples. 

Gennete,  Claude  Leopold  {b.  1706,  d. 
1782),  French  physicist,  author  of  Construe-' 
tion  des  Cheminees,  a,nd  Fur%/ication  de  l' Air. 

Genovesi,  Antonio  {b.  1712,  d.  1769), 
Italian  philosopher;  professor  of  meta- 
physics and  political  economy  at  Naples; 
persecuted  for  his  adherence  to  the  doctrines 
of  Newton,  but  protected  by  Archbishop 
Galliani.  His  chief  work  is  Eletnetitorum 
Artis  Zogico-CriticcB. 

Genseric,  {b.  406,  d.  477),  King  of  the 
Vandals,  reigned  at  first  with  his  brother 
Gonderic,  afterwards  alone,  and  greatly 
strengthened  the  Vandal  power  in  Spain. 
In  429  he  invaded  northern  Africa,  stamped 
out  Christianity,  and  from  his  new  capital, 
Carthage,  made  incursions  on  the  inhabitants 
of  Italy  and  Sicily.  In  455,  being  invited  to 
Rome  by  the  widow  of  Valentinian  to  take 
part  against  liis  murderer  Maximus,  he  caused 
the  city  to  be  sacked  for  fourteen  days,  and 
carried  away  among  his  prisoners  tlie 
Empress  Eudocia  and  her  sons,  besides 
much  treasure.  Genseric  professed  to  be  an 
Arian  Christian. 

Gensonn^,  Armand  (b.  1758,  d.  1793), 
French  politician ;  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of 
the  Girondists;  tried  to  save  Louis  XVI., 
opposed  the  excesses  of  the  Jacobins,  but 
was  overcome  by  them,  and  guillotined  in 
the  October  following  the  fatal  10th 
August. 

Gen-sy6-ten-w6  {b.  679,  d.  748),  Empress 
of  Japan ;  encouraged  the  study  of  ancient 
Chinese,  and  formed  a  collection  of  laws, 
abdicated  after  a  reign  of  nine  years,  during 
which  appeared  Nippon-Ki,  the  history  of 
Japan  from  the  Creation. 

Gent,  Thomas  (b.  1691,  d.  1778),  English 
antiquary  ;  author  of  a  History  of  York,  a 
HxHtory  of  Hull,  and  an  Autobiography. 


Gen 


(357) 


Geo 


Gentil,  Jean  Baptiste  (i.  1726,  d.  1799), 
French  officer,  who  served  against  the 
English  in  India,  and  when  the  French 
were  driven  from  the  Camatic  assisted  the 
native  princes  against  them.  Being  ohliged 
to  leave  India,  he  returned  to  France,  where 
he  died  miserably,  having  lost  his  pension. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  India. 

GentilescM.     [See  Lomi.] 

Gentili,  Gentile  {d.  1348),  Italian  phy- 
sician ;  known  as  "  the  Speculator ;  "  author 
of  iJe  Febrihus. 

GentUis,  Alhericus  {b.  1551,  d.  1611), 
Italian  jurist ;  came  to  England,  and,  heing  a 
Protestant,  was  made  professor  of  civil  law 
at  Oxford  in  1587  ;  wrote  I)e  Juris  Inter - 
pretibus  Dialogi.  His  brother,  Scipione  {d. 
1616),  published  Annotations  on  'lasso,  and 
his  son,  Eoberto  {b.  1590),  translated  Sarpi's 
History  of  the  Inquisition. 

Gentilis,  Giovanni  (6.  1520,  d.  1566).  Nea- 
politan heretic ;  became  3  Socinian,  and  went 
to  Geneva,  where  he  was  beheaded  for  hav- 
ing attacked  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and 
having  left  the  city  without  leave. 

Gentleman,  Francis  {b.  1728,  d.  1784), 
Irish  dramatic  writer,  published  the  Dra- 
matic Censor,  vrrote  Royal  Fables,  and  ap- 
peared as  an  actor. 

Gentz,  Friedrich  von  {b.  1764,  d.  1832), 
German  publicist ;  drew  up  the  manifesto 
issued  by  Austria  against  Napoleon,  and  was 
author  of  several  documents  of  a  similar 
nature :  was  previously  a  short  time  in  Eng- 
land, where  he  saw  Pitt.  At  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  he  acted  as  secretary,  as  also  at 
Paris  in  1815,  and  at  those  which  followed 
the  restoration.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  several  articles  for  the 
Journal  Historique.  A  selection  from  his 
works  was  published  in  1838. 

Geoffrey,  Marie  Therese  {b.  1699,  d.  1777), 
French  lady  of  humble  birth,  who,  having 
married  a  rich  man,  was  able  to  receive  in 
her  salon  the  most  distinguished  French- 
men and  foreigners  of  her  time,  including 
the  Encyclopaedists,  Hume,  Horace  Walpole, 
etc. 

GeoflTrey  I.  {d.  987),  Count  of  Anjou;  a 
great  warrior  and  legendary  hero  ("  Grise 
Gonelle"). 

Geoffrey  II.,  "Martel"  (*.  1007,  d.  1060), 
succeeded  Fulk  III.  ;  received  Tours  from 
Henri  I.  of  France  as  a  reward  for  his  ser- 
vices :  founded  the  Abbey  of  Trii  ite  de 
Vendome  and  became  a  monk,  to  whose 
tomb  annual  processions  were  made  by  the 
canons  of  St.  Laud. 


1109),  nephew  of  the  last;  dispossessed  his 
elder  brother  of  Touraiae. 

Geoffrey  IV.,  "  Plautagenet "  (6.  1113,  rf. 
1 150),  mai-ried  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I. 
of  England,  and  widow  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.,  and  founder  of  the  Plantagenet 
line.  In  1147  he  followed  Louis  VII.  on  a 
crusade,  and  died  soon  after  his  return.  Pre- 
viously he  had  been  chieiiy  engaged  in  try- 
ing to  get  possession  of  Normandy,  an 
object  which  he  attained  after  the  capture 
of  Stephen  at  Lincoln. 

Geoffrey  I.  (d.  1008),  son  of  Conan,  Count 
of  Rennes ;  became  first  Duke  of  Brittany. 

Geoffrey  II.  (*.  1158,  d.  1186),  Duke  of 
Brittauy ;  third  son  of  Henry  II.  of  England ; 
obtained  title  by  marriage  wdth  daughter 
of  Conan  IV.  ;  allied  himself  with  Philip 
Augustus  against  his  father  on  several  occa- 
sions ;  was  killed  through  injuries  received 
at  a  tournament.  His  son,  Arthur,  was 
bom  after  his  death. 

Geoffrey  Gaimar,  Anglo-Norman  poet  of 
the  12th  century;  author  of  L^Esoterie  des 
Engles. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (b.  circa  1100,  d. 
1154),  British  chronicler.  Bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  ;  translated  the  prophecies  of  Merlin, 
and  wrote  Mistoria  Britonum,  in  which 
the  former  were  inserted. 

Geoffrey  of  Vend6me  (d.  1132),  French 
statesman  and  cardinal;  friend  of  Popes 
Urban  II.  and  Paschal  II.,  the  latter  of 
whom  he  rebuked  for  yielding  to  the  Em- 
peror Henry  V.  on  the  Investiture  question. 
His  works  were  printed  in  1610. 

Geoffrey,  Claude  Joseph  {b.  1685,^.1752), 
French  chemist ;  made  many  experiments, 
and  drew  up  the  first  table  of  chemical 
affinities. 

Geoffroy,  Etienne  Fran9ois,  "the  Elder" 
{b.  1672,  d.  1731),  brother  of  preceding, 
French  physician,  whose  chief  work,  Traite 
de  la  Matiere  Medicate,  was  translated  into 
English,  German,  and  Italian. 

Geoffroy,  Etienne  Louis  [h.  1725,  d.  1810), 
French  zoologist;  son  of  preceding;  wrote 
two  importaut  works,  Histoire  Abreyee  des 
Insectes  des  Environs  de  Paris,  and  Disserta- 
tions sur  VOrgane  de  VOme  de  V Homme,  de» 
Reptiles,  et  des  Poissons. 

Geoffroy,  Julien  Louis  (h.  1743,  d.  1814), 
French  critic ;  educated  as  a  Jesuit ;  on  tiie 
dissolution  of  the  onlor  became  a  tutor,  and 
afterwards  a  journalist,  contributing  dra- 
matic articles  to  the  Journal  des  Debats ; 
also  published  L'' Ami  du  Roi  and  L^Annee 
Litteraire. 


Geoffrey  IIL,  "Le  Rechin"  (J.  1043,  d.  \      Geoffroy  de  Vinsant,  English  writer  ol 


Geo 


(358) 


Geo 


Latiu  poems,  of  the  12tl»  century;  author  of 
2(bra  roetria. 

GeoflEroy  Saint  HUaire,  fitienne  {b.  1772,  d. 
1814),  French  naturalist ;  rescued  his  friend, 
tlie  mineralogist.  Abbe  Haiiy,  from  prison 
in  1 792 ;  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
zoology  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  in  1793, 
where  he  made  acquaintance  with  Cuvier, 
and  brought  together  a  large  collection ; 
accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  and 
placed  in  the  Paris  museum  the  results  of 
the  expedition  ;  made  collections  from  Spain 
and  Portugal  by  plunder  of  museums  and 
libraries.  Having  afterwards  become  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  to  the  Faculte  des  Sciences, 
he  gave  his  attention  to  philosophic  ana- 
tomy, and  carried  on  a  controversy  with 
Cuvier,  who  denied  his  doctrine  of  the 
mutability  of  species.  In  1840  Saiut  Hilaire 
became  blind.  His  chief  works  are  Phi- 
loMphie  Anatoinique  (1818-20)  and  Sur 
V  Unite  de  Composition  Organiqtte  (1828). 

Geoffroy  Saint  Hilaire,  Isidore  i.b.  1805, 
d.  1861),  French  naturalist;  son  of  Etienne; 
was  at  first  assistant  to  his  father,  and  after- 
wards succeeded  hirn  as  professor  at  the 
Sorboune  and  the  Musee.  He  took  the  place 
of  BlainviUe  at  the  Academic  des  Sciences, 
and  was  active  in  the  foundation  of  the 
Societe  d'Acclimatation.  His  chief  works 
are  Histoire  Natmelle  Generale  et  Particu- 
hire  des  Anomalies  de  POrffanisation,  and 
Histoire  Naturelle  Generale  des  Eegnes  Or- 
ganiques. 

George,  Duke  of  Clarence.  \_See  Cla- 
rence.] 

George,  Duke  of  York.     [See  York.] 

George,  Henry  (6.  1839),  American  land 
reformer;  was  bom  at  Philadelphia,  and, 
after  being  successively  in  a  countiug-hou.se 
and  a  printer's  office  and  at  sea,  settled  in 
California,  and  in  1866  joined  the  staff  of  a 
San  Francisco  paper.  He  afterwards  be- 
came editor  of  two  papers  there,  and  made 
his  first  essay  on  the  land  question  in  Our 
Land  and  Land  Policy,  published  in  1871. 
In  1876  he  was  state-inspector  of  gas- 
meters,  but  in  1880  removed  to  New  York, 
and  the  next  year  came  to  Ireland  on  his 
way  to  England.  He  was  there  arrested  as 
a  "suspect"  under  Mr.  Forster's  Act,  but 
was  soon  released.  Progress  and  Poverty 
had  been  written  in  1879,  and  its  author 
undertook  lecturing  tours  in  1883  and  1889 
in  support  of  his  principles.  Beside  this 
book  he  published  Tlie  Irish  Land  Question 
in  1881,  Social  Problems  in  1884,  and  Pro- 
tection and  Free  Trade  in.  1886,  when  he  was 
a  candidate  for  the  mayoralty  of  New 
York. 

George,  Prince  of  Denmark  (6.  1653,  d. 
1708),  married  Princess  Anne  of  England, 


and  was  appointed  on  her  accession  lord 
high  admiral ;  was  a  person  of  no  poUtical 
or  other  importance. 

George,  St.,  of  Cappadocia,  Arian 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  356  when 
St.  Athanasius  was  expelled;  a  bitter  per- 
secutor of  the  orthodox,  was  murdered 
by  a  pagan  mob  in  the  reign  of  Julian  for 
desecrating  a  temple  of  the  sun.  Some 
have  identified  him  with  St.  George  of 
England. 

George,  St.  (Jl.  circa  300),  patron  saint 
of  England;  served  as  a  soldier  iinder  Dio- 
cletian, but  having  complained  to  him  of 
the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  was  im- 
prisoned in  Nicomedia,  tortured,  and  be- 
headed. He  was  canonised  by  Pope  Gela- 
sius  in  494  ;  and  is  sujjposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Lydda,  where  a  church  was  built 
over  his  relics. 

George  Syncellus  {Jl.  9th  century),  wrote 
a  chronicle  from  Adam  to  Diocletian. 

George  of  Cyprus  {d.  1290),  appointed 
when  a  layman  by  Andronicus  Palaeologus 
to  the  see  of  Constantinople.  The  Arme- 
nians at  first  refused  to  recognise  him,  but 
afterwards  submitted. 

George  of  Trebizond  (b.  1396,  d.  1485), 
Greek  scholar ;  came  to  Rome  as  a  teacher 
in  1435,  and  was  made  secretary  to  Nicolas 
V.  some  years  later ;  translated  many  of  the 
classics,  and  did  much  towards  the  revival 
of  letters. 

George  the  Fisidian,  oriental  historian, 
of  the  7th  century  ;  wrote  a  history  of  the 
expedition  of  Heraclius  against  the  Persians 
in  622 ;  also  a  poem,  Hexcemeron. 

George  I.  (6.  1660,  d.  1727),  King  of  Eng- 
land ;  became,  in  accordance  with  the  Act  of 
Settlement,  first  of  the  Hanoverian  kings, 
having  succeeded  to  the  electorate  of  Han- 
over in  1698 ;  came  to  England  on  the 
death  of  Anne  in  1715,  but  passed  most  of 
his  time  in  Hanover;  quarrelled  with  his 
wife  and  his  eldest  son,  but  did  not  inter- 
fere with  the  conduct  of  English  affairs; 
died  on  his  way  to  Hanover. 

George  II.  (6. 1683,  d.  1760),  King  of  Eng- 
land, son  of  the  last  named ;  married  Caroline 
of  Anspachin  1705,  and  headed  opposition  to 
his  father;  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1727 ; 
quarrelled  with  his  son  Frederick,  and 
banished  him  from  the  palace ;  adopted  a 
warlike  foreign  policy,  and  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Dettingen  (1743),  but  left  the 
control  of  home  affairs  in  the  hands  of  Queen 
Caroline  and  Walpole.  His  last  years  were 
illiuninated  by  the  successes  of  Pitt's  first 
administration. 

George  in.   {p.  1738,  d.  1820),  King  of 


Geo 


(  359) 


Ger 


England,  son  of  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales, 
who  died  in  17(31 ;  took  an  active  part 
in  alTairs  until  incapacitated  by  illness. 
Having  ascended  the  throne  in  1760,  he 
married  Charlotte  of  Mecklenburg-Stre- 
litz ;  obtained  the  resignation  of  Pitt 
and  Newcastle,  and  appointed  Lord  Bute, 
who  had  been  his  governor,  minister, 
but  was  again  for  a  time  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  Whigs;  was  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  prosecution  of  Wilkes,  and 
against  any  concessions  to  the  American 
colonies ;  obtained  a  minister  to  carry  out 
his  wishes  in  Lord  North,  who  held  office 
from  1770  to  1783 ;  by  imcoustitutional  in- 
fluence obtained  the  overthrow  of  the  coali- 
tion ministry,  but  submitted  almost  entirely 
to  the  influence  of  the  younger  Pitt,  until 
he  proposed  a  measure  for  the  relief  of  the 
Eoman  Catholics.  In  1772  he  obtained  the 
passing  of  a  stringent  Act  regulating  mar- 
riages in  the  royal  family.  In  1786  his  life 
was  attempted  by  Margaret  Nicholson,  and 
in  1788  his  first  illness  withdrew  him  from 
affairs  for  several  months.  In  1800  his  life 
was  again  attempted,  and  from  the  year 
1810,  when  he  again  became  insane,  his 
reign  was  practically  at  an  end.  Although 
not  a  man  of  education,  he  became  patron 
of  the  Eoyal  Academy  when  it  was  founded 
in  1786,  and  of  the  Royal  Institution  in 
1799.  He  was  very  painstaking  in  business, 
but  narrow  in  his  views,  and  not  invariably 
scrupulous  as  to  the  methods  by  which  he 
got  rid  of  ministers  who  refused  to  act  as 
his  clerks. 

George  IV.  (6.  1762,  d.  1830),  son  of 
George  III.;  was  appointed  regent  in  1810, 
and  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1820 ;  had 
previously  been  on  bad  terms  with  his  father 
on  account  of  his  alHance  with  the  Whigs 
and  the  extravagance  and  inmiorality  of  his 
private  Ufe,  having  illegally  married  Mrs. 
Fitzherbert,  and  twice  had  ms  debts  paid  by 
the  nation.  In  1795  he  married  Caroline 
of  Brunswick,  but  separated  from  her 
the  next  year,  and  on  his  accession  refused 
to  allow  her  to  be  crowned,  and  brought  a 
charge  of  adultery  against  her.  In  1821  he 
visited  Irelaud  and  Hanover,  and  in  the 
next  year  Scotland.  In  1829  he  gave  a  re- 
luctant consent  to  the  Eoman  Catholic  Re- 
lief Bill,  to  which  he  was  really  almost  as 
much  opposed  as  his  father  had  been. 

George  V.  (*.  1819,  d.  1878),  last  king  of 
Hanover,  the  blind  son  of  Ernest  Augustus, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1851 ;  was  actively 
opposed  to  constitutional  government,  and 
obtained  the  abrogation  of  the  constitution 
of  1848.  Having  hesitated  for  some  years 
between  Austria  and  Prussia,  he  at  length 
determined  to  join  the  former,  and  his  terri- 
tory was  invaded  by  the  Prussians  and  an- 
nexed in  1866.  His  last  years  were  chiefly 
spent  at  Paris. 


George  I.,  of  Greece  Q>.  1843),  a  Danish 
prince,  brother  of  the  Princess  of  Wales; 
was  induced  by  Earl  Russell  to  become 
king  of  the  Hellenes  in  1863  ;  at  the  same 
time  the  Ionian  Islands  were  restored,  and 
a  new  constitution  of  the  most  liberal  kind 
was  promulgated,  but  has  not  worked  very 
well.  The  king  has  had  great  difficulty  in 
restraining  his  subjects  from  attacks  on  the 
Turks  to  recover  from  them  their  own 
ancient  possessions,  aud  if  it  had  not  been 
for  the  cession  of  part  of  Macedonia  and 
Epirus  in  1880  he  might  have  been  obliged 
to  abdicate. 

George  I.,    Grand  Duke  of   Russia    (6. 

1100,  d.  1156),  "Dolgorouki,"  son  of 
Wladimir  Monamaque  ;  fought  with  his  bro- 
thers for  their  portion  of  his  father's  in- 
heritance ;  made  roads  across  the  steppes, 
and  is  said  to  have  laid  the  foimdatious  of 
Moscow. 

George  II.  (6.  1190,  d.  1238)  was  defeated 
and  kiUed  in  an  invasion  of  the  Tatars,  who 
took  Moscow. 

George  IIL  (d.  1328)  reigned  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Tatars ;  was  killed  by 
Dmitri  in  revenge  for  his  father's  murder. 

Georgel,  Jean  Fran(jois  {b.  1731,  d.  1813), 
French  diplomatist;  celebrated  for  his  de- 
fence of  his  patron.  Cardinal  Rohan,  in  the 
trial  of  the  diamond  necklace  affair  (1785-6) ; 
afterwards  settled  at  Fribourg,  and  wrote 
Memoires,  which  were  published  in  1817. 

Georget,  Jean  Etienne  (6.  1795,  d.  1828), 
French  physician ;  author  of  Be  la  FoUe 
(1820),  and  Fhysiologie  du  Systhne  Nervetuc 
(1821). 

Geraldini,  Alessandro  (b.  1455,  d.  1525), 
cupbearer  to  Isabella  of  Castile;  became 
tutor  to  her  daughters,  and  used  his  influ- 
ence in  favour  of  Columbus.  He  also  went 
on  a  mission  to  England  to  reconcile  Henry 
VIII.  and  Catherine,  his  former  pupil.  He 
died  as  Bishop  of  Hispaniola  in  his  diocese. 

Geramb,  Ferdinand,  Baron  de  (6.  1772,  d. 
1848),  French  adventurer ;  served  in  several 
foreign  armies ;  became  a  Trappist  in  1812, 
and  m  1831  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
salem. He  wrote  Aspirations  aux  Plaies  de 
Notre  Seigneur  and  Voyage  de  la  Trappe  d 
Rome. 

Gerard.     \_See  Grandville.] 

Gerard,  Alexander  (b.  1728,  d.  1796), 
Scotch  writer ;  friend  of  Beattie  and  Reid ; 
author  of  Genius  and  Taste. 

Gerard,  Balthasar  (6.  1658,  d.  1684), 
Jesuit  fanatic,  who  assassinated  William  of 
Orange  at  Delft,  and  was  executed  with 
horrible  tortures.    Hia  family  was  ennobled 


G^r 


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Ger 


by  Philip   II.,  and  he  is  enrolled    among 
Romanist  martyi-s. 

Gerard,  Etienue  Maurice,  Comte  (6.  1773, 
d.  1S.32),  French  soldier  and  marshal  of 
France,  served  with  distinction  in  Napo- 
leon's campaigns,  having  tirst  come  into 
notice  by  his  conduct  as  aide-de-camp  to 
Bernadotte  in  the  iineiite  against  the  French 
ambassador  in  1798;  was  made  baron  for 
his  services  at  Wagram;  commanded  the 
rear-guard  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow ;  was 
made  count  after  the  battle  of  Bautzen,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  campaign  of  1814. 
Gerard  was  not  dismissed  by  Louis  XVIII., 
but  joined  Napoleon  on  his  escape,  and  was 
present  at  Waterloo.  He  then  lived  at 
Brussels  till  1817 ;  on  his  return  to  France 
he  entered  the  Chamber  as  a  member  of  the 
Opposition,  and  waspromiuent  in  the  revo- 
lution of  1830 ;  Louis  Philippe  made  him 
war-minister,  and  at  the  same  time  mare- 
chal  de  France.  After  commanding  at  the 
siege  of  Antwerp  in  1832,  he  became  war 
minister  again  in  1834,  but  soon  resigned. 
In  1842  he  became  jrand  chancellor  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  a  senator  in  1852,  but 
took  little  part  in  public  affairs  after  1848. 

Gerard,  Fran9ois  Pascal  (6. 1770,  d.  1837), 
French  painter ;  painted  about  three  hundred 
portraits,  including  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
and  the  other  allied  leaders  who  were  at 
Paris  after  Waterloo,  as  well  as  several 
royal  personages,  but  his  most  celebrated 
pictures  are  La  Bataille  d^ Austerlitz  in  the 
Tuileries,  and  Entree  de  Henri  IV.  d  Paris, 
executed  for  Louis  XVIII. 

G^raxd,  Jules  (*.  1817,  d.  1864),  French 
soldier,  known  as  "the  Lion  Killer,"  be- 
cause he  went  to  the  province  of  Constan- 
tiae  to  kill  lions.  He  wrote  an  account  of 
his  exploits. 

Gerard,  Louis  {b.  1733,  d.  1819),  French 
botanist,  author  of  Flora  Gallo-ProviticiaUs. 

Gerard,  Philippe  Louis  (*.  1737,  d.  1813), 
French  writer,  author  of  Theorie  du  Bon- 
heur  and  Lemons  d^Histoire. 

Gerard  Thom,  Tenque,  or  Tunc  (b.  1040, 
d.  1121),  founder  and  first  grand  master  of 
the  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  after- 
wards known  as  Knights  of  Rhodes  and  of 
Malta. 

Gerard  de  Cremona  (*.  1114,  d.  1187), 
Italian  translator  of  Arab  writers ;  trans- 
lated into  Latin  Rasis,  Aviceona  and  Al- 
mansor. 

Gerard  de  Nerval     [See  Labrunie.] 

Gerard  of  Sabbionetta,  probably  the  same 
as  Gerard  of  Cremona. 

Gerarde,  John  {b.  1545,  d,  1607),  English 


botanist :  gardener  to  Lord  Burghley  ;  also 
practised  as  a  surgeon  in  London,  and  vnrote 
a  Herbal,  or  General  History  of  Plants. 

Geraud,  Pierre  Hercule  {b.  1812,  d.  1844), 
French  archaeologist ;  author  of  Paris  sous 
Philippe  Ic  Bel,  for  which  he  received  a 
medal  from  the  Acadc^mie  de  Belles  Lettres. 
He  was  also  employed  in  collecting  unpub- 
lished documents  about  the  Albigenses,  and 
published  an  account  of  the  discoveries  of 
a  society  for  the  exploration  of  the  ruins  of 
Carthage. 

Gerbais,  Jean  {b.  1629,  d.  1699),  French 
theologian ;  author  of  Ordinationes  Universi 
Cleri  Oallicnm. 

Gerber,  Ernst  Ludwig  (6.  1746,  d.  1819), 
German  organist  and  musical  writer,  wrote 
Neues Historisch- Biog raphisches  Lexicon  der 
Tonkitnstler,  upon  which  he  was  engaged  for 
fifteen  years. 

Gerberon,  Gabriel  {b.  1628,  d.  1711), 
French  Bendictine ;  was  imprisoned  for 
upholding  the  doctrines  of  Jansenius,  but 
released  after  a  verbal  retractation  in  1710. 

Gerbert.     [See  Sylvester  II.] 

Gerbert,  Martin,  Baron  de  Homan  (6. 
1720,  d.  1793),  German  prelate,  published  a 
collection  of  MSS.  of  church  music  in 
Italian,  French,  and  German,  under  the  title 
of  Scriptores  Ecclesiastici  de  Musicd  Sacra, 
as  well  as  a  work  called  De  Cantu  et  Musicd 
Sacra  a  Primd  Ecclesice  JEtate  usque  ad 
prcBsens  Tempus. 

Gerbier,  Sir  Balthasar  {b.  1592,  d.  1667), 
Flemish  painter  and  architect ;  introduced 
by  Buckingham  to  Charles  I. ,  who  employed 
him  diplomatically  in  Flanders,  where  he 
met  and  treated  writh  Rubens.  After  going 
to  Surinam  in  order  to  found  a  new  colony, 
he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Europe,  and, 
settling  in  England,  was  employed  under 
Charles  II.  aa  an  architect. 

Gerbillon,  Jean  Francois  (J.  1634,  d. 
1707),  Jesuit  missionary  ;  obtaiaed  the  fa- 
vour of  the  emperor  of  China,  and  assisted 
Gaubil  in  his  efforts  to  teach  Christianity. 

Gerdil,  Giacinto  (b.  1718,  d.  1802),  Roman 
cardinal  and  philosophical  writer:  author  of 
A  Treatise  on  the  Immateriality  of  the  Soul, 
and  of  the  Nature  and  Origin  of  Ideas,  both 
of  which  were  directed  against  Locke. 

Gerhardt,  Karl  Friedrich  (6,  1816,  d. 
1856),  German  chemist;  some  time  professor 
at  Montpellier,  having  studied  under  Liebig; 
returned  to  Paris,  and  wrote  Tratte  de 
Chimie  Organiqus. 

Gerhardt,  Paul  (6. 1607,  d.  1676),  German 
theological  poet,  his  works  being  embodied 
in  Die  Gesdnge  Paul  Gerhardts,  some    of 


G6r 


(361) 


Ger 


which    have    been   translated  in  the   Zr/ra 
Germanica  of  Miss  Wiukworth. 

Gericault,  Jean  Louis  (6.  1790,  d.  1824), 
French  painter,  his  chief  picture  being  The 
Shipurcck  of  the  Medusa  in  the  Louvre. 

Gering,  Udalricus  (rf.  1510),  German  prin- 
ter, invited  by  Louis  XL  in  1470  to  set  up  a 
press  in  Paris  at  the  Sorbonne,  to  whom  be 
left  considerable  property ;  printed  Corpus 
Juris  Canonici. 

Gerle,  Christophe  Antoine  Dom  Gerle  (6. 
1748,  d.  circa  1803),  French  ecclesiastic; 
prominent  in  the  revolution ;  member  of  the 
States-General  in  1789,  and  a  leader  in  the 
"  se)-ment  du  Jeu  de  Faunie,'"  afterwards 
notorious  as  a  supporter  of  Catherine  Theot ; 
was  employed  under  the  Empire  as  a  clerk 
in  the  ministry  of  the  interior. 

Germain,  Antoine-Henri  Marie  {b.  1824), 
French  politician  and  financier ;  aided  in 
founding  and  became  chairman  of  the  Credit 
Lyonnais ;  entered  the  Chamber  in  1869,  and 
was  again  elected  in  1871.  As  member  of 
the  National  Assembly  he  acted  with  the 
"  left  centre,"  made  several  important 
speeches  on  the  budgets,  and  opposed  the 
later  financial  policy  of  the  repubhc. 

Germain,  Charles  Antoine  {d.  1835),  French 
poUtician  and  historian ;  was  arrested  as  a 
partisan  of  Gracchus  Baboeuf  in  1796,  and 
condemned  to  exile ;  published  after  his 
return  Pastes  Giviles  de  la  France. 

Germain,  St.  (6.  496,  d.  576),  Bishop  of 
Paris ;  attended  the  third  councU  there ; 
excommunicated  Charibert  for  incest. 

Germain,  Sophie  (*.  1776,  d.  1831),  French 
mathematician ;  pupil  of  Lagrange  and 
correspondent  of  Gauss  ;  in  1815  gained  the 
prize  given  by  the  Institute  for  the  discovery 
of  the  law  of  vibration  of  elastic  surfaces. 

Germaine,  Lord  George.  \See  Sack- 
ville.] 

GermanicuB,  Caesar  {h.  b.c.  16,  d.  a.d.  19), 
Roman  general ;  grandson  of  Augustus ; 
refused  to  accept  the  empire  from  his 
soldiers ;  commanded  the  troops  of  the 
empire  in  Germany,  and  defeated  Hermann; 
afterwards  had  an  imperium  in  the  East; 
probably  poisoned  by  his  uncle,  the  Emperor 
Tiberius,  who  was  jealous  of  his  fame. 

GermanuB  {h.  380,  d.  448),  Bishop  of 
Auxerre  ;  was  sent  by  Pope  Celestine  to 
suppress  the  Pelagian  heresy  in  Britain, 
where  he  established  schools. 

GermanuB,  "the  Patrician"  {d.  550), 
Byzantine  general ;  defeated  the  Slavonic 
invaders  of  Thrace,  and  put  down  Tzotzas 
in  Africa ;  was  disgraced  because  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Antioch  by  Chosroes,  King  of  Persia, 


against  whom  he  held  the  command ;  died 
ten  years  after  on  his  way  to  Eiu'ope, 
whither  he  had  been  summoned  to  repel  the 
Gothic  invasion  of  Italy. 

Germanus  I.,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
{d.  740),  took  part  in  the  elevation  of  Leo 
the  Isaurian  to  the  Eastern  empire,  but  sub- 
sequently disagreed  with  his  iconoclastic 
opinions,  and  was  deposed  ;  was  canonised 
by  both  Latin  and  Greek  churches  after  his 
death. 

Germanus  H.,  "  the  Younger  "  (rf.  1256), 
elected  patriarch,  but  obliged  to  live  at 
Nice,  in  Bithynia,  because  Constantinople 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Latins.  He  en- 
deavoured to  re-unite  the  churches,  but 
failed,  and  afterwards  wrote  a  tract  against 
the  Latins.  He  also  wrote  an  Exposition  of 
the  Greek  Liturgy. 

Germanus  III.,  elected  patriarch  in  1267 
by  the  influence  of  Michael  Palseologus,  but 
soon  retired  into  a  monastery ;  attended 
the  council  of  Lyons  in  1277,  when  a  tem- 
porary reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches  was  agreed  upon. 

G^rdme,  Jean  Lton  {b.  1824),  French 
painter  ;  membre  de  I'Acadi'mie  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  and  honorary  R.A. ;  born  at  Vesoul, 
where  his  early  years  were  spent ;  went  to 
Paris  in  1841,  and  studied  under  Paul  Dela- 
roche  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux -Arts.  After 
a  journey  to  Italy  in  company  with  his 
master,  he  returned  to  France,  and  exhibited 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Salon  of  1857,  after 
which  he  visited  Turkey  and  Egypt  in  pur- 
suit of  subjects  for  his  paintings.  In  1863  he 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  ficole  des 
Beaux- Arts ;  in  1869  he  received  the  order 
of  the  Red  Eagle  ;  and  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1878. 
Among  his  pictures  are  the  following : — 
The  Irieze  of  the  vase  commemorative  of 
the  London  exhibition  of  1851 ;  The  Age  of 
Atigustiis  and  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ, 
The  Flagne  at  Marseilles,  Rex  Tibicen  ; 
Ccesar  and  Cleopatra,  The  Slave  Market  of 
Cairo,  and  many  other  pictures  of  Eastern 
scenes. 

Geronimi,  Felice  {b.  1792,  d.  1859),  Italian 
physician  ;  author  of  several  works  on  the 
theory  of  medicine,  among  which  are  Onto- 
logismo  Doininatore  delta  Medicina,  and 
Saggio  di  Filosojia  delta  Storia  Medica. 

Gerritsy,  Dirck,  traveller  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury), explored  the  coasts  of  China,  and 
gained  the  name  of  "  China "  in  conse- 
quence ;  discovered  South  Shetland  in  1598  ; 
was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Chili,  imprisoned 
by  the  Spaniards  next  year,  and  died  soon 
after. 

Gersdorf,   Johann    de,  German   surgeon 


Ger 


(362) 


Ges 


of  the  16th  century ;  introduced  at  Strasburg 
instruments  for  extracting  balls  and  other 
substances  from  the  body. 

Gersen,  Jean,  a  monk  who  waa  falsely 
said  to  }iave  written  in  the  13th  century  the 
Imitatio  Christi. 

Gerson,  Jean  Charlier  de,  "  Doctor 
Christianissimus  "  (6.  1363,  d.  1429),  French 
theologian  and  reformer ;  doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne  and  chancellor  of  Paris ;  made 
active  efforts  at  the  council  of  Constance 
(1414)  to  close  the  schism  in  the  papacy, 
and  took  the  leading  part  in  the  condem- 
nation of  Hubs  ;  being  unsuccessful  in  his 
attempts  at  reform,  he  retired  first  to  the 
Tyrol,  and  afterwards  to  a  Celestine  convent 
at  Lyons,  where  he  preached  and  vsrote 
several  works,  including  Be  Consolatione 
Theologice,  Commentaries  on  the  Fsalms,  and 
(perhaps)  Be  Imitatione  Christi. 

Gerstaecker,  Friedrich  (b.  1816,  d.  1874), 
German  traveller ;  bom  at  Hamburg  ;  went 
in  1837  to  America,  where  he  spent  six  years 
him  ting  and  travelling.  In  1849  he  again 
left  Germany,  and  travelled  to  South 
America  and  Australia,  returning  three 
years  later  and  settling  at  Leipzig.  In  1860 
he  accompanied  the  Duke  of  Gotha  to  Egypt 
and  Abyssinia.  He  wrote  accounts  of  his 
travels  and  several  tales,  many  of  which 
have  been  translated  into  English,  French, 
and  Dutch.  Among  the  latter  are  Im  Busch, 
Gold,  Hell  und  Bwikel,  etc. 

Gerstenberg,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  von  {b. 
1737,  d.  1823),  German  poet;  served  some 
time  in  the  Danish  army,  afterwards  as  a 
civilian,  and  then  became  director  of  the 
lottery  of  Altona ;  wrote  Ugolius  and  Min- 
ona,  Oder  die  Angelsachsen. 

Gerster,  Etelka  (b.  1857),  Hungarian 
singer ;  born  at  Kaschlau  ;  studied  under 
Madame  Marchesi  from  1873  to  1876, 
when  she  made  her  debut  at  Venice  in 
Verdi's  Rigoletto.  She  afterwards  sustained 
the  parts  of  Ophelia,  Lucia,  Ameira,  and 
Marguerite.  At  Berlin  the  demand  to  hear 
her  was  so  great  that  21,000  applications  in 
writing  for  places  in  the  theatre  are  said  to 
have  been  refused.  After  leaving  Berlin 
she  visited  Pesth,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Mos- 
cow, where  she  was  appointed  Kammer 
Sanger  in,  and  received  presents  from  the 
Tsar  and  Tsarina.  She  first  came  to  Eng- 
land under  the  management  of  Mr.  Maple- 
son  in  1877,  appearing  in  London  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre  in  La  Sonnambula  with 
very  great  success. 

Gerstner,  Franz  Josef  von  {b.  1756,  d. 
1832),  German  engineer;  author  of  the 
Mandhuch  der  Mechanik  ;  planned  the  rail- 
road between  Budweis  and  Linz,  which 
brought  into  conununication  the  North  Sea 


and  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea— a 
project  which  was  carried  out  by  his  son, 
Franz  Anton  {d.  1840),  who  laid  down  the 
first  railway  in  Russia  (1834). 

Gervaise,  Franqois  {b.  1660,  d.  1761), 
French  ecclesiastical  historian ;  author  of 
Vie  de  St.  Cyprien,  Vie  de  Pierre  Abelard  et 
Heloise,  etc.,  and  Lettres  d'un  Theologien, 
which  was  suppressed. 

Gervaise,  Nicolas  (d.  1729),  French  mis- 
sionary ;  brother  of  Francjois  ;  went  to  Siam 
about  ]  682,  and  wrote  Histoire  du  Siam  in 
1688 ;  was  massacred  with  other  mission- 
aries by  the  Caribs  in  Spanish  Guiana. 

Gervaise    [Gervasius]    of   Canterbury 

(12th  century),  English  monk  and  historian  ; 
author  of  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canter- 
burg  from  Augustine  to  Hubert,  a  Chronicle 
containing  the  reigns  of  Stephen,  Henry  II., 
and  Richard  I.,  and  Mappa  Mundi. 

Gervaise  of  Tilbury,  English  chronicler 
of  the  12th  century ;  favourite  of  Henry  II. 
of  England  and  of  the  Emperor  Otho  IV. ; 
to  amuse  the  latter  he  vrrote  Otia  Lmperi- 
alia — a  medley  of  history,  geography,  and 
legend. 

Gervinus,  George  Gottfried  {b.  1805,  d. 
1871),  German  Shakespearean  scholar  and 
historian ;  at  first  thought  of  scientific  study, 
but,  under  the  influence  of  Schlosser,  at 
Heidelberg,  turned  his  attention  to  history. 
After  two  years  spent  in  teaching  at  Frank- 
fort, he  took  his  degree  from  Heidelberg, 
and  went  to  Italy,  and  published  on  his 
return  Historische  Schriften.  In  1835  he 
held  a  professorship  at  his  old  university, 
and  in  1836  obtained  the  chair  of  history  at 
Gottingen,  which  latter  he  lost  on  account 
of  his  protest  against  the  suspension  of  the 
Hanoverian  constitution.  After  another 
visit  to  Italy  he  returned  and  founded  in 
1847,  in  conjunction  with  some  friends,  the 
Beutsche  Zeitung.  In  1848  he  was  elected 
to  the  Diet  by  the  Hanse  Towns,  but  did 
not  remain  long  in  public  life.  His  chief 
works  are  Ueber  den  Goethe'' schen  Brief- 
wechsel,  Shakespeare  (1849-50),  and  Ges- 
chichte  des  Neunzehnter  Jahrhundert  seit 
den  Wiener  Vortrdgen  (1855-65). 

Gesenius,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Wilhelm  (b. 
1786,  d.  1842),  German  OrientaUst ;  professor 
of  theology  at  Halle  for  thirty  years,  during 
which  he  produced  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
Bictionary,  a  Hebrew  Elementary  Book,  and 
a  Critical  History  of  the  Hebrew  Language 
and  Literature. 

Gesner,  Conrad  von  (fi.  1516,  d.  1565), 
Swiss  naturalist ;  professor  of  natural  his- 
tory at  Zurich  for  twenty-four  years  ;  wrote 
Histories  Animalium  as  well  as  Bibliotheca 
Universalis — a  catalogue  of   Greek,  Latin, 


Ges 


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Ghi 


and  Hebrew  writers.  He  was  called  the 
*'  Pliny  of  Germany,"  and  was  ennobled  for 
his  researches, 

Gesner,  Johann  Jacob  {b.  1707,  d.  1787), 
Swiss  numismatist ;  author  of  Thesaurus 
Numismaticm  Veterum  Gracorum  et  Roman- 
orum,  and  Numismata  Regum  Macedonim. 

Ge3ner,  Johann  Mathias  {b.  1691,  d.  1761), 
German  scholar;  author  of  Thesaurus  Latinee 
Linguce,  and  other  works. 

Gesner,  Salomon  (6.  1730,  d.  1788),  Swiss 
painter  and  poet ;  ran  away  from  the  book- 
seller at  Berlin  with  whom  his  father  had 
placed  him  ;  wrote  and  published  at  Zurich, 
his  native  town,  Idyllen,  Tod  Abels,  and 
several  tales,  besides  painting  and  engraving 
landscapes. 

Geta,  PubHus  Septimius  (6.  189,  d.  212), 
son  of  Severus,  and  joint-emperor  with  his 
brother,  Caracalla,  by  whose  orders  he  was 
murdered  in  the  arms  of  his  mother,  Julia. 

Gevaert,  Francois  Auguste  {h.  1828),  Bel- 
gian composer ;  bom  at  Haysse ;  son  of  a 
baker  ;  studied  at  the  Ghent  conservatoire, 
and  was  soon  appointed  organist  of  the 
Jesuits'  church  there.  In  1847  he  obtained 
the  first  prize  in  the  Brussels  national  com- 
petition, and  soon  afterwards  composed  his 
first  two  operas,  Hughes  de  Somerghan  and 
La  Comedie  a  la  Ville.  In  1849  he  went  to 
Spain,  and  sent  reports  on  Spanish  music  to 
the  Brussels  Academie.  In  1867  he  became 
inspecteur  de  la  musique  at  Paris,  and  in 
1871  director  of  the  Brussels  coyiservatoire. 
His  chief  compositions  are  Georgette  and  La 
Billet  Marguerite,  produced  at  Paris,  and 
Die  Nationale  Verjaerdoz,  composed  in 
honour  of  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  King 
Leopold's  accession,  as  well  as  works  on  the 
history  of  music,  the  chief  of  which  are 
Leerboek  van  den  Gregoriuenischen  Zang 
(1856),  Les  Gloires  d'Ltalie  (1868),  and,  Les 
Origines  du  Chant  Liturgique  de  VEglise 
Benedictine  Latine  (1890). 

Geyer.    \_See  Geijer.] 

Geysa  {d.  997),  Magyar  chief;  after  his 
own  conversion  by  his  wife,  Sarolta,  intro- 
duced Christianity  into  Hungary.  He  was 
father  of  St.  Stephen  of  Hungary. 

Geysa  II.,  King  of  Hungary  {b.  1129,  d. 
1161),  carried  on  successful  wars  with  Russia 
and  the  Eastern  empire,  and  allied  himself 
with  Frederick  Barbarossa. 

Gliatgay,  Shirzi  Rao  {d.  1810),  Mahratta 
oilicer ;  committed  many  cruelties  against 
Nana  Fumawees,  minister  of  Rao  Peshwa, 
and  by  the  fascination  of  his  daugliter,  who 
had  married  Sindia,  exercised  for  some  time 
great  influence  over  that  prince,  by  whom, 
however,  he  wsis  at  length  ordered  to  be 
contined,  and,  on  his  resistance,  was  killed. 


Ghazan-Klian  (b.  1271,  d.  1304),  Mongol 
sovereign  of  Persia ;  a  convert  from  Budd- 
hism to  Mahometanism ;  introduced  great 
improvements  into  his  country,  and  was 
himself  a  man  of  some  culture. 

Ghazee-00-Deen  minister  of  Shah  Allum 
in  the  18th  century,  the  rebellion  of  whose 
vizier  he  crushed,  but  was  afterwards  at- 
tacked by  the  emperor,  whom  he  caused  to  be 
blinded  and  deposed,  raising  Alumgeer  to 
the  throne.  In  1759  he  procured  the  assassi- 
nation of  the  latter  to  prevent  his  holding 
communication  with  Abdallee,  who  had 
invaded  India. 

Ghazi  Hassan  {d.  1790),  Turkish  com- 
mander ;  served  the  svdtan  against  the 
Russians,  and  put  down  rebellions  in  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  the  Morea,  but  was  executed 
soon  after  becoming  grand  vizier. 

Ghazy-oo-Deen  {d.  1752),  heir  to  the 
Nizam  of  Deccan,  but  kept  out  of  his  do- 
minions by  an  usurper,  his  half-brother, 
Salabut  Jung,  who  had  the  support  of  the 
French,  who  induced  his  own  mother  to 
poison  him. 

Ghazy-Togluk,  Emperor  of  Delhi  {d. 
1325),  originally  a  slave  of  Bulbun  ;  put 
Khusro  the  ustirper  to  death,  and  was 
elected  emperor,  but  was  soon  after  killed 
by  the  fall  of  a  building  in  which  he  was 
banqueting. 

Gheias-00-Deen,  Toghluk  {d.  1325),  son 
of  a  Turkish  slave ;  founded  third  Tatar 
dynasty  of  Delhi ;  his  life  was  written  by 
the  Persian  poet.  Emir  Khosrou. 

Gheias-oo-Deen  Bulbun  {d.  1286),  Em- 
peror of  India  ;  originally  a  slave  ;  suc- 
ceeded Nasr-oo-deen  in  1266 ;  cleared  away 
the  forest  of  Delhi  to  the  circumference  of 
100  miles ;  administered  strict  justice,  and 
patronised  men  of  letters. 

Gherardesca,  Ugolino  della  {d.  1288), 
Italian  noble  ;  deserted  the  GhibeUines,  and 
became  a  chief  of  the  Guelfs,  by  whose 
influence  he  became  captain -general  of 
Pisa.  His  cruelty  alienated  both  parties, 
and  he  was  imprisoned  and  starved  to  death. 
A  description  of  his  sufferings  is  put  into  his 
mouth  by  Dante  in  the  Inferno. 

Ghetaldi,  Marino  {b.  1566,  </.  1627),  Vene- 
tian statesman  and  mathematician ;  author 
of  the  Promotns  Archimedes. 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo  (*.  1378,  d.  1455), 
Italian  sculptor  and  bronze-founder ;  at 
twenty-two  competed  successfully  with  the 
first  men  of  his  day  for  the  design  of  the 
second  pair  of  bronze  gates  for  the  Baptistery 
at  Florence,  the  subject  being  The  Sacrifre 
of  Abraham  ;  he  was  immediately  ordered 
to  execute  the  design  of  another  paii'.  He 
also  painted    the    rose    window    of    Santa 


Ghi 


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Gib 


Croee,     and     made     a     gold     mitre     for 
Eugeiiius  IV. 

GMka,  Alexander  (4.  1795,  d.  1862),  ap- 
pointed hospodar  of  Wallachia  in  1834  by 
Russia  and  Turkey,  but  offended  the  latter, 
who  compelled  the  sultan  to  remove  him  for 
arresting  Bulgarians  engaged  in  a  rising 
coimtenanced  by  Russia. 

Ghika,  Gregor  {d.  1777),  Hospodar  of 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia ;  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Russians  in  1769,  but  restored  at  the 
peace :  protested  against  the  cession  of 
Bukovina  to  Russia,  and  was  strangled  by 
order  of  the  sultan. 

Ghika,  Gregor  (b.  1807,  d.  1857),  Hospodar 
of  Moldavia ;  brought  up  in  France  and 
Germany  ;  initiated  reforms  in  Moldavia, 
but  his  schemes  for  the  union  with  Wallachia 
excited  the  hostility  of  Austria  and  Turkey, 
by  whom  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate.  He 
went  to  France  in  1856,  and  shot  himself 
the  next  year. 

Ghilini,  Girolamo  {h.  1589,  d.  1670), 
Italian  writer;   author  of  Teatro  (fUomini 

Litterati. 

Ghirlandajo,  Domenico  di  Bigordi  {h.  1449, 
d.  1498),  Tuscan  painter;  master  of  Michael 
Angelo ;  employed  by  Sixtus  IV.  to  paint 
frescoes  in  the  Sistine  chapel.  There  are 
eeveral  of  his  works  at  Rome  and  Florence. 

Ghirlandajo,  Rodolfo  (*.  1482,  d.  1560), 
Italian  painter ;  sou  of  last-named ;  friend 
of  Raffaele  and  Michael  Angelo  ;  employed 
by  the  pope  and  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Florence ;  finished  one  of  Raffaelle's  Vir- 
gins. 

Ghisi,  Diana  {b.  1536,  d.  1590),  Italian 
engraver:  "La  Mantuano"  ;  married  Fran- 
cesco di  Volterra ;   was  praised  by  Vasari. 

GMsi,  Giovanni  Battista  (6.  1500),  "II 
Majituano " ;  Italian  engraver,  his  chief 
works  being  The  Burning  of  Troy  and 
Jjavid  and  Goliath. 

GMsi,  Georgio  {b.  1523,  d.  1590),  son  of 
th(  last-named ;  engraver  of  The  Prophets 
and  the  Sibyls. 

Ghisi,  Teodoro  (*.  1546,  d.  1579),  painter; 
brother  of  Georgio,  and  pupil  of  Giulio 
Romano,  whose  unfinished  works  he  com- 
pleted. 

GMsolfi,  Giovanni  {b.  1624,  d.  1683), 
Italian  painter ;  pupil  of  Salvator  Rosa,  a 
native  of  Milan,  celebrated  for  the  archi- 
tectural beauties  of  his  pictures. 

GMzni  Khan,  Mahomed  Ghori  {d.  1206), 
succeeded  his  brother,  Gheias-oo-Deen,  as 
king  of  Ghuzin ;  invaded  India  several 
*jme8  while  commanding  for  the  latter,  and 


conquered  Mooltan  and  all  northern  India. 
He  was  assassinated  by  some  Gakkurs  when 
on  his  way  to  Lahore. 

Gholam  Khadir  {d.  1788),  RohiUa  chief, 
who  got  possession  of  Delhi  by  treachery, 
and  committed  many  cruelties,  putting  out 
the  eyes  of  Shah  AUum.  He  was  eventually 
captured  and  put  to  death  by  Siadia. 

Ghoori,  Hooshung  {b.  1432),  had  many 
wars  with  the  king  of  Guzerat,  by  whom 
he  was  accused  of  poisoning  his  father ;  for- 
tified Mandoo,  his  capital,  and  ornamented 
it  with  beautiful  buildings  and  artificial 
lakes,  some  of  which  are  stUl  to  be  seen. 

Giacomelli,  Michael  Angelo  {b.  1695,  d. 
1774),  Italian  philologist ;  made  Archbishop 
of  Chalcedon  by  Clement  XIII.,  but  de- 
prived by  his  successor  for  supporting  the 
Jesuits. 

Giafar  {b.  700,  d.  764),  Mahometan  Iman, 
whose  Traditions  are  considered  of  great 
importance.  He  is  known  as  Sadek,  "  the 
Just." 

Giambullari,  Pier  Francesco  {b.  1495,  d. 
1564),  Italian  scholar;  author  of  Storia 
d'Hiiropa,  a  corrected  edition  of  which  was 
found  at  Pisa  in  1822. 

Gianni,  Francesco  (b.  1759,  d.  1822), 
Italian  improvisatore ;  brought  up  as  a 
tailor ;  made  his  debut  at  Milan ;  attracted 
the  attention  of  Napoleon,  whose  praises  he 
sung,  and  by  whom  he  was  rewarded  with  a 
pension. 

Giannone,  Pietro  (S.1676,  <f.  1748),  Italian 
historian,  whose  great  work,  Istoria  Civile 
del  Regno  di  Napoli,  drew  down  upon  him 
the  anger  of  the  Church  for  its  attack  on  the 
temporal  authority  of  the  pope  and  Catholic 
abuses.  He  was  protected  by  Charles  VI., 
but  ultimately  fell  into  the  power  of  his 
enemies,  and  died  in  prison. 

Giard,  Alfred  {b.  1846),  French  politician 
and  zoologist ;  bom  at  Valenciennes,  and 
educated  there  and  at  Douai ;  became  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  at  the  Faculty  des  Sciences 
de  Paris  in  1880,  and  wrote  many  papers  on 
the  subject.  He  also  founded  and  became 
director  of  the  Laboratoire  de  Zoologie 
Maritime  de  Wimereux.  In  1882  he  entered 
the  Chamber  and  joined  the  "extreme  left." 

Giardini,  Felice  [b.  1716,  d.  1796).  ItaUan 
violinist ;  made  a  very  successful  appearance 
in  London,  but  met  with  misfortune  as 
lessee  of  the  Italian  Opera  House,  and  died 
in  poverty  at  Moscow. 

Gib,  Adam  {b.  1714,  d.  1788),  Scotch  Pres- 
byterian ;  foumled  the  Secession  church ; 
preached  against  the  rebellion  of  1745  ;  was 
called  "Pope  Gib "  for  his  arrogance. 


Gib 


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Gib 


Gibbon,  Benjamin  Phelps  (i.  1802,  d.  1851), _ 
line  engraver ;    engraved  Mulready's   Wolf  j 
and  the  Lamb. 

Gibbon,  Charles  {b.  1842,  d.  1890),  English 
novelist;  author  of  Storm  Beaten  (1862), 
Robin  Gray  (1869),  For  Lack  of  Gold  (1871), 
In  Honour  Bound  (1874),  Queen  of  the 
Meadow  (1880),  Aimret  (1886),  Beyond  Com- 
pare (1888),  and  other  works. 

Gibbon,  Edward  (*.  1737,  d.  1794),  English 
historian  ;  bom  at  Putney,  and  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 
While  at  the  University  he  was  received 
into  the  Romish  Churcti,  but  having  been 
sent  to  a  Calvinist  at  Lausanne  became  a 
Protestant  again  the  next  year.  At  Lausanne 
he  met  Voltaire,  and  "fell  in  love  with 
Mademoiselle  Curchod,  afterwards  Madame 
Necker.  He  returned  to  London  in  1758, 
and  after  a  short  term  of  service  in  the 
Hampshire  militia,  revisited  the  Continent, 
staying  especially  at  Paris  and  Rome.  When 
again  in  England  he  wrote  Memoires  Litter'- 
aires  de  la  Grand  Bretagne,  and  set  to  work 
on  his  great  book,  Tlie  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Etnpire,  the  iirst  volume  of  which 
appeared  in  1776  and  the  last  in  1788.  He 
entered  Parliament  in  1774  as  a  supporter  of 
Lord  North,  wrote  the  Memoire  Jnstijicatif, 
and  obtained  a  place  at  the  Board  of  Trade. 
From  1783  to  1793  he  lived  at  Lausanne, 
and  died  soon  after  his  return. 

Gibbons,  Grinling  (6.  1648,  d.  1721), Dutch 
carver  in  wood,  recommended  by  Evelyn  to 
Charles  II.,  who  employed  him  in  Windsor 
Chapel,  where  he  carved  much  of  the  orna- 
mental woodwork,  and  executed  also  the 
foliage  ornamentation  of  the  choir  of  St. 
Paul's,  the  episcopal  throne  in  Canterbury 
cathedral,  and  similar  work  at  Chatsworth 
and  other  noblemen's  seats;  appointed 
master  carver  by  George  I. 

Gibbons,  Orlando  (6.  1583,  d.  1625), 
English  musical  composer,  organist  at  the 
Chapel  Royal  at  the  age  of  twenty-one; 
composed  madrigals,  but  is  chiefly  loiovni 
for  his  church  musia 

Gibbs,  Joseph  {b.  1798,  d.  1864),  English 
civil  engineer ;  after  some  time  spent  in  the 
Dutch  colonies,  came  to  Holland,  and,  with 
Mr.  Deaue,  undertook  the  draining  of  Haar- 
lem Moer ;  was  the  autlior  of  several  in- 
ventions for  sawing  and  cutting  wood,  among 
which  was  Gibbs's  "elbow-joint"  applied 
to  the  making  of  inlaid  floors,  the  engraving 
of  copper  plates,  and  other  purposes.  He 
was  also  much  employed  in  railway-making. 

Gibbs,  Sir  Vicary  {b.  1751,  d.  1820),  Eng- 
lish judge  ;  called  to  the  bar  in  1783  ;  gained 
a  large  practice ;  was  especially  distintruished 
for  his  conduct,  in  conjunction  witli  Er.skiue, 
for  the  defence  of  the  treason  cases  of  Hardy, 


Home  Tooke,  and  Thelwall.  In  1805  he 
became  SoUcitor-General,  two  years  after 
Attorney-General,  and  1812  a  judge  of  the 
Common  Pleas.    In  1818  he  resigned. 

Gibbs,  Woolcott  (*.  1822),  American 
chemist ;  graduated  at  New  York  College  of 
Physicians  in  1845  ;  studied  at  Berhn  and 
under  Liebig  at  Gissen,  and  returned  to 
America  in  1848.  From  1849  till  1863  he  was 
professor  of  physics  and  chemistry  in  New 
York,  and  was  then  elected  Rumford  pro- 
fessor at  Harvard.  During  the  Civil  War 
he  was  a  member  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  sanitary  commission,  and  in  1873 
commissioner  to  the  Vienna  exhibition. 

Gibelin,  Esprit  Antoine  (6.  1739,  d.  1814), 
French  writer  and  painter,  author  of  Be 
rOrigine  de  la  Forme  du  Bonnet  de  la  Liberie. 

Gibert  de  MontrenU  (13th  century), 
French  romaucist;  author  of  ia  Violettc,  a. 
work  which  has  been  much  translated  and 
imitated. 

Giberti,  Giovanni  (6.  1495,  d.  1543), 
Bishop  of  Verona,  and  patron  of  the  learned ; 
prepared  the  propositions  of  the  council  of 
Trent,  and  issued  from  his  private  press 
Homilies  on  St.  PanVs  Epistles,  and  other 
works  of  the  Greek  fathers. 

Gibson,  Edmund  {b.  1669,  d.  1748),  Eng- 
lish prelate  and  Saxon  scholar ;  Bishop  suc- 
cessively of  Lincoln  and  London ;  author  of 
a  Latin  translation  of  the  Saxon  Chronicle, 
an  edition  of  Camden's  Britannia,  and  of 
Codex  Juris  Fcelesiee  Anglicance.  He  was  in 
bad  repute  at  court  on  account  of  his  de- 
nunciation of  its  corruption. 

Gibson,Edward,  Lord  Ashbourne  {b.  1838), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin ;  en- 
tered Parliament  in  1875,  and  in  1877  was 
made  Attorney-General  for  Ireland.  In  1885 
he  was  created  a  peer,  and  was  appointed  Lord 
Chancellor  of  Ireland,  which  post  he  was 
again  given  in  1886.  He  is  the  author  of 
the  Ashbourne  Act  (1885),  for  the  sale  of 
Irish  holdings  to  tenants. 

Gibson,  John  (6.  1790,  d.  1866),  English 
sculptor  ;  bom  near  Conway  ;  the  son  of  a 
market-gardener ;  worked  in  the  studios  of 
Canova  and  Thorwaldsen  ;  revived  the  use 
of  colour  in  statuary,  and  gave  a  fine  example 
in  his  tinted  Venus;  elected  to  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1836 ;  lived  chiefly  at  Rome, 
where  he  died.  Among  the  best  specimens 
of  his  art  are  The  Hours  leading  the  Chariot 
of  the  Sun,  and  Phdethon  driving  the  Chariot 
of  the  Sun,  Hylas  and  the  Nymphs,  as  well 
as  portraits  of  the  Queen  and  Huskisson  in 
Westminster  Palace,  and  of  Sir  R.  Peel  in 
the  Abbey. 

Gibson,  John  George  (b.  1846),  British 
statesman^,  brother  of    Lord    A^shbonme, 


Gib 


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Gif 


and  youngest  son  of  Mr.  W.  Gibson,  of 
Rockf orest,  Tipperary ;  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  called  to  the 
Irish  bar  in  1870.  In  1885  he  entered  Par- 
liament as  one  of  the  members  for  Liverpool, 
and  was  appointed  Third  Serjeant-at-law. 
In  1886  he  became  Solicitor-General  for 
Ireland. 

Gibson,  Richard  (6.  1616,  d.  1690),  EngUsh 
painter ;  pupil  of  Lely ;  page  and  favourite 
of  Charles  I.,  who  was  present  at  his  mar- 
riage, an  event  which  was  celebrated  in 
Waller's  Marriage  of  Bioarfs,  Gibson  being 
less  than  four  feet  in  height, 

Gibson,  Thomas  Milner  (6.  1807,  d.  1884), 
English  politician ;  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge ;  was  at  first  a  Conser- 
vative, and  lost  his  seat  for  Ipswich  on 
changing  his  views.  As  a  leader  in  the 
movement  against  the  Corn  Laws  he  gained 
a  seat  for  Manchester  in  1841,  and  five  years 
after  was  appointed  by  Lord  J.  Russell  vice- 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  but  re- 
signed in  1848.  He  opposed  the  Crimean 
war,  and  failed  to  hold  his  seat  at  Man- 
chester in  1857,  but  was  soon  after  elected 
for  Ashton-under-Lyne,  which  he  repre- 
sented till  1868.  As  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  from  1859  to  1866  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  abolition  of  the  paper  and  ad- 
vertisement duties.  In  1868  he  retired  from 
public  life. 

Gichtel,  Johann  Georg  (i.  1638,  d.  1710), 
German  mystic;  founded  a  sect,  preaching 
celibacy  and  asceticism ;  published  Bbhme's 
works. 

Gideon,  Judge  of  Israel;  defeated  the 
Midianites,  and  died  about  1210  b.o. 

Gi6,  Pierre  de  Rohan  de  {d.  1513),  marshal 
of  France ;  accompanied  Charles  VIII.  to 
Italy ;  educated  the  Count  d'Angouleme, 
afterwards  Francis  I.,  but  offended  his 
mother,  Louise  of  Savoy,  and  retired  to  his 
chateau  at  Angers. 

Giedde,  Ove  (6.  1594,  d.  1661),  Danish 
admiral ;  made  a  settlement  at  Tranquebar, 
in  the  Carnatic,  and  served  in  the  wars 
against  Sweden  and  Denmark. 

Giedroyc,  J.  F.  Xavier  (6.  1787,  d.  1855), 
PoUsh  prince  and  patriot ;  son  of  Romuald 
Thadeus ;  taken  prisoner  with  his  father  in 
the  retreat  from  Moscow,  and  sent  to  Siberia, 
but  released  next  year ;  present  with  Napo- 
leon at  "Waterloo ;  sent  to  Siberia  for  two 
years  by  the  Tsar  Nicholas  for  refusing  to 
take  the  oath  of  fidelity,  and  suifered  con- 
fiscation of  his  property. 

Giers,  Nicholas  Carlovitch  de  {b.  1820), 
Russian  statesman ;  entered  the  foreign 
office  in  1838  :  served  in  Moldavia  and  Hun- 
gary, and  in  1850  became  first  secretary  at 


Constantinople,  whence,  three  years  later,  he 
went  as  adviser  of  the  Russian  plenipoten- 
tiary in  Wallachia  and  Moldavia.  In  1856 
he  became  member  of  the  council  of  state 
and  consul-general  to  the  court  of  the 
Khedive,  and  again  from  1858  to  1863  served 
in  the  Danubian  provinces.  After  this  he 
was  for  six  years  minister-plenipotentiary  in 
Persia ;  then  minister- resident  to  the  Swiss 
confederacy  and  at  Stockholm,  becoming,  in 
1875,  director  of  the  Asiatic  department  at 
St.  Petersbui-g.  On  the  retirement  of  Prince 
Gortschakoff  in  1882  he  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  having  been  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  latter  in  his  last  years.  In  1SS8 
he  celebrated  the  jubilee  of  his  entrance  into 
political  Ufe. 

Gieseler,  Johann  Karl  Ludwig  (b.  1793,  d. 
1854) ,  German  Protestant  theologian ;  profes- 
sor at  Gottingen ;  wrote  an  able  essay  on  the 
authorship  of  the  Gospels,  in  which  he  op- 
posed Eichhom's  theory  of  their  derivation 
from  a  common  source.  He  was  also  author 
of  Zehrbitch  der  Kirchengeschichte. 

Giirard,  Stanley  L.  {b.  1788,  d.  1858),  Eng- 
hsh  journalist;  supported  the  Castlereagh 
administration  in  the  St.  James's  Chronicle, 
and,  as  editor  of  the  Standard,  strongly  op- 
posed the  Emancipation  policy  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  afterwards  defended  the  Irish 
Church  in  the  anti-tithe  agitation. 

Giffard,  William  {d.  1129),  Norman  states- 
man ;  chancellor  to  William  I.  and  his  sons, 
and  Bishop  of  Winchester ;  introduced  the 
Cistercians  into  England,  and  founded  the 
priory  of  St.  Mary's  Overy,  Southwark. 

Giffen,  Robert  (6. 1 837) ,  English  statistician, 
born  in  Lanarkshire :  acted  as  solicitor's  clerk 
at  Glasgow :  in  his  early  years  and  after- 
wards was  employed  in  commerce  there,  till, 
about  1860,  he  became  connected  with  the 
Stirling  Journal  as  sub- editor.  In  1862  he 
went  to  London,  and  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Globe,  and  was  afterwards  assistant-editor 
of  the  Economist,  under  Mr.  Bagehot,  and 
for  a  short  time  assisted  Mr.  Morley  with 
the  FortnigUhj  Revieiv.  From  1873  to  1876 
he  was  city  editor  and  vmter  on  trade  and 
finance  to  the  Daibj  News,  becoming  in  the 
latter  year  chief  of  the  statistical  department 
of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Among  his  writings 
are  Stock  Exchange  Securities  :  an  Essay  on 
the  General  Causes  of  Fluctuation  in  their 
Price  (1878),  and  Essays  in  Finance  (1st 
series,  1879;  2nd,  1886),  consisting  chiefly 
of  papers  and  presidential  addresses  read 
before  the  Statistical  Society. 

Gifford,  Robert,  Lord  (1779,  d.  1826), 
English  lawyer,  son  of  a  grocer ;  entered  the 
Middle  Temple  in  1800  ;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1808,  and  soon  gained  a  large  practice 
on  the  western  circuit.  In  1817  he  entered 
Parliament,  and  was  made  Solicitor-  General, 


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in  which  capacity  he  took  part  iu  the  prose- 
cution of  the  Luddites.  In  1819  he  became 
Attorney- General,  and  as  such  conducted  the 
prosecution  of  Thistlewood  and  Queen 
Caroline,  and  iu  1824  was  named  Chief 
Justice  of  Common  Pleas,  and  created  a  peer. 

Gifford,  William  {b.  1757,  d.  182G),  English 
critic  and  verse-writer,  son  of  a  plumber 
and  glazier  of  Ashburton ;  was  bom  and 
bred  in  great  poverty ;  served  in  a  coasting- 
vessel  and  as  a  shoemaker,  till  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  a  surgeon  named  Cookesley, 
by  whose  efforts  he  was  sent  to  school,  and 
afterwards  to  Oxford.  After  taking  his  de- 
gree, he  became  tutor  to  Lord  Grosvenor's 
son,  whom  he  accompanied  on  the  Continent, 
and  on  his  return  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture, writing  the  Baviad  in  1794,  and  soon 
after  the  Maviad,  and  contributing  to  the 
Anti- Jacobin.  He  afterwards  edited  Mas- 
singer  and  Ben  Jonson,  and  became  first 
editor  of  the  Quarterly  Review  m  1809,  hold- 
ing the  post  till  1824. 

Giggeo,  Antonio  {d.  1632),  Italian  Orient- 
ahst;  patronised  by  Cardinal  Borromeo,with 
whose  assistance  he  published  his  Thesaurus 
Zinffuce  ArabiccB. 

Gigliucci,  Countess.  \_See  Novello.] 

Gigot  d'Elb^e  (6.  1752,  d.  1794),  Vendean 
commander;  gained  several  victories  over 
the  republican  troops,  but  was  ultimately 
defeated  and  shot ;  called  by  his  soldiers 
"General  Providence." 

Gilbart,  James  W.  (6.  1794,  d.  1863), 
English  banker ;  first  manager  of  the  London 
and  Westminster  Bank,  which  was  the  first 
joint- stock  bank  in  London;  author  of  a 
Practical  Treatise  on  Banking,  and  of  the 
History  of  Banking  in  America. 

Gilbert,  Alfred  (6. 1854),  English  sculptor, 
A.R.A.  ;  studied  under  Boehm  in  London, 
and  afterwards  in  Paris  at  the  ^ficole  des 
Beaux- Arts  under  CaveHer.  He  subsequently 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  executed  in  marble 
the  Kiss  of  Victory  and  Icarus.  Among  his 
other  works  are  Perseus  Arming  and  the 
Enchanted  Chair,  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1886,  and  a  statue  of  Queen 
Victoria. 

Gilbert,  Anne  Taylor  (A.  1782,  d.  1866), 
Enghsh  writer  for  the  young,  sister  of  Isaac 
and  Jeffrey  Taylor ;  joint-author  with  her 
sister  Jane  of  Original  Poems  for  Infant 
Minds  ;  married  in  1818  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Gilbert,  author  of  The  Christian  Atonement. 

Gilbert,  Davies  (6. 1767,  i.  1839),  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  patron  of  Sir 
Humphry  Davy ;  also  wrote  a  Parochial 
Jlistory  of  Cornwall. 

GUbert,  Sir  Humphrey  (&.  1639,  d.  1684), 


English  navigator,  half-brother  to  Sir  W. 
Raleigh ;  made  a  voyage  to  North  America 
in  1583,  and  took  possession  of  New- 
foundland, but  was  wrecked  off  the  Azores 
on  his  way  home.  He  published,  in  1576, 
a  Discourse  to  prove  a  Passage  by  North-  West 
to  Cathaia  and  the  East  Indies. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Jeffrey  (*.  1674,  d.  1726), 
EngUsh  judge;  called  to  the  bar  in  1698; 
in  1714  became  a  judge  of  the  King's  Bench 
in  Ireland,  and  next  year  Chief  Baron  of 
the  Irish  Exchequer.  In  1719  he  was  com- 
mitted by  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  for 
granting  an  injunction  by  order  of  the  Eng- 
hsh House  of  Peers  in  an  appeal  from  the 
Irish  courts.  In  1725  he  became  Chief  Baron 
of  the  English  Exchequer.  He  published 
several  legal  works  (Reports  of  Cases  in 
Equity,  etc.),  and  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society. 

GUbert,  Sir  John  (6. 181 7) ,  English  painter ; 
exhibited  his  first  picture  in  1836  in  the 
Suffolk  Street  gallery,  a  water-colour,  en- 
titled The  Arrest  of  Lord  Hastings  by  the  Pro- 
tector Richard,  Duke  of  York,  after  which  he 
continued  to  exhibit  iu  oils  at  the  British  In- 
stitution and  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1871  he 
was  knighted,  and  elected  president  of  the 
Society  of  Painters  in  Water- Colours;  in  1872 
was  A.R.A. ,  and  became  an  Academician 
in  1876.  Among  his  earlier  pictures  are 
Don  Quixote  giving  Advice  to  Sancho  Panza, 
The  Education  of  Gil  Bias,  and  Othello  be- 
fore the  Senate.  In  addition  to  many  Shake- 
spearian scenes,  the  chief  of  his  more  recent 
paintings  are  The  Doge  of  Venice  in  Council 
(1876),  King  Henry  VI.  (1880),  The 
Morning  of  Aqincourt  (1884),  Sir  Launcelot 
(1887),  and  Ego  et  Rex  Metis  (1889).  He 
also  made  many  contributions  to  the  Illus- 
trated London  News,  and  illustrated  Shake- 
speare and  other  English  classics. 

GUbert,  John  Thomas  {b.  1829),  British 
historical  writer ;  bom  at  Dublin ;  was  sec- 
retary of  the  Irish  Public  Record  Office  from 
1867  to  1875,  and  edited  Facsimiles  of  the 
National  MSS.  of  Ireland,  Chronicles  and 
Memorials  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  wrote  History  of  the  City  of  Dublin 
(1854-9),  History  of  the  Viceroys  of  Ireland 
from  1172-1509  (1865),  History  of  Affairs  in 
Ireland,  1641-52  (1879-81),  and  History  of 
the  Irish  Confederation  and  the  War  in  Ire- 
land, 1644-9  (1882-90),  as  well  as  numerous 
other  works. 

GUbert,  Joseph  Henry  {b.  1817),  English 
chemist  and  man  of  science  ;  son  of  Rev.  J. 
Gilbert ;  was  born  at  Hull,  and  early  met 
with  a  gunshot  accident,  which  deprived 
him  of  the  sight  of  one  eye.  After  leaving 
school  he  pursued  his  scientific  studies  at 
Glasgow,  under  Professor  Thomson,  and  at 
University  College,  London,  under  Professor 


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Graham  and  Dr.  Aiithoiiy  Thomson,  spend- 
ing a  short  time  also  ia  the  laboratory  of 
Liebig,  at  Giesseu,  where  he  took  his  Ph.D. 
On  his  return  he  assisted  Dr.  Thomson 
in  London,  and  gave  some  attention  to  the 
chemistry  of  calico-dyeing  near  Manchester. 
From  the  year  1843  he  became  associated 
with  Sir  J.  "B.  Lawes  in  researches  on  agri- 
cultural chemistry,  the  results  of  which  were 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society,  the  JouriMl  of  the  Chemical  Society, 
the  Journal  of  the  Roy  al  Agricultural  Society, 
the  Reports  of  the  British  Association,  etc. 
Dr.  Gilbert  was  a  fellow  of  the  Chemical 
Society  in  1841,  and  became  president  in 
1882,  and  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
18G0.  He  paid  two  visits  to  Canada  and 
America  to  study  agricultirre,  and  was  in 
1884  appointed  Sibthorpian  professor  of 
rural  economy  at  Oxford. 

Gilbert,  Josiah  (6.  1814),  English  writer 
on  art ;  born  at  Eotherham ;  grandson  of 
Eev.  Isaac  Taylor  and  son  of  Rev.  J.  Gilbert ; 
was  a  portrait-painter  in  London  for  some 
years  afterwards  ;  wrote  Art :  Its  Scope  and 
Furpose  (1858),  Art  and  Religion  (1871), 
and  Landscape  in  Art  before  Claude  and  Sal- 
vator  (1885) ;  was  also  joint-author  of  the 
Dolomite  Mountains  (1864),  and  editor  of 
Autobiography  and  Memorials  of  Mrs.  Gil- 
bert (Anne  Taylor). 

Gilbert,  St.  (6.  1083,  d.  1189),  rector  of 
Sempriugham,  Lincolnshire ;  founded  several 
Benedictine  and  Augustinian  houses ;  gave 
asylum  to  Becket. 

Gilbsrt,  St.  {d.  1152),  foUowed  Louis 
VII.  on  crusade,  but  was  so  grieved  at  the 
wickedness  of  the  crusaders  that  he  returned 
and  founded  a  convent  and  a  monastery. 

Gilbert,  "the  Universal"  (/.  1150), 
learned  theologian ;  sent  for  from  Antwerp, 
and  made  Bishop  of  London  by  Henry  I. 

GUbert,  WilUam  {b.  1540,  d.  1603),  English 
natural  philosopher ;  court  physician  under 
Elizabeth  and  James  I. ;  published  an  im- 
portant book  on  the  magnet. 

GUbert,  WilUam  Schwenck  (b.  1836), 
English  dramatist  and  writer ;  was  clerk  in 
the  Privy  Council  Office  from  1857  to  1862, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1864.  He  con- 
tributed the  Bab  Ballads  to  Fun  in  1861,  and 
produced  his  first  burlesque.  Dulcamara  in 
1866,  which  was  followed  by  La  Vivandiire 
and  Robert  the  Devil,  etc.  Among  his  more 
serious  plays  were  The  Palace  of  Truth  (pro- 
duced at  the  Haymarket  in  1870),  Pygmalion 
and  Galatea  (1871)>  Sweethearts  (1874),  and 
Engaged  (1877).  From  1875  to  1889  he  wrote 
librettos  to  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan's  operas,  the 
chief  of  which  were  Trial  by  Jury  (1876, 
the  Royalty),  The  Sorcerer  (1877),  H.M.S. 
Pinafore   (1878),    The  Pirates    of  Penzance 


(1880),  Patience  (1882).  lolanthe,  The 
Princess  Ida,  The  Mikado,  in  successive 
years,  Ruddigore  (1887)  The  Yeomen  of  the 
Guard  (1888),  The  Gondoliers  (1889).  The 
Mountebanks  was  produced  in  1892. 

Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e,  or  Porretanus  (6. 

1070,  d.  1154),  French  philosopher  and 
Bishop  of  Poitiers;  chief  of  the  Realists; 
accused  of  heresy  in  1147,  but  not  con- 
demned. 

Gilchrist,  Alexander  (6.  1828,  d.  1861), 
Scotch  biographer ;  son  of  a  Unitarian 
minister;  educated  at  University  College 
school,  London,  where  he  met  the  Rossettis  ; 
was  called  to  the  bar,  but  did  not  practise  ; 
lived  at  Guildford,  and  afterwards  in  Chejme 
Row,  next  door  to  Carlyle,  where  he  com- 
posed, but  did  not  live  to  finish,  his  Life  of 
Blake,  having  already,  in  1855,  published  a 
Life  of  Etty. 

Gilchrist,  John  Borthwick  (i.  1759,  d. 
1841),  English  Orientalist ;  professor  of  Hin- 
dustani and  Persian  at  Calcutta ;  on  his  re- 
turn to  England  published  a  Hindustani 
dictionary  and  grammar,  and  the  Oriental 
Linguist, 

Gildas,  St.,  "The  Wise"  (J,.  6th  cen- 
tury), supposed  author  of  De  Excidio  Brit- 
annice;  but  nothing  certain  is  known  of 
him. 

GUden,  Charles  (6.  1665,  d.  1724),  En- 
glish writer;  author  of  the  DeisVs  Manual; 
was  attacked  by  Pope  in  the  Dunciad. 

Gilder,  Richard  Watson  (fi.  1844),  Ameri- 
can poet;  son  of  a  Methodist  minister;  served 
in  the  Federal  army  in  1863 ;  was  pay- 
master on  the  Camden  and  Amboy  railway, 
and  then  became  a  journalist,  being  con- 
nected successively  with  the  Newark  Adver- 
tiser, the  Newark  Register,  and  Eours  at 
Monte;  when,  in  1870,  the  latter  was  in- 
corporated with  Scribner^s  Monthly,  he 
became  part  editor,  and  in  1881  editor  of 
its  successor,  the  Century.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  American  Copyright 
League  and  the  Authors'  Club,  and  pro- 
duced the  following  poems:  The  New  Day 
(1875),  The  Poet  and  his  Master  (1878), 
Lyrics  (1885),  and  The  Celestial  Passion, 
(1887). 

Glide,  or  Gilden  (d.  398),  Moorish  general ; 
governor  of  Africa  for  the  Romans  about 
386  ;  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Ms  brother 
Mascezel,  when  he  had  rebelled  against 
Honorius. 

Giles,  or  Gilles.     [See  Hunnius.] 

Gilfillan,  George  (6.  1813,  d.  1878),  Scotch 
divine,  critic  and  essayist ;  bom  at  Comrie, 
Perthshire  ;  son  of  a  Secessionist  minister  ; 
was  ordained  Presbyterian  minister  in  1836| 


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his  congregation  being  at  Dundee.  Here  he 
published  A  Gallery  of  Literary  Portrmts 
(1845-54),  Christian  Heroism  (1869),  and  was 
engaged,  when  he  died,  on  a  History  of 
British  Poetry.  He  also  published  several 
eermons,  which  excited  great  controversy, 
aud  were  considered  unorthodox.  In  1S81 
Mr.  F.  Henderson  edited  some  of  his  Sketches, 
Literary  and  Theological. 

Gilibert,  Jean  Emanuel  (b.  1741,  d.  1814), 
French  physician ;  author  of  Histoire  des 
Plantes  de  VEurope  and  Le  Medium  Natu- 
raliste. 

Gill,  Alexander  {b.  1564,  d.  1635),  English 
scholar ;  head-master  of  St.  Paul's  ;  teacher 
of  Milton,  and  author  of  several  learned 
works.  His  son,  Alexander  {d.  1642),  who 
succeeded  him  as  head,  was  a  great  friend 
of  the  poet,  but  was  dismissed  from  his 
mastership  for  severity,  and  imprisoned  for 
speaking  ill  of  King  James. 

Gill,  David  {b.  1843),  British  astronomer; 
astronomer  royal  at  the  Cape ;  bom  in 
Scotland  and  educated  in  Aberdeen,  where 
he  erected  a  private  observatory;  assisted 
Lord  Lindsay  in  designing  the  observatory 
at  Dunecht  m  1870,  and  took  part  in  the 
expedition  sent  by  that  nobleman  to  the 
Mauritius  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus. 
The  results  were  pubUshed  as  the  joint 
work  of  Lord  Lindsay  and  Mr.  Gill.  At 
the  same  time  the  latter  arranged  the 
chronometric  and  telegraphic  longitude  de- 
tenninations  between  Berlin,  Malta,  Alex- 
andria, Aden,  Bombay,  and  Mauritius,  and 
undertook  the  measurement  of  the  first  base 
line  of  the  geodetic  survey  of  Egypt.  In 
1877  he  went  to  Ascension  to  observe  the 
apposition  of  Mars,  and  published  the 
results  in  1881.  In  1883  he  set  on  foot 
the  geodetic  survey  of  South  Africa,  and 
between  1881  and  that  year  was  engaged 
in  researches  on  the  parallax  of  the  fixed 
stars.  As  a  reward  for  his  labours  he 
received  the  Medjidieh  from  the  Khedive, 
the  Valz  medal  from  the  Academie  des 
Sciences,  and  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  and  in  1883  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  Eoyal  Society. 

Gmespie,  Colonel  {d.  1814),  English 
officer  ;  suppressed  the  mutiny  at  Vellore, 
near  Arcot  in  180G;  distinguished  himself 
by  driving  the  French  out  of  Java  in  1811 
and  defeating  the  natives  ;  was  killed  when 
serving  in  the  Bengal  army  iu  the  war  with 
Nipal. 

Gillespie,  George  {d.  1648),  Scotch 
minister ;  commissioner  to  the  Westminster 
Assembly  in  1643 ;  wrote  Aaron^s  Rod 
Blossoming  and  The  Ark  of  the  Testament 
Opened. 

Gillies,    Duncan     (6.     1830),     Victorian 


statesman ;  bom  in  Scotland ;  went  to  Aus- 
traha  in  1854 ;  was  elected  to  the  Victorian 
Parliament  in  1859,  and  was  minister  of 
lauds  in  1868,  aud  a?ain  in  1875.  From 
1872  to  1875,  and  again  from  1880  to  1883, 
he  was  minister  oi  railways,  and  became 
premier  in  1886,  but  was  defeated  and 
resigned  in  November,  1890,  in  which  year 
he  had  been  chairman  of  the  Federal 
Conference. 

Gillray,  James  (1757,  d.   1815),  English 
I  caricaturist ;   son  of  a  Chelsea  pensioner ; 
I  began,  in   1778,  to  use  his  satirical  pencil 
t  in  the  Whig  interest,  directing  it  agaiust 
George  YH.,  Farmer  George  and  his   Wife; 
afterwards,    as    a   Tory,    used   his    talents 
against  Napoleon  and  Fox.     In  1811  he  be- 
came insane  as  a  result  of  his  intemperate 
habits. 

Gilly,  Jacques  Laurent,  Comte  de  (b.  1769, 
d.  1829),  French  general ;  served  iu  Napo- 
leon's campaigns;  joined  him  on  his  esciipe 
from  Elba  with  the  troops  he  commanded 
for  Louis  XVIII. ;  was  pardoned  after  the 
restoration,  and  died  in  France. 

Gilman,  Daniel  Coit  (b.  1831),  American 
educationist;  bom  in  Norwich,  Connecti- 
cut ;  graduated  at  Yale  ;  travelled  two  years 
in  Europe,  aud  was  librarian  and  professor 
of  physical  geography  in  Yale  College  from 
1856  to  1872.  In  1865  and  1866  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  public  schools  of 
Connecticut,  and  in  1872  became  president 
of  the  university  of  California.  In  1875  he 
was  appointed  first  president  of  the  univer- 
sity founded  by  John  Hopkins  at  Baltimore. 
He  wrote  many  articles  on  general  subjects, 
but  the  bulk  of  his  work  was  educational, 
and  is  contained  chiefly  in  addresses  to 
various  colleges,  reports,  aud  articles  in  the 
North  American  Review. 

Gilpin,  Bemard  (6.  1517,  d.  1583), 
Romanist  priest;  the  "Apostle  of  the 
North,"  who,  in  the  course  of  controversy 
with  Hooper  and  Peter  Martyr,  became 
converted  ;  refused  prefeiTuent,  and  died  in 
his  parish  at  Haughton-le- Spring. 

GUpin,  Sawi-ey  {b.  1733,  d.  1807),  English 
animal -painter ;  patronised  by  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland;  painted  the  Triumph  of 
Camillns. 

Gilpin,  William  {b.  1724,  d.  1804),  Enghsh 
clergyman  and  writer ;  brother  of  last-named ; 
■wrote  a.  Life  of  Bernai-d  Gilpin  and  several 
books  on  the  picturesque. 

Gin,  Pierre  Louis  Charles  (b.  1726,  d. 
1827),  French  lawyer  ;  defended  Louis  XVI., 
and  translated  Hesiod  and  Herodotus. 

GingTiene,  Pierre  Louis  (6.  1748,  d.  1316), 
French  scholar ;  author  of  Histoire  Litteraire 
i'ltalie. 


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GinkeU,  Godaxt  de  (h.  1630,  d.  1703), 
Dutch  general ;  came  with  William  III.  to 
Englaua,  aud  was  with  him  at  the  Boyne ; 
afterwards  commanded  in  Ii'elaud ;  took 
A.thloue ;  defeated  the  French  at  Aughrim  in 
1691,  and  concluded  the  treaty  of  Limerick. 
He  was  created  Earl  of  Athloue,  aud  subse- 
quently served  in  Flanders  under  WilUam 
and  Marlborough. 

Ginsburg,  Christian  {b.  1830),  Polish 
rabbinical  scholar,  LL.D.  (Glasgow) ; 
author  of  Historical  and  Critical  Comment- 
arij  OH  the  Song  of  Som/s  (1857),  Commentary 
on  Ecvlesia^stes  (1861),  The  Karaites  (1862), 
The  Essencs  (1864),  The  Kabbalah  (1865), 
Commentary  on  Leviticus  (1882),  The  Mas- 
sorah  (1880-6)  and  kindred  works,  besides 
having  contributed  to  the  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  and  taken  part  in  the  revision  of  the 
Old  Testament,  aud  written  a  work  on  the 
Moabite  stone  in  1871. 

Gioberti,  Vinceuzo  {b.  1801,  d.  1852), 
Italian  patriot  and  philosopher,  born  at 
Tui-in,  where  he  became  court-chaplain, 
but  was  banished  in  1833  on  suspicion  of 
plotting  against  the  government.  He  went 
to  France  and  then  to  Brussels,  where  he 
taught  philosophy  and  published  several 
works,  the  chief  of  which  was  Teorica  del 
Sovrannaturale,  directed  against  Kant  and 
Cousin.  In  1843  appeared  his  Primato 
Morale  e  Civile  degV  Italiani.  In  1848  the 
author  was  recalled  to  Italy,  elected  deputy 
for  Turin,  and  became  prime  minister  of 
Victor  Emmanuel,  but  he  was  soon  obliged 
to  retire  to  Paris,  where  he  died,  having  in 
the  previous  year  brought  out  11  Hinnova- 
mento  Civile  d^ Italia. 

Giocondo,  Fra  Giovanni  (Jl.  loth  cen- 
tury), Italian  architect  aud  Dominican 
monk,  who  built  the  bridge  of  Notre  Dame 
for  Louis  XII. ;  desigued  several  buildings 
at  Verona  for  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and 
assisted  in  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome.  He  also  did  good  work  as  an 
engineer  at  Venice. 

Gioja,  Flavio  (13th  century),  Italian 
sailor,  who  was  for  some  time  credited 
with  the  invention  of  the  mariners'  com- 
pass. 

Gioja,  Melchiore  (6.  1767,  d.  1829),  Italian 
statistician  and  economist ;  imprisoned  for 
republican  opinions.  His  chief  works  were 
Nuovo  Prospetto  delle  Scienze  Economiche 
(1815-17),  aud  Filosofia  delta  Statistica. 

Giordani,  Vitale,  (6.  1633,  d.  1711),  ItaUan 
mathematician;  served  as  a  saOor  in  the 
Venetian  fleet ;  had  to  learn  arithmetic  as 
secretaiy  to  the  admiral,  and  was  afterwards 
made  mathematician  to  the  Queen  of 
Sweden  and  professor  at  Rome  by  Louis 


Giordano,  Luca  {b.  1632,  d.  1705),  Italian 
painter ;  called  "  Fra  Presto  "  on  account  of 
his  speedy  execution ;  a  pupil  and  imitator 
of  Spagnoletto  and  Pietro  of  Cortona ;  was 
much  employed  in  his  native  Naples,  and 
invited  to  Madrid,  where  he  decorated  the 
Escurial  with  his  frescoes,  and  has  also  left 
specimens  of  his  work  at  Rome  aud  Venice. 

Giorgi,  Antonio  {b.  1711,  d.  1797),  Italian 
scholar,  who  wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of 
Thibet,  while  totally  ignorant  of  the  lan- 
guage. 

Giorgione,  Giorgio  Barbarelli  {b.  1478,  d. 
1511),  Italian  painter;  founder  of  the 
Venetian  school,  and  rival  of  Tiziano.  Some 
of  his  portraits  are  at  Hampton  Court,  but 
his  frescoes,  in  which  lay  his  great  ex- 
cellence, have  perished. 

Giottino.     [See  Stefano.] 

Giotto,  Ambrogiotto  Bondone  (5.  1276,  d. 
1336),  Italian  painter  and  architect;  pupil  of 
Cimabue  and  friend  of  Dante,  whose  por- 
trait he  painted  at  Ravenna ;  was  son  of  a 
citizen  of  Florence,  and  apprenticed  to  a 
woolstapler;  painted  frescoes  at  Assisi, 
and  was  probably  the  founder  of  the 
modem  school  of  portrait-painting.  About 
1299  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  painted 
and  worked  in  mosaics ;  and  subsequently 
was  employed  at  Padua  and  Florence,  where 
his  frescoes  in  the  Peruzzi  chapel  of  Santa 
Croce  were  discovered  in  1863.  He  also 
painted  the  Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  FishesBt 
Naples,  and  designed  the  campanile  of  Flor- 
ence.   He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  there. 

Giovanelli,  Ruggiero  (16th  century), 
Italian  musical  composer ;  successor  of 
Palestrina  as  chapel-master  in  the  Vatican  ; 
composed  madrigale  and  motetti. 

Giovanni  da  Fiesole,  called  "  Fra  Ange- 
lico  "  {b.  1387,  d.  1455),  Florentine  painter 
aud  Dominican  monk;  employed  by  Pope 
Nicholas  V. ,  for  whom  he  painted  an  oratory, 
and  was  offered  the  archbishojiric  of  Flor- 
ence as  a  reward.  His  best  works  (frescoes 
in  the  convent  of  San  Marco,  Florence)  were 
undertaken  for  its  founder,  Cosmo  de' 
Medici.  Some  of  his  pictures  are  in  the 
National  Gallery. 

Giovio,  Paolo  {b.  1483,  d.  1552),  Italian 
historian ;  patronised  by  Leo  X.  and  his 
successors,  and  made  bishop  of  Nocera  in 
1528 ;  author  of  De  Piscibus  Romanis  and 
Elogia  Virorum  Ulustrinm. 

Giraldi,  Giovanni.     [See  Cinthio.] 

Giraldi,  Lilio  Gregorio  {h.  1479,  d.  1552), 
Italian  poet  and  archaeologist ;  lost  a  valu- 
able library  when  Rome  was  sacked  by  the 
Germans;  was  patronised  by  Leo  X.  and 
Buccessive  popes,  and  Uved  with  Pico  della 


Gir 


(371) 


Gir 


Mirandola,  was  author  of  Historia  de  JJiis 
trtntium,  and  a  treatise  On  the  Reform  of 
the  Calendar. 

Giraldus  Cambrensis  (b.  1146,  d.  1223), 
English  historian,  whose  real  name  was 
Gerald  de  Barri,  bom  in  Pembrokeshiie,  and 
educated  at  Paris,  where  he  was  afterwards 
professor  of  canon  law;  as  archdeacon  of 
St.  David's  was  zealous  as  a  reformer  of 
clerical  abuses ;  went  to  Ireland  as  secretary 
to  Prince  John  in  1185,  and  wrote  Topo- 
graphia  Hibernice ;  afterwards  went  with 
Heniy  11.  to  France ;  was  several  times 
elected  to  the  see  of  St.  David's,  but  opposed 
by  the  king.  Among  his  chief  works,  a 
collected  edition  of  which  was  published  by 
Professor  Brewer  and  Mr.  Dimock  for  the 
"Rolls  Series,"  were  Expugnatio  Hibernxa, 
Descriptio  Cambrice,  and  De  Rvbus  a  se 
Gestis. 

Girard,  Gabriel  (*.  1677,  d.  1748),  French 
scholar,  interpreter  of  Slavonic  languages, 
and  author  of  a  Uictionnaire  de  Synonymes 
Frangais,  which  procured  him  election  to 
the  Academy. 

Girard,  Gregoire  (6.  1765,  d.  1850),  Swiss 
educationist,  author  of  Rapport  sur 
I'Institut  de  M.  Festalozzi  d,  Iverdon  (1810), 
and  Cours  Educatif  de  la  Langue  Maternelle 
(1840-48). 

Girard,  Philippe  Henri  de  {b.  1775,  d. 
1845),  French  engineer  and  chemist,  in- 
vented a  flax-spinning  machine  in  1810, 
when  Napoleon  I.  had  offered  a  prize  of 
1,000,000  francs  for  the  best  specimen.  He 
did  not  receive  the  prize,  but  his  brother 
was  pensioned  by  Napoleon  III.  While  in 
Austria  Girard  invented  a  tubular  boiler; 
and  subsequently,  having  entered  the  service 
of  Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  founded  a  flax 
manufactory  in  Poland,  and  directed  its 
mines.  The  village  of  Girardow  took  its 
name  from  him. 

Girard,  Simon  (6.  1765,  d.  1836),  French 
engineer;  accompanied  the  expedition  of 
1798  to  Egj-pt,  and  produced  a  memoir 
giving  the  results  of  his  survey  of  the 
resources  of  the  country ;  was  employed  by 
Napoleon  and  Louis  XVIII.  in  making 
canals  and  superintending  the  drainage  and 
gas  supply  of  Paris. 

Girardin,  fimile  de  (J.  1806,  d.  1881), 
French  journalist,  founder  of  Tm  Presse,  in 
which  appeared  the  fiTst  femlleton  (1836), 
having  previously  established  the  Journal 
den  ConnaiMances  Util-es,  and  been  active  in 
Betting  on  foot  savings'  banks.  In  1831  he 
married  Delphme  Gay,  who  shared  his 
literary  labours,  and  contributed  letters  to 
Za  Presge,  under  the  name  of  ' '  Vicomte  de 
Lannay,"  besides  writing  some  novels  and 
dramas.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  Emile 
t2 


played  a  cliief  part,  having  compelled  Louia 
Philippe  to  sign  his  ab(Scation,  which  he 
himself  carried  to  the  republicans.  "La 
Girandole "  (weathercock)  was,  however, 
trusted  by  no  party,  and  was  immediately 
imprisoned  by  Cavaignac.  In  1850  he  was 
elected  to  the  assembly,  in  which  he  sup- 
ported the  liberty  of  the  press ;  after  1851 
he  left  Paris,  and  five  years  later  gave  up 
La  Fresse,  and  retired^  into  private  life. 
Among  his  works  are  Entile  (1827),  and  Au 
Hasard,  and  a  collection  of  his  articles 
Qicestions  de  mon  Temps  (1836-56),  pub- 
lished in  1858.  His  dramas  were  much 
inferior  to  those  of  his  wife,  who  wrote 
Judith,  Cleopatra,  Cest  le  Faute  du  Mari, 
Lady  Tartufe,  and  others. 

Girardin,  Louis  Stanislas  Xavier,  Comte 
de  {h.  1762,  d.  1827),  French  politician, 
pupil  of  Rousseau,  and  supporter  of  the 
revolution  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  of 
which  he  became  president,  but  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  comite  de  salut  public  as  a 
moderate.  In  1814  he  entered  the  army, 
and  became  attached  to  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  Naples  and  Spain. 
After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
held  some  small  offices,  but  afterwards 
became  known  as  a  member  of  independent 
views. 

Girardon,  Francois  (6.  1628,  d.  1715), 
French  sculptor  and  architect ;  went  to 
Italy,  and  on  his  return  became  chancellor 
of  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture. 
Specimens  of  his  work  are  the  sculptures  on 
the  fountain  of  the  pyramids  at  Versailles. 

Giraud,  Giovanni,  Count  (6.  1776,  d. 
1834),  Italian  dramatist,  whose  comedies 
were  published  in  1S23. 

Giraud,  Herbert  {b.  1817),  English 
chemist  and  botanist,  deputy  inspector- 
general  of  the  Bombay  army,  educated  at 
Edinburgh,  entered  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company  in  1842;  in  1845  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  and  botany 
at  Bombay,  and  chemical  analyst  to  the 
Bombay  government.  He  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  study  of  chemistry  and 
botany  into  the  presidency,  and  made 
numerous  contributions  to  the  Botanical 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  the  London  and 
Edinhirgh  FhilosopMcal  Magazine,  Tram- 
actions  of  the  Bombay  Branch  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  'Society  and  Physical  Society,  etc. 

Giraud,  Jean  Baptiste  (6.  1752,  d.  1830), 
French  sculptor  of  independent  means,  who 
ornamented  his  house  with  casts  of  the  best 
Italian  sculptures,  and  made  it  the  resort  of 
artists.  His  pupil,  Pierre  Giraud  (rf.  1836), 
was  celebrated  for  his  sculptures  of 
animals. 

Girault-Duvlvler,  Charles  Pierre  (b.  1765, 


Gir 


(  372) 


Gla 


d.  1S32),  Freuch  philologist ;  author  of 
Graminaire  des  Grammaires  (1311),  aud 
Eitcyelopi'die  de  V Antiquite. 

Oirdlestone,  Edward  {b.  1805,  d.  1885), 
Euglish  Theologian  aud  social  refoi'nier ; 
was  scholar  of  Balliol,  aud  successively 
vicar  of  Deane,  Lancashire,  cauou  of 
Bristol,  aud  vicar  of  St.  Nicholas,  aud 
iuciimbeut  of  Halbertou.  Devon,  aud  of 
Olvestou,  near  Bristol.  He  was  an  Evan- 
geUcal  leader,  and  took  much  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  the  agricultural  labourers,  beiug 
one  of  those  who  prepared  the  way  for  the 
Agricultural  Labourers'  Uuion. 

Girodet-Trioson,  Anne  Louis  (6.  1767,  d. 
1824),  French  painter,  pupil  of  Regnault 
and  David.  His  best  worlcs  were  Sommeil 
d^Endymion,  portraits  of  ,the  Vend^an 
leaders,  aud  Saint  Louis  en  Egypte. 

Girtin,  Thomas  {h.  1773,  d.  1802),  Eng- 
lish  painter;  friend  of  Turner,  and  one  of 
the  early  water-colourists ;  also  introduced 
painting  on  cartridge-paper  ;  painted  pano- 
ramas of  London  and  Paris.  His  picture  of 
Eivaulx  Abbey  is  now  at  South  Kensington. 

Gisbert,  Blaise  {b.  1657,  <?.,1731),  French 
writer;  author  of  L'' Art  d'' Elever un  Prince 
(1684),  dedicated  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

Gisbome,  Thomas  {b.  1758,  d.  1846),  Eng- 
lish philosophical  writer  and  divine,  author 
of  Principles  of  Moral  Philosophy  (1789), 
and  some  poems. 

Gisco  {d.  240  B.C.),  Carthaginian  general ; 
commanded  against  the  Romans  at  Lily- 
baeum,  taken  piisoner  and  put  to  death  by 
mercenaries. 

Ginlio-Romano.      [^See  Romano.] 

Giusti,  Giuseppe  (*.  1809,  d.  1850), 
Italian  poet  ;  bom  in  a  village  between 
Florence  and  Pescia,  studied  law  at  Pisa, 
and  set  up  as  an  advocate  at  Florence  in 
1834,  but  busied  himself  chiefly  in  writing 
in  the  Tuscan  dialect  political  satires,  of 
which  the  chief  were  La  Guigliottina  a 
Vapore  {The  Steam  Guillotine)  in  1834 ; 
Dies  Irce  on  the  death  of  Francis  of  Austria 
in  the  next  year;  and  Lo  Stivale  {The 
Boot)  in  1836.  In  1854  he  produced 
II  Ginyillino  {The  Placeman) ;  and  in 
1874  II  Oongresso  de''  Birri  {The  Congress 
of  Police),  which  had  a  large  sale.  He 
also  wrote  a  commentary  on  Dante,  and  a 
few  serious  poems.  He  was  twice  elected  to 
the  Tuscan  Parliament. 

Giustiniani,  Agostino  {b.  1470,  d.  1536), 
Italian  Orientalist ;  appointed  Hebrew  pro- 
fessor at  Paris  by  Francis  I.,  and  published 
an  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Psalter,  with 
Greek,  Arabic,  and  Chaldaic  in  parallel 
columns— the   first     'Polyglot."     He  waa 


drowned    on    a    voyage    from    Corsica    to 
Genoa. 

Givry,  Anne  d'Angelure  de  {d.  1594), 
Freueh  general  and  partisan  of  Henri  IV. ; 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Laon. 

Gladstone,  John  Hall  {b.  1827),  Eng- 
lish man  of  science  and  writer,  studied 
chemistry  under  Professor  Graham  at  Uni- 
versity College,  and  under  Liebig  at 
Giessen;  lectured  on  chemistry  at  St. 
Thomas's  Hospital,  1850-52,  and  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1853.  He  was  Fullerian  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institution  1874-7, 
president  of  the  Physical  Society  1874-6, 
and  of  the  Chemical  Society  1877-9.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission  on 
Lighthouses  from  1859  to  1862,  and  of  the 
Gun- Cotton  Committee  from  1864  to  1868, 
and  was  elected  in  1873  member  of  the 
London  School  Board.  Besides  his  contribu- 
tions to  philosophical  transactions  and 
scientific  societies,  he  was  author  of  a 
Biography  of  M.  Faraday  (1872);  Points  of 
supposed  Collision  between  the  Scriptures 
and  Natural  Science  (1872)  ;  Miracles  as 
Credentials  of  Revelation  (1873)  ;  and  Spell- 
ing Reform  from  an  Educational  Point  of 
View  (1878). 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart  (6. 1809),  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  author;  fourth  son  of 
Sir  John  Gladstone  of  Fasque,  was  bom  at 
Liverpool ;  educated  at  Eton  aud  Christ 
Church,  and,  after  a  Continental  tour,  was 
elected  as  a  Conservative  for  Newark  in 
1832.  He  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1833, 
but  was  never  called  to  the  bar.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1834,  he  became  a  lord  of  the  Treasury 
in  Sir  R.  Peel's  administration,  and  in  the 
next  year  under-secretary  for  the  colonies.  In 
1841  he  took  office  a  second  time  under  Peel 
as  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and 
was  sworn  of  the  Privy  CouncU,  succeeded 
to  the  presidency  of  the  Board  in  1 843,  resign- 
ing two  years  later.  He  agreed  with  Peel's 
action  on  the  Com  Law  question ;  but  after 
being  for  a  short  period  secretary  for  the  col- 
onies, retired  from  Parliament  for  a  time.  In 
1 847  he  was  elected  for  Oxford  University,  and 
between  this  year  and  1852  gradually  modi- 
fied his  opinions,  formally  separating  from 
his  party  in  1851.  In  1852  he  was  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  in  the  Coalition  min- 
istry, but  resigned  at  the  end  of  1855  on  the 
question  of  the  Crimean  inquiry  moved  for 
by  Mr.  Roebuck.  In  1858  he  went  as  com- 
missioner to  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  on  his 
return  became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
imder  Palmerstou,  taking  a  great  part  in 
the  repeal  of  the  paper  duty  and  the  com- 
mercial treaty  with  France.  Mr.  Gladstone 
was  rejected  by  his  imiversity  in  1865,  pro- 
bably on  account  of  his  support  of  the  Uni- 
versity Commission,  and  was  then  returned 


Gla 


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Gla 


for    South  Lancashire.       On  Palmerston's 
death  he  became  leader  in  the  House  of 
CommonB,  and  in  1 866  brought  in  a  Reform 
Bill,  on  the  defeat  of  which  Lord  Russell's 
goTemment  resigned.      He    opposed    Dis- 
raeli's bill,  and  then  took  up  the  question  of 
Irish  disestablishment,  which,  on  resuming 
ofnca  in  1868  as  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  he 
settled    to  his  satisfaction.      Having  been 
rejected    in    Lancashire,  he    now  sat    for 
Greenwich;    the  other  questions  he  dealt 
with  between  1868  and  1874  were  the  Irish 
land  question,  elementary  education,  pirr- 
chase  in  the  army,  vote  by  ballot,  and  the 
Alabama  claims.     He  was  defeated  on  the 
Irish  University  Bill  in  1873  and  resigned, 
but  was  obliged  to  resume  office  till  the  dis- 
solution, when  his  party  was  defeated,  but 
he  retained  his  seat  for  Greenwich.     After 
opposing  the    Public  Worship  Regulation 
Act,  he  took  very  Little  part  in  public  affairs 
until  the  Bulgarian  agitation  in  1876,  when 
he    began  actively  to  oppose    the  foreign 
policy  of  the  Government.    At  the  end  of 
1879  he  undertook  his  first  Midlothian  cam- 
paign, was  elected  in   1880  for  that  con- 
stituency,   and    a     second     time    became 
Premier,  again   imiting  with  it  the  Chan- 
cellorship of  the  Exchequer.     In  his  second 
ministry  he  passed  the  Laud  Act  of  1881, 
a  repressive  measure  dealing  with  Ireland, 
and    the    Franchise    and     Redistribution 
Acts    of    1885,    the    last    measures,    how- 
ever, not  without   the    assistance    of   the 
Opposition  leaders.     Besides  these  questions 
he  was  much  occupied  with  the  affau's  of 
Egjrpt,  where  tho  suppression  of  Ai'abi  was 
followed  by  the  revolt  of  the  Soudanese,  the 
destruction  of  Hicks  Pasha's  army,  and  the 
mission  of  General  Gordon.     In  June,  1885, 
the  Liberal  Government  were  defeated  on 
the    budget,   and    the    Conservatives  held 
office  for  a  few  months.     Early  in  1886  Mr. 
Gladstone  became  Premier  a  third  time,  but 
his  Home  Rule  Bill  divided  his  party  and 
he  was  defeated,  while  at  the  general  election 
his  opponents  were  successful,   and    Lord 
Salisbury    became    head    of    the  Unionist 
Government.     But  in  1892  he  returned  to 
power.     Mr.  Gladstone  has  produced  works 
on  various  subjects.    In  1841  he  was  author  of 
The  State  in  its  Relations  with  the  Church  ; 
in  1845  of  Remarks  on  Recent   Conimercial 
Legislation ;    in    1851   of  a    Letter  on   the 
State       Proseoitions      of    Naples,      which 
he  had  visited    in  the  previous  year ;    in 
1858  of  Studies  on  Homer,  and  in  1874-5  of 
two  pamphlets  on  the  Vatican  Decrees,  and 
an  article  in  the  Quarterly  Review  on  The  i 
Speeches  of  Pius  LX.     During  his  retirement  I 
after  the  elections  of  1874  he  wrote  Homeric  ' 
Synchronism,   and    two    pamphlets   on  the 
Bulgarian  question,  and  in   1879  published 
a  collection  of  writings  called  Gleaninys  of  j 
Past  Tears.   He  was  also  author  of  Jnventns  ] 
Mundi,  and  of  numerous  contributions  to 


periodicals,  particularly  on  the  Irish  Ques- 
tion, and  on  Christian  evidences. 

Glaisher,  James  (6.  1809),  English 
meteorologist ;  was  employed  on  the 
ordnance  survey  of  Ireland  in  1829,  and  at 
the  Cambridge  observatory  from  1833  to 
1836,  when  he  became  assistant  in  the 
astronomical  department  at  Greenwich, 
being  appointed  in  1840  superintendent  of 
the  magnetic  and  meteorological  depart- 
ment, which  he  held  till  his  retirement  in 
1874.  In  1849  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  ;  he  was  also  connected  with 
the  Meteorological  Society  for  many  years, 
and  was  president  of  the  Microscopical 
Society,  the  Photogi-aphic  Society,  and  the 
Aeronautic  Society  respectively.  In  1880  he 
became  chairman  of  the  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund.  Between  1863  and  1866  he  made 
several  balloon  ascents,  and  attained  the 
greatest  height  yet  known — the  results  of 
the  ascents  having  been  published  in  The 
Reports  of  the  British  Association,  and  in 
Travels  in  the  Air.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  books  and  paj^ers  concerning 
astronomy,  meteorology,  and  the  theory  of 
numbers,  and  he  completed  the  Factor 
Tables  of  Hurckhardt. 

Glaisher,  James  (b.  1848),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding; second  vwangler  at  Cambridge, 
and  fellow  of  Trinity  in  1871,  and  Sc.D.  in 
1887;  was  elected  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1875,  was  president  of  Cambridge 
Philosophical  Society,  1882-4,  of  the  Loudon 
Mathematical  Society,  1884-6,  and  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society,  1886-1888, 
Among  his  works  are  Llliptic  Functions, 
Theory  of  Numbers,  Mathematical  Tables, 
etc. 

Glanvil,  Sir  John  {d.  1661),  English  jurist, 
author  of  Reports  of  Contested  Elections, 
which  were  published  in  1775. 

Glanvill,  Joseph  {b.  1636,  d.  1680),  English 
philosopher  and  divine,  author  of  Skepsis 
Scientifca,  Lux  Orieutalis,  and  Considera- 
tions on  the  Being  of  Witches,  whose  exist- 
ence he  maintained- 

Glanville,  Ranulphde  {d.  1190),  Norman 
statesman,  soldier  and  lawyer,  justiciary 
under  Henry  II. ;  defeated  the  Scots  at 
Alnwick  in  1 1 74  ;  was  victorious  over  the 
Welsh,  and  accompanied  Richard  I.  on 
crusade,  being  killed  at  the  siege  of  Acre. 
He  was  the  author  or  editor  of  the  Be  Legibus 
et  Consuetudinibus  Regni  Anglia. 

Glaser,  Christophe  (d.  168^1),  Swiss 
chemist,  apothecary  to  Louis  XIV.,  dis- 
covered the  "  sal-i)olychrist  of  Glaser,"  and 
wrote  Traite  de  Chimie. 

Glass,  John  {h.  1698,  d.  1773),  Scotch 
Presbyterian    minister,     deposed    by     the 


G-la 


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Gli 


General  Assembly  for  hia  attacks  on  the 
Covenant ;  founded  sect  of  the  Glassites. 

Glass,  George  (6.  1725,  d.  1765),  Scottish 
navigator ;  sou  of  last  named ;  made  dis- 
coveries in  Africa,  and  published  a  Hiatori/ 
of  the  Canarif  Islands,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoued  by  the  Spaniards  in  1765  ;  was 
murdered  by  his  crew  ou  the  voyage  home. 

Glauber,  Jan  {b.  1646,  d.  1726),  Flemish 
paiuter,  called  "Polydore."  his  pictures 
dealing  chiefly  with  Roman  and  Alpine 
scene  r  J'. 

Glauber,  Jan  Gottlieb  (i.  1646,  d.  1726), 
Flemisli  painter ;  brother  of  last-named ; 
called  "  Myrtillo,"  from  his  pastoral  scenes ; 
also  painted  cabinet  pictures. 

Glauber,  Johann  Rudolf  (6.  1604,  d. 
1668),  German  chemist ;  discovered  the  salts 
called  by  his  name,  as  well  as  pyroligneous 
acid  and  sal-ammoniac. 

Glazebrook,  R.  T.  {b.  1854),  English 
physicist ;  educated  at  Liverpool  college  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was 
elected  fellow  in  1877,  having  been  fifth 
wrangler.  In  1880  he  was  appointed 
demonstrator  of  physics  at  the  Cavendish 
laboratory,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1882.  He  was  Hopkin's 
prizeman  in  1888,  and  is  the  author  of  A 
Text-book  of  Physical  Optics,  and,  with 
W.  N.  Shaw,  of  A  Text- book  of  Practical 
Physics,  besides  papers  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  the  Philosophical 
Magazine. 

Gleichen,  Count  (Prince  "Victor  of  Hohen- 
lohe)  (6.  1833,  d.  1892),  sculi^tor,  brother  of 
the  Prince  of  Hohenlohe,  and  nephew  of 
Queen  Victoria  ;  served  in  the  Baltic  cam- 
paign, and  in  the  naval  brigade  at 
Sebastopol,  1854-5,  and  in  the  Chinese  war 
of  1857  ;  afterwards  gave  himself  up  to  art. 
Among  his  many  sculptures  were  The  Deluge, 
a  Statue  of  Alfred  the  Great  made  in 
Sicilian  marble  for  the  town  of  Wantage, 
where  it  was  placed  in  1877,  and  many 
statues  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  G. 
Seymour. 

_Gleiclien,  Wilhelm  F.  von  {b.  1717,  d. 
1783),  German  naturalist,  who  served  as  an 
olficer  in  the  campaign  of  the  Rhine :  his 
chief  works  are  Newest  Microscopical  Dis- 
coveries, and  a  Treatise  on  the  Solar  Micro- 
scope, illustrated  by  himself. 

Gleig,  George  Robert  (J>.  1796,  d.  1888), 
English  biographical  writer  and  divine; 
served  as  an  officer  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
and  the  American  war  of  1812 ;  took  orders 
in  1S22,  was  chaplain  to  Chelsea  Hospital 
m  1844,  chaplain-general  of  the  forces  in 
1846;    author    of    The    Subaltern    (1825), 


British  Military  Commanders  (1832), 
Memoirs  of  Warren  Hastings  (1841),  and 
The  Story  of  Waterloo  (1847). 

Gleim,  Johann  Wilhelm  Ludwig  {b.  1719, 
d.  1803),  German  poet,  author  of  Kriegslieder 
(1778),  and  Leitgedichte  (1789-1803);  was 
called  "the  German  Anacreou." 

Glendower  (Glyndwr),  Owen  {b.  circa 
1354,  d.  circa  1416),  Welsh  chief;  descendant 
of  the  Llewelyns  ;  was  outlawed  by  Henry 
ry.,  and  joined  the  Hotspur  rebellion ;  main- 
tained the  contest  for  foui'teen  years  among 
the  Welsh  mountains,  assisted  for  a  time 
by  a  French  force ;  died  while  negotiating 
with  Henry  V.,  whose  widow  his  son 
married. 

Glenelg,  Charles  Grant,  Baron  {b.  1778,  d. 
1866),  British  statesman;  son  of  Charles 
Grant,  and  brother  of  Robert  Grant; 
was  bom  in  India,  and  educated  at  Mag- 
dalen College,  Cambridge.  In  1807  he  was 
called  to  the  bar,  but  did  not  practise, 
entering  Parliament  as  member  for  Mont- 
rose the  same  year.  In  1818  he  was  elected 
for  Inverness- shire,  and  became  a  peer  in 
1835.  He  held  the  appointment  of  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland,  1819  -  22,  vice- 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  1823-27, 
and  president  1827-8;  and  from  1830  to 
1834  president  of  the  Board  of  Control. 
Lord  Glenelg  resigned  the  colonial  secre- 
taryship, which  he  had  held  for  five  years, 
in  1839,  on  account  of  the  recall  of  Lord 
Durham  from  Canada,  where  his  "ordi- 
nance"' against  the  rebels  had  been  dis- 
approved by  the  Colonial  Office.  He  did 
not  again  hold  office,  but  received  a 
pension  of  £2,000. 

Gley,  Gerard  (*.  1761,  d.  1830),  French 
A.bbe  ;  accompanied  campaigns  of  Davoust, 
visited  Ubraiies,  corresponded  with 
Napoleon,  and  wrote  Voyage  en  Allemagne 
et  en  Pologne. 

Glinka,  Michael  Ivanovitch  (6.  1803,  d. 
1857),  Russian  composer ;  studied  in  Italy 
and  in  Berlin  under  Dehn,  and  on  his 
return  to  Russia  became  court  conductor 
and  director  of  the  choir  in  the  imperial 
churches.  After  some  time  spent  in 
France,  he  came  to  Berlin  again  to  see 
Dehn,  and  died  suddenly  there.  His  chief 
works  were  two  operas.  La  Vie  pour  le  Tsar, 
and  Russian  et  Leidmilla,  which  were  the 
first  important  musical  productions  of 
Russia. 

Glinka,  Sergyer  Nickolaivich  {b.  1771,  d. 
1845),  Russian  writer;  after  serving  some 
years  in  the  army,  turned  to  literature  ; 
translated  Young's  Night  Thoughts,  wrote  a 
History  of  Russia  for  the  young,  and 
Russian  Reading,  as  well  as  some  tales. 

GUsson,    Francis    (6.    1596.     d.     1677), 


Glo 


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Gly 


English  pliysician,  author  of  Anatomia 
Hepatm,  in  which  Glissori's  Capsule  was 
described,  and  made  many  important 
researches  in  anatomy  and  physiology. 

Gloucester,  Duchess  of  (6.  1776,  d.  1857), 
Princess  Mary,  fourth  daughter  of  George 
III. ;  married'her  cousin,  William  Frederick, 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  in  1816;  Uved  a  retired 
life,  engaged  chiefly  in  works  of  benevo- 
lence, and  died  at  Gloucester  House,  Park 
Lane. 

Gloucester,  Henry  Stewart,  Duke  of  (6. 
1640,  d.  1G60),  second  son  of  Charles  I. 

Gloucester,  Humphrey,  Duke  of,  the 
"Good  Duke  Humphrey"  {b.  1391,  d. 
1447),  son  of  Hem-y  IV. ;  was  protector  of 
England  during  the  early  years  of  his 
nephew,  Henry  VI.,  and  the  rival  of 
Cardinal  Beairfort  for  the  chief  power ;  was 
a  great  protector  of  learned  men^  but  made 
enemies  by  his  ambition,  and  was  found 
dead  under  suspicious  circmnstances  at 
Bvuy  St.  Edmunds. 

Gloucester,  Richard,  Duke  of.  \_See 
Richard  III.] 

Gloucester,  Thomas,  Duke  of  (6.  1355,  d. 
1397),  sixth  son  of  Edward  III. ;  created 
duke  in  1385,  but,  endeavouring  to  exert 
too  much  influence  over  the  young  Richard 
II. ,  was  carried  to  Calais  and  put  to  death. 

Gloucester,  "William  Frederick,  Duke  of 
(6.  1776,  d.  1834),  nephew  of  George  III., 
married  his  cousin,  the  Princess  Mary. 

Gloucester,  William  Henry,  Duke  of  (6. 
1743.  d.  1805),  son  of  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  brother  of  George  III.,  whom 
he  offended  by  his  marriage  with  the 
Countess  Waldegrave. 

Gloucester,  WOliam  Stewart,  Duke  of 
(6.  1689,  d.  1700),  son  of  Queen  Anne. 

Glover,  John  (6.  1767,  d.  1849),  English 
painter ;  son  of  a  Leicester  farmer ;  became 
master  of  the  free  school  at  Appleby  in 
1786  ;  afterwards  gave  lessons  in  art  at  Lich- 
field and  in  London,  becoming  in  1815  pre- 
sident of  the  old  Water-Colour  Society. 
He  made  a  largo  oil-painting  of  Durham 
cathedral,  but  was  unable  to  gain  admission 
to  the  Royal  Academy.  In  18-24  he  assisted 
in  founding  the  Society  of  British  Artists, 
where  he  exhibited  till  1830,  when  he  went 
to  Australia  and  afterwards  settled  in 
Tasmania,  and  died  there. 

Glover,  Sir  John  Hawley  {h.  1829,  d.  1885), 
English  colonial  statesman  ;  having  served 
in  the  navy  for  several  years,  was  appointed 
governor  of  Lagos  iu  1862.  In  1873  he 
became  special  commissioner  in  the  British 
Gold  Coast  settlements,  and    as    such  he 


co-operated  with  Sir  G.  Wolseley  in  Ashan- 
tee,  where  he  raised  a,  native  force  and 
marched  on  Coomassie.  From  1876  to  1881  he 
was  governor  of  Newfoundland,  to  which  he 
returned  after  two  years  in  the  Leeward 
Islands.  He  was  made  G.C.M.G.  for  his 
services  in  the  Ashantee  war. 

Glover,  Mary  (6.  1782,  d.  1850),  English 
actress ;  daughter  of  an  actor  named  Better- 
ton  ;  was  born  at  Newry,  and  made  her 
debut  at  Coveut  Garden  in  1797  in  Percy. 
She  coniined  herself  chiefly  to  comedy,  her 
best  part  being  Mrs.  Malaprop,  which  she 
played  at  Drury  Lane  four  days  before  her 
death. 

Glover,  Richard  (h.  1712,  d.  1785), 
English  poet  and  scholar ;  son  of  a  Loudon 
merchant;  produced  Leonidas  in  1737,  and 
next  year  Admiral  Hosier''s  Ghost.  In 
1739  he  entered  Parliament  as  an  opponent 
of  V/alpole,  and  remained  in  public  life  till 
1775,  where  he  took  great  interest  in  com- 
mercial questions;  he  wrote  meanwhile 
several  tragedies. 

Glover,  Thomas  (6.  1543,  d.  1588), 
English  antiquary ;  friend  of  Camden.  His 
Catalogue  of  Honour  was  printed  in  1610. 

Glover,  William  (6.  1819,  d.  1875), 
English  composer ;  son  of  Mrs.  Glover,  the 
actress ;  was  at  different  times  actor, 
violinist  and  teacher,  but  is  chiefly  known 
as  composer  of  the  cantata  Tarn  CShanter 
(1855),  and  the  operas  Buy  Bias  (1861),  and 
Adminta.  He  died  in  America,  where  he 
had  lived  for  seven  years. 

Gluck,  Christoph  Willibald  von  (6.  1714, 
d.  1787),  Bohemian  composer;  founder  of  a 
new  school  of  opera.  His  first  works  were 
conceived  in  the  old  Italian  spirit,  but  were 
very  popular  and  gained  him  an  invitation 
to  London,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Ame,  but  was  not  successful.  He  then 
returned  to  Vienna  to  study  and  develop  his 
ideas.  Clemenza  di  Tito  was  performed  at 
Naples  in  1751,  but  his  productions  at 
Vienna,  Alceste,  Paride  ed  Elenna,  and 
especially  Orfeo  ed  Etiridice  were  his  best 
works.  Iphlqhne  en  Aulide,  produced  in 
1774,  was  also  highly  successful.  In  Paris 
his  works  excited  so  great  a  controversy  that 
musical  factions  arose  calling  themselves 
after  him  and  his  rival,  the  Italian  Piccini, 
the  one  being  supported  by  Marie  An- 
toinette, who  had  been  a  pupil  of  Gluck, 
and  the  other  by  Madame  du  Barry. 

Glycas,  Michael  (12th  century),  Bvzan- 
tine  historian,  author  of  Biblos  Chrontke. 

Glycerius  (5tli  century),  Roman  emperor 
in  473  ;  abdicated  and  became  a  priest  in 
474. 

Glyn,  Isabella  {b.  1823),  English  actress ; 


Gly 


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Go1> 


pupfl  of  Charles  Kemble,  her  chief  parts 
Demg  Lady  Coustauce  and  Lady  Macbeth. 

Glynn,  Joseph  (6.  1799,  d.  1863),  English 
eut;iueer;  fellow-pupil  with  Stephenson  of 
Mr.  John  Bruce  ;  drew  up  a  memorandum 
for  the  Admiralty  on  the  application  of 
screw-propellers  to  war-ships ;  designer  of 
several  of  the  first  marine  steam-engines, 
and  of  the  scoop- wheel  for  draining  marshes, 
He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
many  of  his  papers  read  before  the  Insti- 
tute of  Civil  Engineers  were  translated  into 
other  languages. 

Gmelin,  Johann  Georg  (6.  1709,  d.  185o), 
German  botanist:  professor  of  natural 
history  at  St.  Petersburg  ;  made  a  scientific 
exploration  of  Siberia,  and  published  the 
results  in  Reisen  dnrch  tsibtrien.  On  his 
return  to  Gei'inauy  he  became  professor  at 
Tiibingen.  His  nephew,  Samuel  Gottlieb 
{d.  1774),  explored  the  country  south  of  the 
Caspian,  but  was  captured  and  detained  by 
a  hostile  tribe. 

Gmelin,  Leopold  (6.  1788,  d.  1853), 
German  chemist ;  son  of  a  professor  of 
medicine  at  Gottiugen;  published  iu  1841  and 
succeeding  years  his  Handbuch  der  Chiniie. 

Gneisenau,  August  Wilhelm  Anton  Graf 
Neidhardt  von  {b.  1760,  d.  1831),  Prussian 
soldier ;  served  previously  in  the  Austrian 
army,  andasanAnspach-Baireuthmerceuary 
in  the  British  army  in  America.  In  1786,  after 
an  interview  with  Frederick,  he  obtained  a 
commission  iu  the  Prussian  army,  and  was 
wounded  at  Saalfeld  in  1802.  Having  been 
present  at  Jena,  he  subsequently  commanded 
at  the  siege  of  Colberg.  After  the  peace 
he  assisted  Scharnhorst  to  reorganise  the 
Prussian  army,  and  his  efforts  excited  the 
hostility  of  Napoleon,  who  enforced  iu  1809 
his  retirement.  After  visiting  England  and 
other  countries,  in  1811  he  re-entered  the 
army  and  became  Bliicher's  quarter- master- 
general  in  the  war  of  Liberation,  and 
his  second  in  command  iu  the  Waterloo 
campaign.  In  182.5  he  was  appointed  field- 
marshal,  but  he  took  little  further  part  in 
public  affairs,  his  Libei-al  opinions  being 
looked  upon  with  disfavour. 

Gneist,  Heinrich  Hermann  Rudolf  Fried- 
rich  (b.  1816),  German  jurist  and  his- 
torian ;  bom  at  Berlin ;  became  in  1841 
assessor  of  the  Superior  Coui-t,  and  in 
1846  assistant  judge  iu  the  Sunreme 
Tribunal.  In  1848  he  obtained  a  seat 'in  the 
Mimicipal  Council,  and  ten  years  later 
became  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Lower 
House.  In  the  imperial  Parliament  he  was 
for  some  time  leader  of  the  Left  Centre,  but 
afterwards  joined  the  National  Liberals. 
In  1875  he  became  a  senior  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Prussia,  and  was  ap- 
pomted  instructor  in  pohtical  science  to  the 


Emperor  William  II.  Among  his  works  are 
TJie  Constitution  of  Trial  by  Jury  in 
Geitnany,  Nobility  and  Knighthood  in 
England  (1853),  The  English  Constitutional 
and  Administrative  Law  of  the  Present  Bay 
(1857-63),  The  Self-Governnient  of  Enaland 
(1863),  Enqlische  Verfassungsgeschichte 
(1882),  and  I>as  englisches  Parlament  (188G), 
the  last  having  been  translated. 

Goad,  John  {b.  1615,  d.  1689),  English 
scholar ;  head-master  of  Merchant  Taylors' 
School  for  twenty  years ;  was  dismissed  for 
Roman  tendencies,  and  afterwards  joined 
that  church. 

Goadby,  Robert  (6.  1721,  d.  1778), 
Eughsh  publisher  of  Sherborne,  author  of 
An  Illustration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  from 
an  Arian  point  of  view. 

Gobat,  Samuel,  D.D.  (6.  1799,  d.  1879), 
Swiss  ecclesiastic;  was  a  Lutheran  mis- 
sionary in  Abyssinia  and  afterwards  vice- 
principal  of  the  Protestant  college  at  Malta. 
In  1846  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Jeru- 
salem on  the  nomination  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  his  conduct  towards  the  Eastern 
Church  causing  great  controversy  in  Eng- 
land, and  precipitating  Newman's  apostacy. 

Gobel,  Jean  Baptiste  (A.  1727,  d.  1794), 
French  revolutionist ;  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly ;  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  and  installed  by  Talleyrand  in  1791 ; 
resigned  in  November,  1793,  in  order  to  take 
a  more  active  part  in  the  revolution ;  was 
condemned  for  atheism  with  Hubert  and 
Clootz  and  executed  in  April,  1794. 

Gobelin,  Jehan  («?.  1476),  French  dyer; 
founder  of  the  great  manufacturing  family, 
setting  up  his  works  at  Paris  about  1450; 
is  believed  to  have  invented  scarlet  dye. 

Goblet,  Rene  (6.  1828),  French  states- 
man ;  bom  at  Aire-sur-la-Lys,  called  to  the 
bar  at  Amiens ;  established  a  Liberal 
journal  under  the  Empire,  but  in  1871 
entered  upon  political  life  as  a  member  of 
the  republican  Left  in  the  Assembly.  In 
1876  he  was  rejected  at  Amiens,  but  elected 
in  the  following  year,  and  in  1879  obtained 
a  subordinate  office.  In  1881  he  was  re- 
elected for  Amiens,  and  next  year  was 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  under 
M.  Freycinet,  but  resigned  with  his 
colleagues  on  the  Egyptian  question.  In 
the  cabinet  of  M.  Brisson  as  minister  of 
education  and  public  works,  he  intro- 
duced many  reforms,  and  on  the  resignation 
of  his  chief  was  reappointed  by  M.  Frey- 
cinet (January,  1886).  His  speech  before 
the  Senate  on  primary  education  on 
February  4th  was  ordered  to  be  published 
throughout  France.  In  December  M. 
Goblet  became  prime  minister  as  well  as 
minister    of    the    interior   and    of    foreign 


God 


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God 


aiEairs  ad  interim.  In  the  election  of  1889 
he  was  defeated  by  a  Royalist-Boulangist 
coalition. 

Godart,  Jean  {b.  1775,  d.  1823),  French 
naturalist ;  author  of  Histoire  Naturelle  des 
Lepidopteres  en  France  (1822). 

Goddaxd,  ArabeUa  {b.  1836),  English 
pianist;  horn  near  St.  Malo;  played  at  a 
concert  at  St.  Servan  when  four  years  old  ; 
took  lessons  from  Kalkbrenuer  at  Paris,  and 
at  eight  years  of  age  took  part  in  a  concert  at 
Buckiaghani  Palace.  She  was  afterwards 
a  pupil  successively  of  Thalberg  and  Sir  G. 
Macfarren  and  made  her  debut  in  October, 
1850,  at  the  grand  national  concerts.  In 
1854  she  made  an  extended  Contiueutal  tour, 
giving  concerts  at  Paris,  Berlin,  Leipzig, 
Vienna,  and  Florence,  returning  to  England 
in  1856.  In  1860  she  married  Mr.  Davison, 
a  musical  critic,  but  continued  to  perform 
till  1873,  when  she  went  to  Australia  and 
the  United  States.  She  returned  to  England 
three  years  later. 

Goddard,  General ;  marched  across  India 
in  1788,  and  defeated  Sindia ;  carried  on 
operations  against  the  Mahrattas,  which 
ended  in  the  treaty  of  Salbye. 

Goddaxd,  Jonathan  (b.  1617,  d.  1674), 
English  physician;  accompanied  Cromwell 
to  Scotland  aud  Ireland ;  became  warden  of 
Merton  CoUege,  Oxford,  and  represented 
the  university  in  the  Little  Parliament ; 
was  deprived  at  the  Restoration,  but  gave 
himself  to  medical  studies ;  became  a  member 
of  the  council  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in- 
vented "  Goddard' s  drops." 

Godeau,  Antoine  (J.  1605,  d.  1672),  French 
historian ;  made  Bishop  of  Grasse  by  Riche- 
lieu and  of  Venice  by  Innocent  X.  ;  wrote 
Histoire  de  VEffUse,  the  first  ecclesiastical 
history  in  French. 

Godefroy,  Jacques  {b.  1587,  d.  1652), 
French  jurist ;  brother  of  Theodore;  edited 
Codex  Theodosianus  and  Fragmenta  Duodecim 
Tabularum. 

Godefroy,  Theodore  {b.  1580,  d.  1619), 
historiographer  of  France  ;  wrote  Le  Cere- 
monial de  la  France ;  his  son,  Denis  {d.  1665), 
was  author  of  Memoires  sur  les  Droits 
du  Roi. 

Goderich,  Lord.     \^See  Ripon.] 

Godfrey,  Charles  {b.  1799,  d.  1863), 
English  musician ;  foimder  of  a  family  of 
band-masters ;  was  appointed  musician  in 
ordinary  to  the  king  in  1831,  and  was 
band-master  of  the  Coldstream  Guards. 
He  also  composed  waltzes  for  military 
bands.  His  sons  were  educated  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and  all  followed 
their  father's  profession. 


Godfrey,  Sir  Edmundsbury  (b.  1621, 
d.  1(378),  Enghsh  magistrate,  received  the 
depositions  of  Titus  Gates,  and  was  murdered 
soon  afterwards,  possibly  by  someone  accused 
by  the  informer. 

Godfrey,  Thomas  {b.  1736,  rf.  1763),  Ameri- 
can poet ;  son  of  a  mathematician,  who  per- 
fected the  quadrant;  wrote  the  Court  of 
Fancy,  and  some  plays. 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon  {d.  1100),  crusader; 
King  of  Jerusalem ;  set  out  in  1096 ;  took 
Nicsea  aud  Antioch  in  1097 ;  defeated  the  Sar- 
acens next  year,  and  in  1099,  after  a  month's 
siege,  took  Jerusalem  and  slaughtered 
the  inhabitants.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  king,  but  refused  to  assume  the  title, 
and  won  the  battle  of  Ascalon,  dj-ing,  prob- 
ably by  poison,  in  1100.  He  drew  up  a  code 
known  as  Assises  de  Jerusalem. 

Godfrey  de  Viterbo  {d.  1191),  German 
historian  ;  secretary  to  the  Emperors  Fred- 
erick I.  and  Heniy  VI.  and  author  of 
Chronicon  Universale,  and  other  works,  which 
remain  in  manuscript. 

Godiva  (11th  century),  Mercian  lady; 
wife  of  Earl  Leoffric ;  is  said  to  have  ridden 
naked  through  Coventry  in  order  to  obtain 
from  her  husband  the  remission  of  a  penalty 
he  had  imposed  upon  the  town. 

Godkin,  James  (6.  1806,  d.  1879),  British 
journalist  and  writer;  bom  in  Ireland ;  was 
at  first  missionary  to  Irish  Roman  Catholics, 
but,  having  vmtten  the  Rights  of  Ireland, 
changed  his  profession,  and  came  to  London 
as  a  joumaUst,  where  he  edited  several  Scot- 
tish and  Irish  papers.  He  was  subsequently 
Dublin  correspondent  of  The  Times.  He 
also  wrote  The  Land  War  in  Ireland,  The 
Religious  History  of  Ireland,  Religion  and 
Education  in  India,  and  oiher  works,  and 
was  awarded  a  pension  for  literary  merit  by 
recommendation  of  Mr.  Gladstone. 

Godley,  John  Arthur,  C.B.  (fc.  1847), 
English  civil  servant :  was  bom  in  London, 
and  educated  at  Rugby  and  Balliol,  taking 
many  prizes  at  Oxford,  and  being  fellow  of 
Hertford  from  1874  to  1881 ;  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1876,  and,  after  having  been  twice 
private  secretary  to  Mr.  Gladstone  aud  once 
to  Earl  Granville,  was  made  a  commissioner 
of  Inland  Revenue  in  1SS2,  and  became 
permanent  under-secretary  of  State  for 
India  in  1883. 

Godolphin,  John  (6.  1617,  d.  1678), 
English  civilian  :  at  first  a  Puritan,  and  was 
made  judge  of  the  Admiralty  by  Cromwell ; 
but  became  a  Royalist  and  king's  advocate 
after  the  Restoration.  He  was  author  of 
Adm iralty  Jurisdiction. 

Godolphin,  Sidney  (6.  1610,  d.  1643), 
English  Royalist  poet ;  friend  of  Hobbee ; 


God 


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Goe 


was  killed   iu    a    skimiish    in    Devonshire 
dui-iug  the  Great  RebelUon. 

GodolpMn,  Sidney,  Earl  of  (6.  1630,  d. 
1712).  English  statesman  ;  held  office  under 
Charles  11.,  James  II.,  William  III.  and 
Anue  ;  took  part  in  the  secret  negotiations 
of  Charles  II.  ■v^^th  the  French  king ;  voted 
for  the  exclusion  of  James,  but  became  his 
minister,  and  corresponded  with  him  when 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  under  his  suc- 
cessor :  as  Anue's  lord  high  treasurer,  was 
Marlborough's  chief  support,  and  shared  his 
fall  in  1710. 

Godoimov,  Boris  (6.  1552,  d.  1605),  Tsar 
of  Russia ;  obtained  the  throne  by  violent 
measures,  and  poisoned  himself  to  escape  the 
vrrath  of  the  heir  of  Feodor,  whom  he  had 
dispossessed ;  was  the  introducer  of  serf- 
dom into  Russia. 

Godoy,  Manuel  de,  Duke  of  Alcudia  (6. 
1767,  d.  1851),  Spanish  statesman;  at  first  a 
favourite  and  afterwards  a  minister  of 
Charles  IV.,  was  called  "Prince  of  the 
Peace,"  because  he  brought  to  an  end  in 
1795  the  war  with  France  ;  was  dismissed  in 
1798,  but  some  years  after,  when  in  office 
again,  intrigued  with  Napoleon  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  Bourbons ;  was  imprisoned  on 
the  discovery  of  his  schemes,  but  released  by 
Murat  in  1808,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
at  Rome  and  Paris  as  a  pensioner  of  the  de- 
posed Charles  IV.  and  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent  {d.  1053),  English 
statesman,  married  the  daughter  of  Knut, 
and  entered  his  service ;  afterwards  sup- 
ported Harold  Harefoot,  and,  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Edward  the  Confessor,  headed  the 
English  party  against  the  Norman  friends  of 
the  king,  who  had  married  his  daughter 
Editha;  consequently  incurred  his  dis- 
pleasure, and  had  to  go  into  exile  ;  returned 
and  was  reconciled  to  Edward,  but  died 
suddenly  soon  after. 

Godwin,  Francis  (b.  1561,  d.  1633),  English 
bishop  and  writer ;  author  of  Rerum  Angli- 
earum  Annales,  and  of  the  Man  in  the 
Moon. 

Godwin,  George  (6.  1815,  d.  1888),  Eng- 
lish architect;  restorer  of  St.  Mary  Redcliffe, 
Bristol ;  author  of  an  Essay  on  Concrete,  for 
which  he  obtained  a  medal  from  the  Institute 
of  British  Architects ;  edited  the  Builder,  and, 
with  Mr.  Brittou,  a  History  of  the  Churches 
of  London,  and  was  secretary  of  the  London 
Art  Union. 

Godwin,  Mary.    [See  Wollstonecraft.] 

Godwin,  Parke  {b.  1816),  American  bio- 

frapher  and  essayist,  was  bom  in  New 
ersey  and  graduated  at  Princeton,  practised 
law  for  a  short  time,  and  then  turned  to 
joumalisni,  joining  in  1837  the  New  York 


Evening  Post.  He  also  contributed  to  the 
Democratic  Review  and  Putnam's  Magazine  ; 
translated  and  edited  Goethe's  Autobiog- 
raphy ;  compiled  a  Handbook  of  Universal 
Biography,  which  was  re-issued  under  a  new 
title  in  1878  ;  and  in  1882  published  a  Biog- 
raphy of  W.  C.  Bryant,  whose  daughter  he 
married.  He  took  some  part  in  politics,  as 
a  supporter  of  the  republican  party. 

Godwin,  William  (6.  1786,  d.  1835),  Eng- 
lish writer ;  friend  of  Shelley ;  gave  up  his 
vocation  as  a  Dissenting  minister  in  Suffolk, 
to  come  to  London  and  become  a  writer. 
After  conducting  for  a  few  years  the  Annual 
Register,  he  brought  out  in  1793  his  Inquiry 
into  Political  Justice,  and  next  year  Caleb 
Williams,  a  novel.  He  also  contributed  as 
a  Whig  to  the  Morning  Chronicle,  and 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Commonivealth  of 
England  (1824-8).  His  first  wife  vvas 
Mary  Wollstonecraft,  whom  he  married 
in  1797. 

Goeben,  Johann  von  {h.  1816,  d.  1880), 
German  general;  entered  the  Prussian  army 
as  a  private  in  1833 ;  served  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  Carlist  wars;  re-entered  the  Prussian 
service  in  1842,  and  was  conspicuous  in  the 
war  of  1866.  In  1870  he  commanded  the 
eighth  army  corps,  and  was  present  at  the 
early  battles  of  the  war  on  the  eastern  frontier, 
after  which  he  was  sent  to  the  north  and 
defeated  Faidherbe  at  Amiens  and  St. 
Quentin.  He  published  an  account  of  his 
adventures  in  Spain  under  the  title  Four 
Years  in  Spain, 

Goeckingte,  Leopold  Gunther  von  {b. 
1748,  d.  1828),  German  poet  and  statesman, 
studied  at  Halle :  was  ennobled  ^for  his 
services  by  Frederic  William  II.  in  1789,  and 
'  in  1793  became  councillor  of  finance  at 
I  Berlin,  afterwards  holding  office  under  the 
Prince  of  Orange-Fulda  and  administering 
the  territory  of  the  Princess  of  Courland. 
He  was  the  author  of  Sinngedichte,  written 
between  1772  and  1778,  and  Lieder  Zweier 
Liebenden  between  1777  and  1779. 

Goerres,  Johann  (6.  1776,  d.  1848),  Ger- 
man writer  ;  was  included  in  the  deputation 
of  the  Rhenish  provinces  which  went  to 
the  Directory  to  demand  their  union  with 
France ;  became  professor  of  natural  history 
at  Coblentz,  where  he  edited  the  revolution- 
ary Rheinische  Merkur,  and  wrote  several 
works.  For  writing  Beutschland  und  die 
Revolution  he  was  expelled  by  the  Prussian 
government;  but  in  1837  he  issued  a  pam- 
phlet, Athanasius,  when  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne  was  arbitrarily  arrested. 

Goertz,  George  {d.  1719),  Swedish  states- 
man; as  minister  of  Charles  XII.  confis- 
cated much  property  to  recruit  the  finances, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  king  was  beheaded 
on  a  charge  of  treason. 


Goe 


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Gol 


Goertz,  Johann  Graf  von  (6.  1737,  d.  \ 
1821),  Prussian  diplomatist ;  as  plenipo- 
tentiary of  Frederic  11.  at  Munich,  pre- 
vented the  designs  of  Joseph  II.  in  Bavaria ; 
■was  afterwards  ambassador  at  St.  Peters- 
burg and  the  Hague,  and  represented 
Prussia  in  the  Diet  at  Ratisbon.  His 
Memoirs  were  printed  in  1827. 

Goes,  Damiao  de  {b.  loOl,  d.  1573),  Portu- 

fuese  historian  and  diplomatist ;  author  of 
,egatio  Magni  Imperatoris  huiorum  Fresbij- 
teri  Joannis,  Chronica  di  Felicissitno  Rey 
Bon  Manuel  de  Gloriosa  Memoria,  and  other 
works. 

Goes,  Hugo  van  der  (6.  1419,  d.  1480), 
Flemish  painter ;  pupil  of  Van  Eyck.  Most 
of  his  pictures  are  at  Ghent  and  Bruges. 
In  the  church  of  St.  James  at  the  latter 
place  is  his  great  work,  The  Taking-Down 
from  the  Croas. 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von  (6.  1749, 
d.  1832),  German  poet,  philosopher,  and 
romance  writer ;  was  bom  at  Fraukf  ort-on- 
the-Main  of  noble  family,  and  received  a 
liberal  education.  At  sixteen  he  went  to 
Leipzig  to  study  law,  to  which,  however, 
he  did  not  contine  himself.  After  about 
two  years'  study  of  alchemy  and  mystical 
writers,  he  went  to  Strasburg  in  1769, 
where  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
Herder  and  met  Waguer.  On  his  return 
to  Frankfort  two  years  later  he  published 
Goetz  von  Berlichingen  and  Leider  der 
Werther,  the  latter  of  which  was  im- 
mensely popular.  lu  1775  he  went  to 
Weimar,  where  the  Grand  Duke  gave  him 
the  office  of  chamberlain :  and  in  1786  to 
Italy,  where  he  travelled  for  two  years,  and 
conceived  some  of  his  greatest  works.  The 
dramas  of  Iphigenia,  Egmont,  and  Torquato 
Ta-sso  were  produced  between  1786  and 
1790,  in  which  year  also  the  first  fragments 
of  Famt  were  published.  In  1794  Goethe's 
botanical  researches  brought  him  into  con- 
nection with  Schiller,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  produced  Wilhebn  Meister.  The  results 
of  his  scientific  studies  were,  besides  The 
Metamorphosis  of  Plants,  the  Beitrdge  zur 
Optik  (1791-2),  and  a  book  on  the  theory  of 
colour,  Farbenlehre,  published  in  1810,  in 
opposition  to  Newton's  theories.  Mean- 
while Hermann  und  Dorothea  had  appeared 
in  1797,  and  the  greater  part  of  Faust  in 
1807,  the  latter  not  being  finished  till  the 
year  before  his  death.  Next  year  he  ac- 
companied the  Grand  Duke  of  Weimar  to 
Erfurt,  and  had  an  interview  with  Napo- 
leon. During  his  Last  years  he  was  occu- 
pied with  his  autobiography,  Aus  Meinem 
Lehcn.  In  1856  Mr.  G.  H.  Lewes  pubHshed 
the  Life  and  Works  of  Goethe,  and  nu- 
merous biographical  and  literary  works  con- 
cerning him  have  appeared  in  Germany. 

Goetze,    Johann    Melchior    (6.    1717,    d. 


1786),  German  theologian  and  controver- 
sialist, called  the  "Inquisitor  of  Ham- 
burg; "  wrote  much  in  opposition  to  Lessing, 
Goethe,  and  the  Rationalists. 

Goffe,  WUliam  (6.  1505,  d.  1679),  English 
soldier ;  one  of  the  judges  of  Charles  I.,  and 
of  Cromwell's  major-generals.  His  last 
years  were  spent  in  America,  where  his 
name  became  known  from  his  having,  in 
his  old  age,  headed  the  inhabitants  of  his 
village  when  attacked  by  Indians. 

Gogol,  Nikolai  (b.  1808,  d.  1852),  Russian 
writer  ;  made  professor  of  history  at  St. 
Petersburg  by  the  Tsar  Nicholas  on  account 
of  his  drama  The  Reviser ;  afterwards  be- 
came famous  as  the  author  of  Dead  Souls  ; 
in  1847  wrote  Letters  in  favour  of  the 
emancipation  of  the  serfs. 

Golding,  Arthur  (1 6th  century),  English 
scholar;  secretary  of  Cecil;  translated  Ovid's 
Metamorphoses,  and  other  Latin  works. 

Golding,  Richard  (6.  1785,  d.  1865),  Eng- 
lish engraver ;  employed  by  West  to  engrave 
the  Death  of  Nelson,  and  by  Sir  T.  Lawrence 
to  reproduce  his  portrait  of  Princess  Char- 
lotte.    Proofs  of  his  work  are  rare. 

"^Goldmark,  Karl  {b.  1832),  Austrian  com- 
poser ;  a  pupil  of  Jansa  at  Vienna,  at  the 
Conservatoire  of  which  he  studied.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  overture  Sacuntala, 
the  grand  opera  Die  Kiiningin  von  Saba, 
and  the  symphony  Die  Ldndliche  Hochzeit, 
the  last  of  which  was  played  by  Charles 
Halle  at  Liverpool  in  1877,  and  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  in  March,  1878. 

Goldoni,  Carlo  (6.  1707,  <?.  1793),  Italian 
dramatist;  son  of  a  Venetian  physician;  ran 
away  from  home,  and  joined  some  come- 
dians ;  on  his  return  studied  law  at  Padua. 
He  then  went  to  Venice,  and  wrote  come- 
dies, taking  Moliere  as  his  model:  after- 
wards went  to  Paris ;  taught  the  children  of 
Louis  XV.  Italian,  and  received  a  pension, 
which  was  stopped  by  the  Convention,  but 
restored.  His  best  known  work  is  Le 
Bourru  Bienfaisant. 

Goldschmidt,  Hermann  {b.  1802,  d.  1866), 
German  painter  and  astronomer,  his  chief 
pictures  being  the  The  Sihgl  of  Cumm,  ex- 
hibited in  1845,  and  the  View  of  Rome,  in 
1849.  Having,  when  in  Paris,  heard  a 
lecture  of  Le  Verrier,  he  began  to  study 
astronomy,  and  discovered  Lutetia  and  ten 
minor  planets,  receiving  the  gold  medal  of 
the  Royal  Astronomical  Society, 

Goldsmid,  Sir  Frederick,  C.B.,  K. C.S.I. 

(jb.  1823),  English  general  and  Persian 
scholar  ;  served  in  the  Chinese  campaign  of 
1840-2,  and  in  the  Crimea ;  was  chief 
director  of  the  Indo-European  telegraph, 
1S65-70,    and    boimdary    commissioner    in 


Gol 


(  380) 


Gom 


Persia,  1870-3.  He  went  on  several  mis- 
sions to  Persia,  and  from  1880  to  1883  was 
controller  of  the  Daira  Sanieh  in  Egyj^t ; 
while  in  1885  he  became  secretary  to  the 
Koyal  Asiatic  Society.  His  chief  works  are 
Telegraph  and  Travel  (1874),  and  Life  of 
Sir  James  Out.ram  (1880). 

Goldsmith,  Oliver  {b.  1728,  d.  1774), 
Euirlish  poet  and  romance  writer  ;  son  of  a 
poor  Irish  clergyman  of  Pallas,  Longford, 
went  as  sizar,  in  1744,  to  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  led  a  miserable  life  till 
he  took  his  degree  live  years  later.  Aftur 
this — having  failed  to  obtain  ordination, 
taken  pupils  for  a  time,  and  lost  his  money 
by  extravagance — he  went  to  Edinburgh  in 
1752.  and  from  thence  to  Leyden  ;  but,  after 
staying  there  a  year,  found  himself  pen- 
niless, and  travelled  to  London  through 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Northern  Italy, 
supporting  himself  by  flute-playing.  After 
a  precarious  existence  as  a  surgeon,  an 
author,  and  a  literai-y  hack,  he  produced,  in 
1759,  his  Inqui'^-y  into  the  Present  State  of 
Folite  Leant  1 1)  g  in  JStiroye.  This  sold  well, 
and  gained  for  the  author  the  acquaintance 
of  Dr.  Johnson.  Soon  after  he  was  engaged 
to  contribute  to  the  Public  Ledger,  and  the 
Citizen  of  the  World,  and  among  other  con- 
tributions wrote  the  Letters  from  a  Nobleman 
to  his  Son.  The  Trareller  followed  in  1765, 
and  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  (sold  for  fifty 
guineas  only)  ia  1766,  but  Goldsmith  was 
improvident  as  ever.  As  a  dramatist  he 
became  known  as  the  writer  of  the  Good- 
Natured  Man,  brought  out  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1768,  and  She  Stoops  to  Conquer 
in  1773,  and  as  a  poet  by  The  Deserted 
Village  (1770),  and  his  last  work.  The  Re- 
taliation. He  wrote  numerous  other  works, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Animated 
Nature. 

Goliath  of  Gath  {d.  circa  1063  B.C.), 
Philistine  giant  killed  by  David. 

Golius,  Jacob  {b.  1596,  d.  1667),  Dutch 
Orientalist ;  professor  of  Arabic  at  Leyden ; 
went  to  Morocco  and  Constantinople,  and 
brought  back  valuable  MSS..  now  in  Ley- 
den museum ;  made  an  Arabic  translation 
of  the  Liturgy  and  the  Ref onned  Confession 
for  the  Christian  slaves  in  Constantinople, 
and  was  author  of  an  Arabic-Latin  dic- 
tionary. His  brother  Peter  {d.  1673),  a 
Romanist  missioiiary,  translated  the  Imi- 
tatio  Christi  into  Arabic. 

_GoloTin,  Ivan  MikhRilovich  (6.  1670,  d. 
1738),  Russian  diplomatist;  fellow-pupil 
%vith  Peter  the  Great  in  the  ship-yards  of 
Saardam,  and  sent  by  him  on  a  mysterious 
mission  to  Rome,  for  which  the  ambassador 
was  largely  rewarded. 

Golovnin,  Vasili  (b  1780,  d.  1832),  Rus- 
sian   naval    officer,   -while    conducting    the 


survey  of  the  sea-board  of  the  Tsar's  do- 
minions, he  visited  Japan,  and  was  im- 
prisoned for  two  years,  but  collected  valu- 
able documents  concerning  the  country.  He 
published  in  German  an  account  of  this  and 
another  voyage  made  in  1817. 

Goltz,  Heinrich  (b.  1558,  d.  1617),  Ger- 
man engraver,  the  Apollo  of  Belvedere  and 
Farnesian  Hercules  being  the  best  specimens 
of  his  work. 

Gomar,  Francis  {b.  1563,  d.  1641),  Dutch 
theologian  ;  disputed  with  Arminius  at  the 
synod  of  Dort  (1618),  and  was  active  ia 
promoting  the  persecuting  decrees  against 
his  followers ;  studied  some  time  at  Oxford, 
and  received  the  degree  of  B.D.  from  Cam- 
bridge. 

Gombart,  Jean  Ogier  de  [d.  1666),  French 
poet,  author  of  Endgmion  (1624),  Poesies 
(1646),  and  Epigrammes  (1657). 

Gombert,  Nicolas  (16th  century),  Flemish 
musical  composer ;  attached  to  the  court  of 
Charles  v.,  and  a  pupil  of  Josquin ;  com- 
posed motets  and  psalm-tunes,  also  pastoral 
songs  and  setting  of  poem  of  Avidius  on  the 
death  of  Josquin. 

Gomtaerville,  Marion  le  Royde  {b.  1600, 
d.  1674),  French  novelist  and  academician; 
made  a  point  of  omitting  car  and  other 
words  from  his  works,  the  chief  of  which 
were  La  Caritie  (1622),  Polexandre  (1632), 
and  La  Doctrine  des  Moetirs  (1646). 

Gomersal,  Robert  {b.  1600,  d.  1646),  Eng- 
lish poet  and  divine ;  author  of  The  Levite'a 
Revenge  and  other  pieces. 

Gomez,  Madeleine  Angelique,  Madame  de 
{b.  1684,  d.  1770),  French  novelist,  her 
chief  work  being  Les  Journees  Amusantes 
(1723-8). 

Gomez,  Sebastiano  {d.  1682),  the  "Mulatto 
of  Murillo  ; "  used  to  listen  to  Murillo  in- 
structing his  pupils,  and,  being  surprised  by 
his  master  one  day  working  at  the  head  of 
a  Madonna,  was  given  his  freedom  and 
admitted  as  a  pupil. 

Gomez  de  Ciudad  Real,  Alvarez  {b.  1488, 
d.  1538),  Spanish  Latin  poet,  author  of 
Thalichristia,  Proverbia  Solomonis,  etc. 

Gomm,  Sir  William  MajTiard  (h.  1782, 
d.  1875),  English  soldier;  entered  the  army 
in  1794,  and  served  in  all  the  campaigns  of 
the  Napoleonic  wars,  being  at  the  time  of 
Waterloo  lieutenant- colonel.  In  1837  he 
became  major-general  ;  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Jamaica  from  1840  to  1843,  and 
governor  of  the  Mauritius  from  that  year 
till  1849.  During  the  years  1850-5o  he  was 
commander-in-chief  in  India,  having  at- 
tained the  rank   of  general  in    1854.      In 


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1868  he  became  field-marshal,  and  in  1872 
was  appointed  Constable  of  the  Tower. 

Goncalvez,  Joaquim  Alfonso  (6.  1780,  d. 
1841), 'Portuguese  missionary  and  Chinese 
scholar,  author  of  a  Portuguese-Chinese 
dictionary,  and  a  Latin  grammar  for  the 
Chinese. 

Goncourt,  Edmond  Louis  de  (6.  1822), 
French  novelist ;  wrote,  with  his  brother 
Jules,  who  died  in  1870,  much  art-criticism 
and  biography,  and  especially  novels,  two 
of  which  Heme  Maupenn  (1864),  and  Ger- 
minie  Lacerteux  were  especially  remarkable. 
Edmond  de  Goncourt  also  produced  in  1878 
La  Fille  JElise. 

Gondebaud,  or  Gundobald  {d.  516),  King 
of  Burgundy  ;  successor  of  Chiiperic,  whom 
he  had  slain  in  battle  ;  was  attacked  by 
Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  while  attempt- 
ing to  reconcile  the  Arians  to  the  Church, 
and  became  tributary  to  him;  introduced 
the  loi  Gombette,  a  Burgundian  code. 

Gondi,  Pierre  de  {b.  1533,  <f.  1616),  French 
cardinal,  brother  of  the  Marechal  de  Eetz, 
mediated  between  the  pope  and  Henri  IV., 
and  reconciled  the  latter  to  the  Church  ;  was 
successively  Bishop  of  Saugres  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris. 

Gondomax,  Diego  Sarmiento  de  Acuna, 
Conde  da  (17th  century),  Spanish  statesman, 
as  Spanish  ambassador  in  London,  obtained 
from  James  I.  the  warrant  for  Raleigh's 
execution  on  account  of  his  attack  on 
Guiana,  and  influenced  him  in  the  direction 
of  a  peaceful  policy  instead  of  an  armed 
interference  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war  in  the 
cause  of  his  son-in-law. 

Gongora  y  Argote,   Luis    (6.    1561,    d. 

1627).  Spanish  poet  mentioned  by  Cervantes, 
introduced  a  new  style,  conspicuous  for  its 
artificiality,  which  was  called  after  him 
"  Gongorism."  In  1863  Archdeacon  Churton 
published  an  essay  in  his  defence,  accom- 
panied with  translations. 

Gonthier,  Johann  (h.  1487,  d.  1574),  Ger- 
man Hellenist ;  physioian  to  Francis  I.,  but, 
having  become  a  Protestant,  was  obliged  to 
retire  to  Metz.  He  did  much  to  restore 
anatomy  in  the  university  of  Paris,  and 
was  author  of  Syntaxis  Grceca. 

Gontran  (d.  593),  King  of  Burgundy ;  son 
of  Clotaii-e  I. ;  took  Avignon  from  his  bro- 
ther, Sigebcrt,  and  had  frequent  wars  with 
him  and  with  Chiiperic;  was  excommuni- 
cated by  St.  Germain  for  loose  living;  m- 
troduced  Roman  institutions  into  Burgundy. 

Gontran-Bozon  {d.  597),  French  noble; 
general  of  Sigebert,  was  put  to  death  by 
Gontr  in  of  Burgundy. 

Gonzaga,   Gian  Francesco,    Marquis  {d. 


1519)  ;    headed  the  Italian  league  against 
Charles  VIII.  of  France. 

Gonzaga,  Federico  (6.  1500,  d.  1540),  son 
of  last  named ;  created  duke  by  Charles  V., 
and  given  principality  of  Montferrat. 

Gonzaga,  Giovanni  di  {b.  1394,  d.  1444), 
capUano  of  Mantua :  created  marquis  by  the 
Emperor  Sigismund,  who  invested  him  with 
the  town  as  an  imperial  fief.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  war  against  FUippo 
Maria  Visconti,  and  as  a  patron  of  the 
learned,  aud  his  son,  Lodovico  (d.  1478), 
followed  in  his  steps. 

Gonzaga,  Vincenzo  (b.  1594,  d.  1627),  last 
duke  of  the  direct  branch. 

Gonzaga,  Carlo  (d.  1637),  cousin  of  last 
named ;  son  of  Duke  of  Nevers ;  acquired  the 
duchy  after  a  severe  war.  His  grandson. 
Carlo  (d.  1669),  sold  his  French  possessions 
to  Cardinal  Mazarin  in  1659. 

Gonzaga,  Ferdiuando  Carlo  (fi.  1652,  d. 
1708),  son  of  preceding;  fought  for  the 
emperor  against  the  Turks  _  in  Hungary ; 
received  a  French  garrison  into  Mantua  in 
1701,  and  subsequently,  when  his  states 
were  invaded  by  the  Germans,  he  was  put 
to  the  ban  of  the  empire,  and  fled  to  France. 

Gonzaga,  Luigi  di  (6.  1267,  d.  1360),  took 
part  in  the  revolt  of  Mantua  against  Pas- 
serino  Bonacossi,  and  was  elected  capitano  di 
popolo,  which  dignity  became  hereditary. 

Gonzaga,  Tommasoo  Antonio  (i.  1747,  d. 
about  1793),  Portuguese  poet,  accused  of 
participating  in  a  conspiracy  in  Brazil,  and 
banished  to  Mozambique  for  ten  years ; 
called  "Dirceo,"  from  his  popular  lyrics 
called  Marilia  di  Dirceo,  which  were  in- 
spired by  his  love  for  a  lady  whom  he  was 
about  to  man-y  when  arrested. 

Gonzales,  Antonio  (15th  century),  Portu- 
guese navigator ;  the  first  to  traffic  in  slaves, 
the  first  cargo  of  whom  he  was  obliged  by 
Prince  Henry  to  restore. 

Gonzalvo  de  Cordova  (b.  1443,  d,  1515), 
called  the  "  Great  Captain,"  for  his  skill  in 
driving  the  French,  xmder  Charles  VIII., 
from  Italy.  He  subsequently  became 
Spanish  viceroy  of  Naples  ;  but  Ferdinand 
V  ,  jealous  of  his  reputation,  deprived  him 
of  office,  and  caused  him  to  retire  into  pri- 
vate life. 

Good,  John  Mason  (6.  1764,  t?.  1827),  Eng- 
lish physician  and  linguist,  wrote  the  Book 
of  Nature  and  other  works;  edited  the  first 
complete  edition  of  the  Letters  of  Junius, 
and  translated  Lucretius,  Job,  Proverbs,  and 
the  Song  of  Solomon. 

Good,  Thomas  Sword  (*.  1789,  d.  1872), 
EngUsh    painter,    at    first    house-painter. 


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afterwaids  aime  to  London  and  exhibited 
at  the  Academy  figure-pieces  in  the  style 
of  Wilkie,  among  which  may  be  named 
The  Merry  Cottcu/vrx,  Smugglers  Renting, 
and  Study  of  a  Hoy,  now  in  the  National 
Gallery,  and  a  small  portrait  of  Thomas 
Bewick  in  Newcastle  museum. 

Goodale,  George  Lincoln,  M.D.  (b.  1839), 
American  botanist,  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  and  received  degrees  from  Bow- 
doin  and  Harvard  ;  practised  at  Portland 
(Maiue),  and  became  in  1864  state  assayer 
of  medicine.  In  1867  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  science  in  Bowdoin,  and 
next  year  became  a  member  of  Maine  Board 
of  Agriculture,  and  professor  of  materia 
medica  in  the  Maiue  school.  In  1872  he 
was  lecturer  on  vegetable  physiology  at 
Harvai'd,  and  next  year  assistant  professor  ; 
and  in  1878  professor  of  botany,  becoming 
in  1875  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Har- 
vard library.  Subsequently  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  and  among  his 
works  are  Wild  Flowers  of  North  America 
(1882)  and  Physiological  Botany,  the  second 
part  of  Gray's  Botanical  Text- Book  (1885). 

GoodaU,  Edward  (6.  1795,  d.  1870),  Eng- 
lish engraver,  abandoned  painting  on  being 
commissioned  by  Turner  to  engrave  his  pic- 
tures ;  and  also  made  plates  for  The  South 
Coasts,  Rogers's  Italy,  and  the  Ziterary 
Souvenir. 

Goodall,  Frederick  (b.  1822),  English 
painter ;  son  of  preceding  ;  won  the  silver 
medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  when  little  more 
than  a  boy ;  exhibited  Card  Flayers  at  the 
Academy  at  the  age  of  seventeen ;  was 
elected  A.R.A.  in  1853,  and  R.A.  in  1863. 
Previously  to  this  his  chief  pictures  had 
been  The  Tired  Soldier  and  the  Village  Holi- 
day (in  the  National  Gallery),  and  some 
historical  paintings.  He  travelled  much  for 
the  pui-pose  of  his  studies,  both  in  Europe 
and  Egypt.  Among  his  more  recent  pic- 
tures may  be  named  The  Song  of  the  Nubian 
Slave,  Hagar  and  Ishmael  (1866),  A  Litter 
of  Doves,  and  A  Fruit  Woman  of  Cairo 
(1875) ;  Glencoe  (1877),  Palm  Sunday  (1878), 
Holy  Childhood  (1880),  Crossing  the  Desert 
and  Water  for  the  Camp  (1883),  Gordon's 
Last  Messenger  (1885),  Leading  the  Flock 
(1889),  and  The  Thames  from  Windsor  Castle 
(1890). 

Goode,  George  Brown  (J.  1851),  American 
ichthyologist;  became  assistant-director  of 
the  National  Museum,  and  supervised  the 
natural  history  department  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Exhibition  in  1876 ;  was  United 
States  commissioner  at  the  Fisheries  Exhi- 
bitions of  Berlin  and  London  :  and  in  1887 
became  United  States  fish  commissioner. 
Among  his  works  are  a  Catalogue  of  the  Fishes 


of  the  Bermudas  (1875),  Game  Fishes  of  the 
United  States  (1883),  A  Jieview  of  the  I'tsh- 
ing  Industries  of  the  United  States  (1883), 
Britons,  Saxons,  and  Virginians  (1887),  and 
American  Fishes  (1888). 

Goodford,  Charles  Old,  D.D.  (b.  1812,  d. 
1884),  I'rovust  of  Eton;  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  was  for  a  short  time  fellow ;  was 
successively  assistant-master,  head-master 
(1853-62),  and  provost  of  Eton.  He  edited 
in  1854  an  edition  of  Terence's  comedies. 

Goodman,  Godfrey  {b.  1583,  d.  1655), 
English  divine;  Dean  of  Rochester,  and 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Gloucester ;  was  sus- 
pended by  Laud  for  Romanist  tendencies  ; 
wrote  a  History  of  his  own  Times,  which 
was  printed  in  1839. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold  (6.  1793,  d. 
1860),  American  educational  writer;  better 
known  as  "  Peter  Parley; "  began  life  as  a 
publisher  in  Massachusetts,  and  became 
afterwards  United  States  vice-consul  at 
Paris.  He  visited  England,  Grermany,  and 
Holland  at  different  times. 

Goodricli,  Thomas  {b.  1480,  d.  1554), 
English  divine  ;  Bishop  of  Ely ;  one  of  the 
Syndics  in  the  divorce  proceedings  against 
Catherine  of  Aragon ;  took  part  in  the 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  and  was 
one  of  the  compilers  of  the  Prayer  Book  of 
1549,  and  the  author  of  The  Inntitution  of  a 
Christian  Man.  Under  Edward  VI.  he  was 
Lord  Chancellor. 

Goodwin,  Harvey,  D.D.  (J).  1818,  d.  1891), 
English  divine ;  was  born  at  King's  Lynn, 
and  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  for  some  years  fellow  and 
mathematical  lecturer,  having  been  second 
wrangler  and  Smith's  prizeman.  He  was 
Dean  of  Ely  from  1858  to  1869,  when  he 
became  Bishop  of  Carlisle ;  and  is  the  author 
of  Essays  on  the  Pentateuch,  A  Guide  to  the 
Parish  Chtirch,  The  Foundations  of  the  Creed 
(1889),  and  of  some  mathematical  works. 

Goodwin,  Thomas  {b.  1600,  d.  1679),  Cal- 
viuist  divine ;  graduated  at  Cambridge  when 
sixteen,  and  was  in  his  twentieth  year  fel- 
low of  Cathei-ine  Hall;  left  Cambridge  in 
1634,  and  soon  had  to  go  to  Holland  on 
account  of  Laud's  persecutions,  but  was 
invited  to  return  by  the  Long  Parliament, 
and  became  president  of  Magdalen,  Oxford, 
in  1650.  At  the  Restoration  was,  of  course, 
obliged  to  resign,  and  removed  to  London, 
where  he  remained  as  a  minister  till  his 
death.     He  was  with  Cromwell  at  his  death. 

Goodyear,  Charies  (fi.  1800,  d.  1860), 
American  mechanic;  invented  vulcanised 
indiarubber  about  1839 ;  after  several  minor 
discoveries,  took  out  in  all  sixty  patents  for 


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mventions  of  this  nature,  aud  obtained  in 
1851  the  Great  Council  medal  at  the  Inter- 
national Exhibition,  and  the  grand  medal 
of  the  Paris  Exhibition,  as  well  as  the 
ribbon  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  re- 
turned to  America  in  1858,  and  was  at  the 
time  of  his  death  preparing  a  book  upon 
indiarubber  and  vulcanisation. 

Googe,  Barnaby  {d.  1538),  English  poet 
and  translator,  author  of  liyloys.  Epitaphs 
and  Sonnetics  (1563),  and  translator  of  the 
Zodiac  of  Life,  Aristotle's  table  of  the  Ten 
Categories,  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
relation  of  Cecil,  and  gentleman-pensioner 
to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Gool,  Jan  van  (6.  1685,  d.  1763),  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  and  author  of  the  New 

Theatre  of  Latch  Fainters  (1750-1). 

Gordianusl.  {h.  157,  d.  238),  Roman  Em- 
peror; succeeded  Maximinus  in  238,  but  was 
killed  in  battle  with  Capellianus  the  same 
year,  together  with  his  son. 

Gordianus  II.  {d.  244),  Roman  emperor  ; 
proclaimed  in  238  ;  made  war  on  Persia,  and 
was  slain  by  his  colleague,  Philip  the 
Arabian. 

Gordius,  a  Phrygian  labourer,  who,  when 
elected  king,  placed  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  his  chariot,  fastened  by  a  yoke  which 
no  one  could  undo.  This  "  Gordian  knot  " 
was  said  to  have  been  cut  by  Alexander  the 
Great. 

Gordon,  Adam  Lindsay  (6.  1833.  d.  1870), 
Australian  poet ;  son  of  an  English  officer ; 
was  educated  at  Cheltenham,  but  early  emi- 
grated to  South  Australia,  where  he  tried 
sheep-farming,  and,  after  many  adventures, 
put  an  end  to  his  life.  His  poems  include 
Bush  Ballads,  Sea  Spray  and  Snow  Brift,  and 
Ashtaroth  (a  dramatic  lyric). 

Gordon,  Andrew  (6. 1712,  d.  1751),  Scottish 
physicist,  who  first  used  a  cylinder  in  the 
electric  machine,  and  was  author  of  Phoeno- 
mena  Electricitatis  (1744). 

Gordon,  Sir  Arthur  Hamilton  {b.  1817, 
d.  1890),  English  colonial  administrator; 
youngest  son  of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen, 
to  whom  he  was  for  some  years  private 
secretary,  was  elected  for  Beverley  in  1854, 
and  sat  till  1857,  and,  after  an  imsuccessful 
candidature  for  Liskeard.  was  in  1858  secre- 
tary to  Ionian  Islands  Mission.  In  1861  he 
was  named  governor  of  New  Brunswick, 
in  1866  of  Trinidad,  and  in  1870  of  the 
Mauritius.  In  1874  he  became  governor  of 
the  Fiji  Islands,  and  was  also  from  1877  to 
1880  high  commissioner  for  the  Western 
Pacific  He  was  governor  of  New  Zealand, 
1880-1883,  and  after  that  of  Ceylon. 

Gordon.  Charles  George  (*.  1833,  d.  1886), 


"  Chinese  Gordon; "  English  officer  and  phi- 
lanthropist ;  entered  the  Royal  Military  Col- 
lege, Woolwich,  in  1848.  and  obtained  a 
commission  in  the  Engineers  in  1852.  After 
two  years  at  Chatham,  and  a  short  time  at 
Pembroke,  he  was  sent  to  the  Crimea,  and 
was  present  at  the  capture  of  Kiuburn. 
During  the  years  1857-8  he  was  assistant- 
commissioner  at  Galatz,  and  boundary 
commissioner  in  America,  After  a  short 
time  spent  at  Chatham  he  went  in  1860  to 
China,  where  he  remained  for  several  years ; 
constructed  the  Taku  forts,  made  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  Great  Wall,  but  especially  dis- 
tinguislied  himself  as  head  of  the  force  by 
which  the  Tai-ping  rebellion  was  crushed. 
Declining  the  honoui-s  oifered  by  the  em- 
peror, Gordon  returned  to  England,  and 
obtained  an  ai>pointment  at  Gravesend.  In 
1871  he  again  went  as  conmiissioner  to 
Galatz,  aud  in  1874  went  for  the  first  time 
to  the  Soudan,  where,  as  governor  for  the 
Khedive,  he  suppressed  the  slave  trade. 
In  1876  he  resigned,  but  next  year  was  in- 
duced to  return,  and  in  the  course  of  three 
years  completed  the  work  he  had  begun  in 
1874.  In  1880  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  Lord  Ripon,  Governor- General  of  India, 
but  immediately  resigned,  and  went  to 
China,  where  he  was  able  to  prevent  a 
threatened  war  with  Russia.  On  his  return 
he  visited  the  west  of  Ireland,  from  whence 
he  went  to  the  Mauritius,  and  in  1882  to 
the  Cape  as  commander-in-chief.  In  the 
previous  year  he  had  attained  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  British  army.  During 
1883  he  Hved  in  Palestine,  and  as  the  result 
wrote  liejlections  in  Palestine.  Next  year 
he  was  about  to  go  to  the  Congo  as  adminis- 
trator for  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  when 
he  was  called  upon  by  the  English  Govern- 
ment to  proceed  as  British  envoy  to  the 
Soudan,  being  also  nominated  governor- 
general  by  the  Khedive.  He  was  not  sup- 
ported by  the  home  Government  in  his 
efforts  to  rescue  the  besieged  garrisons,  and 
was  himself  at  last  shut  up  m  Khartoum, 
where  an  expedition  sent  out  to  relieve  him 
arrived  too  late  to  prevent  his  death. 

Gordon,  Lord  George  (I).  1751,  d.  1793), 
EuKlish  fanatic  ;  was  active  as  a  member  of 
Parliament  and  of  the  Protestant  Associa- 
tion in  resistance  to  proposals  of  relieving 
Catholic  disabilities,  and  in  1780  headed  the 
riots  in  London,  when  he  marched  to  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  at  the  head  of  a  "No 
Popery  "  mob.  He  was  tried  for  high  trea- 
son, but  acquitted.  He  died  in  prison  for 
libellous  offences,  having  before  his  death 
adopted  Judaism. 

Gordon,  Sir  John  Watson  (6.  1790,  d. 
1864),  Scotch  portrait -painter,  a  fellow 
pupil  with  Wilkie  at  the  Academy  of  the 
Trustees  for  the  Encouragement  of  Manu- 
factures, and  lived  at  Edinburgh  all  his  life. 


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Gor 


In  1SJ7  his  first  i^ioture  was  exhibited  at 
the  Scottish  Academy,  of  wliich  he  became 
president  in  I80O.  lu  1841  he  was  elected 
A.E.A.,  aud  iu  1851  K.A.  Among  his  por- 
traits are  those  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the  Earl 
of  Aberdeen,  and  Lord  Cockburn. 

Gordon,  Lucie  Lady  Duff  {b.  1821,  d. 
1869),  English  translator,  daughter  of  John 
Austin;  went  to  Germany  iu  1826,  aud 
formed  a  friendship  with  Heine,  aud  married 
Sir-  A.  Durt"  Gordon  iu  1840.  Iu  1839  she 
translated  Niebuhr's  Greek  Legends,  in 
1S44  Meiuhold's  Amber  Witch,  aud  iu  1849 
Rauke's  Hifitory  of  Brandenburg.  She  visited 
the  Cape  for  her  health,  and  while  there 
wrote  Letters  from  the  Cnpe  (1861-2) ;  aud 
in  I86.3  went  to  Egypt.  She  also  translated 
Remarkable  CrimnuU  Trials  from  the  Ger- 
man, Stella  and  Vanessa,  and  other  works. 

Gordon,  Patrick  {b.  1635,  d.  1699),  Scots- 
man, who  was  general  in  the  Russian  ser- 
vice, and  a  friend  aud  adviser  of  Peter  the 
Great. 

Gordon, Thomas  {d.  1750),  British  writer; 
employed  by  Walpole,  published  a  transla- 
tion of  Tacitus,  aud  was  author  of  Pillars  of 
Priestcraft  and  Orthodoxy  Unshaken  (1768). 

Gordon,  William  {h.  1729,  d.  1807),  Ameri- 
can historian  ;  went  to  America  iu  1772  as  a 
supporter  of  the  colonists,  and  produced  in 
1788  a  History  of  the  Independence  of  the 
United  States. 

Gore,  Catherine  {b.  1800,  d.  1861),  English 
novel  writer,  wife  of  Captain  Gore.  Among 
her  many  novels  the  best  known  are  Theresa 
Marchniont  and  Mothers  and  Daughters 
(1831). 

Gbrgei,  Arthur  {b.  1818),  Hungarian 
general,  studied  chemistry  at  Prague,  aud 
wrote  a  work  on  acids ;  joined  Kossuth  in 
1848,  and  performed  many  brilliant  ex- 
ploits, but  professed  allegiance  to  Austria 
at  Waitzeu,  aud  was  for  a  time  deprived  of 
his  command.  On  being  restored  he  won 
many  brilUant  victories  for  the  Hungarian 
cause,  aud  became  minister  of  war.  He  was 
again,  however,  deprived  by  Kossuth  for 
neglectiug  to  seize  Vienna,  but  again  re- 
placed by  the  wishes  of  his  soldiers.  On 
August  13th,  1849,  however,  he  surrendered 
to  the  Russians  at  Valagos.  He  was  par- 
doned by  the  Austriaus,  and  afterwards 
employed  iu  engineering  work.  In  1852 
appeared  Mein  Lnben  mid  Wirken  in  Ungarn 
in  den  Jahren  lS4S-9—a,  defence  of  his 
conduct— which  was  translated  in  1858. 

Gorgias  of  Leontini  (6.  485  B.C.,  d.  380 
B.C.!,  .Sicilian  philosopher  and  statesman, 
ha%-Lug  gone  on  a  mission  to  Athens,  settled 
there,  aud  devoted  himself  to  study.  Hia 
chief  work  is  a  philosophical  treatise  Of  the 


Non-being,  or  of  Nature,  aud  several  of  hia 
orations  are  extant. 

Gori,  Antonio  (6.  1691,  d.  \lbl),  Italian 
archaeologist ;  author  of  Inscriptiones  An- 
tiques, aud  Museum  Florentinum. 

Goring,  Lord  George  {d.  1657),  English 
Royalist  commander  iu  the  Great  Rebellion ; 
surrendered  Portsmouth,  and  was  defeated 
in  several  engagements,  after  which  he 
became  a  Dominican  friar  in  Spain. 

Gorm  {d.  circa  941),  King  of  Denmark, 
aud  a  notable  pirate. 

Gorrie,  Sir  John  (fi.  1824).  English  colonial 
administrator;  born  at  Kettle,  Fifeshire; 
the  son  of  a  Presbyteriau  minister;  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  aud  St.  Andrew's  ;  was 
called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1856.  He  was 
prominent  iu  his  advocacy  of  the  volunteer 
movement,  raising  two  artisan  companies 
in  Edinburgh.  Iu  1860  he  went  to  America, 
and,  as  a  writer  ou  the  Morning  Star,  sup- 
ported the  northern  states.  After  some 
mouths  iu  Jamaica,  he  came  to  London  in 
1868,  with  the  view  of  entering  Parliament 
for  the  Border  burghs,  but  withdrew  iu 
favour  of  Mr.  Trevelyau.  In  1869  he  went  to 
the  Mauritius  as  substitut  procureur-geueral ; 
shortly  after  became  puisne  j  udge  aud  effected 
several  reforms.  In  1876  he  became  chief 
justice  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  aud  after- 
wards high  commissioner.  In  1882  he  was 
knighted,  and  soon  after  transferred  to  the 
Leeward  Islands,  where  he  carried  out 
several  reforms  in  the  interests  of  the  in- 
habitants, especially  the  Indefeasible  Titles 
ordinance.  In  1885  he  was  removed  to 
Trinidad,  where  his  administration  was 
popular  and  successful. 

Gorsas,  Antoine  Joseph  {b.  1751,  d.  1793), 
French  revolutionary  journalist.  After 
having  been  impi'isoned  for  his  satirical 
verses,  he  established  the  Courrier  de  Ver- 
sailles in  1789,  and  attacked  the  court; 
became  a  member  of  the  National  Con- 
vention in  1792,  but,  having  become  too 
moderate  in  his  views,  was  obliged  to  fly  to 
Brittany,  and  on  his  return  was  tried  by 
the  revolutionary  tribunal  and  guillotined. 

Gorst,  Sir  John  Eldon  {b.  1835),  Enghsh 
statesman ;  son  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Loundes, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Gorst ;  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  was  for  some  time  fellow, 
having  been  third  wrangler  in  1857.  From 
1861  to  1863  he  was  civil  commissioner  of 
Waikato,  New  Zealand,  and  iu  1865  was 
called  to  the  English  bar,  becoming  Queen's 
Counsel  iu  1875.  From  1866  to  1868  he  was 
Conservative  member  of  Parliament  for 
Cambridge,  aud  iu  1875  was  returned  for 
Chatham.  In  the  Parliament  of  1880  he 
was  a  member  of   the    "Fourth  party," 


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Gos 


and,  on  the  return  of  the  Conservatives  to 
office,  became  Solicitor-General.  In  the 
Unionist  Government  he  was  appointed 
under-secretary  for  India. 

Gortschakoff,  Prince  Alexander  Michaelo- 
vitch  {b.  1798,  d.  1883),  Eussian  statesman ; 
entered  the  diplomatic  service,  and  was  in 
1824  attache  in  London,  from  whence  he  went 
as  Russian  minister  to  Stuttgardt,  after  hav- 
ing negotiate  1  the  marriage  of  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Wurtemberg  with  the  Grand- 
Duchess  Olga.  In  1850  he  went  to  Frankfort 
as  minister  to  the  German  Confederation, 
and  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Bismarck. 
After  being  minister  at  Vienna  during  the 
Crimean  war,  and  attending  the  Paris  con- 
ference, he  was  appointed,  in  1856,  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs,  and,  some  years  later, 
chancellor.  His  policy  was,  on  the  whole, 
pacific,  but  he  set  himself  gradually  to 
undo  the  treaty  of  1856,  in  so  far  as  it 
affected  Russian  interests.  Thus,  in  return 
for  his  moral  support  of  Prussia  in  1870 
he  obtained  her  approval  in  the  abrogation 
of  the  Black  Sea  neutrality  clause.  As  the 
result  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-8 
he  also  regained  for  Russia  the  mouths  of 
the  Danube.  Gortschakoff's  Asian  policy, 
actuated  by  dislike  to  England,  probably 
had  much  to  do  with  the  second  Afghan 
war.  In  1879  he  went  to  Berlin  with  the 
object  of  improving  the  relations  between 
Russia  and  Germany,  and  in  the  following 
year  gave  up  office  and  retired  to  Baden- 
Baden. 

GortBchakofr,  Prince  Michael  {b.  1795,  d. 
1861),  Russian  soldier;  cousin  of  the  last- 
named  ;  served  in  the  Turkish  war  of 
1828-9,  and  composed  a  war-song  on  the 
passage  of  the  Danube:  commanded  the 
artillery  in  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1830  ; 
took  part  in  the  Hungarian  campaign  of 
1848.  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Crimean  war  by  his  skilful  retreat  from 
Sebastopol.  He  was  for  the  rest  of  his 
life  governor  of  Poland,  and  lived  to  see 
the  beginning  of  the  last  great  insurrec- 
tionary movement. 

Goschen,  George  Joachim  {b.  1831),  Eng- 
lish statesman  of  German  Jewish  extrac- 
tion, bom  in  London ;  educated  at  Rugby 
and  Oriel  College,  Oxford;  was  engaged  in 
banking  as  a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Friihling 
and  Goschen  till  1865.  He  entered  Par- 
liament as  Liberal  member  for  the  City 
of  London  in  1863,  and  represented  it  till 
1880.  In  1866  he  became  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster  and  a  cabinet  minister, 
having  previously  been  vice-president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade.  In  Mr.  Gladstone's 
first  ministry  he  was  president  of  the  Poor- 
Law  Board,  and  afterwards  First  Lord  of 
*  the  Admiralty.  In  1876  he  accompanied 
M.  Joubert  on  a  mission  to  Egypt  with  the 


view  of  restoring  the  finances.  In  1880  he 
was  returned  for  Ripon,  but,  owing  to  his 
views  on  reform,  was  unable  to  take 
office,  and  went  as  ambassador  to  the  Porte, 
when  he  compelled  the  Turks  to  carry  out 
those  provisions  of  the  Berlin  treaty  which 
related  to  Greece.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  took  up  in  Parliament  an  inde- 
pendent attitude,  becoming  gradually,  how- 
ever, more  and  more  alienated  from  his 
party.  In  1885  he  was  returned  for  Edin- 
burgh, but  was  rejected  when,  at  the 
next  election,  he  opposed  Mr.  Gladstone's 
Home  Rule  policy.  In  1887  he  joined 
Lord  Salisbury's  Government  as  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  becoming  member  for 
St.  George's,  Hanover  Square.  In  1888  he 
carried  out  a  scheme  for  the  reduction  of 
the  interest  on  the  national  debt.  His 
treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Foreign  Exchanges 
was  translated  into  French  by  M.  Leon  Say. 

Goselini,  Giuliano  {b.  1525,  d.  1587), 
Italian  poet ;  author  of  Rime,  published  in 
1572. 

GoslicM,  Laurence  {b.  1535,  d.  1607), 
Polish  orator;  author  of  Be  Optimo  Sena- 
tore  (1568). 

Goss,  Sir  John  (b.  1800,  d.  1880),  English 
organist  and  composer ;  studied  under 
Attwood,  whom  he  succeeded  as  organist 
of  St.  Paul's  in  1838,  retiring  in  1872  with 
the  honour  of  knighthood.  He  composed 
several  chants  and  anthems  for  special 
occasions,  notably.  If  ice  Believe  (for  the 
funeral  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington),  The 
lord  is  my  Strength  (for  the  thanksgiving 
service  in  1872  on  the  recovery  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales),  and  Praise  the  Lord.  He  was 
also  author  of  an  Introduction  to  Harmony 
and  Thorough  Bass. 

Gosse,  Philip  Henry  {b.  1810,  d.  1888), 
English  naturalist ;  was  at  first  a  merchant's 
clerk,  but,  when  he  was  sent  to  Newfound- 
land and  Canada,  he  devoted  much  attention 
to  entomology.  The  results  of  his  visit  to 
these  countries  and  to  Jamaica  and  the 
southern  states  of  the  Union  were  large 
natural  history  collections  and  several 
books,  written  between  1839  and  1850.  The 
chief  of  these  were  The  Canadian  Naturalist, 
Letters  from  Alabama,  and  The  Birds  of 
Jamaica.  In  1856  he  was  elected  F.R.S., 
and  contributed  many  papers  to  the  society's 
Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers.  His  son, 
Edmund  {b.  1849),  critic,  was  Clark  lecturer 
in  English  literature  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  from  1884  to  1889. 

Gossec,  FranQois  {b.  1733,  d.  l830),  Bel- 
gian musician ;  published  Symphonies  in 
1754,  and  composed  much  church  music. 

Goaselin,  Pascal  Fraucvois  (b.  1751,  d. 
1830),   French    geographer  and    traveller; 


Got 


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Gon 


made  extensive  researches  throughout 
Evirope,  and  wrote  Geographie  des  Grecs 
Analysee  (1790). 

Got,  FraiK^ois  Jules  (b.  1822),  French 
actor :  studied  at  the  Conservatoire  and 
gained  the  first  prize  for  comedy  in  1843. 
He  first  appeared  at  the  Comedie  Franc^aise 
in  1844,  and  became  sucietaire  in  1850.  One 
of  his  best  parts  was  Sganarelle,  but  he 
played  most  frequently  in  modem  comedies, 
especially  those  of  Augier,  his  creation  of 
"  Giboyer  "  in  Les  Fils  de  Gihoyer  having 
been  especially  remarkable  and  popular. 

Gotschallr,  or  Gotteschalchus  (i.  806,  d. 
867),  German  heretic  ;  publicly  flogged  and 
imprisoned  by  order  of  Hinemar,  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  for  his  predestinarian 
views,  and  refused  the  last  sacraments  and 
Christian  burial. 

Gottfried  von  Strasburg  (r2th  and  13th 
centuries),  German  minnesinger;  author  of 
Freidanks  Bescheidenheit  and  Tristan  und 
Isolde. 

Gottsched,  Johann  Christoph  {b.  1700,  d. 
1766),  German  writer  and  critic ;  professor 
of  philosophy  and  poetry  at  Leipzig ;  did 
much  to  reform  the  corrupt  state  of  taste 
in  his  day.  His  wife,  Luise  {d.  1762),  co- 
operated with  him,  and  wrote  some  dramatic 
pieces. 

Goudinel,  Claude  (d.  1572),  French  com- 
poser ;  teacher  of  Palestrina  at  Rome ; 
perished  in  the  massacre  of  Huguenots  at 
Lyons  in  1572. 

Gouges,  Marie  Olympe  de  (b.  1755,  d. 
1793),  French  writer;  supposed  to  have 
been  a  daughter  of  Louis  XV.  ;  was  at 
first  a  favourer  of  the  revolution,  but 
afterwards  defended  the  king  and  was 
guillotined. 

Gough,  Sir  Charles  John  Stanley 
K.C.B.,  V.C.  •  entered  the  army  in  1848 
served  in  the  Punjaub  campaign  of  1848-9 
in  the  Indian  Mutiny,  being  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Delhi,  and  gained  the  Victoria 
Cross  at  the  siege  of  Lucknow,  where  he 
saved  his  brother's  life ;  in  the  Bhotan  ex- 
pedition of  1864-5,  and  in  the  Afghan  war 
of  1878-80,  being  three  times  mentioned 
in  despatches.  He  became  major-general 
in  1885,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1889. 

Gough,  Hugh,  Viscount  (b.  1779,  d.  1869), 
British  commander  ;  bom  near  Limerick ; 
entered  the  army  in  1794;  after  serving  at 
the  Cape  and  the  West  Indies,  went  in  1809 
to  Portugal;  distinguished  himself  and 
gained  a  step  at  Talavera,  and  after  the 
Peninsular  war  held  a  command  ia  Ireland. 
In  1837  Major-General  Gough  was  sent  to 
India  to  command  in  Mysore,  and  next 
year  commanded  the  British  troops  in  China. 


His  successful  conduct  of  the  war  was 
rewarded  with  a  baronetcy,  and  he  now 
became  commander-in-chief  in  India.  In 
that  capacity  he  conducted  the  Mahratta 
war  of  1843,  and  the  Sikh  wars  of  1845  and 
1848,  winning  the  battles  of  Moodkee  and 
Sobraon  in  the  first,  and  of  Chillianwallah 
and  Goojerat  in  the  second.  On  his  return 
to  England  he  was  created  viscount,  an<? 
received  a  pension.  He  became  Privy  Coun 
cillor  in  18.59,  and  field-marshal  in  1862. 

Gough,  Sir  Hugh  Henry,  Major-general, 
V.C,  K.C.B.,  entered  the  army  iu  1853; 
served  in  the  Indian  mutiny,  being  wounded 
at  the  siege  of  Delhi  and  at  Lucknow ; 
gained  the  Victoria  Cross  in  1857,  when,  ia 
command  of  Hodson's  Horse,  he  charged 
across  a  swamp  and  captured  two  guns  in 
the  face  of  a  suj)erior  force.  He  also  served 
iu  the  Abyssinian  war  and  the  Afghan  war, 
being  with  Sir  F.  Roberts  in  the  march  to 
Candahar. 

Gough,  John  Bartholomew  (b.  1817,  d. 
1886),  temperance  orator ;  was  born  in  Kent, 
but  iu  1829  emigrated  to  America.  After  a 
life  of  intemperance,  he,  in  1842,  became  a 
total  abstainer,  and  from  that  time  devoted 
himself  to  the  temperance  cause  as  an 
orator,  visiting  England  several  times,  and 
carrying  on  his  campaign  also  iu  the  States 
and  the  colonies.  His  Atitobiography  was 
published  in  1879,  and  further  personal 
sketches  called  Sunlight  and  Shadoio  in 
1881,  and  an  edition  of  his  speeches  was  also 
brought  out. 

Gough,  Richard  (6. 1735.  d.  1809),  English 
antiquary ;  made  extensive  researches ; 
edited  and  translated  Camden's  Britannia, 
and  was  also  author  of  The  Sepulchral 
Monuments  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  His- 
tory of  the  Society  of  Antiqiuiries  of  London. 
He  presented  his  valuable  collection  of 
books,  manuscripts,  and  prints  to  the 
Bodleian  library. 

Goujon,  Jean,  French  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect of  the  16th  century ;  executed  some  of 
the  Louvre  sculptures,  and  the  Fountain  of 
the  Innocents.  He  may  have  been  one  of  the 
Huguenot  victims  of  St.  Bartholomew,  1572. 

Goujon,  Jean  Marie  Claude  (6.  1766,  d. 
1795),  French  revolutionary  minister  of  the 
interior  for  a  few  days  in  1794,  and  an 
extreme  Montagnard  ;  committed  suicide  in 
1795  to  avoid  execution. 

Goulard,  Thomas  id.  circa  1784),  French 
surgeon;  inventor  of  Goulard's  "water," 
and  author  of  Traite  des  Preparations  de 
Plomb. 

Goulbum,  Edward  Meyrick,  D.D.  (*. 
1818),  English  divine  ;  educated  at  Eton  and 
BalUol,  became  fellow  of  Merton  in  1841. 


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Gon 


From  1850  to  1858  he  was  head-master  of 
Eugby,  and  in  1859  chaplain  to  the  Queen. 
After  holding  several  London  benefices,  he 
became  Dean  of  Norwich  ia  1866,  but 
resigned  iu  1888.  He  was  a  great  opponent 
of  Dean  Stanley,  and  was  author  of  several 
religious  works,  the  chief  of  which,  Thoughts 
on  Personal  Meliglon,  went  through  fifty 
editions. 

Goulbum,  Henry  (b.  1784,  d.  1856), 
English  statesman  ;  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  entered  Parliament  as  a 
Tory  in  1807.  In  1810  he  was  appointed 
under-secretary  for  Home  aiiairs,  and  from 
1812  to  1821  was  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies.  He  then  became  Chief  Secretary 
for  Ireland,  which  office  he  held  until,  in 
1828,  made  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  by 
the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In  1831  he  was 
one  of  the  successful  opponents  of  Lord 
Palmerston  for  Cambridge  University.  In 
the  Peel  ministry  of  1834  he  vs-as  Home 
Secretary,  and  again  in  1841,  holding  oifice 
till  1846,  after  which  he  retired  with  Sir  E. 
Peel,  and  was  never  again  in  office.  He 
was  a  zealous  Free-Trader  and  financial 
reformer. 

Gould,  Benjamin  Apthorp  (5. 1824),  Ameri- 
can astronomer ;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1844,  and,  after  a  year's  school-teaching, 
went  to  Europe  and  studied  astronomy  under 
Gauss  at  Gottingen,  taking  the  degree  of 
Ph.D.  in  1848.  before  returning  to  America 
he  studied  under  Cerago  at  Paris,  and  met 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  and  other  men  of 
science.  In  1851  he  had  charge  of  the 
longitude  operations  of  the  coast  survey, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  apply  the  tele- 
graph for  determination  of  longitudinal 
difEerences.  He  was  director  of  the  Dudley 
observatory  from  1856  to  1859,  where  the 
normal  clock  was  first  used  to  give  time 
telegraphically.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
to  organise  the  national  observatory  of  the 
Argentine  republic,  when  he  composed  his 
Uranotnetry  of  the  Southern  Heavens.  Dr. 
Gould  also  organised  a  national  meteoro- 
logical office,  with  stations  from  the  tropics 
to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  from  the  Andes  to 
the  Atlantic.  BSs  publications  include  a 
Report  on  the  Discovery  of  the  Planet  Nep- 
tune (1850),  and  Investigations  in  the  Mili- 
tary and  Anthropological  Statistics  of  Ameri- 
can Soldiers  (1869). 

Gould,  John  (6.  1804,  d.  1881),  English  or- 
nithologist ;  son  of  a  head-gardener  at 
Windsor ;  was  for  some  time  employed  in 
the  gardens  of  Ripley  Castle,  Yorkshire. 
In  1827  he  was  appointed  curator  of  the 
Zoological  Society's  museum.  Between 
1832  and  1837  he  brought  out  The  Birds  of 
Europe,  in  five  volumes,  issuing  simul- 
taneously Tnonographs  on  separate  groups. 
In  1838  he  went  to  Australia,  which,  as  well 
z  2 


as  Tasmania,  he  thoroughly  explored,  and 
published  as  the  result  The  Birds  of  Aus- 
tralia (1840-8).  At  the  exhibition  of  1851 
he  showed  a  fine  collection  of  humming- 
birds, and,  besides  several  monographs,  was 
author  of  The  Birds  of  Great  Britain,  The 
Birds  of  Xew  Guinea,  ai^d.t\x&  Birds  of  Asia, 
the  last  unfinished. 

Goulston,  or  GiUston,  Theodore  {d.  1632), 
English  physician ;  founder  of  the  Gul- 
stouian  lecture,  and  author  of  Comments  on 
Galin,  published  in  1640. 

Gounod,  Charles  Francois  (6. 1818),  French 
composer;  bom  in  Pans,  and  educated  at 
the  Conservatoire  under  Halevy  and  Zim- 
mermann,  whose  daughter  he  married  ia. 
1847.  In  1839  he  gained  the  prize  for  com- 
position, and,  after  visiting  Rome  and 
Vienna,  became  an  organist  in  Paris,  where, 
in  1849,  a  high  mass  by  him  attracted 
attention.  Sappho,  his  first  opera,  was 
produced  in  1851,  and  the  composer  was 
soon  after  appointed  director  of  the  Orpheon. 
After  some  minor  works,  Faust  appeared  in 
1859,  being  brought  out  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique.  Jlireile  followed  in  1864,  and 
Romeo  et  Juliette  in  1867.  In  1870  Gounod 
visited  England  and  gave  concerts  at  the 
Albert  Hall.  Of  his  later  works  the  chief 
are  Jeanne  d''Arc  (1873),  The  Redemption, 
produced  at  Birmingham  under  his  own 
direction  in  1882,  and  Mors  et  Vita, 

Gourgaud,  Gaspard,  Baron  (6.  1783,  d. 
1852),  distinguished  French  general :  served 
throughout  the  campaigns  of  Napoleon  I., 
and  was  with  him  for  some  time  at  St. 
Helena.  On  his  return  he  published 
Memoir es  de  Napoleon,  and  was  one  of 
those  who  brought  back  the  remains  of  the 
emperor  to  Paris  in  1840.  In  1825  he 
became  involved  in  a  duel  with  Segur, 
arising  out  of  a  reply  he  had  written  to  the 
latter' s  Histoire  de  la  Grande  Armee.  He 
also  had  a  controversy  with  Sir  Walter 
Scott. 

Gourgues,  Dominique  de  (<i.  1593),  French 
sailor ;  went  to  Florida  to  revenge  the 
murder  of  the  French  there  ;  defeated  the 
Spaniards  and  hanged  his  prisoners,  but 
was  proscribed  on  his  return.  He  was  in 
1593  offered  a  command  by  Elizabeth,  but 
died  on  his  way  to  London. 

Gourko,  Nicholas,  Count  (fi.  1828),  Rus- 
sian general  of  Polish  descent ;  entered  the 
imperial  body-guard  in  1846 ;  took  part  in 
the  Crimean  war;  became  major-general 
in  1867,  'and  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-8.  He 
took  Timova  and  crossed  the  Balkans,  and 
defended  himself  in  the  Shipka  Pass  against 
a  greatly  superior  number  of  TuiV's.  He 
commanded  the  cavalry  at  the  siege  of 
Plevna,  and  defeated  the  relieving  force  of 


Gou 


(388) 


Gra 


Mehemet  AIL  After  the  fall  of  the  town 
he  again  crossed  the  Balkans,  and  carried 
out  the  concluding  operations  of  the  war. 
He  wa3  created  count  for  his  services,  and 
appointed  governor  of  Poland. 

Gourmont,  Gilles  de  (d.  etna  1733), 
French  printer ;  was  the  first  to  employ 
Greek  and  Hebrew  tj-pes. 

Goumay,  Marie  de  Jars  de  (b.  1566,  d. 
1645),  French  poetess;  wrote  verses  and  some 
prose  works,  including  Egalite  des  Uommes 
et  des  Femmes  and  Le  Grief  des  Lames. 

Gourville,  Le  Sieur  Heraultde  {b.  1625,  d. 
1703),  French  financier  and  diplomatist; 
employed  by  Mazarin ;  his  Memoires  were 
published  in  1724. 

Gouvea,  Antonio  da  (d.  1628),  Portuguese 
traveller ;  an  Augustinian  monk ;  went  as  a 
teacher  to  Goa,  and  from  thence  as  am- 
bassador to  Persia,  where  he  acted  as  papal 
nuncio,  and  was  imprisoned  ;  was  captured 
by  Barbary  pirates  on  his  return  to  Eiurope, 
and  released  after  two  years'  captivity; 
brought  out  a  Book  of  Travels  in  1611. 

Gouvion  Saint  Cyr,  Laurent  {b.  1764,  d. 
1830),  French  marshal,  originally  an  actor; 
rose  to  distinction  in  the  early  revolu- 
tionary wars,  and  in  1798  was  given  the 
command  of  the  army  sent  against  Rome ; 
distinguished  himself  against  Suvarov  and 
Wittgenstein,  became  one  of  Bonaparte's 
marshals,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Leipzig 
(1813)  ;  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by 
Louis  XVIII. ,  and  introduced  many  reforms 
in  the  army ;  published  his  Memoires  between 
1821  and  1831. 

Gow,  Andrew  Carrick  {b.  1848),  English 
paiuter ;  was  in  1868  elected  member  of  the 
Institute,  in  1881  A.R.A.,  and  R.A.  in  1891. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  Introduction  of 
Ladr/  Mary  Wortleij  to  the  Kit-Cat  Club 
(1873),  The  Relief  of  Let/den  (1876),  The 
TSimult  in  the  House  of  Commons,  1640 
(1877),  No  Surrender  (1878),  Bothwell  (1884), 
Cromwell  at  Dunbar  (1886). 

Gow,  Neil  {b.  1727,  d.  1807),  Scotch  violin 
player  and  composer. 

Gow,  Nathaniel  (b.  1766,  d.  1831),  son  of 
the  above,  violin  player  and  composer  of 
Scotch    airs   and   songs,    including     Caller 

Serring. 

Gower,  John  {d.  1408),  English  poet; 
friend  of  Chaucer,  who  calls  hira  "Moral 
Gower  ; "  graduated  at  Oxford,  and  studied 
law  at  the  Inner  Temple,  but  was  of  inde- 
pendent means.  His  chief  work  is  in  three 
parts  in  Latin — Speculum  Meditantis,  Vox 
Clamantis,  and  Confessio  Amantis. 

Gowers,  William  Richard,  M.D.  {b.  1845), 


English  physician  and  medical  writer;  in 
1873  was  appointed  assistant -physician  at 
University  College  Hospital,  and  afterwards 
became  physician  to  that  institution  and  to 
the  National  Hospital  for  the  Paralysed  and 
Epileptic,  and  professor  of  clinical  medicine. 
He  was  elected  F.R.C.P.  in  1879,  and  F.R.S. 
in  1887.  His  chief  works  are  Manual  and 
Atlas  of  Medical  Ophthalmoscopy,  Diagnosis 
of  Diseases  of  the  Spinal  Cord,  and  Manual 
of  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System. 

Gowing,  Emilia  Aylmer,  nee  Blake  (6. 
1846),  English  novelist  and  verse  writer ; 
author  of  Leon  de  Beaumanoir,  the 
dramas  A  Life  Race  and  A  Groivn  of  Life, 
The  Jewel  Reputation  and  An  Unruly  Spirit 
(novels).  Ballads  and  Poems  and  The  Cithern. 
In  her  youth  she  gave  French  recitations, 
and  she  married,  in  1877,  Mr.  William  Gow- 
ing ("  Walter  Gordon  "). 

Gowrie,  William  Ruthven,  Earl  of  {d. 
1584),  Scotch  Protestant  noble,  who,  as  one 
of  the  murderers  of  Rizzio,  incirrred  the 
enmity  of  Mary  Stewart,  and  was  executed 
for  his  share  in  the  Raid  of  Ruthven,  a 
plot  to  take  the  young  James  out  of  the 
possession  of  the  Catholic  faction. 

Gowrie,  John,  Earl  of  {d.  1600),  son  of 
last-named;  engaged  with  his  brother, 
Alexander,  in  a  plot  to  assassinate  Jamea 
VI.,  but  was  killed,  and  the  plot  frustrated, 

Gozzi,  Count  Carlo  (*.  1722,  d.  1806), 
Venetian  dramatist,  whose  chief  works  were 
Donna  Serpente,  Maestro  Turchino,  and  Tu- 
randot,  or  The  Princess  of  China,  the  last  of 
which  was  translated  by  Schiller.  Gozzi' 3 
AiUobiography  was  also  translated  by  Paul 
de  Musset  in  1848. 

Gozzi,  Count  Gasparo  (1713,  d.  1786), 
Venetian  Utteratexir ;  reformed  the  uni- 
versity of  Padua  after  the  suppression  of 
the  Jesuits ;  conducted  the  Osservatore  and 
the  Mondo  Morale,  and  also  wrote  Sermoni 
and  Defi'SfM  di  Dante. 

Gracchus,  Tiberius  Semprouius  {d.  212 
B.C.),  Roman  general;  commanded  against 
Hannibal,  and  defeated  Hanno,  but  was 
himself  soon  after  made  prisoner  and 
killed. 

Gracclius,  Tiberius  Semprouius  {d.  133 
B.C.),  Roman  tribune;  nephew  of  Scipio 
Africanus ;  became  quasstor  in  137  ;  when 
tribune  carried  his  agrarian  law,  but  was 
soon  after  killed  in  a  tumult  raised  by  Scipio 
Nasica,  one  of  his  aristocratic  opponents. 

Gracclius,  Caius  Sempronius  (b.  154  B.C., 
d.  121  B.C.),  Roman  tribune ;  brother  of  last- 
named  ;  renewed  his  brother's  agrarian  law, 
and  was  more  extreme  in  his  measures ; 
was  twice  tribune ;  ultimately  proscribed, 
and  slain  with  three  thousand  of  his  friends, 


Gra 


(  389) 


Gra 


his  colleague,  Drusus,  having  secretly  ex- 
cited the  people  against  him. 

Grace,  William  Gilhert  {b.  1848),  physician 
and  cricketer,  whose  achievements  extend 
over  nearly  thirty  years.  In  July,  1879,  he 
received  a  testimonial  from  all  classes  of 
players,  and  has  since  been  known  as  the 
"Champion."  He  has  visited  Australia 
more  than  once,  and  has  achieved  greater 
success  as  a  hat  and  all  round  player  than 
any  other  cricketer. 

Gradenigo,  Pietro  {b.  1249,  d.  1311),  Doge 
of  Venice ;  carried  on  an  imsuccessf ul  war 
against  Genoa ;  founded  the  "  Libro  d'Oro," 
from  the  names  iuscribed  in  which  members 
of  the  Grand  Council  were  alone  to  he 
chosen  ;  was  excommunicated  by  the  Pope 
in  1309,  and  founded  the  CouncU  of  Ten  in 
1310. 

Grafton,  Augustus  Fitzroy,  Duke  of  (5. 
1736,  d.  1811),  Enghsh  statesman  ;  descended 
from  Charles  11. ;  was  Secretary  of  State  in 
Buckingham's  first  ministry  (1765-6),  and 
nominal  head  of  Chatham's  administra- 
tion from  1767  to  1770,  during  which  he 
Fas  assailed  by  "Junius"  with  great 
ferocity. 

Grafton,  Richard  (16th  century),  English 
printer ;  was  imprisoned  under  Henry  VIII. 
for  printing  without  permission  Matthews' 
Bible  and  The  Great  Bible;  also  printed 
Abridgment  of  the  Chronicles  of  England, 
and  continued  Hall. 

Graham,  George  (b.  1675,  d.  1751),  English 
astronomical  mechanician ;  superintended 
and  divided  with  his  own  hands  the  great 
mural  arch  in  the  Greenwich  Observatory; 
made  Dr.  Bradley's  sector,  and  the  first 
orrery  for  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  and  made 
several  improvements  in  time-pieces. 

Graham,  Sir  Gerald,  Lieutenant-General, 
V.C.,K.C.B.,  etc.  (6.  1831), English  soldier; 
entered  Woolwich  in  1847,  and  received  a 
commission  in  the  Royal  Engineers  in  1850, 
becoming  Heutenant- colonel  in  1861,  major- 
general  m  1881,  and  lieutenant-general  in 
1884.  He  served  throughout  the  Crimean 
campaign,  gaining  the  Victoria  Cross,  the 
third  class  Medjidieh,  the  Cross  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honour,  and  being  twice  mentioned 
in  despatches.  He  was  woimded  in  1860  in 
China  at  the  Taku  forts.  In  the  Egyptian 
campaign  of  1882  he  commanded  a  division, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  Parliament.  In 
1884  he  commanded  the  Tokar  relief  expe- 
dition, and  won  the  battle  of  Tamai,  and 
in  1885  the  force  sent  to  Suakim  to  open  up 
the  road  to  Berber  and  lay  down  a  railway. 
In  January,  1886,  he  wrote  Last  Words  with 
Gordon  for  the  lortnightlg  Rtview. 

Graham,  Sir  James   {b.   1792,  d.    1861), 


English  statesman  ;  was  Whig  member  for 
Hull  from  1818  to  1820.  In  1825  he  was 
returned  for  Carlisle,  and  in  1830  for  Cum- 
berland, and  was  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  for  a  short  time  in  the  first 
Reform  ministry.  He,  however,  resigned 
in  1832  on  the  Irish  Church  question,  and 
gradually  changed  his  views.  In  1838  he  ' 
was  Home  Secretary  under  Sir  R.  Peel,  and 
in  that  capacity  caused  some  of  Mazzini's 
letters  to  be  opened.  He  was  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty  in  the  Aberdeen  ministry, 
and  also  imder  Lord  Palmerston,  but  re- 
signed with  Mr.  Gladstone  and  others  on 
the  appointment  of  the  Crimean  Inquiry 
Commission.  After  this  he  took  little  part 
in  public  affairs. 

Graham,  Thomas.    [See  Lynedoch,  Lord.] 

Graham,  Thomas  (*.  1805,  d.  1869), 
English  chemist ;  was  professor  of  chemistry 
at  the  Andersonian  university  1830-7,  and 
for  his  discovery  of  the  law  of  the  diffusion 
of  gases  gained  the  Keith  prize  at  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  elected 
F.R.S.  In  1837  he  became  professor  at 
London  University ;  was  first  president  of 
the  Chemical  Society  and  the  Cavendish 
Society,  of  the  first  of  which  he  was  the 
chief  founder,  and  gained  the  gold  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society  for  his  discoveries  as  to  the 
constitution  of  salts  and  phosphoric  acid. 
In  1855  he  was  made  master  of  the  Mint. 
He  was  author  of  Elements  of  Chemistry 
(1842),  and  Outlines  of  Botany  (1841), 
besides  some  works  privately  printed. 

Graham  of  Claverhouse,  John  [b.  1643,  d. 
1689),  Scotch  soldier ;  after  some  service  in 
the  French  and  Dutch  armies,  was  employed 
against  the  Covenanters  in  Scotland,  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  at  Drumclog  in  1679  ; 
was  loyal  to  James  II.,  who  created  him 
Viscount  Dundee.  He  was  killed  at 
Killiecrankie. 

Grahame,  James  {b.  1765,  d.  1811),  Scot- 
tish poet ;  at  first  a  barrister,  and  afterwards 
Episcopal  clergyman.  His  chief  work  is 
The  Sabbath  (1804). 

GraiUy,  Captal  de  Buch  {d.  1377),  French 
soldier,  who  fought  for  Edward  III.  ;  was 
made  prisoner  by  Du  Gueselin  in^  1364 ; 
became  constable  of  Aquitaine  in  1371,  but 
was  again  made  prisoner  by  the  French. 

Grainger,  James  (<f.  1767),  Scottish  poet ; 
author  of  The  Sugar  Cane  (1764). 

Gramaye,  Jean  BaptLste  {d.  1635),  Belgian 
traveller  and  antiquary ;  author  of  Asia 
(1591),  Historia  Brabantica  (1606),  and 
Africa  Illustrata  (1622). 

Gramont,  or  Grammont,  Antoine,  Due  de 
{b.  1604,  d.  167N),  French  soldier  and 
diplomatist ;  marechal  de  France ;  serve  d  in 


Gra 


(390  ) 


Gra 


Germauy,  Italy,    and  the  Law  Coimtries. 
His  Mimoires  were  published  in  1716. 

Gramont,  Philibert,  Comte  de  (J>.  1621,  d. 
1707),  French  soldier  and  courtier;  served 
in  the  wars  of  Louis  XTV.,  and  lived  at 
the  English  court  from  1662  to  1669.  His 
Memoirs  were  written  by  Anthony 
Hamilton. 

Granby,  John  Manners,  Marquis  of  {b. 
1721,  d.  1770),  English  general;  served  in 
Grermany,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Minden ;  was  conunander-iu-chief  from 
1766  to  1769  ;  was  for  a  short  time  in  office 
under  the  Duke  of  Grafton. 

Grandier,  Urbain  {d.  1634),  French  priest ; 
defended  the  parochial  clergy  against  tlie 
monks ;  was  accused  of  bewitching  the  nuns 
of  Loudun,  and  burnt  as  a  sorcerer. 

Grandpr^,  Louis  Ohier,  Comte  de  (b.  1761, 
d.  1846),  French  navigator ;  author  of  several 
works  describing  his  travels,  the  chief  of 
which  are  Voyage  d  la  Cote  Oecidentale  de 
VAfrique  and  Voyage  dans  I'Inde. 

Grandville,  pseudonym  of  Jean  Gerard 
(6.  1303,  d.  1847), French  caricaturist;  illus- 
trator of  La  Fontaine,  Gulliver,  and 
Robinson  Crusoe;  was  prosecuted  for  his 
sketches  of  contemporaries,  called  Meta- 
morphoses, which  represented  them  under 
the  forma  of  animals. 

Granet,  Francois  (b.  1692,  d.  1741),  French 
critic,  whose  chief  work  is  Reflexions  sur  les 
Outrages  de  Litterature. 

Granet,  Francois  Marcus  {b.  1775,  d.  1849), 
French  painter,  his  best  picture  being  Le 
Chceur  des  Capucins  (1812)  ;  was  made  by 
Louis  Philippe  keeper  of  his  museimi. 

Granet,  Francois  Omet  {d.  1821),  French 
politician ;  a  strong  republican,  but  an 
opponent  of  Robespierre,  whose  wrath  he 
narrowly  escaped ;  was  mayor  of  Marseilles 
under  the  Empire,  and  on  the  restoration 
was  sent  into  exile,  but  returned  some  years 
before  his  death. 

Granger,  James  {b.  circa  1716,  d.  1776), 
author  of  a  Biographical  History  of  England 
(1769),  and  originator  of  ''  grangerising. " 

Grant,  Albert,  Baron  {b.  1830),  English 
financier ;  entered  Parliament  as  member  for 
Kidderminster  in  1865,  and  re-elected  in 
1874.  In  1868  he  was  created  baron  by 
Victor  Emmanuel  for  his  improvements  at 
Milan,  and  especially  the  opening  of  the 
Victor-Emmanuel  Gallerj-.  He  bought  and 
presented  to  London  the  whole  of  Leicester 
Square,  and,  among  other  pubUc  benefits, 
presented  to  the  National  Gallery  Landseer's 
portrait  of  Sir  W.  Scott,  for  which  he  had 
given  £800,  and  immediately  received  in  his 


place  a  vote  of  thanks,  moved  by  Sir  S. 
Northcote  in  the  Commons.  In  1875  Baron 
Grant  made  a  speech  in  his  own  behalf, 
lasting  more  than  three  hours,  in  a  case 
vmder  the  Employer's  Liability  Act. 

Grant,  Sir  Alexander  (b.  1826,  d.  1884), 
English  scholar ;  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Balliol;  was  fellow  of  Oriel  from  1848  to 
1858,  dui-ing  which  time  he  was  engaged  on 
his  edition  of  the  Nicumachean  Ethics,  which 
appeared  in  1857.  In  1859  he  went  to  India 
as  inspector  of  schools,  and  in  1862  became 
principal  of  Elphinstone  College,  Bombay, 
and  director  of  public  instruction.  In  1868 
he  was  appointed  principal  of  Edinburgh 
University.  Besides  the  book  mentioned, 
Sir  A.  Grant  edited  Ferrier's  Greek  Philo- 
sophy, and  wrote  Story  of  Edinburgh 
University  during  its  First  Three  Hundred 
Tears  (1884). 

Grant,  Anne,  nee  Mac  Vicar  {b.  1755,  d. 
1838),  Scotch  poetess ;  friend  of  Scott;  was 
left  a  widow  in  poor  circumstances  in  1801, 
and  soon  after  began  to  write,  publishing 
Original  Poems  in  1803,  and  Essays  on  the 
Superstitions  of  the  Highlands  in  1811, 
besides  other  poems.  In  1826  she  obtained 
a  Government  pension. 

Grant,  Sir  Francis  {b.  1803,  d.  1878), 
English  portrait-painter;  elder  brother  of 
Sir  Hope  Grant ;  having  dissipated  a  large 
fortune,  became  a  fashionable  portrait- 
painter;  was  elected  A.R.A.  in  1841  ;  E.A. 
in  1851 ;  and  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1866. 

Grant,  George  Monro,  D.D.  {b.  1835), 
Canadian  writer  and  divine  ;  l)om  in  Nova 
Scotia ;  won  a  bursary  at  eighteen,  which 
enabled  him  to  go  to  Glasgow,  where  he 
took  high  honours.  On  his  return  to  Nova 
Scotia  he  was  for  some  time  a  missionary, 
and  was,  in  1877,  appointed  principal  of 
Queen's  University,  Kingston,  Ontario.  He 
wrote  Ocean  to  Ocean  (1872),  wndi  Picturesque 
Canada  (1884). 

Grant,  James  (b.  1822,  d.  1887),  English 
novelist ;  bom  at  Edinburgh ;  was  some  time 
in  American  barracks  with  his  father,  and  on 
his  return  to  England  held  for  a  short  time 
an  infantry  commission.  In  1875  he  became 
a  Roman  Catholic.  Chief  among  his  numer- 
ous novels  were  The  Romance  of  J^Far  (1846), 
Bothwell  (1851),  Lticy  Arden  (1859),  and 
The  White  Cockade  (1867).  He  also  wrote 
British  Battles  on  Land  and  Sea  (1873-75) 
and  Cassell's  History  of  the  JVar  in  the 
Soudan  (1885),  and  Old  and  New  Edinburgh. 

Grant,  James  Augustus  {b.  1827,  d.  1892), 
English  traveller  ;  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
Sikh  wars  and  the  Indian  Mutiny;  accom- 
panied the  Abyssinian  expedition  of  1860,  as 
member  of  the  iDt/»lligenv;e  department,  but 


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is  chiefly  known  as  the  explorer  who  accom- 
panied Speke  iu  his  expedition  to  discover 
the  sources  of  the  Nile  in  1860-63.  He  wrote 
an  account  of  the  expedition  in  the  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  also 
a  Walk  Across  Africa. 

Grant,  Sir  James  Hope  (h.  1808,  d.  1875), 
English  soldier;  entered  the  service  in  1826  ; 
served  in  the  first  Chinese  war  and  in  the 
Sikh  wars;  in  the  Indian  Mutiny  was 
present  at  Delhi  on  its  recapture,  and,  having 
effected  a  junction  with  Sir  Colin  Campbell, 
was  prominent  in  the  ^relief  of  Cawnpore  and 
of  Lucknow.  Major-General  Grant  held 
the  chief  command  at  the  close  of  the 
Mutiny,  and  also  of  the  force  sent  to  co- 
operate with  the  J'rench  in  China  in  the  year 
1860.  After  this  Jie  was  several  years  com- 
mander-in-chief at  Madras,  and-held  the 
Aldershot  command  from  1872  till  ihis  death. 
For  his  services  in  China  he  was  created 
G.C.B. 

Grant,  Sir  Patrick,  Field-marshal,  G.C.^., 
G.C.M.G.  {b.  1804), English  soldier;  entered 
the  East  India  Company's  army  in  1820  ;  was 
on  the  staff  of  Sir  "Hugh  Gough  in  the 
Gwalior  campaign,  and  adjutant-general  in 
the  Sutlej  campaign,  being  twice  severely 
wounded.  At  the  end  of  the  Punjaub  cam- 
paign he  became  colonel  and  aide-de-camp  to 
the  Queen.  In  1849-50  he  served  under  Sir 
0.  Napier  against  Kohat.  In  1856  Major- 
general  Grant  commanded  the  Madras 
army,  and  acted  as  commander-in-chief  in 
1857,  till  the  arrival  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell. 
He  was  created  G.C.B.  after  the  Mutiny, 
and  appointed  governor  of  Malta  in  1867. 
In  1874  he  became  governor  of  Chelsea 
Hospital,  having  attained  the  rank  of 
general  in  1870.  In  1883  he  was  gazetted 
field-marshal. 

Grant,  Robert,  LL.D.  (6.  1814),  EugHsh 
astronomer:  bom  at  Grantoim-on-Spey. 
His  education  was  interfered  with  by  ill- 
health,  but  on  his  recovery  he  went  to  Lon- 
don and  Paris  to  make  researches  for  his  His- 
tory of  Phi/sical  Astronomy,  which  appeared 
in  1852.  Soon  after  he  became  fellow  of  the 
Astronomical  Society,  and  in  1856  received 
their  gold  medal  for  his  work.  After  trans- 
lating and  editing,  with  Admiral  Smyth, 
Arago's  Popular  Astronomy,  and  having 
gone  through  some  practical  work,  he  was 
appointed  in  1859  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Glasgow.  Next  year  he  went  to  Spain 
to  observe  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun.  In 
1865  he  was  elected  F.R.S.  In  1883  he 
published  a  Catalogue  containing  the  mean 
places  of  6,415  stars,  as  a  result  of  his  ob- 
servations while  at  Glasgow. 

Grant,  Robert  Edmund  (6.  1793,  d.  1874), 
Scotch  naturalist;  graduated  at  Edinburgh 
in  1814,  and  after  nve  years  of  Continental 


travel,  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  ;  while  practising  as  a  doctor 
was  assistant  to  Barclay,  the  anatomist. 
In  1827,  when  he  had  published  several 
papers  on  sponges,  he  was  elected  professor 
of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  at  the 
University  of  Loudon.  "WTiile  engaged  in 
his  duties  as  such  he  made  many  researches, 
and  produced  his  Outlines  of  Comparative 
Anatomy.  In  1836  he  was  elected  F.R.S., 
and  in  1837  Fullerian  professor  of  phy- 
siology at  the  Royal  Institution.  He  tra- 
velled much,  taught  himself  Danish,  and 
studied  phUology  ;  and  at  his  death  left  his 
library  and  private  collections  to  University" 
College 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson  [b.  1822,  d.  1885), 
American  general  and  statesman ;  entered 
the  army  in  1843,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Texas  campaign  of  1845.  In  1848  he 
married,  and  in  1854  resigned  his  commission. 
During  the  Civil  war  he  captxired  Fort 
Henry  (February,  1862),  and  Fort  Donelson; 
won  the  battle  of  Shiloh  (April  6-7)  ;  de- 
feated Price  at  luka  (Sept.  19),  and  for  his 
capture  of  Vicksburg  in  July,  1863,  was  made 
major-general.  He  further  distinguished 
himself  by  the  rehef  of  Chattanooga  in 
November,  and  was  voted  a  gold  medal  for 
his  services.  In  March,  1864,  he  became 
lieutenant-general  and  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Federal  armies,  and  in  httle  more 
than  a  year  brought  the  war  to  a  close.  On 
July  25th,  1866,  he  was  named  general  of 
the  armies  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1868 
became  president,  being  re-elected  ia  1872. 
He  successfully  superintended  the  pacifica- 
tion of  the  Southern  states,  the  restoration  of 
the  finances,  and  the  disbanding  of  the  army, 
and  he  obtained  from  England  the  payment 
of  the  Alabama  claims.  On  his  retirement 
from  office  he  made  a  tour  round  the  world. 
H;:  iiig  lost  his  moderate  fortune  in  an  un- 
fortunate speculation,  he  wrote  an  account 
of  his  life,  which,  being  successful,  to  some 
extent  relieved  him.  He  died  of  cancer 
after  a  year's  severe  suffering. 

Granville,  Cardinal.  \_See  Perronet  de 
Granville.] 

Granville,  Earl.     [^See  Carteret.  ] 

Granville,  Earl  (4.  1773,  d.  1846),  English 
diplomatist ;  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Stafford  ; 
entered  Parliament  as  Lord  Gower,  and  held 
office  imder  Pitt  and  Addington.  In  1815 
he  was  created  Viscount  Granville  for  his 
diplomatic  services  as  ambassador  at  St. 
Petersburg,  the  Hague  and  Paris,  and  in 
1833  received  the  title  of  Earl. 

GranviUe,  Earl  {b.  1815,  d.  1891),  Eng- 
lish statesman :  sou  of  last-named;  educated 
at  Eton,  and  Christ  Church ;  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Morpeth  in  1836,  aiid 
was  elected  for  Lichfield  in  1840,  in  which 


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year  he  was  made  under-secretaiy  for 
Foreign  Affairs  and  vice-president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1S46  he  became  a  peer,  and  entered 
the  cabinet  in  1801,  being  Lord  Russell's 
Foreign  Secretary  for  a  short  time.  After 
having  held  several  other  offices,  he  became 
Lord  President  of  the  Council  and  leader  in 
the  Lords  in  1858.  In  18.39  he  again  held 
that  office,  and  occupied  it  till  18GG.  In  1860 
he  was  chairman  of  the  commission  of  the 
Great  Exhibition  of  1862.  In  Mr.  Gladstone's 
first  ministry  Lord  Granville  was  at  hrst 
Colonial  Secretary,  and  from  1870  Secretary 
for  Foreign  Aiiairs.  As  such  he  arranged 
the  guarantee  of  Belgium  by  England, 
France,  and  Prussia,  protested  against  the 
repudiation  by  itussia  of  the  Black  Sea 
clause,  and  made  an  agreement  with  Gort- 
schakofE  as  to  the  position  of  Afghanistan. 
Between  1874  and  1880  he  led  the  Opposition 
in  the  Lords,  and  in  1880  became  once  more 
Foreign  Secretary,  when  his  attention  was 
occupied  hrst  by  the  carrying- out  of  the 
Berlin  treaty,  secondly  by  the  French  oc- 
cupation of  Tunis,  against  which  he  pro- 
tested, and  lastly  by  the  Egyptian  question. 
He  tried  to  estabUsh  popular  institutions  in 
Egypt,  but  was  continually  thwarted  by 
France,  and  his  subsequent  direction  of 
Foreign  Aifairs  was  disastrous  in  the  ex- 
treme, being  marked  by  the  death  of  Gordon 
and  the  difficulties  with  Russia  on  the 
Afghan  question.  On  the  Home  Rule  ques- 
tion Earl  Granville  supported  Mr.  Gladstone, 
and  was  colonial  minister  in  his  short-lived 
administration.  Before  his  death  he  again 
led  the  Opposition  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Grasse-Tilly,  Francois,  Marquis  de  {b. 
1723,  d.  17SS).  French  admiral ;  wascaptured 
in  his  first  voyage  by  Anson,  and  was  for  two 
years  prisoner  in  England.  He  co-operated 
with  Washington  as  commander  of  the 
French  fleet,  but  was  defeated  by  Hood  at 
St.  Christopher's,  and  captured  by  Rodney 
in  the  battle  of  1782.  He  was  again  two 
years  in  England,  and  became  absurdly  un- 
popular in  France. 

Grassini,  Giuseppa  {b.  1773,  d.  1850), 
Italian  singer,  made  her  debut  at  Milan  m 
1794,  and  soon  became  the  first  singer  in 
Italy.  In  1800  she  sang  before  Bonaparte, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Paris.  In  1803  she 
came  to  London,  where  she  was  the  rival  of 
Mrs.  BiUington.  Aiter  this  she  fulfilled  a 
very  lucrative  engagement  at  Paris,  and 
returned  to  Milan  about  1817. 

Gratian  (6.  359,  d.  383),  Roman  emperor; 
son  of  Valentinian,  on  whose  death  he  became 
joint  Emperor  of  the  West,  repelled  an  in- 
cursion of  the  Alemanni ;  chose  Theodorus  as 
Emperor  of  the  East,  and,  though  not  a 
Christian,  he  was  a  friend  of  St.  Ambrose, 
and  a  destroyer  of  pagan  rites.     He  was 


ultimately    murdered    by    the    officers    of 
Muximus. 

Gratian  usurped    the  purple  in  Britain, 

and  was  killed  in  487. 

Gratian,  Italian  canonist;  wrote  the 
Dccrettini  between  1139  and  1142. 

Gratius  [Graes],  Ortwiuus  (d.  1541), 
German  theologian;  attacked  by  ReuchUn, 
to  whom  he  replied  in  his  Lainentationes 
Obscnrorum  Virorum  (1518). 

Grattan,  Henry  {b.  1746,  d.  1820),  Irish 
patriot,  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1772 ;  entered 
the  Irish  Parliament  in  1775,  and  became  an 
Ojiposition  leader.  In  1780  he  moved  that 
the  crown  was  the  only  link  between  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  and  in  1782,  by  means  of 
the  Volunteer  movement,  succeeded  in 
obtaining  legislative  independence  for  his 
country.  His  views  on  Catholic  Emanci- 
pation were  not  shared  by  the  whole  of  his 
party,  and,  after  the  recall  of  FitzwiUiam, 
power  passed  from  his  hands  to  the  United 
Irishmen.  Having  been  some  years  in  re- 
tu'ement,  he  actively  opposed  the  Union, 
and  after  an  interval  of  two  years  entered 
the  British  Parliament  as  member  for 
Malton.  He  was  offered  office  by  Fox,  but 
refused ;  supported  the  Irish  Insurrection 
Bill  of  1807,  and  devoted  his  last  years  to  the 
cause  of  the  Catholic  Emancipation.  His 
Memoirs  and  Speeches  were  edited  by  his  son. 

Grattan,  Thomas  Colley  (b.  1796,  d.  1864), 
English  writer ;  born  in  Kildare ;  intended 
for  the  law,  he  served  a  short  time  in  the 
army  ;  after  some  contributions  to  periodi- 
cals, published  in  1823  Highways  and 
Bycways.  While  in  Belgiimi  he  wrote  A 
History  of  the  Netherlands  (in  Lardnefs 
Cyclopcedid),  and  other  works,  and  when 
living  at  the  Hague  Jacqueline  of  Holland 
and  Aynes  de  Mansfeldt.  He  was  after- 
wards British  consul  at  Boston. 

Graun,  Karl  Heinrich  (*.  1701,  d.  1769), 
German  musician ;  patronised  by  Frederick 
the  Great ;  composed  Ber  Tod  Jesu,  a  Te 
I)eum,  and  several  operas  and  cantatas. 

Gravelot,  Hubert  Bourguignon  (b.  1699, 
d.  1773),  French  engraver  and  artist,  who 
illustrated  the  works  of  Voltaire,  Racine 
and  Marmontel. 

Graves,  Charles  (i.  1812),  Irish  mathema- 
tician and  divine ;  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  where  he  became  fellow 
and  professor  of  mathematics.  He  was 
president  of  the  Irish  academy  from  1860 
to  1865,  and  in  1866  became  Bishop  of 
Limerick.  He  has  been  made  D.C.L.  of 
Oxford,  and  F.R.S.,  and  was  secretary  to 
the  commission  for  the  publication  of  the 
Brehon  laws. 


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Graves,  Richard  (b.  1715,  d.  1804),  Eng- 
lish novelist,  poet  and  divine,  his  chief  work 
having  been  The  Spiritual  Quixote,  a  satire 
on  the  Methodists. 

Gravina,  Domenico  da  [d.  circa  1350), 
Neapolitan  historian;  author  of  Storia  del 
Regno  Xapoli. 

Gravina,  Frederico  {h.  1756,  d.  1806), 
Spanish  admiral ;  commanded  the  Spanish 
contingent  at  Trafalgar,  where  he  was  mor- 
tally wounded. 

Gravina,  Giovanni  {b.  1664,  d.  1718), 
Italian  jurist;  author  of  Origines  Juris 
Civilis  (1701-13). 

Gray,  Asa  (*.  1810,  d.  1888),  American 
botamst;  after  practising  some  time  as  a 
doctor,  published  some  papers  on  botany, 
and  was  appointed  in  1842  Fisher  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Harvard.  In 
1848  appeared  his  Manual  of  the  Botany  of 
the  Northern  States,  followed  by  A  Text- 
book of  Botany,  and  many  elementary  treatises 
on  botanical  subjects.  He  visited  Europe 
on  several  occasions,  was  a  member  of  the 
Royal  and  Linnean  societies,  and  was  one  of 
the  earHest  Darwinians.  His  Genera  Florae 
Ainericce  Boreali-Ori,entalis  was  left  un- 
finished. 

Gray,  David  {b.  1838,  d.  1861),  Scotch 
poet ;  son  of  a  weaver  near  Glasgow ;  came 
to  London  in  1860,  and  received  the  patron- 
age of  Sidney  Dobell  and  of  Monckton 
Mihies,  by  whose  assistance  The  Luggie  was 
published.  The  author  died  early  of  con- 
sumption,  leaving,  besides  the  above.  In  the 
Shadows,  a  collection  of  sonnets  written  ia 
his  last  days. 

Gray,  George  Robert  (*.  1808,  d.  1872), 
English  naturalist ;  obtained  an  appointment 
in  the  natural  history  department  of  the 
British  Museum  in  1831,  and  was  the  author 
of  A  List  of  Genera  of  Birds,  Sgnonijma, 
an  illustrated  edition  of  which  followed,  and 
of  A  Description  and  Figures  of  some  new 
Lepidopterous  Insects,  chiefly  from  Nepaul. 

Gray,  John  Edward  {b.  1800,  d.  1875), 
Enghsh  naturalist;  brother  of  last-named; 
obtamed  a  post  in  the  British  Natural  Histoiy 
Museum  in  1824,  and  in  1840  became  keeper 
of  the  zoological  collection.  Besides  his 
work  connected  with  the  Museum,  he  was 
author  of  A  Manual  of  the  Land  and  Fresh- 
Water  Shells  of  the  British  Islands,  A 
Handbook  of  British  Water-Weeds,  and 
various  zoological  publications. 

Gray,  Stephen  {d.  1736),  English  physicist; 
made  some  discoveries  in  electric  conduction 
and  induction,  which  he  published  between 
1720  and  his  death. 

Gray,  Thomas  (*.  1716,  d.  1771),  EngUsh 


poet ;  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge ;  in 
1739  went  on  a  continental  tour  with  H. 
Walpole,  but  in  1741  they  quarrelled,  and 
Gray  returned,  and  soon  after  settled  at 
Cambridge.  In  1741  he  wrote  his  Ode  to 
Eton  College  and  some  minor  poems,  and 
ten  years  later  the  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Churchyard  appeared.  In  1757  he  was 
offered  the  laureateship,  but  declined.  In 
1768  he  became  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Cambridge,  but  did  not  always  carry  out 
his  duties  in  person.  Thtt  Bard  was  pub- 
lished in  1757. 

Grazzini,  Antonio  Francesco  {b.  1503,  d, 
1583),  Italian  poet;  called  "II  Lasca  "  (the 
Roach) ;  founded  the  academy  of  La  Crusca 
to  reform  Italian  literatm-e,  and  was  the 
author  of  Comimdie  (1582),  Cena,  and 
Sonnetti,  published  after  his  death. 

Greatorex,  Thomas  (J.  1758,  d.  1831), 
English  musician ;  pupil  of  Dr.  Cooke ;  after 
returning  from  an  extended  Continental 
tour,  settled  in  London  as  a  teacher  of 
music,  and  ia  1793  became  director  of  the 
king's  concerts  of  ancient  music.  In  1S19 
he  became  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
Besides  adapting  many  of  Handel's  com- 
positions, he  devoted  much  attention  to 
science ;  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  wrote  a  memoir  on  the  use  of  the 
barometer  for  measuring  heights. 

Greatrakes,  Valentine  (*.  1628,  d.  1700), 
Irish  quack:  patronised  by  Charles  II.,  by 
whose  permission  he  attempted  cures  by 
touching,  many  of  which  are  said  to  have 
been  successful. 

Greaves,  John  [h.  1602,  d.  1652),  English 
Orientalist  and  mathematician ;  travelled  ia 
the  East,  and  wrote  Pgramidographia  and 
several  unpublished  MSS. ;  was  Savilian 
professor  at  Oxford,  and  patronised  by 
Archbishop  Laud. 

Greeley,  Horace  {b.  1811,  d.  1872).  Ameri- 
can  journalist  and  politician ;  son  of  a  New 
Hampshire  farmer;  came  to  New  York, 
and,  after  some  failures,  established  in  1 841 
the  New  York  Tribune,  in  which  he  sup- 
ported Lincoln  and  the  union.  In  1S48  he 
became  a  member  of  Congress,  and,  though 
not  prominent  there,  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Republican  party  in  1855.  He  ulti- 
mately, however,  became  a  Democrat,  and 
unsuccessfully  opposed  Grant  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1872,  but  died  the  same  j-ear.  He 
twice  visited  Europe.  He  was  author  of 
The  American  Conflict  (1864),  What  I  Know 
about  Farming,  and  Recollections  of  a  Busy 
Life  (1869). 

Greely,  Adolphus  Washington  (*.  1844), 
American  Arctic  explorer;  served  in  the  Civil 
war ;  afterwards  entered  the  signal  office  of 
the  war  department,  and  in  1873"8urveyed  the 


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Mississippi  and  Missouri.  In  1S80  he  was 
appointed  by  Gartield  head  of  the  United 
States  Arctic  expedition ;  sailed  the  next  year, 
and  in  1884  was  rescued  off  Cape  Sabine  by 
Captain  Schley,  having  gone  farther  north 
than  any  preceding  expedition,  and  made 
ini})(irtant  discoveries,  which  were  de- 
scribed in  his  address  to  the  Scottish  Geo- 
graphical Society.  The  expedition  was 
accused  of  cannibalism,  but  this  Greely 
denied  in  his  Three  Years  of  Arctic  Service. 

Green,  Alexander  Henry  {b.  1832),  Eng- 
lish geologist ;  son  of  Rev.  T.  S.  Green  ;  was 
sixth  wrangler  in  1855,  and  fellow  of  Caius 
College ;  joined  the  geological  survey  in 
1861 ;  became  professor  of  geology  and 
mathematics  at  the  Yorkshire  college, 
Leeds,  in  1875,  and  professor  of  geology  at 
Oxford  in  1888.  His  chief  works  are  The 
Geology  of  the  Yorkshire  Coalfield  (1872), 
and  Physical  Geology  (1882,  3rd  edition). 

Green,  John  Richard  {b.  1837,  d.  1883), 
EngUsh  historian ;  bom  at  Oxford,  and 
educated  at  Magdalen  College  school  and 
Jesus  College ;  took  orders  ui  1860,  and  was 
some  time  vicar  of  St.  Philip's,  Stepney, 
becoming  in  1868  librarian  at  Lambeth. 
He  was  author  of  A  Short  History  of  the 
English  People  (1874),  A  History  of  the 
English  People  (1877-80),  The  Making  of 
England  (1882),  and  The  Conquest  of  Eng- 
land, published  after  his  death  by  his 
wife,  who  assisted  him  in  various  other 
works,  and  herself  wrote  Henry  II.  in 
the  Twelve  English  Statesmen  series. 

Green,  Joseph  Henry  (d.  1863),  English 
anatomist ;  author  of  Vital  Dynamics, 
Mental  Dynamics,  and  also  Spiritual  Philo- 
sophy, published  in  1865,  after  his  death. 

Green,  Mary  Anne  Everett,  nee  Wood 
(b.  1818),  English  historical  writer;  came 
to  Loudon  in  1848  and  wrote  The  Princesses 
of  England  between  1849  and  1855.  She 
also  edited  for  the  Camden  Society  The 
Diary  of  John  Rons,  and  The  Letters  of 
Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  and  calendared 
several  State  papers  for  the  Master  of  the 
Rolls.  She  married  in  1845  Mr.  G.  P.  Green, 
an  artist. 

Green,  Matthew  (h.  1697,  d.  1737),  Eng- 
lish poet ;  a  custom-house  officer,  who  in 
the  intervals  of  business  wrote  The  Spleen, 
which  was  commended  by  Pope  and  Gray. 

Green,  Thomas  Hill  {b.  1836,  d.  1882), 
English  philosopher;  became  fellow  of 
Balliol  in  1864,  and  the  first  lay  tutor  in 
18G7,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
municipal  government  of  Oxford.  In  1877 
he  was  elected  Whji:e  professor  of  moral 
philosophy,  and  contributed  to  the  Fort- 
nu/l.ily  Review  a  series  of  articles  on  Mr. 
H.  Spencer  and  Mr.   G.  H.  Lawes :    Their  \ 


Application  of  the  Doctrine  of  Evolution  to 
Thought,  having  previously  written  in  the 
North  British  Review  articles  on  the  PhilO' 
sophy  of  Aristotle,  and  Popular  Philosophy 
in  its  Relation  to  Life.  He  also  published 
two  lay  sermons.  The  Witness  of  God,  and 
Faith,  published  by  Toynbee  in  1878;  but 
his  greatest  work  was  Prolegomena  to  Ethics, 
edited  by  Professor  A.  C.  Bradley  in  1883. 

Green,  Valentine  [b.  1739,  d.  1813),  Eng- 
lish mczzotiat  engraver,  his  most  celebrated 
print  being  Regulus  and  Hannibal  (after 
West).  He  was  prevented  by  the  revolu- 
tion from  engraving  the  pictures  of  the 
Diisseldorf  gallery,  for  which  he  had  re- 
ceived a  patent.  In  1775  he  was  elected 
A.R.A. 

Greene,  Nathaniel  {b.  1742,  d.  1786), 
American  general ;  educated  himself,  and 
broke  with  the  Quakers  on  account  of  his 
later  military  pursuits ;  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  the  Brandywine ;  was 
defeated  several  times  by  Cornwallis,  but 
won  the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs. 

Greene,  Robert  {b.  1560,  d.  1592),  English 
dramatist ;  educated  at  Cambridge ;  is  said 
to  have  taken  orders  oii  his  return  from  the 
Continent,  but  was  a  man  of  immoral  hfe. 
Besides  five  plays  and  several  pamphlets, 
he  wrote  an  account  of  his  life  called  The 
Repentance  of  Robert  Greene,  which  was 
pubHshed  in  1592.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Marlowe,  Peele,  and  Nash,  but  made  a 
violent  attack  on  Shakespeare  as  an 
"  upstart  crow  "  in  A  GroaVs-  Worth  of  Wit 
bought  with  a  Million  of  Repentance. 
Greene's  plays  and  poems  were  collected 
and  edited  by  Dyce  in  1831. 

Greenough,  George  B.  (*.  1778,  d.  1855), 
English  geologist;  educated  at  Cambridge 
and  Gottingen ;  was  in  Parliament  for  a 
few  years  (1807-12),  but  devoted  most  of 
his  life  to  science,  being  one  of  the  founders 
and  first  president  of  the  Geological  Society. 
He  was  also  twice  vice-president  of  the 
Royal  Society,  president  of  the  Geographical 
Society,  and  fellow  of  other  learned  so- 
cieties. He  was  author  of  A  Geological  Map 
of  England  and  Wales,  A  Geological  Map  of 
India,  and  A  General  Sketch  of  the  Physical 
Features  of  British  India. 

Greenwell,  William  (*.  1820),  Enghsh 
archajologist  and  divine  ;  graduated  at  Dur- 
ham, and  became  fellow  of  University  Col- 
lege, and  afterwards  principal  of  Neville 
Hall,  Newcastle.  In  1879  he  presented  to 
the  British  Mviseum  a  collection  of  urns  and 
pottery,  having  previously  given  some  skulls 
from  British  barrows  to  the  University  of 
Oxford.  His  principal  works  relate  to  the 
see  of  Durham,  and  his  services  to  science 
were  recognised  by  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
and  a  fellowship  of  the  Royal  Society. 


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Greg,  William  Rathbone  (b.  1809,  d.  1881), 
English  essayist ;  became  a  commissioner  of 
customs  in  1856,  and  in  1864  was  made 
controller  of  the  stationery  office.  His 
chief  works  were  The  Creed  of  Christendom 
(1851),  Essays  in  Political  and  Social  Science 
(1853),  Jiocks  Ahead  (1874),  and  Literary 
and  Social  Judgments  (1877).  His  Miscel- 
laneous Essays  were  published  in  1881  and 
1882. 

Gregorius  Nazianzenus  {d.  390),  Saint; 
son  of  the  Bishop  of  Nazianzus ;  preached 
against  the  Ariaus ;  was  appointed  by  Theo- 
dosius  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
delivered  a  funeral  oration  over  his  friend, 
St.  BasU. 

Gregorius  Nicephoras  (Jl.  1350),  Byzan- 
tine historian  ;  proposed  the  reform  in  the 
Calendar,  which  was  afterwards  carried  out 
by  Gregory  XIII. 

Gregorius  Nyssenus  (4th  century) ,  Saint ; 
brother  of  Basil  the  Great,  and  Bishop  of 
Nyssa ;  was  banished  by  the  Arians,  and 
wrote  against  them.  At  the  council  of 
Antioch  he  made  the  new  draft  of  the 
Nicene  Creed. 

Gregorius  Thaumaturgus  [d.  circa  270), 
Saint ;  so  called  because  of  miracles  attri- 
buted to  him ;  was  converted  and  baptised  by 
Origen,  on  whom  he  wrote  an  Eulogy,  being 
also  author  of  A  Paraphrase  of  Ecclesiastes. 

Gregory,  George,  D.D.  (6.  1754,  d.  1808), 
Irish  essajist ;  edited  the  Annual  Register 
for  several  years,  and  wrote  a  Church 
Sistory. 

Gregory,  James  {b.  1638,  d.  1675),  Scotch 
mathematician ;  inventor  of  the  reflecting 
telescope,  which  he  came  to  London  in 
1665  to  construct,  and  afterwards  went  to 
Padua.  He  pubUshed  (1667)  Verce  Circuli 
Hyp';rbol(e  Quadratura,  and  had  contro- 
versies with  Newton  and  Huyghens.  His 
nephew,  David  {d.  1713),  was  SaviUan  pro- 
fessor at  Oxford,  and  wrote  Astronomies 
Physicce  Elementa,  besides  introducing 
Newton's  Principia  at  the  university. 

Gregory,  Olinthus  Gilbert  {b.  mi,  d. 
1841),  English  mathematician  ;  professor  at 
Woolwich  1802-38  ;  was  a  fellow  of  the 
Eoyal  Society,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Astronomical  Society.  He  wrote  a 
Treatise  on  Astronotny  (ISOl),  and  Mathe- 
matics for  Practical  Men  (1825). 

Gregory,  Robert  {b.  1819),  English  edu- 
cationalist, was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
ordained  in  1843.  After  holding  several 
beuetices,  he  became  canon  of  St.  Paul's  in 
1868,  and  in  1890  dean.  From  1873  to 
1876  he  was  a  member  of  the  London 
School  Board,  and  amongst  other  commis- 
Bions  on  which  he  served  were  that  which 


inquired  into  the  London  Parochial  Chari- 
ties, and  the  Education  Commission  of  1886. 
Among  his  works  are  The  Cost  of  Voluntary 
Schools  and  of  Board  Schools,  and  Is  the 
Canadian  System  of  Education  Mates  possible 
in  England  ?  besides  various  theological  and 
parochial  works. 

Gregory,  William  {b.  1803,  d.  1858), 
English  chemist;  pupil  and  follower  of 
Liebig ;  was  successively  professor  of  medi- 
cine and  chemistry  at  Aberdeen,  and  of 
chemistry  at  Edinburgh.  He  was  author 
of  Handbooks  of  Organic  and  Inorganic 
Chemistry,  new  editions  of  which  appeared 
in  1856, 

Gregory  of  Alexandria  (4th  century), 
Arian  Patriarch  of  Alexandria;  persecutor 
of  Athanasius ;  was  deposed  about  354. 

Gregory  of  Armenia  (4th  century).  Saint ; 
evangelist  of  Armenia ;  was  Imown  as 
the  "  lUumiuator. " 

Gregory  of  Constantinople  {d.  1821), 
was  made  patriarch  in  1795,  but  opposed 
the  Greek  revolution,  and  was  executed 
with  several  of  his  clergy  on  suspicion. 

Gregory  of  Tours  {b.  544,  d.  59.5),  French 
bishop  and  historian ;  opposed  the  cruelties 
of  Fredegonde ;  visited  Gregory  I.  at  Rome, 
and  wrote  Hlstoria  Francorum,  which  was 
first  printed  in  1699. 

Gregory  L,  Pope,  caUed  the  "Great" 
(d.  604),  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  of 
the  East  governor  of  Rome,  but,  on  inherit- 
ing his  father's  wealth,  resigned  it,  and 
became  Abbot  of  St.  Andrew's,  Rome. 
After  being  secretary  to  Pelagius  II.,  he 
succeeded  him  as  Bishop  of  Rome ;  re- 
nounced communion  with  the  Eastern 
Christians  because  of  the  assumption  of  the 
title  "Universal  Bishop"  by  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople ;  composed  chants,  and 
established  a  musical  school,  in  which  he 
taught  himself,  and  collected  and  arranged 
fragments  of  ancient  hymns.  He  was  a 
great  opponent  of  secular  learning,  but  was 
author  of  numerous  sacred  works,  of  which 
the  chief  was  his  Morals  on  the  Book  of 
Job. 

Gregory  II.  {d.  731),  elected  pope  in  715 ; 
held  a  council  against  the  Iconoclasts,  and 
sent  Boniface  to  preach  in  Germany. 

Gregory  in.  {d.  741),  elected  731 ;  opposed 
the  Iconoclasts,  and  excommunicated  Leo 
the  Isaurian ;  sent  to  Charles  Martel  the 
keys  of  St.  Peter's  tomb  in  return  for  his 
assistance  against  the  Lombards. 

Gregory  IV.,  Pope  {d.  844), elected  in  827 ; 
attempted  to  reconcile  Louis  le  D^onnaire 
and  Lothaire ;  changed  the  Feast  of  All 
Saints  to  November  1 ;  perhaps  the  first  to 


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assert   the  supremacy   of  the  ecclesiastical 
over  the  civil  power. 

Gregory  V.  (rf.  999),  elected  by  help  of 
the  Emperor  Otho  III.,  whose  nephew  he 
was,  and  restored  by  him  when  expelled 
from  Eome  bj'  Crescentius. 

Gregory  VI.  (d.  1047),  elected  1044; 
offended  the  clergy  by  his  reforms,  and  was 
compelled  to  abdicate  by  Henry  III.  in 
1046. 

Gregory  VII.,  "Hildebrand"  (d.  1085), 
a  man  of  low  birth,  who  became  monk  of 
Clugny  and  archdeacon  of  Rome  ;  exercised 
great  influence  over  Leo  IX.  and  succeeding 
popes,  till  he  was  himself  appointed,  in  1073, 
to  succeed  Alexander  II.  He  attacked 
simony  and  concubinage  in  the  Church,  and 
carried  the  power  of  the  papacy  to  a  high 
pitch,  declining  to  submit  to  ratification  of 
election  from  the  emperor,  and  attempting 
to  enforce  spiritual  control  over  the  sove- 
reigns of  Europe.  He  was  firmly  opposed 
by  William  I.  of  England  and  Philip  I.  of 
France,  but  he  exconuaunicated  Henry  IV. 
of  Germany,  and  compelled  him  to  do 
penance  in  1077,  although  he  was  eventually 
deposed  by  him.  He  died  at  Salerno,  where 
he  had  been  taken  after  his  rescue  from  the 
Castle  of  St.  Angelo  by  the  Normans  of 
ApuUa. 

Gregory  Vm.,  Alberto  di  Mora  (d.  1187), 
only  held  the  papacy  for  a  month,  when  an 
anti-pope  with  the  same  title  was  set  up  by 
Henry  V. 

Gregory  IX.  {d.  1241),  elected  in  1227; 
carried  on  an  almost  continuous  struggle 
with  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  whom 
he  excommimicated,  first  for  not  going  on 
crusade,  and  secondly,  on  his  return,  for 
speeches  he  was  reported  to  have  made. 
He  finally  called  a  coiincU  to  depose 
Fi-ederick,  who,  however,  captured  the  fleet 
which  carried  most  of  the  bishops. 

Gregory  X.  {d.  1276),  elected  in  1271  when 
at  Acre ;  held  a  council  at  Lyons  for  re- 
unitiag  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  and 
made  regulations  for  future  elections  to  the 
papacy. 

Gregory  XI.  {d.  1378),  elected  1370;  a 
French  pope,  who  resided  at  Avignon,  but 
removed  to  Rome  in  1377 ;  he  denounced 
Wycliffe. 

Gregory  XII.  {d.  1417),  elected  1406,  but 
resigned  ia  1409.  The  "great  schism"  was 
now  raging,  and  there  were  several  anti- 
popes. 

Gregory  Xin.  {b.  1502,  d.  1585),  elected 
in  1572  ;  promulgated  the  Reform  Calendar 
of  Lilio  iu  1582 :  favoured  the  Jesuits, 
foi  whom  he  founded  a  college  at  Rome ; 


celebrated  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, and  encouraged  the  Jesuit  mission 
to  England  and  the  Spanish  invasion, 

Gregory  XIV.  {d.  1591),  elected  1590,  ex- 
comnmuicated  Henri  IV.,  and  died  the  next 
year. 

Gregory  XV.  (d.  1623),  elected  1621; 
founded  the  De  FropagandA  Fide,  anft 
canonised  Ignatius  Loyola  and  Xavier. 

Gregory  XVL  (h.  1765,  d.  1846),  elected 
in  1831  ;  opposed  all  reforms  and  inventions, 
and  issued  encyclical  letters  against  Lamen- 
nais ;  made  some  concessions  w^hen  forced 
by  popular  outbreaks,  but  soon  retracted 
them. 

Greig,  Alexis  (6.  1775,  d.  1845),  English 
admiral  iu  the  Russian  service,  whose  father 
had  been  commander  of  the  Russian  navy ; 
served  as  a  volunteer  for  four  years  in  the 
British  navy,  but  afterwards  entered  the 
Russian  service,  planned  the  fortifications 
I  of  Cronstadt,  served  against  the  Turks  and 
I  Napoleon,  and  in  1816  became  commander 
in  the  Black  Sea.  He  was  created  a  knight 
of  St.  Andrew.  His  funeral  was  attended 
by  the  whole  of  the  imperial  family. 

Greig,  Samuel  Carlo  vich  (d.  1782), 
English  admiral  in  the  Russian  service, 
father  of  the  preceding,  fortified  Cronstadt; 
made  many  reforms  in  the  navy,  and 
defeated  the  Swedes  in  1788. 

Grenfell,  Sir  Francis,  Major-General  (6. 
1841),  sirdar  of  the  Egyptian  armies; 
entered  the  English  army  in  1859,  and 
became  major-general  in  1889.  He  served 
in  the  Transkie  in  1877-8,  in  the  Kaffir  war ; 
in  the  Zulu  war,  being  mentioned  in  des- 
patches and  promoted  ;  in  the  Boer  war  ;  in 
the  Egyptian  campaigns  of  1882,  1884,  and 
1885,  and  commanded  at  Suakim  in  1888. 

Grenfell,  Colonel  Henry  (6. 1824),  English 
banker,  second  son  of  Pascoe  Grenfell ;  was 
in  Parliament  from  1862  till  1868,  when  he 
was  the  colleague  of  Mr.  Gladstone  as 
liberal  candidate  for  South-west  Lancashire, 
but  was  not  elected ;  became  director  of  the 
Bank  of  England  in  1865,  deputy-governor 
in  1879,  and  governor  in  1881. 

GrenfeU,  Pascoe  (*.  1762,  d.  1838),  English 
philanthropist  and  member  of  Parliament, 
who  supported  Wilberforce  in  his  agitation 
against  the  slave  trade. 

Grenier,  Jacques  Raymond,  Vicomte  de 
Giron  ({..  1736,  d.  1803),  French  hydro- 
grapher;  author  of  V Art  de  la  Guerre  sur 

Mer  (1787). 

Grenville,  George  (6.  1712,  d.  1770), 
English  statesman,  became  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury  and  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 


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in  1763,  and  signalised  his  short  tenn  of 
office  by  the  Stamp  Act,  and  the  first  pro- 
ceedings against  Witkea.  George  III.  hated 
him. 

Grenville,  Sir  Richard  (J.  1540,  d.  1591), 
English  admiral,  went  with  Sir  W,  Raleigh 
to  Virginia,  and  returned  in  1585  to  establish 
a  settlement  there;  was  present  with  the 
fleet  that  fought  with  the  Armada,  and  was 
killed  in  an  engagement  with  the  Spanish 
in  1519. 

GrenviUe,  Thomas  (b.  1755,  d.  1846), 
EngUsh  book-coUector  and  diplomatist,  son 
of  last-named,  bequeathed  his  library  to  the 
British  Museum,  a  catalogue  of  it  being 
published  in  1842. 

GrenvUle,  WilUam,  Lord  (6.  1759,  d. 
1834),  Enghsh  statesman;  was  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1789,  and  created 
a  baron  next  year ;  Home  Secretary  under 
Pitt  from  1789  to  1801,  and  in  1806  became 
head  of  the  "  Ministry  of  all  the  Talents," 
but  came  into  collision  with  the  king  on  the 
question  of  Catholic  Emancipation,  and 
resigned  shortly  after.  He  afterwards  sup- 
ported the  Liverpool  ministry,  and  broke 
with  his  old  friends,  the  Whigs. 

Greppi,  Giovanni  (b.  1751,  d.  1811), 
Italian  dramatist,  whose  chief  works  were 
Teresa  e  Claudio  and  Teresa  Vedova. 

Gresham,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1519,  d.  1579), 
English  merchant,  was  employed  to  negoti- 
ate loans  for  the  Government  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  and  was  knighted  by  Elizabeth  ; 
founded  the  Royal  Exchange  in  1566,  and 
Gresham  College  in  1575,  which  was  opened 
in  1596. 

Gresset,  Jean  Baptiste  {h.  1709,  d.  1777), 
French  dramatist  and  poet,  his  chief  work 
being  Vert  Vert,  which  appeared  about 
1733.  He  left  the  Society  of  Jesus  because 
they  disapproved  his  writings. 

Greswell,  Edward,  D.D.  {h.  1797,  d. 
1869),  Enghsh  theologian;  son  of  Rev.  W. 
Parr  Greswell,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
became  fellow  of  Corpus  Christi.  Chief 
among  his  works  were  Harmonia  Evangelica, 
Dissertations  on  the  Gospels,  and  Origines 
Kalendarice.  He  also  translated  Comiis  and 
Samson  Agonistes  into  Greek  verse. 

Gr^try,  Andre  Modeste  {h.  1741,  b.  18_13J, 
French  composer  ;  came  to  Paris  in  1747, 
and  was  very  successfiU  as  a  composer  of 
operas,  the  best-known  of  which  is  Huron. 
He  also  wrote  Essais  stir  la  Musique. 

Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste  (b.  1725,  d.  1805), 

French  painter,  left  the  French  Academy  of 

.    Painting  because  he  was  classed  with  the 

genre  painters.      Most   of  his  x>icture3  are 

portraits,  and  are  in  the  Louvre.     Among 


them   may  be  mentioned   The  Little   Girl 
with  the  Dog,  and  The  Village  Bride. 

Greville,  Charles  Cavendish  (6.  1794,  d. 
1865),  EugUsh  memoir-writer  ;  educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford ;  was  clerk  of  the  council 
from  1821  to  1860,  His  Diary  was  edited 
by  Mr.  Reeve,  the  first  series  appearing  in 
1875,  the  second  in  1885,  and  the  third  in 
1837. 

Greville,  Fulke,  Lord  Brooke  {b.  1554,  d. 
1628),  English  statesman  and  poet,  friend  of 
Sir  P.  Sidney,  a  favourite  of  Elizabeth,  and 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  under  James  L, 
was  killed  by  a  servant  named  Heywood. 
He  was  author  of  Tragedies  and  Foems,  Five 
Years  of  King  James,  and  a  Life  of  Sir 
Fhilip  Sidney.  His  relative,  Robert  {b. 
1608),  wrote  the  Nature  of  Truth,  and  was 
Parliamentary  commander  in  the  Civil  war, 
being  killed  at  Lichfield  in  1643. 

Greville,  Henri,  non  de  plume  of  Madame 
Durand  (6.  1842),  French  novelist,  author 
of  Le  Violon  Jiusse  (1879),  Folle  Avoine 
(1884),  rFngenue  (1885),  Cleopdtre  (1886), 
and  Nikanor  (1887). 

Gr6vy,  Fran9ois  Paul  Jules  (J.  1813,  d. 
1891),  French  statesman,  came  to  the  front  at 
Paris  as  a  defender  of  republicans  in  politi- 
cal cases,  and  in  1848  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  joined 
the  C6t4  Gauche,  became  vice-president  of 
the  Assembly,  and  opposed  the  presidency 
of  Louis  Napoleon.  In  1868  bis  native 
department  (the  Jura)  returned  him  for  the 
Assembly,  and,  on  resuming  pubUc  life,  he 
strongly  opposed  the  Second  Empire.  He 
became  president  of  the  Assembly  in  1871, 
and  was  re-elected  three  times.  Between 
1873  and  1876,  when  he  was  a  private 
member,  he  strongly  opposed  the  Mon- 
archists, and  he  afterwards  vigorously 
resisted  the  schemes  of  MacMahon,  ou 
whose  resignation  in  1879  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  republic,  in  which  office  he  dis- 
played much  tact,  and  in  1885  made  peace 
\vith  China  on  his  own  responsibility.  In 
December  of  that  year  he  was  re-elected, 
but  in  1887  was  obliged  to  resign  owing  to 
the  discovery  of  his  son-in-law's  (M.  Wilson) 
implication  in  the  decoration  scandals. 

Grew,  Nathaniel  {b.  1628,  d.  1711), 
English  botanist;  author  of  Anatomy  of 
Vegetables,  Roots,  and  Tmnks. 

Grey,  Charies,  second  Earl  (6.  1764,  d. 
1845),  second  son  of  the  first  eari,  educated 
at  Eton  and  King's  College,  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1786  for  Northumberiand.  He 
opposed  Pitt's  commercial  policy,  was  one 
of  the  managers  of  the  Hastings  impeach- 
ment, and  was  early  connected  with  parlia- 
mentary reforms.  By  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother  he  became  Lord  Howick,  and 


Gre 


(398) 


Gri 


was  Fii'st  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  the 
Grenville  ministry,  and  on  Fox's  death 
Foreign  Secretary.  As  leader  in  the  Com- 
mons he  Ciirried  through  the  Slave-Trade 
Aholitiou  Bill,  but  was  unable  to  make 
peace  with  France.  In  1807  he  was  out  of 
office  again,  and  also  no  longer  in  the 
Lower  House,  his  father  having  died.  He 
became  alienated  from  the  regent,  and  took 
the  side  of  Queen  Caroline  when  the  regent 
came  to  the  throne.  In  1836  he  became 
head  of  the  ministry  of  Reform,  and  suc- 
cessfully carried  after  a  severe  struggle  the 
first  Refoi-m  Bill.  He  now  effected  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Church  Act,  and  the  Bank  Charter 
Act ;  but  from  this  time  his  government 
began  to  fall  to  pieces,  and  Grey  himself 
resigned  in  1834,  taking  little  further  part 
in  public  life,  and  being  no  longer  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  younger  members  of  his 
party. 

Grey,  Henry,  third  Earl  {b.  1802), 
English  statesman,  eldest  son  of  preceding  ; 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was 
returned  as  Lord  Howick  for  Winchelsea  in 
1826,  and  subsequently  sat  for  Higham 
Ferrers  and  Northumberland.  He  was 
under-secretary  for  the  colonies  under  his 
father  for  a  short  time,  and  afterwards 
held  the  same  post  in  the  Home  Office ; 
and  in  1835  he  became  Secretary  for  War 
under  Melbourne.  In  1841  he  lost  his 
old  seat,  but  was  elected  for  Sunderland, 
becoming  a  prominent  opponent  of  Pro- 
tection. In  1845  he  succeeded  to  the  peer- 
age, and  in  the  foUowiug  year  joined  the 
Eut  ;;'ll  ministry  as  Colonial  Secretary, 
resigning  with  them  in  1852 ;  after  this  he 
was  never  in  office,  being  opposed  to  the 
policy  of  the  Coalitionists.  He  is  the  author 
of  Colohlal  Policy  of  Lord  RusseW s  Adminis- 
tration, and  of  an  Essuy  on  Parliamentary 
Government  as  to  Reform,  besides  many 
contributions  to  The  Times. 

Grey,    Sir    Charles    (b.    1785,    d.    1865), 
English      colonial    administrator,     son    of 
Ralph    Grey,    Esq.  ;     for   some   time   fel- 
low of  Oriel ;    was  in  1817  appointed  com-  j 
missioner    La    bankruptcy ;    in   1820   judge 
of  Madras,    and  in   1825   chief  justice  of  j 
Bengal.     In   1835  he  went  to   Canada  as  ! 
commissioner,  and,  after  having  been  for  a 
short  time  in  Parliament,  was  governor  of  ; 
Barbadoes    from    1841    to    1846,   when  he  . 
became  governor  of  Jamaica. 

Grey,  Sir  George,  G.C.B.  (6.  1799,  d. 
1882),  English  statesman ;  son  of  Sir  G. 
Grey,  and  nephew  of  the  second  Earl; 
educated  at  Oriel ;  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1826.  In  1832  he  was  returned  for 
Devonport,  which  he  represented  till  1847. 
He  was  twice  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies,  and  became  in  1839  judge  advo- 
cate, and  took  great  part  in  colonial  affairs, 


especially  in  defence  of  the  bill  for  the  sus- 

fension  of  the  constitution  of  Lower  Canada, 
n  1841  he  became  chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster,  and  in  1846  Lord  Russell's 
Home  Secretary.  In  the  latter  capacity  he 
passed  the  Government  Security  Bill,  and 
the  Alien  Bill,  and  the  other  measures 
(including  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act),  for  which  the  Chartist  agita- 
tion gave  occasion.  He  was  defeated  for 
North imiberland  in  1852,  but  was  elected 
for  Morpeth  next  year,  becoming  in  1854 
Colonial  Secretary  in  the  Coalition  ministry. 
In  1855,  however,  under  Palmerston,  he 
returned  to  the  Home  Office,  and  again  in 
the  Russell  ministry  of  1865-6.  He  held  his 
seat  in  Parliament  till  1874,  but  gradually 
withdrew  from  affairs. 

Grey,  Sir  George  (6.  1812),  colonial  states- 
man ;  educated  at  Sandhui'st ;  served  in 
the  army  for  several  years,  but  resigned  in 
1839,  and  went  to  Australia  as  an  explorer. 
In  1841  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
South  Australia ;  in  1845  of  New  Zealand ; 
in  1854  of  Cape  Colony,  and  again  in  1861 
of  New  Zealand.  In  1876  he  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  province  of  West  Auckland  ; 
and  from  1877  to  1884  premier  of  New 
Zealand- 
Grey,  Lady  Jane  (*.  1537,  d.  1554), 
grand-niece  of  Heni-y  VIII. ;  was  appointed 
heir  to  the  throne  by  Edward  VL  in  con- 
travention of  the  previous  settlement  of 
the  succession,  and  havi7ig  married  a  son 
of  Dudley,  Duke  of  Northumberland,  was 
made  queen  and  reigned  ten  days ;  she  was 
beheaded  with  Lord  Dudley. 

Grey,  Sir  William,  K.C.S.L  (b.  1818,  d. 
1878),  Indian  administrator,  son  of  the 
Bishop  of  Hereford  ;  went  to  India  in  1840 ; 
was  a  member  of  the  council  from  1862  to 
1867  ;  lieutenant-governor  of  Bengal  from 
that  year  till  1871,  and  from  1874  to  1877 
governor  of  Jamaica. 

Grey,  Zachary  (6.  1697,  d.  1766),  Eng- 
lish theologian ;  edited  Hudibras,  wrote 
a  criticism  of  Neal's  History  of  the  Puritans, 
and  was  an  opponent  of  Warburton. 

Gribaldi,  Matteo,  called  "Mofa"  {d. 
1564),  Itahan  jurist  and  reformer;  incurred 
the  wrath  of  Calvin  for  not  recognising  the 
Trinity,  and  was  author  of  De  Methodo 
Studendi  in  Jure  Civili. 

Gribeauval,  Jean  Vaquette  de  (6.  1715, 
d.  1789),  French  military  engineer  ;  entered 
the  Austrian  service,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  by  his 
defence  of  Schweidnitz  against  Frederick 
the  Great ;  became  field-marshal,  but  after- 
wards entered  the  French  service,  and 
greatly  reformed  its  artillery. 

Grieg,     Edvard     Hagenip     {b.    1843), 


Gri 


(  399) 


Gri 


Norwegian ;  composer,  bom  at  Bergen ; 
studied  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatoire  under 
Hauptmann  andRichter,  and  in  1863  went  to 
Copenhagen  to  he  taught  by  Gade.  In 
conjunction  with  Nordraak  he  founded  a 
new  Scandinavian  school,  whose  teaching  he 
directed  in  the  Christiania  musical  society. 
Having  visited  Italy,  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Liszt  at  Rome ;  but  it  was  in 
Germany  in  the  Leipzig  Gewandhaus  con- 
certs that  he  brought  out  his  compositions, 
among  which  may  be  named  Melodien  des 
Herzens,  Romanzen,  Xorivegische  Volk- 
slieder  iind  Tdnze,  most  of  them  being 
written  for  the  pianoforte. 

Griesbach,  Johann  Jacob  {b.  1745,  </.  1812), 
German  biblical  scholar ;  devoted  himself 
from  an  early  age  to  biblical  studies ;  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Halle  and  Jena, 
and  having  visited  England  and  most  other 
covmtries  for  the  pui-pose  of  collecting  and 
comparing  MSS.,  published  between  1771 
and  1775  his  Greek  New  Testament,  and 
subsequently  a  critical  commentary  on  it, 
and  other  works.  He  is  the  originator  of 
the  term  Synoptic  Gospels. 

Griflfet,  Henri  (6.  1698,  d.  1771),  French 
Jesuit  historian;  author  of  Annee  Du 
Chretien  (1747),  and  Hlstoire  de  Louis  XIII. 
(1758). 

Griffin,  Edmund  {b.  1864,  d.  1836),  Ameri- 
can scholar  and  divine ;  visited  Europe,  and 
on  his  return  gave  able  lectures  on  Roman, 
Italian,  and  English  literature,  but  died 
suddenly  soon  after.  His  Remains  were 
edited  in  1831  by  W.  C.  Bryant. 

Griffin,  Gerald  (Jb.  1803,  d.  1840),  Irish 
novelist ;  bom  at  Limerick,  came  to  London 
in  1820,  and  wrote  for  periodicals  and 
the  press,  publishing  Holland  Tide,  his  first 
tale,  in  1827.  Between  that  year  and  1830, 
when  he  returned  to  Ireland  and  joined  the 
Cork  society  of  Christian  Brothers,  he  pro- 
duced Tales  of  the  Minster  Festivals  and 
The  Collegians,  which  was  dramatised  as 
Eily  C  Connor,  and  formed  the  basis  of  The 
Colleen  Bawn. 

Griffin,  John  Joseph  {b.  1802,  d.  1877), 
English  chemist ;  author  of  Chemical  Recre- 
ations and  The  Radical  Theory  in  Chemistry 
(18o8).  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Chemical  Society. 

Griffith,  Sir  Richard  J.  (*.  1784,  d.  1878), 
English  geologist  and  agriculturist;  author 
of  The  Irish  Land  Question  and  English  Pub- 
lic Opinion  :  With  a  Supplement  on  Griffith's 
Valuation  (1881)  ;  was  appointed  professor 
of  geology  and  mining  engineer  to  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society  in  1812,  and  in  1885 
commissioner  for  the  valuation  of  lands  in 
Ireland.  In  1851  he  was  named  chaiiinan 
of  the  Irish  Board  of  Works,  for  his  services 


to  agriculture^  in  which  capacity  he  waa 
made  a  baronet.  He  also  made  A  Geo- 
logical Map  of  Ireland,  and  retired  in 
1864. 

Griffith,  Sir  Samuel  Walter,  K.C.M.G. 
{b.  1845),  colonial  statesman;  bom  at 
Merthyr  Tydvil ;  went  to  Australia  in  1854, 
and  was  educated  at  Sydney,  where  he  took 
high  honours.  He  was  called  to  the  Queens- 
land bar  in  1867,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1872.  He  was  at- 
torney-general of  Queensland  from  1874  to 
1878 ;  secretary  of  pubUc  instruction  from 
1876  to  1879,  from  which  year  till  1883  he 
led  the  Opposition,  having  refused  a  seat 
in  the  supreme  court.  From  1883  to  1888 
he  was  premier  of  Queensland,  holding 
various  offices  in  conjunction  with  the  head- 
ship. He  was  a  member  of  the  Federal 
Council  from  1885,  became  president  in  1888, 
and  attended  both  the  London  Colonial 
Conference  of  1887,  the  Federation  Confer- 
ence of  Melbourne  in  1890,  and  represented 
Queensland  at  the  Australian  Federal  Con- 
ference of  1891. 

Grignan,  Fran9oise,  Comtesse  de  {}>.  1648, 
d.  1705),  daughter  of  Madame  de  Sevigne; 
celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  accomphsh- 
ments;  the  well-known  letters  were  ad- 
dressed to  her. 

Grijalva,  Juan  de  {d.  1527),  Spanish  navi- 
gator; was  the  first  European  who  had  a 
conference  with  the  Mexicans,  and  entered 
into  relations  with  the  Aztecs.  He  after- 
wards went  to  Nicaragua,  where  he  was 
murdered  by  the  Indians. 

Grillo,  Marquise  del.    {See  Ristori.] 

Grillparzer,  Franz  (6.  1791,  d.  1872), 
Austrian  dramatist  and  poet ;  became  director 
of  the  archives  in  1833,  court  councillor  in 
1856,  and  imperial  councillor  in  1861.  His 
chief  works  were  Konig  Ottokar''s  Gliick  und 
Ende  and  }FeJ(e  dem  der  Liigt;  dramas,  Die 
Ahnfrau  and  Des  Meeres  und  der  Liehe 
WelUn,  poems ;  and  the  novels,  Der  Traum 
Ein  Lebeit  and  Ber  Spielmann. 

Grimaldi,  Francesco  Maria  (6.  1618,  d. 
1663),  Italian  Jesuit  philosopher;  prepared 
the  way  for  some  of  Newton's  discoveries, 
and  wrote  Ihysico  Mathesis  de  Lumine, 
Coloribus,  et  Iride. 

Grimaldi,  Geronimo,  (6.  1597,  d.  1685), 
Italian  cardinal ;  member  of  a  celebrated 
Genoese  house;  was  made  Archbishop  of  Aix 
in  1645,  having  two  years  before  been  made 
cardinal  by  Urban  VIII.  for  diplomatic 
services.  As  prelate  he  was  known  for  his 
munificence  and  his  reforming  measures. 

Grimaldi,  Giovanni,  "H  Bolognese"  (6. 
1606,  d.  U'lNO),  Italian  painter,  architect  and 
engraver ;  brought  up  by  the  Carracci,  whose 


Gri 


(400) 


Gro 


style  he  followed,  was  employed  by  Inno- 
ceut  X.  iu  the  Vaticau,  and  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  the  Louvre.  His  pictures  were  chiefly 
landscapes. 

Grimaldi,  Joseph  (b.  1877,  d.  1837), 
Italian  clown ;  bom  in  Loudon,  where  he 
made  his  reputation  as  a  low  comedian,  his 
greatest  hit  haviug  been  as  a  clown  in  the 
Harlequin  Amulet  produced  at  Drury  Lane 
in  1799.  He  retired  in  1828.  His  Memoirs 
were  edited  by  Dickens  (*'Boz  "). 

Grimbold,  or  Grimoald,  Nicolas  {b.  1519, 
d.  1563),  English  scholar  and  Latin  poet; 
was  lecturer  in  rhetoric  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  was  one  of  the  first  Englishmen 
to  make  use  of  blank  verse  in  his  poems 
and  plays.  He  wrote  the  Praise  of  Measure- 
Keeping,  and  a  Latin  tragedy  on  John  the 
Baptist, 

Grimm,  Frederic,  Baron  (6.  1723,  d.  1807), 
German  critic,  and  diplomatist,  and  at  first 
a  friend  but  afterwards  a  bitter  enemy  of 
Eousseau ;  was  some  time  at  Paris  as  secre- 
tary to  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  minister  of 
the'  Duke  of  Gotha,  and  was  afterwards  the 
Tsarina  Catherine's  minister  at  Hamburg. 
His  correspondence  with  Diderot  (1753-82), 
and  others,  was  published  in  1812-13.  As 
a  musical  critic  he  supported  the  Italians 
against  the  French  school. 

Grimm,  Jacob  Ludwig  Karl  {b.  1785,  d. 
1863),  German  scholar ;  born  at  Hanau  and 
educated  at  Cassel  and  Marburg ;  after  assist- 
ing for  some  time  the  jurist  Savigny,  was 
appointed  librarian  to  Jerome  Bouaparte  in 
1S08. which postheheld till  1813.  Hisbrother, 
Wilhelm  {h.  1786,  d.  1859),  was  joint  libra- 
rian with  him,  and  together  they  brought 
out  in  1812  the  Kinder-und-Haus-Marchen, 
Wilhelm  having  previously  published  his  col- 
lection of  Old  JJanish  Ballads.  In  1815  Jacob 
was  sent  to  Paris  to  recover  the  MSS. 
taken  by  the  French  from  Germany,  and  in 
the  years  1816-18  the  brothers  published 
Deutsche  Sage.  In  1819  the  elder  brought 
out  the  first  volume  of  his  Deutsche  Gram- 
matik,  and  in  1829  Wilhelm  published 
Deutsche  Heldensage.  They  removed  to 
Gottingen  soon  after,  and  both  obtained 
professorships,  but  in  1837,  having  joined 
in  the  protest  against  the  King  of  Hanover's 
unconstitutional  measures,  were  banished, 
but  were  in  1840  given  professorships  at 
BerUn.  Here  they  continued  their  great 
work,  the  Deutsches  WUrterbuch ,  which  they 
did  not  live  to  finish.  Jacob  was  for  a 
short  time  in  the  Frankfort  parliament. 

Grimoard,  Phillippe,  Comte  de  {d.  1814), 
French  general  and  historian :  author  of 
Essai  Theorique sur  des  Batailles  and  Histoire 
des  Dernieres  Campagnes  de  Twenne. 

Grimod  de   la   Reyn^re,  Alexandre   {b. 


1758,  d.  1838),  French  writer;  publisher  of 
Almanack  des  Gomtnands  between  1703  and 
1812,  and  Manuel  des  Amphitryons  in  1808. 

Grimston,  Mrs.    \_See  Kendal.] 

Grimston,  Sir  Harbottle  (d.  1683),  Eng- 
lish politician  ;  a  Parliamentarian,  but  re- 
fused to  subscribe  to  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant.  He  supported  however, 
the  Presbyterians  against  the  Independents, 
and  was  excluded  from  Cromwell's  second 
Parliament.  In  1660  he  became  Speaker  of 
the  Convention  Parliament,  and  was  made 
Master  of  the  Rolls  by  Charles  II. 

Grimthorpe,  Edmund  Beckett  Denison 
(afterwards  Sir  Edmund  Beckett,  Bart.), 
Lord  (b.  1816),  English  lawyer  and  writer; 
educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  called  to  the  bar  in  1841,  and  be- 
came Queen's  Counsel  iu  1854.  In  1877  he 
became  chancellor  and  vicar-general  of  York. 
In  1886  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  "His  chief 
works  are  Lectures  on  Church  Building  (1856), 
A  Book  on  Building  (1880),  Treatise  on  Clocks, 
Watches,  and  Bells  (1883),  and  some  contro- 
versial writing. 

Grimus  (1103),  King  of  Scotland  from 
995  ;  killed  by  Malcohn. 

Grindal,  Edmund  (6.  1519,  d.  1583), 
English  churchman ;  was  chaplain  to  Ridley 
and  fled  to  Frankfort  dirring  the  Marian 
persecution ;  was  successively  Bishop  of 
London,  Archbishop  of  York,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  Having  incurred 
the  anger  of  Elizabeth  for  his  Puritan  lean- 
ings, he  was  sequestered  for  many  years. 

Grinfield,  Edward  {d.  1864),  English 
biblical  critic ;  published  Novum  Testa- 
tnentum  GrcBcum  (1843-8)  and  Apology  for 
the  Septuagint  (1850). 

Gringoire,  Pierre  {b.  circa  1475,  d.  1544), 
French  poet  and  dramatist ;  author  of  Chd- 
teau  de  Labour,  Chdteau  d'Amours,  Lea 
Folles  Entreprises. 

Grisi,  Giulia  (h.  1811,  d.  1869),  Italian 
operatic  singer ;  bom  at  Milan,  and  educated 
at  the  conservatoire  there.  She  made  her 
first  appearance  at  the  age  of  seventeen  in 
Rossini's  Zelmira.  She  was  a  great  favourite 
with  Bellini,  and  took  the  leading  part  in  his 
o-peia, Norma.  After  singing  in  several  Italian 
towns  she  came  to  Paris  in  1832,  and  sang  the 
part  of  Semiramide.  In  1 834  she  visited  Lon- 
don, which  she  made  her  home,  and  where 
she  was  very  successful,  her  best  parts  being 
those  of  Desdemona  (Othello),  Amina  {La 
Sonnambulaj,  Leonora  (II  Trovatore),  and 
Pamina  (IlFlauto  Magico)  and  Norma.  She 
retired  from  the  stage  in  1862.  Her  second 
husband  was  Signor  Mario. 

Grocyn,    William    (A.    1442,     d.    1519), 


Gro 


(401) 


Gro 


English  scholar;  studied  under  PoHtian  in 
Italy  and  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  entertained  Erasmus ;  was 
afterwards  master  of  All  Hallows'  college, 
Maidstone. 

Grolier,  Jean  {b.  1479,  d.  1565),  French 
bibliophile,  left  a  collection  of  3,000  splen- 
didly bound  volum.e8,  which  are  now  very 
rare. 

Grolmann,  Karl  Wilhelm  von  (6.  1775,  d. 
1829),  German  statesman  and  jurist;  as 
chief  minister  at  Hesse  Darmstadt  was 
mainly  instrumental  iu  founding  a  con- 
stitutional government  there  (1820). 

Gronovius,  Jacob  (b.  1645,  d.  1716), 
German  philologist,  author  of  Thesaurus 
Antiquitatiim  Grcecarum ;  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  at  Leyden.  His  sou, 
Lorenz  Theodor  id.  yill)  was  a  naturalist, 
and  ^xot&  Museum  Ichthyologiimi  (1754-56). 

Gronovius,  Johaun  Friedrich  {b.  1611,  d. 
1671),  Gennan  philologist ;  friend  of  Vossius 
and  Heinsius ;  edited  Plautus,  Livy,  and 
Tacitus,  and  published  Observationes  (i6u9). 

Gronow,  Kees  Howell  (b.  1794,  d.  1865), 
English  writer ;  captain  in  the  army  ;  wrote 
The  Camp,  the  Court,  and  the  Clubs  (1861), 
and  his  Recollections  (1863). 

Groombridge,  Stephen  {d.  1832),  English 
merchant  aud  astronomer ;  author  of  6'«i- 
versal  Tables  for  the  Eeduction  of  Fixed 
Stars  (1821). 

Greet,  Gerard  (6.  1340,  d.  1384),  Dutch 
theologian ;  teacher  of  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Cologne,  and  collector  of  MSS.  ; 
founded  the  order  of  the  "Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life." 

Gro8,  Antoine  Jean,  Baron  (6.  1771,  d. 
1835),  French  painter;  his  chief  pictures 
dealing  with  the  life  of  Napoleon,  such  as 
his  Advance  on  the  Austrian  Batteries  in 
1796  and  the  Plague  of  Jaffa.  He  ultimately 
became  imbecile,  and  was  found  drowned. 

Grose,  Francis  (b.  1731,  d.  1791),  English 
antiquary  ;  son  of  a  Swiss  jeweller ;  became 
"Richmond  Herald,"  and  published  Ari- 
tiquities  of  England  and  Wales  (1773-6), 
Militari/  Antiquities  (1786-8),  and  Antiqui- 
ties of  Scotland  (1789-91),  The  Olio  (1793),  etc. 

Grosseteste,  Robert  (d.  1253),  English 
bishop  and  clerical  reformer ;  resisted  the  en- 
croachments and  exactions  of  Innocent  IV., 
by  whom  he  was  exoommunicated  ;  was  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1235. 

Grossi,  Tommaso  {b.  1791,*:?.  1853),  Italian 
poet ;  author  of  Marco  Visconti  and  several 
sonnets  ;  was  appointed  in  1848  director  of 
public  instruction  in  Lombardy. 

Grosvenor,  Thomas,  Field-marshal  {b. 
1764,    d.    1851),    English    soldier;    son    of 

A.  A. 


Thomas  Grosvenor,  M.P.,  commanded  the 
guard  in  the  riots  of  1780 ;  in  1793  served  in 
Flanders,  and  in  1799  with  the  expedition  to 
the  Helder;  commanded  a  brigade  in  the 
attack  on  Copenhagen  in  1805,  and  in  1809 
joined  the  Walcheren  expedition.  He 
became  tield-marshal  in  1846,  and  repre- 
sented Chester  in  Parliament  for  manj'  years. 

Grote,  George  {b.  1794,  d.  1871),  his- 
torian and  politician  ;  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse ;  entered  the  family  banking- 
house,  but  devoted  his  leisure  time  to  literary 
work.  He  published  many  pamphlets  on 
reform,  and  contributed  to  the  Westminster 
Review.  In  1833  he  was  elected  for  the 
City  of  London,  for  which  he  continued  to 
sit  till  1841  as  one  of  the  "Philosophical 
Radicals."  His  History  of  Greece  appeared 
between  1846  and  1856,  and  was  followed  by 
Flato  and  other  Companions  of  Socrates.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  London 
University.  His  Minor  Works  were  edited 
by  Professor  Bain  in  1873. 

Gretefend,  Georg  Friedrich  {b.  1775,  d. 
1853),  German  philologist ;  author  of  A 
Greater  Latin  Grammar  and  of  some  works 
on  the  cuneiform  inscrii^tions,  of  which  he 
was  the  first  to  discover  the  key.  His 
brother,  Friedrich  August  {d.  1836),  wrote 
Materials  for  Latin  Style. 

Gretius,  Hugo  {b.  1583,  d.  1645),  German 
statesman  aud  writer ;  bom  at  Delft ;  entered 
public  life  &% pensionary  (A  Rotterdam;  came 
to  England  in  1615  as  a  commissioner  on  the 
Greenland  fisheries'  question,  and  there  met 
Casaubon.  As  a  friend  of  Bamevelt,  and  a 
supporter  of  Arminius,  he  was  imprisoned 
by  the  stadtholder,  Maurice  (1619),  but  two 
years  after  his  wife  contrived  his  escape,  and 
he  went  to  Paris  for  some  years.  After  a 
short  stay  in  Holland,  and  a  residence  of 
two  years  at  Hamburg,  he  returned  to 
Paris  in  1635,  as  Swedish  ambassador,  where 
he  remained  till  shortly  before  his  death. 
Chief  among  his  many  works  were  Foemata 
Sacra  (1601),  Be  Jure  Belli  et  Facis  (1625), 
and  Annotationes  in  Novum  Teitamentum 
(1644). 

Grotius,  Peter  (6.  1610,  d.  1680),  Dutch 
diplomatist;  son  of  last-named,  was  pen- 
sionary of  Amsterdam  in  1660,  and  a 
partisan  of  the  De  Witts,  on  whose  fall  he 
fled  (1671) ;  was  afterwards  tried  for  betray- 
iug  state  secrets,  but  acquitted. 

Grouchy,  Emmanuel,  Marquis  de  {b.  1766, 
d.  1847),  French  soldier;  one  of  Napoleon's 
marshals ;  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Vendean  war,  and  afterwards  in  Lombardy 
and  Germany,  rendering  conspicuous  service 
at  Hohenlinden,  in  Russia,  and  on  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Allies  in  1814.  He  was  sent  by 
Napoleon  to  pursueBliicherafter  thebattloof 
Ligny,  and  to  his  non-arrival  was  attributed 


Gro 


(402) 


Gud 


the  defeat  of  Waterloo.  He  was  banished 
by  the  Bourbous,  but,  aft«r  an  absence  of 
twelve  years,  was  recalled  and  restored  to 
his  honours  by  Louis  Philippe. 

Grove,  Sir  George  (*.  1820),  English 
engineer  and  biographer ;  was  for  some  years 
on  the  staff  of  Robert  Stephenson,  and  em- 
ployed on  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  rail- 
way ;  was  afterwards  secretary  to  the 
Society  of  Arts  and  the  Crystal  Palace 
Company.  He  has  also  contributed  to  Dr. 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  and  edited 
Macmillan's  Magazine  and  The  Dictio)iary 
of  Music,  writing  many  of  the  chief 
articles  for  the  latter.  In  1882  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Boyal  College  of 
Music,  and  was  knighted  in  the  following 
year. 

Grove,  Sir  "WilUam  Robert,  F.R.S.  (*.  181 1) , 
English  judge  and  man  of  science ;  educated 
at  Brasenose,  Oxford;  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1835;  became  Q.U.  in  1853,  justice  of 
the  Common  Pleas  1871,  and  a  judge  of  the 
High  Court  of  justice  in  1875.  On  his  re- 
tirement in  1887  he  was  sworn  on  the  Privy 
Council.  He  was  also  professor  of  experi- 
mental philosophy  at  the  London  Institution 
from  1840  to  1847,  and  president  of  the 
British  Association  in  1866.  He  took  great 
part  in  the  reorganisation  of  the  Royal 
■society,  and  was  the  author  of  several  im- 
portant discoveries  in  electricity  and  optics, 
described  in  The  Proqress  of  Physical  Science 
since  the  Opening  of  the  London  Institution, 
and  the  essay,  On  the  Correlation  of  Phy- 
sical Forces. 

Groves,  Charles  Edward  (&.  1841),  English 
chemist ;  assisted  Dr.  Hoffmann  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Chemistry,  and  was  afterwards 
lecturer  in  practical  chemistry  at  Guy's 
Hospital,  consulting  chemist  to  the  Thames 
Conservators,  and  sub-editor  and  editor  of 
the  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.  He 
was  elected  F.C.S.  in  1871,  and  F.R.S.  in 
1883,  and  has  edited  several  chemical  works. 

Griin.     \_See  Auersperg.  ] 

Grundy,  William  (6. 1850),  English  scholar 
and  divine ;  educated  at  Rossall  and  Ox- 
ford, being  fellow  of  Worcester  College  for 
three  years ;  was  ordained  in  1878  ;  became 
head-master  of  King's  school,  Warwick,  in 
1881,  and  of  Malvern  in  1885.  He  is  the 
author  of  The  Chief  Ancie>it  Philosophies 
(1889),  and  was  gold  medallist  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  in  1869. 

Grynseus,  Johann  Jacob  (b.  1540,  d.  1617), 
German  Protestant  theologian ;  author  of 
Character  Christianorum  and  editor  of  the 
Ecclesiastica  Historia  of  Eusebius. 

Grynasus,  Simon  Major  (6.  1493,  d.  1541), 
German  scholar ;  fiiend  of  Erasmus  and  Sir 


Thomas  More,  whose  acquaintance  he  made 
on  coming  to  England  to  consult  about  the 
divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  ;  pubhshed  Norus 
Orbis  Regionum,  a  collection  of  voyages,  and 
discovered  the  last  five  books  of  Livy. 

Guadet,  Marguerite  lllie  {b.  1768,  d. 
1794),  French  revolutionist ;  practised  as  an. 
advocate,  and  was  elected  for  Bordeaux  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  In 
the  Convention  he  became  one  of  the  leading 
Girondists,  and  was  involved  in  their  fall, 
and  guillotined  at  Bordeaux  in  July,  1794. 

Gualdo-Priorato,  Galeazzo  (fi.  1606,  d. 
1678),  Italian  soldier  and  historian  ;  served 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  Venice,  and  other 
states,  and  wrote  Historia  delle  Guerre 
(1630-39),  and  II  Guerriere  Prttdente  e 
Politico. 

Guarini,  Giovanni  Battista  (6.  1537,  d. 
1612),  Italian  poet;  friend  and  imitator  of 
Tasso.  His  chief  work  was  II  Pastor  Fido 
(1590). 

Guarino,  or  Guarini  of  Verona  (6.  1370,  d. 
1460),  Italian  scholar,  the  first  Italian  who 
taught  Greek  after  the  revival  of  letters ; 
edited  Plutarch,  Strabo,  and  other  authors. 

Guarnieri,  Josef  "del  Gesh"  (jb.  1683,  d. 
1745),  violin-maker  of  Cremona,  the  most 
famous  of  his  family  ;  preferred  strength  and 
tone  to  form  in  his  instruments.  They  have 
been  very  valuable  since  Paganini  used  one. 
His  sobriquet  "del  Gesii"  came  from  the 
I.H.S.  which  is  on  his  tickets.  The  founder 
of  the  familj'  of  viohn-makers  was  Andrea 
GuAENiKRi  (d.  1695),  who  worked  with 
Stradivari,  and  whose  son,  Joseph  {d.  1730), 
developed  his  father's  method,  and  is  known 
as  "  Cremonensis." 

Guasco,  Octaviano  di  {b.  1712,  d.  1781), 
Piedmoutese  scholar ;  friend  of  Montesquieu, 
whose  Lettres  Familidres  he  published  in 
1767. 

Guazzo,  Marco  (d.  1556),  Italian  poet  and 
historian ;  author  of  Historia  delle  Guerre 
di  Maometto  imperatore  con  la  Signoria  di 
Venetia  (1545). 

Gubernatis,  Angelo  de  {b.  1840),  Italian 
Orientalist ;  born  and  educated  at  Turin ; 
studied  at  Berlin  tmder  Bopp  and  Weber, 
and  became  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  Florence 
in  1869.  He  founded  the  Bolletino  degli 
Studii  Orientali  ;  was  secretary  to  the  Flor- 
ence Oriental  Congress  in  1878,  and  is  the 
author  of  Piccola  Enciclopcedia  Indiana, 
Zoological  Mythology,  and  Mythohgie  des 
Plantes  (1878),  the  Bizionario  biografico 
degli  Scrittori  Contemporanei  (1879-80),  etc. 
In  May,  1878,  he  gave  three  lectures  at 
Oxford  on  Manzoni. 

Gudin,  Theodore  (6. 1802,  d.  1880),  French 


Gud 


(403) 


Gtii 


painter  of  the  romantic  school :  began  to 
exhibit  in  1822,  and  was  from  1838  to  1848 
employed  by  Louis  Philippe  to  decorate  with 
sea-pieces  the  walls  of  Versailles.  Among 
his  best  pictures  are  Jtetour  des  Picheurs  and 
ISauvetage  des  Passager  de  Columbus.  In 
1856  he  travelled  ia  the  East,  and  he  spent 
his  last  years  with  his  wife's  family  in  Scot- 
land. 

Gudin  de  la  Brenellerie,  Paul  Philippe 
{b.  1738,  t?.  1812),  French  poet;  friend  of 
Voltaire  and  Beaumarchais,  and  author  of 
Essai  sur  le  Frogres  des  Arts  sous  leRegne  de 
Louis  XIV. 

Guercino  da  Cento,  Giovanni  Francesco 
Barbieri  (6.  1590,  d.  1666),  Italian  painter; 
bom  at  Cento,  near  Bologna,  and  called 
" Guercino, "  from  his  habit  of  squinting; 
studied  under  Gremonni  and  Gennari,  and 
imitated  Caravaggio.  His  finest  pictures 
were  St.  Petronilla,  in  the  Capitol,  Rome,  and 
several  frescoes  ia.  the  cupola  at  Piacenza. 
His  Angels  Weeping  over  the  Dead  Body  of 
Christ  is  in  the  National  Gallery.  He  after- 
wards imitated  Guido,  and  died  at  Bologna 
very  rich,  although  he  had  been  very  mu- 
nificent and  charitable. 

Gueret,  Gabriel  {b.  1641,  d.  1688),  French 
jurist  and  satirical  writer ;  author  of  La 
Parnasse  Reforme  (1669). 

Guericke,  Otto  von  {h.  1602,  d.  1686), 
German  philosopher ;  born  at  Magdeburg, 
of  which  he  became  burgomaster,  after 
travelling  in  France  and  Eugliind,  and  study- 
ing at  Leyden.  He  invented  the  air-pump, 
and  made  experiments  before  the  diet  at 
Ratisbon  in  1654.  He  also  constructed  the 
first  electric  machine,  and  described  his 
"  Magdeburg  hemispheres,"  in  his  Xova  Ex- 
perimenta  (1672). 

Gu^rln,  Georges  Maurice  de  (6.  1810,  d. 
1839),  French  poet ;  was  ■\vith  Lamennais  in 
Brittany  for  a  year ;  married  a  rich  lady  in 
1838,  but  died  soon  after  of  consumption.  Le 
Centaure  and  La  Bacchante  were  his  chief 
poems,  and,  with  his  journals  and  letters, 
were  published  in  1862.  Eugenie  {b.  1805,  d. 
1848),  his  sister,  was  much  attached  to 'him, 
and  wrote  a  Journal  for  him,  which  was 
published  in  1855.  She  was  a  strict  Catholic, 
and  was  much  grieved  at  the  change  in  her 
brother's  opinions. 

Gu^rin,  Jean  Baptiste  {h.  1783,  d.  1855), 
French  painter;  his  chief  pictures  being 
Jesus  Mort  i\%\'),  Anchise  et  Venus  (1822), 
and  Adam  et  Eve  £xiUs  (1827). 

Guerin,  Pierre  Narcisse  (b.  1774,  d.  1833), 
French  painter ;  pupil  of  Regnault,  and 
teacher  of  G^ricault  and  Ary  Scheffer,  who, 
however,  deserted  the  classical  school  for  the 
romantic.  Among  his  chief  pictures  were 
A  a2 


Marcus  Sextus    (1799),    Clytemnestra,    and 
Dido  and  .^Eneas. 

GuescUn,  Bertrand  du  (*.  circa  1320,  d. 
1380),  French  soldier;  commandedagainstthe 
Black  Prince,  but  was  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  Sir  John  Chandos  in  1364  ;  after- 
wards collected  all  the  "free  companies" 
under  his  command,  and  led  them  into  Spain 
against  Pedi-o  the  Cruel,  and  was  defeated 
at  Navarette,  but  in  1380  defeated  Pedro  at 
Montiel,  and  dethroned  him. 

Guest,  Edwin,  F.R.S.  {b.  1800,  d.  1880), 
English  historical  writer ;  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1828. 
He  was  elected  master  of  Cains  College  in 
1852,  and  was  vice-chancellor  in  1854.  He 
was  author  of  a  History  of  English  Rhythms 
(1838),  and  several  historical  fragments, 
which  were  collected  and  published  by  Pro- 
fessor Stubbs  and  Mr.  Seedes  under  the  title 
of  Origines  Celtics,  and  Other  Contributions 
to  the  History  of  Britain. 

Guettard,  Jean  Etienne  (6.  1715,  d.  1786), 
French  mineralogist  and  geologist;  dis- 
covered china  earth  near  Aleu^on,  which 
was  used  in  the  making  of  Sevres  china. 

Guevara,  Antonio  di  (b.  1490,  d.  1544), 
Spanish  historian  and  moralist ;  author  of 
Relax  de  Principes,  Marco  Aurelio  (1529), 
Una  Decada  de  los  Vidas  de  los  Cesares 
(1539). 

Guevara,  Louis  Veles  (6.  1570,  d.  1644), 
Spanish  dramatist ;  author  of  Diablo  Cojuelo 

■  (1641). 

Guglielmi,  Pietro  (6.  1727,  d.  1804), 
Italian  composer;  rival  of  PaisieUo,  at 
Naples,  and  afterwards  maestro  di  capella  at 
Rome ;  composed  many  operas,  the  chief  of 
which  were  Mort  d'Abele  and  Debora  e 
Si  sera. 

Guglielmini,  Domenico  (b.  1655,  d.  1710), 
Italian  mathematician  and  physician  ;  pro- 
fessor of  Bologna,  the  draining  of  whose 
territory  he  superintended.  He  wrote  JJe 
Cometarum  Naturd,  and  other  works. 

Gui  de  Lusignan  {d.  1194),  King  of 
Cyprus,  and  crusader;  was  defeated  by 
Saladin  in  1117,  whereupon  Jerusalem  sur- 
rendered, and  he  renounced  his  title  as  king 
of  it,  which  he  had  gained  by  marriage  with 
the  daughter  of  Baldwin. 

Guibert  {b.  1053,  d.  1124),  Abbot  of  No- 
gcnt;  wrote  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,  the 
earliest  history  of  the  Crusades. 

Gmbert,  Cardinal  (h.  1802,  d.  188G),  French 
theologian  ;  celebrated  as  a  controversialist ; 
was  successively  Vicar-General  of  Ajaccio, 
Bishop  of  Viviers,  Archbishop  of  Tours,  and 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  in  1873  Pius  IX. 


Gui 


(404  ) 


Gui 


made  him  Cardinal.  He  opposed  the  secu- 
laris;itiou  of  education,  aud  addressed  a  re- 
moustrauee  to  Preaideut  Grevy  on  the  sub- 
ject iu  1886. 

Guicciaxdini,  Francesco  {b.  1483,  d.  1540), 
Italian  liistorian  aud  diplomatist ;  employed 
by  Leo  X.  aud  subsequent  popes,  beiug  a 
faithful  adlierent  of  the  Medici.  Ou  the 
accession  of  Cosimo  I.  he  retired  into  private 
life,  aud  composed  his  Delia  Histona  deW 
Anno  1494,  fin  delP  Anno  1626,  which  was 
published  in  1661. 

Guichenon,  Samuel,  Comte  de  {b.  1607, 
d.  llJ64),  French  genealogist;  author  of 
Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Savoye. 

Guide,  Philibert  (6. 1535,  d.  1695),  French 
writer  ;  author  of  Fables  (1583)  and  La  Col- 
umbiere  et  la  Maison  Hustique. 

Guidi,  Carlo  [b.  1650,  d.  1715),  ItaUan 
poet ;  wrote  Poeste  Liriehe  (1681),  and  did 
much  to  reform  the  prevalent  style  of  Italian 
poetry. 

Guidi,  Tommaso,  "  Masaccio  "  (6.  1402,  d. 
1443),  Florentine  painter,  all  of  whose  early 
pictures  are  lost ;  but  the  crucifix  above  the 
door  of  the  sacristy  of  Sainte- Marie  Nou- 
velle,  at  Florence,  is  attributed  to  him,  and 
there  are  a  few  of  his  works  elsewhere. 

Guido,  Novello  (13th  century),  Italian 
statesman  ;  leader  of  the  Ghibelliues  after 
the  battle  of  the  Arbia  ;  governed  Tuscany 
for  Manfred  till  he  was  driven,  in  1266, 
from  Florence  by  the  Guelfs. 

Guido  Aretino,  or  d'Arezzo  (Jl.  1000), 
Benedictine  monk ;  supposed  to  have  in- 
vented counterpoint,  and  to  have  been  the 
first  who  used  musical  notation.  He  wrote 
a  treatise,  Micrologus  de  Disiplind  Artia 
Musiece,  about  1030. 

Guido  dalle  Colonne  (1 3th  century) ,  Sicil  ian 
judge,  poet  and  historian ;  author  of  Belicgi- 
bus  et  Rebus  Angloi-um  aud  Histona  Trojana. 

Guido  Beni.     {See  Reni.] 

Guidotti  Borghese,  Paolo  {b.  1669,  d. 
1629),  Italian  painter  and  architect;  em- 
ployed by  Sixtus  V.  to  paint  frescoes  of  the 
Vatican  bbrary,  and  patronised  by  Cardinal 
Borghese,  for  whom  he  executed  sculptures, 
and  who  allowed  him  to  assume  his  name. 
He  died  from  the  effects  of  an  accident  caused 
by  his  attempt  to  fly  with  some  wings  he 
had  made. 

Guignes,  Joseph  de  (b.  1721,  d.  1800), 
French  Orientalist ;  author  of  Histoire  Gene- 
rale  des  Huns,  Turcs,  Mogols  et  autres  Tar- 
tares  occidentaux.  His  son,  Chretien  Louis 
Joseph  {d.  1845),  published  in  1813  a  Dic- 
tionnaire  Chinois-Prangais  et  Latin. 

GuUbert  de  Pix^ricouxt,  Rene    Charles 


(6.  177:^,  d.  1844),  French  dramatist;  called 
"  the  tjhakspeare  of  the  Boulevards  " ;  after 
serving  in  the  army  of  the  Lmigres  in  1792, 
came  to  Paris,  and  in  thirty  years  produced 
a  hundred  and  eleven  pieces,  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  which  were  melodramas. 

Guildford,  or  GuUford,  Lord.    {See  North, 

Francis. J 

GuUlaume.Jean  Baptiste(6,  1822),  French 
sculptor;  born  at  Montpard,  Cote ,d' Or,  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Pradier  at  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux- Arts,  where,  in  1873,  he  was  appointed 
professor.  He  was  also  elected  a  member 
of  the  Institut  in  1862,  and  an  honorary 
R.A.  in  1869.  At  the  London  Exhibition  of 
1862  he  exhibited  The  Gracchi,  aud  his 
statue  of  Napoleon  I.  was  at  the  French 
Exhibition  of  1867.  Among  others  of  his 
best  works  are  Anacreon's  Guests,  a  bas- 
relief  ;  the  statue  of  UHopital  in  the  new 
Louvre,  and  the  Monument  of  Colbert  at 
Rheims.  He  holds  the  appointment  of  head 
of  the  Art  school  at  Rome. 

Guillemain,  Charles  Jacob  (6.  1750,  d. 
1799),  French  dramatist ;  author  of  numerous 
plays,  but  perhaps  best  known  as  composer 
of  pieces  for  Seraphin's  marionette  show. 

Guillemain,  Gabriel  {b.  1705,  d.  1770), 
French  violinist ;  patronised  by  Louis  XV. ; 
composed  several  sonatas  between  1739  and 
1759,  and  committed  suicide  in  1770. 

Guillemeau,  Jacques  {d.  1613),  French 
surgeon:  attended  Charles  IX.,  Henri  III., 
and  Henri  IV.,  and  wrote  Traite  de  l<i 
Chirurgie  Frangaise  {\oM).  His  son,  Charles 
{b.  1588,  d.  1656),  also  court  surgeon,  was 
famous  for  his  attack  on  Courtaud  of  Mont- 
pellier,  and  was  author  of  several  works  on 
surgery. 

Guillemeau,  Jean  Louis  (b.  1766,  d.  1850), 
French  surgeon  and  naturalist ;  descendant 
of  the  above;  was  surgeon  to  the  revolu- 
tionary armies,  and  author  of  several  medical 
and  scientific  works. 

GuiUon,  Marie  Nicolas  (6.  1766,  d.  1878), 
French  ecclesiastic  and  writer;  Bishop  of 
Beauvais;  administered  the  sacrament  to 
the  Abbe  Gregorie  in  1831,  and  was  censured, 
but  was  afterwards  reconciled  and  made  a 
bishop  of  Morocco.  He  was  author  of 
Xouveaux  Contes  Arabes  and  Histoire  de 
Nouvelle  Heresie,  written  in  1835  against 
Lamennais. 

Guillotin,  Joseph  (6. 1738,  d.  1814),  French 

giysician,  who  exposed  the  charlatanism  of 
esmer,  and  suggested  to  the  Assembly  the 
notion  of  execution  by  machinery,  but  did 
not  actually  invent  the  instrument  called 
after  his  name. 

Guinaud,  Pierre  (d.  1824),  Swiss  optician. 


Gui 


(405  ) 


Gnl 


■who  is  said  to  have  invented  flint  glass 
about  1798. 

Guinicelli,  Guido  (d.  1276),  Italian  poet, 
bom  at  Bologua :  founder  of  a  new  school 
on  the  model  of  the  Proven 9al  troubadours. 
Dante  called  him  his  "  father,"  and  he  was 
much  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries. 

Guiscaxd,  Eobert  (6.  1015,  d.  1085),  Nor- 
man soldier ;  son  of  Tancred  d'Hauteville  ; 
defeated  Leo  IX.  at  Civitella,  and,  with  his 
brother  Humphrey,  was  invested  by  him  with 
the  dukedom  of  Apulia.  Subsequently  he 
rescued  Gregory  VII.  from  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV. ,  invaded  the  Greek  empire,  and 
died  when  on  another  expedition  against  it, 
having  defeated  the  fleets  of  the  Eastern 
empire  and  Venice. 

Guise,  Charles,  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  {b. 
1524,  d.  1574),  French  diplomatist  •  brother 
of  Fran9ois  (second  duke)  ;  formed  the  alli- 
ance with  Spain  at  the  meeting  with  Gran- 
velle  in  1558 ;  opposed  Catherine  de  Medi- 
cis,  and  declared  the  Council  of  Trent 
Buperior  to  the  pope  (1562). 

Guise,  Charles,  Due  de  (6.  1571,  d.  1640), 
became  reconciled  to  Henri  IV.,  and  was 
appoiuted  governor  of  Provence.  He  after- 
wards supported  Marie  de  Medicis  against 
Richelieu,  and  was  compelled  to  leave 
France. 

Guise,  Claude  of  Lorraine,  first  Duke  (d. 
1550),  French  statesman  ;  founder  of  the 
Guise  family  ;  went  with  Francis  1.  to  Italy, 
and  was  wounded  at  Marignano,  but  died 
in  disgrace,  and  perhaps  by  poison.  He 
married  Antoinette  de  Boiurbon. 

Guise,  Francois,  Due  de  (b.  1519,  d.  1563), 
French  general  and  statesman  ;  served  with 
distinction  against  Charles  V. ,  and  surprised 
Calais  in  1553  ;  afterwards  prominent  as  a 
statesman  and  opponent  of  the  Huguenots, 
whom  he  defeated  at  Dreux,  but  was  soon 
after  assassinated. 

Guise,  Henri  I.,  Due  de  (6.  1553,  d.  1588), 
called  "  le  Balafre  "  from  a  wound  received 
at  the  siege  of  Boulogne :  was  the  great 
opponent  of  Coligny,  and  planner  of  the  St. 
Bartholomew  massacre.  He  established  the 
"  Holy  League,"  and  made  war  on  Henri 
III. ,  who  had  forbidden  him  the  court.  After 
entering  Paris  in  1588  he  was  assassinated 
by  contrivance  of  the  king. 

Guise,  Henri  II.,  Ducde  (ft.  1614,  d.  1664), 
younger  son  of  Charlee ;  became  duke  on 
the  death  of  his  elder  brother ;  was  made 
king  of  Naples  in  1618,  but  was  captured 
by  the  Spaniards.  He  afterwards  tried  to 
recover  Naples,  but  was  unsuccessful ;  was 
grand  chamberlain  to  Louis  XIV. 

Guise,  Jean,    Cardinal    of    Lorraine    {b. 


1498,  d.  1550),  French  statesman;  brother  of 
Claude,  whose  schemes  he  aided  ;  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Charles  V.  in  1536,  and 
became  very  rich. 

Guise,  Louis,  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  (b. 
1555,  d.  1588),  brother  of  Henri  (third  duke), 
with  whom  he  was  assassinated  in  15S8. 

Guiton,  Jean  {d.  1654),  French  Huguenot 
admiral ;  three  times  defended  Rochelle 
against  Louis  XIII.  ;  was  abandoned  on  the 
third  occasion  by  the  English  fleet  under 
Buckingham,  wluch  had  come  to  his  relief 
in  1628. 

Guittone  d'Arezzo  {d.  1294),  Italian  poet ; 
a  brother  of  the  order  which  was  called 
"Frati  Godenti  "  ;  was  chief  of  the  Ttis- 
can  school,  and  left  thirty-five  sonnets, 
which  were  published  in  1838  at  Florence, 
imder  the  title  Revire  ;  his  letters  are  among 
the  oldest  specimens  of  Italian  prose. 

Guizot,  Fran9ois  Pierre  Guillaume  (h. 
1787,  d.  1874),  French  historian  and  states- 
man, bom  at  Nimes,  and  brought  up  at 
Geneva  by  his  mother.  In  1805  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  seven  years  later  he  obtained 
the  professorship  of  modem  history  at  the 
Sorbonne.  In  1814  he  was  secretary- general 
of  the  miuistry  of  the  interior,  and  after 
the  second  restoration  entered  the  ministry 
of  justice.  He  founded  the  party  of  the 
Doctrinaires,  who  tried  to  reconcile  the 
revolution  and  the  restoration.  In  1830 
he  was  elected  dejjuty  for  Lisieux,  and 
after  the  revolution  became  minister  of  the 
interior.  From  1832  to  1836  he  was  minister 
of  public  instruction,  but  quarrelled  with 
Thiers.  In  1839  he  agaiu  joined  him,  and 
next  year  went  to  London  as  ambassador, 
from  whence  he  was  recalled  by  Louis 
Philippe,  and  was  chief  minister  actually, 
though  not  nominally,  until  1848,  during 
i  which  time  he  conducted  French  foreign 
policy,  at  first  with  success,  but  after  the 
Spanish  marriage  intrigue  lost  the  good- will 
of  England.  "Sis  resistance  to  all  reforms 
overthrew  him  in  France,  and  his  political 
career  closed  with  the  revolution  of  1848, 
after  which  he  went  to  London.  Chief 
among  his  historical  works,  to  the  writing 
of  which  he  henceforth  devoted  himself 
while  living  near  Lisieux,  are  his  History  of 
the  English  Revolution,  Histoire  de  la  Civili- 
sation en  France,  and  Histoire  Parlementaire 
de  France ;  besides  Shakespeare  et  son  Temps, 
Corneille  et  son  Temps,  and  some  essays. 

Guldenstadt,  Anton  [b.  1745,  d.  1781), 
Russian  physician  and  natiu^alist ;  author  of 
Memoire  sur  des  Produits  de  la  Russie. 

Gull,  Sir  William  Withey  (6.  1816,  rf.  1890), 
English  physician ;  graduated  at  London 
University  (M.B.  1841,  M.D.  1846) ;  was  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  at  the  Roj'al  Institution 


Gnl 


(406) 


Gus 


1847-9,  aud  physician  and  lecturer  at  Guy's 
Hospital  1817-07.  He  was  created  a 
baronet  in  1872  for  his  treatment  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales ;  was  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  and  president  of  the  Clinical 
Society,  aud  auihor  of  Chemical  Observcitionn 
in  Relation  to  Medicine  in  Modern  Times 
(1869),  Akohol  as  a  Medieine  and  as  a  Bever- 
age (1878)  ;  and,  with  Dr.  Baly,  of  Reports 
on  Epidemic  Cholera  (1854). 

Gulliver,  George  (4.  1804,  d.  1882),  Eng- 
Lsh  surgeon  and  physiologist ;  was  pro- 
tector to  Abernethy  and  di-esser  to  Laurence 
at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  and  in  1827 
became  hospital  assistant  to  the  Forces.  He 
was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1838,  and  fellow  of 
the  College  of  Surgeons  in  1843  ;  and  m 
1861  was  Huuterian  professor  of  compara- 
tive anatomy  and  physiology.  He  edited 
Gerber's  Anatomy  and  Hewson's  works,  and 
made  many  important  researches. 

GviUy,  James  Manley  {b.  1808,/.  1883), 
Enghsh  physician,  born  in  Jamaica;  edu- 
cated at  Liverpool  and  Paris,  and  took  his 
M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1829.  He  edited  the 
London  Medical  Journal  and  the  Liverpool 
Medical  Gazette  between  1832  and  1836,  and 
in  1842  came  to  Malvern,  and  practised  hydro- 
pathy. His  chief  works  were  Symptoms  and 
Treatment  of  Neuropathy  and  The  Water- 
Cure  in  Chronic  Disease, 

Gungl,  Josef  (d.  1810,  d.  1889),  Hun- 
garian composer  of  dance  music ;  many  of 
his  400  compositions  proved  very  popular. 

Gunner,  Johann  Ernst  (b.  1718,  d.  1773), 
Norwegian  bishop  and  naturalist ;  author  of 
Flora  Xorweyica  (1766-76). 

Gunter,  Archibald  Clavering  {b.  1847), 
American  writer ;  wrote  and  publish,  d 
himself  3Ir.  Barnes  of  New  York  (1887), 
Mr.  Potter  of  Texas  (1888),  That  Frenchman, 
and  Miss  Nobody  of  Nowhere,  the  first  two 
of  which  were  dramatised. 

Gunter,  Edmund  (b.  lbSl,d.  1626),  English 
mathematician ;  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Gresham  College,  1614;  was  the  first  to 
observe  the  variation  of  the  compass ;  in- 
vented the  "  Gunter  scale"  as  well  as  the 
sector  and  other  instruments. 

Giinther,  Albert  Charles  Gotthilf,  F.E.S. 
{b.  1830),  zoologist ;  born  at  Esslingen, 
and  educated  at  Tubingen,  Berlin,  and 
Bonn ;  received  an  appointment  in  the  Bri- 
tish Museum  in  1857,  and  in  1875  became 
keeper  of  the  department  of  zoology.  Be- 
sides his  catalogues  of  snakes,  reptiles,  and 
fish,  he  wrote  The  Fishes  of  the  South  Seas 
(Hamburg,  1873-8),  The  Gigantic  Land 
Tortoises,  Living  and  Extinct  (London, 
1877),  besides  numerous  contributions  to 
Transactions  of  societies.     He  was  also  the 


founder  and  for    six    years   editor  of    the 
Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History. 

Gumey,  Sir  Goldsworthy  (6.  1793,  d. 
1875),  English  chemist ;  invented  the  "oxy- 
hydrogen  blowpipe,"  the  "  lime  light,"  and 
the  "  magnesium  light "  ;  also  the  "Bude 
light,"  the  "oil  vapour  light,"  and  the 
"high-pressure  steam  jet"  of  the  tubular 
boiler,  which  he  applied  to  coal  mines  and 
railway  locomotives.  He  also  introduced  a 
new  mode  of  lighting  into  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1839,  and  arranged  the  light- 
ing and  ventilating  of  the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament.  Many  of  his  discoveries 
are  described  in  A  Course  of  Lectures 
on  Chemical  Science,  Delivered  at  the  Surrey 
Jnstitution  in  1S2Z,  which  were  pubUshed 
in  1823. 

Gumey,  Joseph  John  (h.  1788,  d.  1847), 
English  banker  and  philanthropist ;  brother 
of  Elizabeth  Fry,  with  whom  he  visited,  in 
1818,  the  prisons  of  Scotland,  and  afterwards 
those  of  Ireland  and  America  (1837-40). 
In  1841  he  visited  the  Continent  with  hJis 
brother,  Samuel,  and  the  same  year,  with 
Mrs.  Fry,  went  to  Holland,  Belgiimi, 
Germany,  and  Denmark,  going  again  in 
1843.  He  acted  as  a  Quaker  minister,  hold- 
ing meetings  everywhere,  and  was  author 
of  numerous  works,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  Notes  on  Prisons  and  Prison  Dis- 
cipline, and  A  Winter  in  the  West  Indies. 

Gumey,  Russell  (6. 1804,  d.  1878),  English 
lawyer  and  politician  ;  son  of  Sir  John  Gur- 
ney ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1828,  became  Queen's  Counsel  in 
1848,  and  was  from  1856  to  1878  Recorder  of 
London.  In  1865  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
Jamaica  disturbances.  Haviug  meanwhile 
entered  Parliament,  on  his  return  from 
Jamaica,  he  was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, and  in  1871  went  to  America  as  com- 
missioner for  the  settlement  of  claims  under 
the  treaty  of  Washington.  In  1874  he  was 
one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Public 
Worship  Regulation  Act. 

Gurwood,  Colonel  John,  C.B.  (*.  1790, 
d.  1845),  English  soldier;  entered  the 
army  in  1808 ;  served  in  the  Penii^ula, 
in  Holland,  and  at  Waterloo,  and  was  pri- 
vate secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
whose  chief  despatches  he  edited.  He  com- 
mitted suicide. 

Gustavus  Vasa  (6.  1496,  d.  1560), 
King  of  Sweden  (Gustavus  I.) ;  made  his 
country  independent  of  Denmark,  and  was 
in  1521  elected  king.  He  established 
Lutheranisra  as  the  national  religion,  and 
made  treaties  with  France,  England,  and 
the  new  king,  Frederick  I.  of  Denmark. 

Gustavus  Adolphus   (6.   1594,  d.   1632), 


Gus 


(407) 


Gwy 


Gustavus  II.  of  Sweden,  grandson  of  last- 
named  ;  resisted  the  aggressions  of  Sigis- 
mund,  King  of  Poland,  and  concluded  an 
advantageous  peace.  In  1630  he  invaded 
Germany  as  head  of  the  Protestant  League, 
took  Colberg,  won  the  battles  of  Breiten- 
feldt  and  the  Lech,  and  in  1632  captured 
Munich.  In  1632  he  defeated  Wallenstein 
at  Liitzen,  but  was  killed  in  the  battle. 

Gustavus  III.  (6.  1746,  d.  1792),  came  to 
the  throne  in  1771,  and  next  year  re- 
established the  despotic  power  of  the  crown 
by  a  coup  d'etat;  carried  on  a  war  with 
Russia  from  1788  to  1790,  and  won  the 
battle  of  Svenskund  ;  projected  a  league  of 
sovereigns  against  the  revolution,  but  was 
assassinated  next  year  by  a  noble  named 
Ankarstrom. 

Gustavus  rv.  Q).  1778,  d.  1837),  came  to 
the  throne  in  1792,  and  assiuned  the 
goveiTiment  in  1800 ;  refused  to  join  in  the 
Continental  system  in  18u6,  and  made  an 
alliance  with  England ;  lost  Finland  in 
1808  in  a  war  with  Russia,  and  was  deposed 
by  the  states  next  year ;  after  this  he 
travelled  as  Count  Gottorp,  and  attempted 
at  the  congress  of  1814  to  obtain  the  recog- 
nition of  his  son's  claims.  A  year  before  Ms 
death  he  settled  at  St.  Gall. 

Gutenberg,  Johann  (6.  circa  1400,  d.  1468), 
German  printer :  probably  the  inventor 
about  1440  of  movable  types  at  Strasburg, 
with  which  he  printed  in  1450  his  Biblia 
Latina.      His  plant  was  obtained  by  his 

Eartner  Fiist  in  payment  of  money  lent,  but 
e  was  afterwards  able  to  print  the  C'atholi- 
con,  now  in  the  Imperial  library  at  Paris. 

Guthrie,  James  Cargill  (6.  1814),  Scotch 
songwriter  and  essayist ;  was  in  1868  librarian 
of  the  first  free  library  at  Dundee.  Among 
his  songs  are  Adieu  to  the  Good  Ship  Mars, 
and  a  Jubilee  Ode,  and  he  also  wrote  What  is 
Genius,  The  Genius  of  Literature,  The 
Genius  of  Love,  etc. ,  and  Eventide,  or  Fading 
Aivay  (1890). 

Guthrie,  Thomas  (6.  1803,  d.  1873), 
Scotch  divine  ;  an  ardent  supporter  of  the 
Free  Church  movement,  social  reform,  and 
total  abstinence  ;  was  author  of  A  Plea  for 
Ragged  Schools,  A  I'lea  on  Behalf  of  Lrimk- 
ards,  and  The  Parables  Mead  in  the  Light  of 
the  Present  Day,  with  many  other  works. 
On  his  retirement  in  1864  he  was  presented 
with  £3,000. 

Guthrie,  Thomas  Anstey  {h.  1856), 
English  novelist ;  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1879,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1880. 
After  several  contributions  to  magazines, 
Vice- Versa  appeared  in  1882,  and  was 
followed  by  the  GianVs  Robe  (1883),  The 
Tinted  Venus  (1885),  The  Pariah  (1889),  etc. 

Guthrie,  William  (6.  1835),  Scotch  lawyer. 


educated  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  and 
called  to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1861.  He  was 
appointed  sheriff-substitute  of  Lanarkshire 
in  1874,  and  published  a  translation  of 
Savigny  on  Private  International  Law,  an 
edition  of  Erskine's  Principles  of  Scots  Law, 
The  Law  of  the  Trades  Unions  in  England 
and  Scotland  (1873),  and  other  works. 

Gutzkow,  Karl  Ferdinand  (6.  1811,  d. 
1878),  German  romance  writer  and  dra- 
matist ;  son  of  an  ostler  at  Berlin ;  went 
to  Stuttgardt  in  1831  to  assist  Menzel 
with  the  Literaturblatt  —  a  connection 
which  was  severed  in  1835  by  the 
latter's  attack  on  his  first  work  JVally 
oder  die  Zweijlerin,  which  was  confiscated 
by  the  government,  and  its  author  im- 
prisoned. In  1837  Gutzkow  went  to  Ham- 
burg, where  he  bought  a  Satire  on  Gorres, 
and  a  Life  of  Borne.  After  visiting  France, 
he  became  director  of  the  Dresden  theatre. 
Between  1839  and  1850  he  wrote  several 
plays,  the  chief  of  which  were  Zopf  und 
Schwert,  and  Das  Urbild  des  Tartuffe.  He 
addressed  the  people  at  Berlin  during  the 
revolution  of  1848  ;  and  after  his  return  to 
Dresden  wrote  the  romances  Die  Ritter  vom 
Geiste  (1850),  and  Der  Zauberer  von  Rom 
(1858).  In  1868  appeared  Hohenschwan- 
gau.  In  1861  Gutzkow  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  Schiller  memorial  at 
Weimar,  but  he  gradually  became  insane. 
Having  partially  recovered,  he  travelled  in 
Italy  and  Switzerland,  till  one  night,  when 
under  the  influence  of  chloral,  he  was  burnt 
to  death  in  his  bed  at  Sachsenhausen. 

Giitzlaflf,  Karl  Friedrich  August  (6.  1803, 
d.  1851),  Prussian  linguist  and  missionary ; 
spent  several  years  in  China  and  Siam,  the 
results  of  his  observations  appearing  in 
Journals  of  the  Geographical  and  Asiatic 
societies.  He  also  wrote  a  History  of  China, 
and  China  Reopened,  and  made  a  Chinese 
translation  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
1834  he  became  interpreter  to  the  English 
commission. 

Guy,  Thomas  (b.  1644,  d.  1724),  founder 
of  Guy's  Hospital ;  was  son  of  a  bargeman, 
and  made  a  large  fortune  by  printing,  and 
speculating  in  the  South  Sea  scheme.  In 
Parliament  he  represented  Tamworth,  and 
founded  an  almshouse  there. 

Guyot,  Arnold  (b.  1807,  d.  1884),  Swiss 
geographer  and  geologist ;  went  to  America 
in  1849,  and  devoted  liis  life  to  science  ;  was 
professor  of  geology  and  physical  geography 
at  Princeton  college ;  formed  an  intimacy 
with  Agassiz,  and  made  numerous  maps, 
mathematical  tables  and  text-books.  His 
greatest  works  were  The  Meteorological  and 
Physical  Tables,  issued  bv  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  his  Earth  and  Man. 

Gwynne,    Eleanor    or  Nell   {b.   1650,  dL 


Gyl 


(408) 


Had 


1691),  mistress  of  Charles  11. :  an  actress  at 
Drury  Laue,  aud  mother  of  the  first  Duke 
of  St.  Albans. 

GyUenborg,  Karl  {h.  1679.  d.  1746), 
Swedish  statesman;  when  ambassador  in 
England  was  engaged  in  an  intrigue  with 
the  Stewarts  for  the  invasion  of  Scotland. 
After  leaving  the  country,  he  became  high 
chancellor  of  Sweden,  and  leader  of  the 
"Hat"  party. 


Gzowski,  Colonel  Casimir  Stanislaus  (6. 
1813),  a  I'ole  in  the  English  service.  After 
serving  in  the  Russian  army,  being  con- 
cerned in  the  Polish  movement  of  1830-2, 
aud  living  some  time  in  America,  he  was 
employed  by  the  Canadian  government  in 
engineering  and  railway  construction,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  Dominion  Rifle  Association.  In  1879 
he  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the 
Queen. 


Haaff,  Karl  (6.  1820),  Bavarian  painter, 
came  to  England  in  1847,  and,  having 
settled  there,  was  elected  three  years  later 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Painters 
in  Water-Colours,  to  whose  exliibitions  he 
became  a  frequent  contributor.  In  18-53  he 
was  named  hofmaler  by  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  aud  Gotha,  and  having  been  intro- 
duced at  the  court  of  St.  James,  painted 
several  pictures  for  the  Queen.  He  has  made 
Bedouin  life  his  special  study. 

Haak,  Theodor  (6.  1605,  d.  1690),  German 
scholar,  studied  at  Oxford  for  three  years, 
and  translated  for  the  Westminster  As- 
sembly of  Divines  The  Butch  Annotations 
upon  the  Bible,  ordered  by  the  Synod  of 
Dort.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  and 
original  members  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Haansbergen,  Joannes  van  (&.  1642,  d. 
170o),  Dutch  portrait -painter,  pupil  and 
follower  of  Poelemburg. 

Haas,  Wilhelm  (6.  1741,  d.  1800),  Swiss 
type-founder,  inventor  of  a  new  press,  in 
which  he  first  used  movable  tj'pes  for  geo- 
graphical charts. 

Habakloilc,  one  of  the  minor  prophets. 

Habberton,  John  (6.  1842),  American 
writer,  bom  at  Brooklyn,  is  chiefly  known 
as  the  author  of  Helen'' s  Babies. 

Habeneck,  Antoine  (6.  1781,  d.  1849), 
French  violinist  aud  composer,  who  intro- 
duced Beethoven's  music  into  France  ;  was 
patronised  by  the  Empress  Josephine,  and 
from  1821  to  1846  was  chef-d^orchestre  at 
the  opera. 

_Haberlin,  Franz  Dominic  (6.  1720,  d. 
1787),  Geiman  historian  aud  jurist,  author 
of  numerous  works,  of  which  the  chief  were 
Entwurf  der  politischen  Historie  des  18^" 
Jahrhunderts  bis  zu  Ende  des  Jahres  1745, 
and  I^eueate  detitscke  Reichsgeschichte  vom 
Anfange  des  Schmalkaldischen  Krieges. 


Habert,  rrantjois  {d.  circa  1562),  French 
poet,  patronised  by  Henri  II.,  author  of 
Jeunesse  du  Banny  de  Liesse,  Jardin  de  la 
Felicite,  and  Temple  de  Chastete ;  called 
himself  "  Le  Banny  de  Liesse." 

Hachette,  Jean  Nicolas  (6.  1769,  d.  1834), 
French  mathematician,  professor  witii 
Monge  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique ;  was 
deprived  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1816,  but 
patronised  by  Louis  Philippe.  He  carried 
on  the  work  of  Monge,  producing  several 
treatises  on  geometrical  science. 

Hackert.PhiUpp  (b.  1737,  d.  1807),  German 
painter,  whose  early  works  are  the  best,  the 
chief  being  six  pictures  of  the  battle  of 
Tchesme  between  the  Russian  and  Turkish 
fleets,  painted  for  Catherine  II. 

Hacket  or  Hackett,  John  (6.  1592,  d. 
1670),  English  theologian,  a  staunch  Royal- 
ist ;  made  rector  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holbom, 
which  he  designed  to  rebuild ;  became 
Bishop  of  Lichfield  after  the  Restoration, 
and  wrote  the  Life  of  Archbishop  Williams 
(1693). 

Hacket,  William  {d.  1591),  a  fanatic,  who 
proclaimed  himself  as  the  Messiah,  and  was 
hanged  for  his  insults  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Hacklander,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  (fi.  1816, 
d.  1877),  German  novelist,  bom  at  Aachen; 
contributed  to  a  Stuttgart  paper  in  1840 
Pictures  from  a  Soldier'' s  Life  in  Time  of 
Peace,  and  accompanied  the  Crovra  Prince 
of  Wiirtemburg  as  his  secretary  in  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1849,  which  he  after- 
wards described.  Among  his  other  works 
are  Handel  und  Wandel  (1850),  Die  Dunkle 
Stiinde  (1863),  and  an  unfinished  autobio- 
graphy, published  in  1878  {Ber  Roman 
meines  Lebens). 

Haden,   Francis   Seymour,  F.R.C.S.    (*. 

1818),  English  surgeon  and  artist,  president 
of  the  Society  of  Painter-Etchers,  educated 


Had 


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Hah 


at  University  College  and  the  Sorbonne ; 
drew  up  the  Inter  nationalj ury  Report  on  Sur- 
gical Instruments  (1857).  He  also  initiated 
burial  reforms  by  his  letters  to  the  Tunes 
in  1875,  caUed  Earth  to  Earth.  His  artistic 
works  consist  of  Etudes  d  I'Eau  Forte  (Lon- 
don and  Paris,  1865  and  1866),  and  numerous 
other  etchings,  distinguished  for  their  vigour. 

Eadik,  or  Haddik,  Graf  Andreas  von 
(J).  1710,  (/.  1790),  Hungarian  general,  who 
served  with  distinction  against  the  Turks, 
and  won  for  the  Austrians  the  victory  of 
Gorlitz  in  the  Seven  Years'  war. 

Hadji-Khalfa  (d.  1058),  Turkish  historian 
[Mustafa-Ben- Abdallali],  wrote  several 
works  in  Turkish,  Arabic,  and  Persian, 
chief  among  which  was  EedzUkeh,  a  history 
of  the  world  from  the  creation  to  1656. 

Hadley,  John  (d.  1744),  English  mathe- 
matician and  friend  of  Newton ;  the  reputed 
inventor  of  the  sextant,  and  a  feUow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  to  whose  Transactions  he 
contributed  several  papers. 

Hadrian  (6.  76,  d.  138),  Emperor  of  Eome, 
proclaimed  117,  visited  all  parts  of  the 
empire ;  built  the  wall  between  England 
and  Scotland  in  121,  and^lia  Capitohna  on 
the  ruins  of  Jerusalem  in  131 ;  subdued  the 
Jews  iQ  136 ;  built  a  villa  at  Tibur,  and  his 
tomb  at  Rome  (137). 

Haeckel,  Ernst  Heinrich  {b.  1834) ,  German 
naturahst,  bom  at  Potsdam,  w^as  appoiated 
in  1861  professor  of  zoology  at  Jena.  He 
afterwards  travelled  in  all  parts  of  Europe, 
and  visited  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor. 
In  1881  he  went  to  India.  His  chief  works 
are  Natural  History  of  Creation,  The  Origin 
of  the  Human  Race,  Popular  Lectures  on 
Evolution  (1878),  contributions  to  the  Voy- 
age of  H. M.S.  Challeyiger,  etc. 

Haedo,  Diego  da  (17th  century),  Spanish 
historian,  author  of  a  History  of  Algiers. 

Haen,  Anton  van  (6. 1704,  d.  1776),  Dutch 
physician,  pupil  of  Boerhaave ;  besides 
several  medical  works,  wrote  a  book  in 
defence  of  magic. 

Haering,  Wilhelm  {b.  1798,  d.  1871), 
German  novelist,  who  wrote  under  the  name 
"Willibad  Alexis";  published  in  1823 
Walladmor,  which  he  pretended  was  an 
unpublished  work  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  It 
was  translated  into  English,  and  read  by 
the  latter,  who  praised  its  skill.  In  Schloss 
Avallen  (1827)  the  same  conceit  was  made 
use  of.  Subsequently,  however,  the  author 
wrote  several  works  in  his  own  name,  the 
chief  of  which  were  Cabanis  (1832),  Ber 
Falsche  TFaldemar  (1842),  and  Die  Hoscn  des 
Herrn  von  Bredau  (1846-8).  He  also  wrote 
some  plays,  and  a  collection  of  stories  of 
celebrated  crimes  (Ber  Neue  Titaral). 


Hae-Wang  (J.  1750),  Chinese  mandarin, 
minister  for  European  afEairs ;  protected  the 
missionaries  in  the  reign  of  Klaen-loimg. 

Haflz,  Mohammed,  "  Shemsed  -  Din  " 
(d.  1388),  Persian  poet,  author  of  The 
Bivan. 

Hagar,  concubine  of  Abraham  and  mother 
of  Ishmael. 

Hagenbach,  Pieter  von  (d.  1474),  landvogt 
of  Elsass,  which  he  governed  with  great 
cruelty :  served  under  Charles  the  Bold ; 
was  ultimately  taken  and  beheaded  by  the 
Swiss. 

Hager,  Josef  (i.  1757,  d.  1819),  German 
linguist,  mastered  all  the  languages  of 
Europe  and  many  of  those  of  Asia, 
travelled  much  in  pursuit  of  books  and 
MSS.,  and  was  entrusted  by  Xapoleon  with 
the  compilation  of  a  Chinese-Latin-French 
dictionary.  The  scheme  was  never  carried 
out,  but  Hager  was  afterwards  professor  of 
German  at  Oxford,  and  of  orientad  languages 
at  Pavia  and  Paris. 

Haggai,  one  of  the  minor  prophets,  who 
urged  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  Temple  about 
520  B.C. 

Haggard,  Henry  Rider  {b.  1856),  EngHsh 
noveHst,  bom  at  Bradenham,  Norfolk ; 
went  to  Natal  in  1875  as  secretaryto  Sir  H. 
Bulwer,  and  was  afterwards  master  of  the 
High  Court  of  the  Transvaal.  In  1879  he 
returned  to  England,  and  published  in  1882 
Cetewayo  and  his  White  Neighbours.  This 
was  followed  by  several  novels,  the  chief  of 
which  were  Bawn  (1884).  The  Witch'' s  Head 
(1885),  King  Solomon's  Mines  (1886),  and 
She,  Jess,  Cleopatra,  Beatrice,  and  Eric 
Brighteyes  (1890),  etc. 

I  Haghe,  Louis  {b.  1802,  d.  1885),  English 
lithographer  and  painter,  bom  in  Belgium  ; 
helped  De  Jonghe  with  his  Vues  Biitorvsqnes 
de  la  Belgique,  and,  having  come  to  England, 
became  partner  of  William  Day  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields,  and  with  him  produced  many 
works,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the 
lithograph  of  David  Roberts's  Sketches  in 
the  Holy  Land  and  Egypt.  From  1852  he 
abandoned  lithography  for  painting,  and 
was  president  of  the  Institute  of  Painters  in 
Water-Colours  from  1873-84.  His  Council 
of  War  at  Courtrai  is  in  the  National 
GaUery.  His  brother  Charles  {d.  1888) 
was  also  a  skilful  Uthographer. 

Halin,  Karl  August  (*.  1807,  d.  1857), 
German  philologist,  author  of  grammars 
of  German  dialects,  and  eilitor  of  the 
Niebelungenlicd  (1851). 

Halm-Hahn,  Ida  Griifin  von  (5.  1805,  d. 
1880),  German  novelist,  bom  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  travelled  widely,  and  wrote 


Hah 


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Hal 


accounts  of  her  adventures;  was  divorced 
from  her  husband  in  IS'29,  and  in  1850, 
under  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Wiseman, 
became  a  Koman  Catholic.  Her  reputation 
rests  upon  her  novels,  the  chief  of  which 
■were  Ai<s  der  GeseUschaft  (1838),  Sigismiind 
Forster  (1840),  Endoxia  die  Kaiserin  (1866), 
and  Xiricana  (187'5). 

Hahnemann,  Christian  Samuel  Friedrich 
{b.  Yiob,  d.  1843),  German  physician,  the 
founder  of  liomoeopathy,  to  which  he  was 
led  by  experiments  made  on  himself  with 
Peruvian  bark.  He  practised  at  Leipzig,  but 
was  obliged  to  retire  on  account  of  the  hos- 
tility of  the  apothecaries  there.  He  was  in- 
vited to  Kothen  by  the  Duke  of  Anhalt,  and 
afterwards  spent  eight  years  in  Paris.  He 
expounded  his  system  in  Organon  of  the 
Meali)ig  Art  (1810),  and  other  works. 

Hailes,  Lord  (Sir  David  Dalrymple),  (b. 
1726,  d.  1792),  Scotch  judge  and  historical 
antiquary ;  was  in  1766  made  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  Court  of  Session,  and  1776  a 
justiciary  lord.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  his  Annals  of  Scotland  being  par- 
ticularly valuable. 

Haines,  Sir  Frederick  Paul,  G.C.B.  (h, 
1819),  English  soldier,  entered  the  army 
in  1839,  and  attained  the  rank  of  field- 
mai-shal  in  1890.  He  served  in  the  Sikh 
wars,  being  military  secretary  to  Sir  Hugh 
Gough,  and  was  severely  wounded  at 
Ferozeshah  In  the  same  capacity  he  went 
through  the  Punjab  campaign  of  1848-9, 
being  present  at  all  the  important  engage- 
ments. He  served  in  the  Crimea  up  to  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol,  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Madras  army  from  1871-4,  and 
in  1876  became  commander-in-chief  in  India. 

Hakluyt,  Richard  (*.  1553,  d.  1616), 
English  geographer  and  historian,  chaplain 
to  Sir  E.  Stafford,  EngUsh  ambassador  in 
France.  He  was  assisted  by  Sir  Francis 
Walsingham  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  to 
publish  his  Frincipal  Navigations,  Voyages, 
and  Discoveries  made  by  the  English  Nation 
(1589),  and  he  also  collected  and  translated 
some  narratives  of  voyages  by  foreigners. 

Haldeman,  Samuel  Stedman  {b.  1812,  d. 
1880),  American  naturalist  and  philologist ; 
he  began  his  monograph  on  Fresh  JVater 
Univalve  MoUusca  of  the  United  States  in 
1840,  and  in  1851  became  professor  of 
natural  science  in  Pennsylvania  university. 
He  was  in  1869  named  first  professor  of 
comparative  philology  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
was  an  eager  advocate  for  spelling  reform. 
Among  his  works  were  Outlines  of  Etymology 
and  Word  Building  (1881). 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  D.D.  (J).  1822), 
American  writer,  bom  at  Boston,  was 
till  1856  a  Unitarian  minister,  after  which 


he  became  a  CongregationaUst.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  Furitan  Folitics  in 
Engla  ndand  New  England,  What  is  the  Ameri- 
can Feople  ?  (1885),  3Iy  Friend  the  Boss, 
Naval  History  of  the  Ameiican  Revolution 
(1888),  and  an  edition  of  the  Arabian  Nights. 

Hale,  Sir  Matthew  {b.  1609,  d.  1676), 
English  judge,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1636. 
Though  a  Royalist,  he  was  appointed  head 
of  the  committee  for  prevention  of  delays 
and  expenses  of  law  in  1652 ;  became  a  judge 
of  Common  Pleas  in  1655,  and  sat  in  ParUa- 
meut  till  the  Restoration,  when  he  was 
made  Lord  Chief  Baron.  In  1671  he  be- 
came Lord  Chief  Justice,  and  resigned  just 
before  his  death.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the 
Fleas  of  the  Grown,  Ihjfciles  Nugce,  and  an 
essay  on  Gravitation  of  Fluids. 

Hale,  Sarah  Josepha  {b.  1788,  d.  1879), 
American  writer ;  wrote  Northwood  (a 
novel),  Sketches  of  American  Character, 
Woman's  Record,  and  A  Complete  Dictionary 
of  Poetical  Quotations,  and  was  also  founder 
of  the  Ladies'  Magazine  of  Boston. 

Hales,  John  (b.  1584,  d.  1656),  "the  ever- 
memorable,"  theologian,  whose  Golden  Re- 
maines  were  jjublished  in  1659,  attended  the 
Synod  of  Dort  as  chaplain  to  the  British 
ambassador,  and  afterwards  became  an 
Armuiian  ;  was  persecuted  by  the  Puritans 
as  a  "  malignant,"  and  died  in  great  distress. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  Eton. 

Hales,  John  Wesley  (b.  1836),  English 
writer,  son  of  a  nonconformist  minister,  edu- 
cated at  Glasgow  and  Cambridge,  was 
elected  fellow  of  Christ's  College  in  1860, 
called  to  the  bar  in  1867,  and  in  1877  became 
professor  of  English  literature  at  King's 
College,  London.  He  wrote  The  Teaching 
of  EngUsh  (1867),  edited  Areopugitica,  and 
assisted  in  editing  The  Fercy  Folio  Manu- 
script (1867-88),  the  London  Series  of  English 
Classics,  etc. 

Hales,  Stephen,  D.D.  Ok  1677,  d.  1761), 
physicist,  patronised  by  Frederick,  Prince 
of  Wales,  discovered  the  flow  of  the  sap, 
and  wrote  Vegetable  Statlcks,  and  Electrical 
Experiments.  A  monument  was  erected  to 
him  in  Westminster  Abbey  by  the  Princess 
of  Wales. 

Hal^vy,  Jacques  Francois  Fromental  filie 
{h.  1799,  d.  1862),  French  composer  of  Jewish 
extraction,  pupil  of  Cherubini,  gained  the  first 
prize  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire  in  1819  with 
his  Herminie,  and  next  year  composed  for 
the  funeral  of  the  Due  de  Berry  a  funeral 
march  and  De  Profimdis  in  Hebrew,  which 
he  dedicated  to  his  master.  He  reached  the 
height  of  his  fame  in  1835,  during  which  year 
he  produced  La  Juive  and  L' Eclair.  These 
were  followed  by  numerous  other  operas,  and 
he  acted  as  a  teacher  at  the  same  time,  having 


Hal 


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Hal 


Gounod  as  one  of  his  pupils.  In  1854  Halevy 
became  secretary  of  the  Academie  des  Beaux- 
Ai-ts,  and  in  1861  published  Souvenirs  et 
Portraits. 

Halevy,  Leon  {b.  1802,  d.  1883),  French 
historical  and  dramatic  writer,  son  of  the 
composer,  wrote  tragedies  and  a  drama 
entitled  Luther. 

Halevy,  Ludovic  {b.  1834),  French 
dramatist,  son  of  the  last-named,  born  at 
Paris,  was  from  1852  to  1858  in  the  secre- 
tary's oiRce  of  the  minister  of  state,  and 
became  chief  of  the  department  for  Algiers 
and  the  colonies.  He  resigned  the  position 
of  redacteur  to  the  Corps  Lkjislatif  in  order 
to  write  for  the  stage.  He  wrote  librettos 
for  Offenbach,  and  collaborated  with  Henri 
Meilhac  {La  Belle  Helene,  Frou-frou,  etc.). 

Haliburton,  Thomas  Chandler  {b.  1796, 
d.  18(35),  colonial  judge  and  writer,  born  at 
Windsor,  Nova  Scotia,  became  a  member  of 
the  Assembly  of  the  colony,  and  in  1829 
chief  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas.  In  1840 
he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  but  came  to  England  soon  after- 
wards, and  sat  in  Parliament  till  1856.  As 
a  writer  he  is  chiefly  known  as  the  author 
of  The  Lucubrations  of  Sam  Slick  :  Clock- 
maker  (1837-40),  The  Attache:  or,  Sam  Slick 
in  England;  and  The  Old  Judge :  or.  Life  in 
a  Cohny,  etc. 

Halifax.     {See  Wood,  Sir  Charles.] 

Halifax,  Earl  of,  Charles  Montague  (6. 
1661,  d.  1715),  Whig  statesman,  was  at  first 
a  writer  of  parodies  and  light  pieces,  such  as 
The  Town  and  Country  Mouse,  and  received 
£500  for  his  Epistle  on  the  Battle  of  the 
Boyne.  After  entering  Parliament,  he  soon 
rose  to  be  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
(1695),  in  which  office  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  recoinage  of  silver,  and  the  first 
issue  of  exchequer  bills.  He  also  founded 
the  public  library  which  was  the  germ  of 
the  British  Museum.  In  1697  he  became 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  but  was  removed 
two  years  later.  In  1 700  he  was  created  a 
peer,  but  was  impeached  next  year  for 
appropriation  of  public  money ;  but  the 
charge  was  dismissed  both  then  and  when 
it  was  revived,  and  Halifax  was  again  in 
1714  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  being  also 
created  earl. 

Halifkx,  Marquis  of,  George  Savile  {b. 
1630,  d.  1695),  statesman,  is  known  as  "The 
Trimmer  "  from  his  leaning  always  to  the 
weaker  side  in  political  aftairs.  Thus  he 
opposed  the  Exclusion  Bill,  but  on  the  ac- 
cession of  James  II.  opposed  his  arbitrary 
mea.sures,  and  was  dismissed.  He  was  Lord 
Privy  Seal  under  Charles  II.  from  1682  till 
the  end  of  the  reign,  having  previously  been 
created  successively  viscount,  earl,  and  mar- 
quis.  Under  James  II.  he  was  lord  president 


a  few  months,  and  after  the  Revolution  was 
again  for  a  short  time  Privy  SeaL  He  took 
a  leading  part  in  offering  the  crown  to 
William  of  Orange. 

Hall,  Anna  Maria,  nee  Fielding  (b. 
1802,  d.  1881),  Irish  novelist,  born  at 
Wexford,  came  to  London  at  au  early  age, 
and  married  in  1824  Mr.  S.  C.  Hall.  Among 
her  works  were  Sketches  of  Irish  Character 
(1828),  The  Buccaneer  (1832),  The  Groves  of 
Blarney  and  the  French  Refugee  (dramatised 
and  produced  at  the  Adeli^hi  and  St.  James's) 
Marian;  or,  «  Young  Maid's  Fortunes,  which 
was  translated  into  German  and  Dutch,  as 
well  as  several  other  novels,  Irish  stories, 
and  books  for  children. 

HaU,  Captain  Basil  (b.  1788,  d.  1844),  Eng- 
lish traveller  and  writer,  entered  the  navy 
in  18o2,  and  in  1816  accompanied  the  expe- 
dition under  Lord  Amherst  to  China,  of 
which  he  wrote  an  account  in  his  Voyage  of 
Discovery  to  the  Western  Coast  of  Corea  and 
the  Great  Loo-Choo  Island  in  the  Japan  Sea. 
In  1824  he  published  Extracts  from  a  Jownal 
written  on  the  Coasts  of  CJnli,  Peru,  and 
Mexico.  He  died  insane  in  Portsmouth 
Hospital. 

HaU,  Sir  Charies  {b.  1814,  d.  1883),  Eng- 
lish judge,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Bridgewater  case  (1853),  and  in  "Allgood 
V.  Blake."  Among  his  pupils  were  several 
of  the  present  judges  and  Mr.  R.  H.  Hutton. 
He  was  vice-chancellor  for  many  years. 

Hall,  Sir  Charles,  Q.C.  {b.  1843),  was  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. Was  called  to  the  bar  in  1866, 
appointed  Attorney-General  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  1887,  was  British  delegate  to  the 
Maritime  Conference  at  Washington  1889, 
and  Recorder  of  the  City  of  Loudon,  1892. 

HaU,  Charies  Francis  (i.  1821,  d.  1871), 
Arctic  explorer,  a  native  of  New  Hampshire, 
after  having  been  blacksmith  and  journal- 
ist, went  to  Greenland  in  search  of  Frank- 
lin's remains.  Again  from  1864  to  1869  he 
lived  among  the  Esquimaux,  and  when  in 
command  of  an  expedition  fitted  out  by  the 
United  States,  died  suddenly. 

HaU,  Christopher  Newman,  LL.B.  {b. 
1816),  Nonconformist  preacher,  educated 
at  Highbury  and  London  University,  where 
he  gained  the  law  fellowship.  He  was  a 
minister  (Congregatioualist)  at  Hull  from 
1842  to  185^4,  when  he  was  transferred  to 
Christ  Church,  Lambeth,  then  called  Surrey 
Chapel.  Among  his  works  are  Come  to 
Jesus,  Prayer:  its  lieasonahleness  and  Efficacy, 
and  The  Dangers  of  Negative  Theology. 

HaU,  Edward  {b.  1499,  d.  1547),  chronicler, 
fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  some  years.  He 
wrote  The  Union  of  the  Two  Noble  and  Illus- 
trious Families  of  Lancaster  and  York,  which 
was  dedicated  to  Henry  VIII. 


Hal 


(412) 


Hal 


HaU,  Granville  Stanley,  Ph.D.  (b.  1845), 
American  writer,  was  professor  of  psychology 
in  Antioch  college,  Ohio,  1872-6  ;  1881-2, 
lecturer  at  Harviird;  1882,  professor  at 
John  Hopkins  university,  Baltimore.  In 
1888  he  became  president  of  Clark  univer- 
sity, Worcester,  Massachusetts.  He  is 
author  of  Aspects  of  German  Culture  (1881), 
and  Hints  Towards  a  Select  and  Descriptive 
Bibliography  of  Education  (1886). 

Hall,  James  (*.  1793,  d.  1868),  American 
Judge  and  writer,  served  in  the  war  of  1813 ; 
in  1820  went  to  practise  at  Illinois,  where 
he  became  public  prosecutor,  judge  of 
circuit,  and  state  treasurer.  In  1833  he 
removed  to  Cincinnati,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  tales,  as  well  as  collaborating  with 
Colonel  M'Kenney  Ln  the  production  of  A 
Sistory  and  Biography  oj  the  Indians  of 
North  America. 

Hall,  James  (Jb.  1811),  American  palaeont- 
ologist, became  professor  of  geology  at 
Troy  in  1836,  and  assisted  in  the  New  York 
survey.  His  work  is  described  in  the 
Palaontology  of  New  York  (1847-79).  He 
was  also  state-geologist  of  Iowa  and  Wis- 
consin, and  in  1866  became  director  of  the 
New  York  Museum.  In  1876  he  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  International  Congress 
of  Geologists,  and  in  1884  gained  the  quin- 
quennial prize  of  the  Boston  Society  of 
Natural  History. 

Hall,  Joseph,  D.D.  {b.  1574,  d.  1656), 
English  prelate  and  writer.  Bishop  succes- 
sively of  Exeter  and  Norwich,  became 
known  as  a  satirist  by  his  Virgidemiarwn 
Liber  (1597-8),  and  afterwards  wrote  Con- 
templations on  Principal  Passages  of  Scrip- 
ture, Episcopacy  by  Divine  Right  asserted, 
and  many  other  works.  In  1641  he  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  by  the  Long  Parliament 
for  protesting  against  its  proceedings,  and 
on  his  release  was  driven  by  the  Puritans 
from  his  palace. 

EaU,  Marshall  {b.  1790,  d.  1857),  English 
physiologist,  son  of  Robert  Hall,  whose  chief 
works  were  a  Treatise  on  the  Circulation  of 
the  Blood  (1832j,  The  Nervous  System  (1837), 
Apoplexy  and  Paralysis  (1851),  and  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Medicine  (3rd  edition,  1837). 
He  discovered  a  method  of  restoring  asphyx- 
iated persons,  which  is  known  by  his  name. 

HaU,  Robert  {b.  1764.  d.  1831),  Baptist 
preacher,  ministered  chiefly  at  Bristol  and 
Cambridge,  where  he  published  his  sermon 
On  Modern  Infidelity,  in  1801.  He  had 
previously  written  an  Apology  for  the  Free- 
dom of  the  Press.  In  1802  and  the  following 
year  appeared  Peflertions  on  the  War,  and 
Sentiments  Proper  to  the  Present  Crisis. 
After  this  he  had  an  attack  of  insanity,  but 
in  1808  went  to  Leicester,  where  in  181u  he 
published  his  Terms  of  Communion.  He  re- 
turned to  Bristol  in  1825. 


HaU,  Samuel  Carter  {b.  .1800,  d.  1889) 
Irish  writer  and  art  critic,  founded  in  182i 
and  edited  the  Amulet,  and  after  the  deatL 
of  Campbell  became  editor  of  the  New 
Month  hi.  In  1839  he  established  the  Ari 
Union  Journal,  afterwards  known  as  the  ^ri 
Journal.  He  also  edited  the  Book  of  British 
Ballads  and  other  works,  and  wrote,  in  con- 
junction with  his  wife,  Ireland  :  its  Scenery 
and  Character.  In  1880  he  was  granted  a 
Civil  List  pension  of  £150  a  year. 

HaUam,  Arthur  Henry  {h.  1811,  d.  1833), 
son  of  the  historian,  and  friend  of  Tenny- 
son, who  celebrated  his  death  and  early 
promise  in  In  Memoriam. 

HaUam,  Henry  {b.  1777,  d.  1859),  his- 
torian, son  of  the  Dean  of  Bristol,  was 
bom  at  Windsor  and  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church.  He  was  called  to  the  bar, 
but  gave  himself  up  to  literary  work,  writ- 
ing at  first  for  the  Edinburgh  Review.  He 
obtained  through  his  Whig  connection  an 
office  in  the  stamp  department,  which  made 
him  independent.  In  1818  he  published  his 
Vieiu  of  the  State  of  Europe  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  in  1827  finished  his  Con- 
stitutional History  of  England,  1485-1760, 
His  last  great  work  was  the  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe  in  the  15th,  16th, 
and  17th  Centuries  (1838),  which  was  after- 
wards supplemented  by  Notes. 

Hall6,  Sir  Charles  {b.  1819),  German 
pianist,  resident  in  England  since  1848,  when 
he  left  Paris,  was  born  at  Hagen  in  West- 
phalia, and  went  to  Paris  in  1836.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  in  London  at 
Covent  Garden,  where  he  played  Beet- 
hoven's concerto  in  ^  ^a<.  He  afterwards 
lived  a  great  deal  at  Manchester,  where  he 
founded  the  Halle  band.  He  played  fre- 
quently at  the  Popular  and  Philharmonic 
Concerts,  and  made  a  speciality  of  Beet- 
hoven's sonatas.  In  1888  he  was  knighted, 
and  in  that  year  also  married  Madame 
Norman -Neruda.  His  son,  Mr.  C.  E.  Halle, 
is  a  well-known  artist,  and  his  daughter 
has  become  known  as  a  sculptor. 

HaUeck,  Fitz-Greene  {b.  1790,  d.  1867), 
American  poet,  bom  at  Guildford,  Connecti- 
cut, came  to  New  York  in  1811,  and  entered 
a  counting-house.  In  1819  he  wrote,  with 
J.  R.  Drake,  the  Croaker  Papers  in  the  Even- 
ing Post.  In  1 822  he  came  to  Europe,  and  in 
1827  wrote  verses  on  Alnwick  Castle  and 
Burns.  From  1832  to  1849  he  was  employed 
in  the  office  of  J.  J.  Astor,  who  left  him  a 
very  small  annuity.  His  last  composition, 
written  in  1864,  was  Young  America.  In 
1870  a  granite  obelisk  was  erected  in  his 
honour  at  Guildford  by  LongfeUow,  Whit- 
tier,  Bryant,  and  others. 

HaUeck,  Henry  Wager  {h.  1815,  d.  1872), 
American  genera*,  entered  the  army  in  1839, 


Ual 


(4ia) 


Ham 


and,  as  commander  of  the  Missouri  depart- 
ment in  1861,  compelled  the  Confederates  to 
evacuate  Corinth.  From  that  year  till  1S64 
he  was  commander-in-chief,  and  afterwards 
served  under  Grant  as  chief  of  the  staff. 
Several  charges  were  made  against  him,  but 
aU  have  been  disproved. 

Hallenberg,  Jonas  (b.  1748,  d.  1834), 
Swedish  historian,  author  of  a  History  of 
Gustacus  Adolphm  (1790-6). 

Haller,  Albrecht  von  (i.  1708,  d.  1777), 
Swiss  physician  and  writer,  for  eighteen 
years  professor  of  anatomy  and  botany  at 
Gijttingen,  previously  and  subsequently 
lived  at  Berne.  He  was  author  of  numer- 
ous medical  treatises,  the  chief  of  which 
was  Elcmenta  Flujsiologia;  Humani  Corporis. 
He  also  wrote  poems,  notably  an  elegy  on 
his  wife,  who  was  killed  by  a  carriage  acci- 
dent as  they  entered  Gottiugen.  His  sou, 
Amadeus  {d.  1786),  was  an  eminent  botanist. 

HaUett,  Holt  Samuel  (b.  1841),  English 
engineer,  was  in  the  service  of  the  Indian 
Government  for  eleven  years,  during  which 
time  he  projected,  with  Archibald  Colqu- 
houn,  the  construction  of  a  railway  to  con- 
nect India  with  China.  He  gave  an  account 
of  his  survey  in  A  Thousand  Miles  on  an 
Elephant  in  the  Shan  States,  and  in  1887  re- 
ceived the  silver  medal  of  the  Society  of 
Arts  for  his  paper  on  Neiv  Markets  and  the 
Extension  of  Mailways  in  India  and  Burmah. 

Halley,  Edmund  {b.  1656,  d.  1742), 
English  astronomer,  sou  of  a  London  soap- 
boiler, was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  school 
and  at  Oxford,  and  in  1676  went  to  St. 
Helena,  where  he  stopped  two  years,  and 
published,  as  a  result  of  his  observations 
there,  his  Catalogtie  of  Southern  Stars.  In 
1680  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Newton, 
the  printing  of  whose  Principia  he  superin- 
tended. Charles  II.  gave  him  a  sliip,  with 
the  help  of  which  he  was  able  to  investigate 
the  variations  of  the  magnetic  needle.  On 
his  return  from  the  voyage  he  was  made 
Savilian  professor  at  Oxford,  and  in  1720 
became  astronomer  royal.  During  his  last 
years  he  was  chiefly  occupied  in  lunar 
observations,  and  he  also  predicted  the  re- 
currence of  the  comet  which  is  named  after 
him. 

Halliday,  Sir  Andrew,  M.D.  {d.  1839), 
English  physician,  author  of  Annals  of 
the  House  of  Brunswick  and  the  House  of 
Hanover  (1826). 

Halliday,  Sir  Frederick  James,  K.C.B. 
{b.  1806),  English  administrator  in  India; 
entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1825,  and  became  in  1853  a  member 
of  the  Supreme  Council.  During  the  Mutiny 
he  was  heutenant-governor  of  Bengal,  and 
was  thanked  by  Parliament  for  his  services. 


In  1868  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  India,  but  retired  in  1886. 

HaUiwell-FMllips,  James  Orchard  {b. 
1820,  d.  1889),  Shakespearian  scholar, 
wrote  a  Life  of  Shakespeare  (1848),  and 
Outlines  of  the  Life  of  Shakespeare  (1818), 
besides  editing  an  edition  of  his  works 
(1853-65),  and  being  chiefly  instrumental  in 
the  formation  of  the  Shakespeare  Museum 
and  the  purchase  by  the  Stratford  cor- 
poration of  that  poet's  estates.  He  also 
edited  other  plays,  and  published  the  Dic- 
tionary of  Archuic  and  Provincial  Words  and 
the  Dictionary  of  Old  English  Plays. 

Hals,  Franz  van  {b.  1580  or  1581,  d.  1666), 
Flemish  portrait-painter,  a  fine  specimen  of 
whose  work  is  in  the  hall  of  the  Company  of 
Archers,  at  Delft,  but  most  of  his  works  are 
in  private  galleries.  His  brother,  Dirk  {d. 
16oG),  was  a  painter  of  interiors  and  of 
animals. 

Halsbury,  Lord,  Hardinge  Giffard  (6. 
1825),  was  educated  at  Merton  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  called  to  the  bar  in  1850.  He  be- 
came Queen's  Counsel  in  1865,  and  was  in 
1875  made  Solicitor-General  by  Lord  Beacons- 
field,  though  as  yet  he  had  been  unable  to 
find  a  seat.  He  was  returned  for  Laimcestou 
in  1877,  and  held  ofiice  till  1880.  In  1885  he 
became  Lord  Chancellor,  with  the  title  of 
Lord  Halsbury,  and  held  the  same  office  in 
Lord  Salisbury's  second  ministry. 

Halswelle,  Keeley  {b.  1832,  d.  1891),  Eng- 
lish painter,  bom  at  Richmond,  Surrey  ;  after 
sketching  for  the  Illustrated  London  News, 
went  to  Edinburgh.  He  first  exhibited  at 
the  Scottish  Academy  in  1857,  and  became  an 
associate  in  1866.  After  a  visit  to  Italy,  his 
picture  Roba  di  lioma  was  exliibited  at  the 
Koyal  Academy  (1869),  and  from  that  time 
he  painted  many  pictures,  among  which  were 
Contadini  in  St.  Peter''s,  Home  (1871),  Le 
Sposalizio  bringing  Home  the  Bride,  etc. 
His  later  works  were  landscapes,  the  chief  of 
which  were  exhibited  in  1884  as  a  series 
called  Six  Years  in  a  Houseboat. 

Haman,  Persian  minister,  enemy  of  tb 
Jews  ;  plotted  the  fall  of  Mordecai,  but  was 
himself  executed  by  order  of  Ahasuerus. 

Hambrock,  Anton  (d.  1661),  Dutch  mis- 
siouaiy,  went  to  Formosa,  where  he  made 
many  converts,  but  was  taken  prisoner  by 
a  Chinese  pirate  named  Coxinga,  who  sent 
him  to  advise  his  countrymen  to  sunender, 
instead  of  which  he  played  the  part  of 
Regulus,  and  met  with  the  same  fate. 

Hamd-Allah-Mostawfl  (d.  1349),  Persian 
historian,  author  of  a  history  from  the 
creation  downwards,  with  biographies 
of  poets,  philosophers,  and  Mahometan 
saints. 


Haxa 


(414) 


Ham 


Hamel,  Joseph,  M.D.  (d.  1862),  Russian 
ecieutific  \vTiter,  lived  much  in  England  as 
scientific  correspondent  of  the  Tsar ;  in- 
vented an  electrical  machine,  and  in  1820 
made  an  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc,  when  three 
of  his  guides  perished.  He  obtained  the 
introduction  into  Russia  of  the  Lancasterian 
system,  and  was  a  promoter  of  the  first 
Moscow  exhibition. 

Hamerton,  Philip  Gilbert  (b.  1834),  English 
art  writer,  having  determined  to  study  land- 
scape-painting, settled  on  au  island  in  Loch 
Awe,  and  in  1861  went  to  Paris.  In  1855  he 
published  The  Isles  of  Loch  Awe  and  other 
I'oems,  with  illustrations  by  himself,  and  later 
Etclnng  and  Etchers  (1868),  a  Life  of  Turner 
(in  the  Fortfolio),  Modern  Frenchmen  (1878), 
and  Imagination  in  Landscape-Painting 
(1888),  reprinted  from  the  Fortfolio.  He 
also  wrote  some  novels  {Marmorne,  etc.), 
and  French  and  English :  a  Comparison, 
published  in  1889 ;  Round  My  House,  The 
Intellectual  Life,  etc. 

Hamilcar,  son  of  Hanno   {d.  480  B.C.), 

Carthaginian  general,  invaded  Sicily,  but  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  Gelon  at  the  Himera. 

Hamilcar  Barca  {d.  228b.  a),  Carthaginian 
leader,  father  of  Hannibal,  and  head  of  a 
faction  at  Carthage ;  commanded  in  Sicily  in 
the  first  Punic  war,  at  the  close  of  whicli  he 
defeated  the  mercenaries, who  had  rebelled; 
was  killed  iu  battle  with  the  Vettones  when 
meditating  a  fresh  attack  upon  the  Romans. 

Hamilton,  Alexander  (6.  1757,  d.  1804), 
American  general  and  statesman,  bom  at 
St.  Kitts;  published,  when  17,  some  papers 
on  the  rights  of  the  colonies,  and  before  he 
was  19  was  captain  of  artillery.  In  1777 
he  was  "Washington's  aide-de-camp,  in  1782 
a  member  of  Congress,  and  in  1787  a  dele- 
gate to  the  convention  which  drew  up  the 
American  Constitution.  Washington  ap- 
pointed him  secretary  to  the  Treasury,  and 
in  1798  he  became  second-in-command  of 
the  army,  of  which  he  became  afterwards 
commander-in-chief.  He  was  killed  in  a 
duel  with  Colonel  Burr,  vice-president  of 
the  United  States. 

Hamilton,  Anthony,  Count  (6.  1646,  d. 
1720),  Irish  soldier  and  writer;  served  in 
the  army  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  Ireland 
xmder  James  II.  ;  wrote  the  Memoires  du 
Comte  de  Gramont,  his  brother-in-law. 

Hamilton,  Charles  (6.  1753,  d.  1792), 
Orientalist ;  while  in  the  employ  of  the  East 
India  Company  translated  from  the  Persian 
the  Hedaya,  or  code  of  Mahometan  laws. 

Hamilton,  David  {b.  1768,  d.  1843), 
Scotch  architect,  designed  the  Exchange 
and  many  other  buildings  at  Glasgow,  and 
also  many  private  houses. 


Hamilton,  Elizabeth  (6.  1768,  d.  1816), 
Scotteh  writer,  daughter  of  a  merchant, 
published,  when  in  London,  Letters  of  a 
Hindoo  liajah,  and  other  works,  and 
received  a  royal  pension.  She  afterwards 
removed  to  Edinburgh,  where  she  wrote 
The  Cottagers  of  Glenburnie,  which  was 
highly  praised  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Hamilton,  Emma,  Lady  {b.  1761,  d. 
1815),  wife  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  was 
the  daughter  of  a  Welsh  labourer  named 
Lyon,  and  attracted  the  affections  of  several 
gentlemen,  one  of  whom,  Mr.  Greville, 
educated,  and  introduced  her  at  court.  She 
subsequently  became  known  as  the  mistress 
of  Lord  Nelson,  who  met  her  at  Naples, 
where  she  was  staying  with  her  husband. 
After  his  death  she  was  left  in  good  circum- 
stances, but  died  in  extreme  poverty. 

Hajnilton,  Gavin  {d.  1797),  Scottish  painter, 
lived  chiefly  at  Rome,  where  he  died  ;  in  his 
later  years  devoted  himself  to  the  discovery 
of  antiquities,  and  published  Schola  Italica 
Ficturce. 

Hamilton,  Lord  George  {h.  1845),  Eng- 
lish statesman,  third  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Abercom,  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and 
served  in  the  Rifle  Brigade  and  the  Cold- 
stream Guards.  In  1808  he  entered  Par- 
liament for  Middlesex,  winning  the  seat 
from  the  Liberals,  and  was  appointed  by 
Mr.  Disraeli,  in  1874,  under- secretary  for 
India.  In  1878  he  succeeded  Lord  Sandon 
as  vice-president  of  the  Committee  of 
Council  on  Education,  and  was  also  sworn  of 
the  Privy  Council.  In  both  of  Lord  Salis- 
bury's cabinets  he  held  the  office  of  Pirst 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

Hamilton,  Hugh  (J>.  1729,  d.  1805).  Irish 
mathematician,  Bishop  successively  of  Ossory 
and  Clonfert,  and  agaia  of  Ossory  (1799) ; 
wrote  a  work  on  Conic  Sections,  and  was 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 

Hamilton,  James  (b.  1769,  d.  1831),  Eng- 
lish educationist;  after  a  tour  in  the 
United  States,  published,  in  1824,  his  System 
of  Teaching  Languages. 

Hamilton,  Janet  (6.  1795,  d.  1873),  Scot- 
tish verse-writer,  called  the  "Coatbridge 
poetess,"  was  daughter  of  a  Lanarkshire 
shoemaker,  and  entirely  self-educated.  She 
published  Poems  and  Sh'etches  (1863),  Sketches 
(1865),  and  Ballads  (1868). 

Hamilton,  John  {d.  llbT),  Scotch  poli- 
tician, natural  son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Arxan ; 
became  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  in  1546 ; 
supported  the  French  party  in  Scotland,  and 
persecuted  the  Protestants,  by  whom,  in 
1563,  he  was  imprisoned.  In  1566  he  became 
a  member  of  Mary    Stuart's  privy  council^ 


Ham 


(415) 


Ham 


and  was  thenceforth  one  of  her  chief  advisers, 
pronouncing  the  divorce  between  Bothwell 
and  his  wife,  and  marrying  the  queen  to  the 
former.  He  assisted  Mary  to  escape  from 
Lochleven,  was  present  at  Langside,  and, 
having  been  declared  traitor  by  the  regent, 
took  refuge  in  Dumbarton  Castle.  Here  he 
was  hanged  in  1571,  having  been  an  accom- 
plice in  the  assassination  of  Murray  and 
possibly  also  in  that  of  Damley.  While 
Archbishop  he  promulgated  Hamilton'' s 
Catechism. 

HamUton,  Patrick  {d.  1528),  Scotch  re- 
former, became  a  Protestant  when  on  the 
Continent  preparing  for  Catholic  orders, 
and  zealously  denounced  Romanism  on 
his  return,  the  result  being  that  he  was 
enticed  to  a  coirference  at  St.  Andrews,  and, 
having  been  tried  by  the  Archbishop,  was 
condemned  and  burnt  as  a  heretic. 

Hamilton,  Sir  Robert  George  Crookshank, 
K.C.B.  (6.  1830),  English  civil  servant,  was 
educated  at  Aberdeen  University,  and  in  1855 
entered  the  War  Office,  in  which  year  he  was 
sent  to  the  Crimea.  On  his  return  he  was 
employed  in  the  Office  of  Works,  the  Edu- 
cation Department,  and  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  in  187-1  became  secretary  to  the  Civil 
Service  Inquiry  Commission.  In  1882  he 
was  made  permanent  under-secretary  to  the 
Admiralty,  but  was  in  that  year  sent  to 
succeed  Mr.  Burke  in  Ireland  as  under- 
secretary. He  was  knighted  in  1884,  and 
was  appointed  governor  of  Tasmania  in 
1886. 

Hamilton,  Sir  Robert  N.  C,  K..C.B.  (*. 

1802,  d.  1887),  Indian  official,  son  of  Sir  P. 
Hamilton;  entered  the  Indian  service,  and 
was  for  ten  years  resident  with  Holkar  at 
Indore.  In  1854  he  became  in  addition 
Governor-General's  agent  for  Central  India, 
and  as  such  drew  up  a  plan  for  the  restoration 
of  order  there  in  1857.  He  accompanied  as 
polijtical  officer  the  army  of  Sir  Hugh  Rose, 
and  materially  assisted  him.  He  was  for  a 
short  time  member  of  the  Supreme  Council 
of  India,  but  ill-health  obliged  him  to  retire 
and  live  in  England. 

Hamilton,  Thomas  (6.  1789,  d.  1842), 
English  officer,  served  in  the  Peninsular  and 
American  campaigns,  and  wrote  Cyril 
Thornton  (1827),  and  other  works. 

Hamilton, William,  of  Bangour(*.  1704,  d. 
1754),  Jacobite  poet,  joined  the  Young  Pre- 
tender in  1745,  but  afterwards  received  a 
pardon,  and  retired  to  France. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  (6.  1730  d.  1803), 
diplomatist  and  antiquary,  son  of  Lord 
Archibald  Hamilton  ;  in  1764  was  sent  to 
Naples  as  envoy-extraordinary,  and  while 
there  made  several  ascents  of  Vesuvius,  and 
investigations  at  Pompeii,  collecting  many 


Etruscan  and  Grecian  vases,  which  he  sold 
to  the  British  Museum.  He  wrote  Antiquites 
Etrusques  and  Campi  PMlegraei,  and  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1766. 
In  1784,  when  on  leave  in  London,  he  met 
Emma  Lyon,  who  returned  with  him  to 
Naples,  and  whom  he  married  in  1791.  In 
that  year  he  became  privy  councillor,  but 
remained  at  Naj.les  till  1800,  though  com- 
pelled for  a  time  to  retire  with  the  royal 
family  to  Palermo.  Both  Nelson  and  his 
wife  were  present  at  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  Loudon. 

Hamilton,  Sir  WilHam,  Bart.  {b.  1788,  d. 
1856),  Scottish  metaphysician,  became,  in 
1821,  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  subsequently  of  universal  his- 
tory. From  1836,  when  he  became  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics,  he  was  widely 
known  as  a  philosophical  writer.  His  chief 
books  were  an  edition  of  Reid's  works,  JDis- 
cussions  on  Philosophif,  Literatttre,  and  Edu- 
cation (1852),  and  his  Lectures,  published 
after  his  death.  He  left  his  Hbrary  to  the 
University  of  Glasgow. 

Hamilton,  William  Gerard  (6.  1729,  d. 
1796),  English  politician,  friend  of  Dr. 
Johnson  ;  entered  Parliament  in  1754,  and 
in  the  next  year  gained  his  sobriquet  of 
"  Single-Speech  Hamilton,"  from  a  powerful 
speech,  which  was  the  only  one  he  ever  de- 
livered. In  1761  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
secretary  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  was 
afterwards  for  many  years  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  in  that  country. 

Hamilton,  William  Richard  (h.  nil,  d. 
1859),  antiquary  and  diplomatist,  cousin  of 
last-named,  accompanied  Lord  Elgin  to  Con- 
stantinople in  1799,  and,  having  been  sent 
by  him  on  a  mission  to  Egypt  in  1801,  com- 
pelled the  French  to  give  up  the  Rosetta 
stone,  now  with  the  Elgin  marbles  in  the 
British  Museum.  At  the  Peace  of  Paris  he 
rendered  a  similar  service  to  Italy.  He 
published  a  work  called  ^gi/ptiaca,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Geographical 
Society,  and  from  1809  till  1822  under- 
secretary for  Foreign  Affairs,  after  which,  in 
1825,  he  was  ambassador  at  Naples. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  Rowan  (i'^  1805,  d. 
1865),  astronomer-royal  of  Ireland,  entered 
Trinity  College,  and  was  in  182"  appointed 
professor  of  astronomy.  In  addition  to  his 
mathematical  attainments,  he  was  a  remark- 
able linguist,  and  a  great  lover  of  literature, 
being  the  friend  of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth, 
Sou  they,  and  others.  In  1837  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy. 

Hamilton,  James,  first  Duke  of  (6.  1606, 
d.  1049),  Scotch  statesman  and  general,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war 
in  the  service  of  Gustavus  Adolphus ;  was 


Haiu 


(416) 


Ham 


made  royal  commissioner  in  Scotland,  and 
took  the  king's  side  in  the  Great  Rebellion. 
He  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  surrender  of 
the  king  to  the  Parliament,  and  afterwards 
raised  an  army  for  him,  but  was  defeated 
at  Preston,  and  beheaded  (1649).  His  brother 
William,  who  succeeded  to  the  title,  was 
killed  at  Worcester. 

Hamilton,  George,  son  of  third  Duke  of 
{l>.  1666,  d.  1737),  was  Earl  of  Orkney,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier  at  the 
BojTie  and  in  Flanders,  and  at  Blenheim 
made  many  prisoners. 

Hamilton,  James,  fourth  Duke  of  (6.  1668, 
d.  1712),  statesman  and  soldier,  ambassador 
for  Charles  II.  at  the  French  court ;  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  under  William  III.  for 
supporting  James  II.  Subsequently  in 
Scotland  he  headed  the  opposition  to  the 
Union,  and  was  killed  in  a  duel  by  Lord 
Mohim. 

Hamilton,  James,  second  Earl  of  Arran 
{d.  161b),  was  regent  of  Scotland  from  the 
death  of  James  V.  (1542)  till  1554,  and  was 
created  Duke  of  Chatelherault  as  a  reward 
for  his  desertion  of  the  EngUsh  alliance. 

Hamilton,  James,  third  earl  (b.  1530,  d. 
1609),  was  a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  his  candidature  being  favoured 
by  all  those  who  desired  a  union  between 
England  and  Scotland ;  he  afterwards  be- 
came insane. 

Hamley,    Sir    Edward    Bruce,     K.C.B. 

{b.  1824),  English  soldier;  son  of  Ad- 
miral Hamley  ;  entered  the  army  in 
1843;  served  in  the  Crimea,  being  men- 
tioned in  despatches,  and  was  commaudaut 
of  the  Staff  College  from  1870  to  1877.  He 
was  employed  as  delimitation  commissioner 
in  Turkey  (1879),  Armenia  (1880),  and  for 
the  Turkish  evacuation  of  Thessaly  and 
Epirus  in  the  next  year,  and  in  the  Egyptian 
war  of  1882  he  commanded  the  second  divi- 
sion at  Tel-el-Kebir,  receiving  decoration 
from  the  Khedive  as  well  as  the  home 
Government.  In  1885  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment for  Birkenhead  as  Conservative,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1886.  Among  his  works 
are  The  Campaign  of  Sebastopol,  written  in 
the  Camp  ;  The  Operations  of  the  War ;  Our 
I'oor  Eelations  :  a  Fhilozoic  Essay;  Voltaire 
{m.th.& Foreign  Classics  series,  1879);  Welling- 
ton's Career  (republished  from  ISlackwood'' s 
Magazine),  a  collection  of  speeches  and 
writings  entitled  National  Defence,  etc. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal  {b.  1809,  d.  1891), 
American  statesman,  bom  at  Paris,  Maine ; 
practised  as  a  lawyer,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  state  legislature.  In  1842  he  was 
elected  as  a  Democrat  to  Congress,  was 
United  States  senator  from  1848  to  1857, 
when    he    was    elected    governor    on    the 


Republican  ticket,  but  resigned  immediately 
on  again  being  elected  senator.  In  1861  he 
became  vice-president  imder  Lincoln,  whose 
views  he  shared.  He  was  again  senator 
from  1869  to  1881,  when  he  was  named 
minister  in  Spain.  He  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  passing  the  "Wilmot  proviso" 
through  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Hammarskaeld,  Lorenzo  (Jj.  1787,  d. 
1827),  Swedish  poet,  historian,  and  critic; 
founder  of  the  school  of  Phosphorists,  and 
author  of  Svenska  Vitterheten. 

Hammer-Furgstall,  Josef,  Baron  von  {b. 

1774,  d.  1856),  German  Orientalist;  corrected 
MSS.  for  the  imperial  library  at  Vienna, 
bringing  back  several  from  Paris  in  1815. 
His  chief  works  were  Geschichte  des  Os- 
■manischen  Reichs  and  Litter atur- geschichte 
der  Araber.  He  was  decorated  by  twenty 
sovereigns,  and  constructed  a  tomb  for  him- 
self with  inscriptions  in  the  ten  languages  of 
which  he  was  master. 

Hammericli,  Frederick  Peter  Adolf  {b. 
1809,  d.  1877),  Danish  poet  and  historian; 
lived  some  time  in  Sweden,  and  in  1840,  by 
the  publication  of  his  Scandinavian  Voyage- 
Songs,  excited  a  reaction  in  favour  of  the  old 
national  tongue.  Among  his  other  works 
were  The  Awakening  of  Denmark,  and  Gus- 
tanis  Adolphiis  in  Germany  (poems)  and  Ben- 
mark  at  the  Time  of  the  Union  of  Calmar. 
He  was  chaplain  to  the  Danish  troops  ia 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  campaign,  and  pub- 
lished an  account  of  this  and  the  earlier 
wars  in  that  country. 

Hammond,  Anthony  {b.  1668,  «?.  1738), 
English  poet,  friend  of  Pope  and  his  con- 
temporaries, and  member  of  Parliament ; 
published  in  1720  A  Miscellany  of  Original 
Poems.  He  died  in  a  debtor's  prison.  His 
son,  James  (d.  1742),  was  author  of  Love 
Elegies. 

Hammond,  William  Alexander  {b.  1828), 
American  physician  ;  entered  the  army,  and 
served  as  surgeon  till  1860,  when  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Marjiand  uni- 
versity. On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war, 
however,  he  re-entered  the  army,  and  in 
1862  was  made  surgeon-general.  Two  years 
later  he  was  tried  by  court-martial  and  dis- 
missed the  service  for  irregularities  in  the 
award  of  liquor  contracts,  after  which  he 
practised  in  New  York,  making  a  speciality 
of  nervous  diseases.  In  1878  a  bill  passed 
Congress  reviewing  the  sentence  of  the 
court-martial,  and  he  was  reinstated  as 
surgeon -general  and  brigadier.  He  is  author 
of  On  Sleep  and  its  iJeranqements,  Diseases  of 
the  Nervous  System,  and  insanity  in  its  Re- 
lation to  Crime,  and  of  Mr.  Oldmixon ;  A 
Strong-minded  Woman,  and  other  novels. 

Hampden,  John  {b.  1594,  d.  1643),  English 


Ham 


(417) 


Han 


politician ;  though  a  member  of  the  second 
Parliament  of  Charles  I.,  he  took  little 
part  in  affairs  till  his  refusal  to  pay  ship- 
money  in  1635.  The  case  was  decided 
against  >'iTn  three  years  later,  but  the  story 
01  his  attempting  to  leave  England  soon 
after  is  without  foundation.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Short  Parliament,  and  in  the 
Long  Parliament  took  an  active  though  not 
prominent  part.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners sent  to  Scotland  to  attend  the 
king,  and  was  impeached  as  one  of  the  five 
members.  He  was  very  active  during  the 
•war,  and  was  killed  at  Chalgrove  Field. 

Haanpden,  Reun  Dickson,  D.D.  (b.  1793, 
d.  1668),  divine,  descendant  of  the  last- 
named,  was  bom  in  Barbadoes,  and  took 
high  honoui's  at  Oxford,  where  he  be- 
came fellow  of  Oriel,  principal  of  St.  Mary 
Hall,  Bampton  lecturer  (1832),  Whyte's 
professor  of  moral  philosophy,  and  Regius 
professor  of  divinity  (1836).  His  Bampton 
lectures  were  attacked  by  Newman,  and 
he  was  censured  by  a  combination  of  the 
HighandLowChurch  parties  in  Convocation. 
In  184:7  he  became  Bishop  of  Hereford  in 
spite  of  violent  opposition.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  The  Fltilosophieal  Evidence  of 
Christianity. 

Hampden,  Viscount,  G.C.B.  (4.  1814, 
d.  1892),  politician,  second  son  of  Lord 
Dacre,  was  (as  Henry  Brand)  private 
secretary  to  Sir  George  Grey,  and  repre- 
sented Lewes  as  a  Liberal  from  1852  to 
1868,  from  which  year  till  1884  he  sat  for 
Cambridgeshire.  From  1859  to  1866  he  was 
parliamentary  secretary  to  the  Treasury, 
and  was  unanimously  elected  Speaker.  In 
the  Parliament  of  1880  he  firmly  opposed 
obstruction,  and  in  1884  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  becoming  a  privy  coimcillor  two 
years  later. 

Hampton,  Wade  (b.  1818),  American 
Boldier  (whose  grandfather  of  the  same 
name  was  a  wealthy  planter,  and  took  part 
in  the  war  of  Independence,  and  whose 
father,  also  named  Wade,  was  aide-de- 
camp to  Jackson  in  1815),  was  bom  at  Co- 
lumbia, South  Carolina,  and  was  distin- 
guished in  the  Civil  war  as  chief  of 
"Hampton's  legion."  After  the  war  he 
adopted  a  conciliatory  policy  on  the  negro 
question,  and  engaged  in  cotton  planting. 
In  1876  he  became  state  governor,  and  in 
1878  United  States  senator. 

Hancock,  John  {h.  1737,  d.  1793),  Ameri- 
can politician,  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the 
revolt  in  Massachusetts,  the  seizure  of  his 
sloop,  7%«  Liberty,  being  the  occasion  of  a 
riot  in  Boston.  He  was  very  active  in  de- 
noimcing  the  "Boston  massacre,"  and 
was  one  of  the  persons  whose  seizure  was 
attempted  by  the  expedition   which  led  to 

B  B 


the  Lexington  affair.  He  was  president  of 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1775-77,  and 
governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1780  till  hia 
death. 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott  {b.  1824,  d. 
1886),  soldier,  practised  forty  years  as  a 
lawyer,  but  served  in  the  Mexican  war  and 
other  expeditions,  and  during  the  Civil  war 
under  McLellan.  He  especially  distin- 
guished himself  at  Fredericksburg  in  De- 
cember, 1862,  where  nearly  half  of  his  men 
were  killed.  He  was  dangerously  wounded 
at  Gettysburg,  where  he  commanded  the 
second  army  corps,  and  was  thanked  by 
Congress  for  his  services.  After  his  recovery 
he  was  again  engaged,  and  met  with  a 
severe  defeat  at  Ream's  station  in  August, 
1864.  After  the  death  of  Lincoln  he  was 
given  the  command  at  Washington.  He 
was  nominated  in  1880  as  Democrat  candi- 
date for  the  presidency,  but  was  defeated 
by  Garfield. 

Handel,  George  Frederick  [Handel]  (6. 
1685,  d.  1759),  English  composer  of  German 
birth,  was  born  at  Halle,  and,  at  the  instance 
of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weinfels,  allowed  to 
follow  his  musical  tastes,  his  education  being 
entrusted  to  the  local  organist.  He  com- 
posed services  before  he  was  twelve,  and  at 
fourteen  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  came 
under  the  notice  of  the  king.  He  then  went 
to  Hamburg,  where  he  was  employed  in  the 
orchestra,  and  in  1705  composed  Almit-a, 
his  first  opera.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Italy,  where  he  visited  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Venice ;  while  at  Florence  his  Rodengo 
was  performed  in  1706.  He  next  became 
kapellmeister  to  the  Elector  of  Hanover, 
and  in  1710  paid  his  first  visit  to  London, 
where  he  composed  Rinaldo  for  the  Hay- 
market.  Two  years  later  he  again  went  to 
England,  and  was  so  well  received  that  he 
stayed  there  instead  of  returning  to  his 
duties.  In  1713  a  Te  Beimi  by  him  to  cele- 
brate the  peace  of  Utrecht  was  heard  at  St. 
Paul's.  When  the  Elector  of  Hanover  be- 
came George  I.  of  England  he  at  first 
showed  no  favour  to  the  composer,  but  the 
latter  made  his  peace  by  his  Water  Music. 
Handel  was  also  appointed  director  of  the 
new  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  but  the 
rivalry  of  Bononcini  and  the  Italians  caused 
it  to  be  closed  in  1737.  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever, he  had  composed  Esther,  Acis  and 
Galatea,  Athaliah,  Alexander's  Feast,  and 
many  anthems.  After  going  to  Aachen  to 
recruit  his  health,  he  retui'ned  and  composed 
Saul  and  larael  in  Egypt,  but  met  with 
much  opposition,  and  in  1741  went  to  Ire- 
land, where  the  Messiah  was  performed  at 
Dublin  (1742),  and  Samson  in  the  following 
year.  On  his  return  to  London  he  resumed 
the  production  of  operas  at  Covent  Garden, 
and,  though  still  meeting  with  opposition, 
was  successful.     Among  his  later  works  thi^ 


Han 


(418) 


Han 


chief  were  Joseph  (1743),  Belshazzar  (1744), 
Judas  Maccabaus,  in  celebration  of  CuUoden 
(174(3),  Alexandei-  Halms  (1747),  Solomon  and 
Susannah  (1748),  TJie  Choice  of  Hercules 
(1750),  andJephthah  (17o'2).  Although  blind 
in  his  later  years,  he  played  the  organ  at 
the  performance  of  the  Messiah  eight  days 
before  his  death. 

Hamner,  Sir  Thomas  (*.  1676,  d.  1746), 
English  pohticiau,  became  Speaker  in  1713, 
and  published  an  edition  of  Shakespeare 
with  engravings  by  Gravelot, 

Hanna,  Wilham,  D.D.  (b.  1808,  d.  1882), 
Scotch  Presbyterian  divine,  son  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Hauua ;  took  part  with  his  father- 
in-law.  Dr.  Chalmers,  in  the  Free  Church 
movement  of  1850.  He  wrote  Memoirs  of 
Dr.  Chalmers,  The  Letters  of  Thomas  Erskine 
of  Linlathen,  and  Our  Zoi'd's  Life  on  Earth. 

Hannay,  James  (*.  1827,  d.  1873),  Scotch 
novelist  and  joumaUst,  served  in  the  navy 
for  five  years,  and  wrote  Singleton  Fontenoy, 
Eustace  Conyers,  A  Course  of  English  Litera- 
ture, and  Three  Hundred  lears  of  a  Norman 
House. 

Hanneman,  Adriaan  (5,  1610),  Dutch 
painter  of  the  school  of  Van  Dyck,  chief 
among  whose  pictures  were  portraits  of 
William  II.  of  Nassau  and  of  himself.  He 
also  excelled  in  allegorical  subjects. 

Hannen,  Lord  {b.  1821),  English  judge, 
educated  at  St.  Paul's  school  and  Heidel- 
berg, was  called  to  the  bar  in  1848.  In 
1853  he  was  British  agent  on  the  commission 
for  the  settlement  of  the  claims  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1868  was  made  judge 
of  the  Queen's  Bench.  From  1872  till  1891 
he  was  judge  of  the  probate,  divorce,  and 
admiralty  division,  and  became  in  the  latter 
year  a  lord  of  appeal.  In  1888  he  was 
named  president  of  the  Special  Commission 
to  examine  into  the  charge  brought  by 
the  Times  against  Mr.  Parnell  and  his 
party. 

Hannibal  (*.  247  b.c,  d.  183  B.C.),  Car- 
thaginian general,  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca, 
who  devoted  him  from  an  early  age  to  war 
with  the  Romans.  After  attacking  the 
allies  of  the  latter  in  Spain  he  marched  into 
Italy,  over  the  Pyrenees  and  Alps,  and 
arriving  in  218,  won  the  battles  of  the 
Ticinus  and  the  Trebia,  and  next  year  de- 
feated Flaminius  on  Lake  Thrasymene. 
After  his  great  victory  at  Cannae  in  216  he 
wintered  at  Capua,  but  was  unable  to  take 
Rome.  In  203  he  returned  to  Africa,  and 
was  defeated  at  Zama  in  the  following  year 
by  Scipio  Africanus.  He  became  chief 
magistrate  at  Carthage,  but  was  compelled 
by  the  hostility  of  rivals  to  flee  to  the  court 
of  Antiochus.  When  his  surrender  was  de- 
manded by  the  Romans,  he  took  refuge  in 


Bithynia,  but  took  poison  from  apprehension 
of  being  given  up. 

Hanno,  Carthaginian  commander,  de- 
feated at  the  .Agates  by  Lutatius  Catulus 
in  the  Punic  war. 

Hanno,  "the  Great,"  rival  of  Hamilcar 
Barca,  and  afterwards  an  opponent  of  his 

son. 

Hanno,  Carthaginian  navigator,  by  whom 
there  is  extant  a  fragment  printed  with 
Arrian,  describing  a  voyage  round  Libya 
{temp,  uncertain). 

Hanno  {d.  1075),  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
appointed  in  1055 ;  opposed  Pope  Nicholas 
IL  in  Germany,  carried  off  the  young  Em- 
peror Henry  IV.  in  1062  to  Cologne,  and 
became  aU-powerf  ul  as  his  guardian,  though 
twice  superseded  by  a  rival  prelate,  Adal- 
bert. His  tyranny  at  Cologne  brought 
about  an  insiurrection,  in  which  he  nearly 
lost  his  Uf  e,  but  which  he  quelled  with  great 
severity.  He  was  a  zealous  supporter  of 
the  reforms  of  Hildebrand,  and  was  canon- 
ised after  his  death. 

Hansard,  Luke  {b.  1752,  d.  1828),  English 
printer,  bom  at  Norwich  ;  came  to  London 
in  1779,  and  worked  as  compositor  for  Mr. 
Hughs,  printer  to  the  House  of  Conunons, 
whom  he  succeeded,  and  became  founder  of 
the  house.  His  son,  Luke  James  {d.  1851), 
was  author  of  Proposition  for  a  National 
Printing  OMce  (1848)  and  the  Fertilisation 
of  Waste  Lands. 

Hansen,  Peder  Andreas  (*.  1793,  d.  1874), 
German  astronomer,  native  of  Schleswig, 
was  employed  in  the  triangulation  of  Hol- 
stein,  and  afterwards  as  director  of  the  ob- 
servatory at  Seeberg.  His  Tables  of  the 
Moon  were  printed  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment in  1857. 

Hanslick,  Dr.  Eduard  (b.  1825),  Austrian 
musical  critic,  became  professor  of  aesthetics 
and  musical  history  at  Vienna,  and  was 
juror  of  the  musical  department  in  the 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1867  and  in  1878,  and 
that  at  Vienna  in  1873.  Besides  being 
musical  critic  to  the  Neue  Freie  Presse  and 
other  journals,  lectured  on  music  in  Vienna, 
Prague,  and  Cologne  as  an  opponent  of 
Wagner  and  Liszt.  In  1876  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Imperial  CounciL  Among 
his  works  are  Die  Moderns  Oper  (1875)  and 
Aus  dem  Opernleben  der  Gegenwart  (1884). 

Hansteen,  Christoffer  (6.  1784,  d.  1873), 
Norwegian  astronomer,  bom  at  Christiania, 
published  in  \%\%\a%Researches  on  Terrestrial 
Magnetism,  and,  after  visiting  London,  Paris, 
Berlin,  and  other  places,  was  sent  by  his 
government  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  in 
Siberia  (1828).  After  his  return  to  Norway 
he  constructed  an  observatory  at  Christiania, 


Han 


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Har 


directed  the  triangulation  of  the  coimtry, 
and  held  several  professorships.  His  Sou- 
venirs of  a  Journey  in  Siberia  was  translated 
into  French  in  1857. 

Hanway,  Jonas  (b.  1712,  d.  1786),  English 
philanthropist  and  traveller,  founded  the 
Marine  Society  and  the  Magdalen  Charity, 
and  promoted  the  establishment  of  Sunday 
schools.  He  went  to  Persia  as  a  trader,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  his  travels  in  the  Ac- 
count of  British  Trade  over  the  Caspian  Sea 
(1754).     He  also  introduced  umbrellas. 

Harald  (Blaatand),  King  of  Denmark 
(jb.  910,  d.  985),  being  conquered  by  the 
Emperor  Otto  the  Great,  was  compelled  to 
be  baptised,  and  afterwards  laboured  to 
establish  Christianity  iu  his  country. 

Harald  I.,  King  of  Norway  {b.  850,  d. 
933),  consolidated  his  kingdom  out  of  petty 
sovereignties,  and  abdicated  in  930. 

Harald  II.,  his  grandson,  came  to  the 
throne  in  950,  and  was  killed  in  battle  (977). 

Harald  III.  (Hardrada),  came  to  the  throne 
in  1047,  having  previously  taken  Athens, 
and  been  head  of  the  Varangian  guard  at 
Constantinople.  With  Tostig  he  invaded 
England  in  1066,  and  took  York,  but  was 
defeated  and  slain  at  Stamford  Bridge. 

Harald  IV.  usurped  the  throne  from 
Magnus  IV.,  and  was  assassinated  in  1134 
by  Sigurd  Slembidiakr. 

Harcourt,  Simon,  Viscount  (h.  1660,  d. 
172®,  English  lawyer,  entered  Parliament 
as  a  Tory  ia  1690,  and  as  Solicitor- General 
drew  up  the  bill  for  the  union  with  Scotland. 
He  afterwards  became  Attorney- General 
and  Lord-Keeper,  and  defended  Sacheverell. 
He  was  for  a  short  time  (1713-14)  Lord 
Chancellor,  and,  having  joined  the  Whigs, 
was  created  a  viscount. 

Harcourt,  Sir  William  Vernon  {b.  1827), 
English  statesman,  second  son  of  the  Rev. 
W.  V.  Harcourt,  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
in  1S51.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  ISoi, 
became  Queen's  Coimsel  in  1866,  and  was 
from  1869  to  1887  professor  of  inter- 
national law  at  Cambridge.  He  contri- 
buted to  the  Times  articles  under  the  signa- 
ture of  "Historicus"  (which  were  re- 
published in  1863),  and  was  returned  Liberal 
member  for  Oxford  in  186!'.  He  took  up  at 
first  an  independent  position,  but  in  1873  was 
appointed  Solicitor-General.  While  in  Op- 
position he  supported  the  Public  Worship 
Regulation  Bill,  and  opposed  the  foreign 
policy  of  Lord  Btaconsfield.  In  ISSO  he 
became  Home  Secretary,  but  failed  to  obtain 
re-election  at  Oxford  after  taking  office, 
and  had  to  take  Mr.  PlimsoU's  seat  at 
Derby.  During  his  term  of  office  he 
BB  2 


introduced  the  Arms  Bill,  and  was  an  active 

I  supporter  of  other  coercionist  measures,  and 

in   1883  passed  the  Explosives  Act  against 

the  dynamiters.     In  Mr.   Gladstone's  Home 

I  Rule  cabinet  he  was  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 

'  chequer,  and  again  in  1892. 

'      Hardee,  WilUam  J.   [h.   1819,   d.   1873), 
American  soldier  and  military  vrriter  ;  after 
serving  in  the  Florida  war,  went  to  study 
at  St.  Maur  in  France.     In  1846,  while  with 
\  Taylor's   Rio  Grande    expedition,   he    was 
made  prisoner,    but  was    soon   exchanged 
I  and    was    rapidly    promoted.       He    after- 
j  wards  drew  up  the   United  States  Rifle  and 
Light  Infantr;/  Tactics  (1856),  and  became 
j  commander  of  cadets  at  West  Point.     In 
'  the  Civil  war  he  distinguished  himself  as  a 
Confederate  officer,   commanding  the    3rd 
corps   at   Shiloh,    serving   under  Bragg  at 
Chattanooga,   and  finally  commanding    in 
South  Carolina.      He  surrendered  at  Dur- 
ham in  April,  1865,  and,  at  the  close  of  the 
war,  retired  to  his  estates  in  Alabama. 

Hardenberg'.     {See  Novalis.] 

;  Hardenberg,  Karl  August  FUrst  von  (J. 
j  1750,  d.  18'i2),  Prussian  statesman,  was previ- 
j  ously  in  the  service  of  Hanover  and  of  Bruns- 
I  wick.  In  1790,  when  Ausbach-Baireuth,  of 
which  he  was  premier,  was  united  to  Prussia, 
!  he  entered  the  service  of  the  latter,  and  as 
such  superintended  the  campaign  of  1791-4, 
and  concluded  the  treaty  of  Basle.  In 
1803  he  became  foreign  minister,  and  held 
that  position  for  three  years,  becoming 
known  as  the  enemy  of  Napoleon,  at  whose 
command  he  was  banished  from  court  after 
the  peace  of  Tilsit.  WTieu  chancellor  in 
1810  he  supported  Scharnhorst's  secret  re- 
organisation of  the  army,  though  unable  to 
refuse  co-operation  with  France  in  the  in- 
vasion of  Russia ;  but  afterwards  took  up  an 
open  position,  making  treaties  with  Russia 
and  Austria.  He  signed  the  first  treaty  of 
Paris,  and  in  1815  endeavoured  to  obtain 
the  restoration  of  Alsace.  He  was  after- 
wards minister  of  the  interior,  and  supported 
the  reactionist  attitude  of  Mettemich. 

Hardicanute,  King  of  England  and  Den- 
mark {d.  1042),  son  of  Canute  and  Emma, 
succeeded  his  half-brother,  Harold,  in  1040, 
and  was  last  of  the  Danish  kings. 

Harding,  James  Duffield  (6.  1798,  d. 
1863),  EngUsh  painter,  gained  the  medal  of 
the  Society  of  Arts  in  1818,  and  soon  after 
became  a  member.  He  also  engaged  in  art 
teaching,  and  was  author  of  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Art  and  other  works.  His  best 
known  pictures  are  Anglers  on  the  Loire, 
and  views  of  Fribourg  and  of  the  Alps  at 
Como. 

Harding,  or  Hardyng,  John  (h.  1378,  d. 
1470),  old  English  historian,  served  in  the 


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wars  of  Henry  V.,  and  wrote  Chronicle  of 
England  to  the  lielgn  of  Edward  IV.,  of 
which  there  are  two  widely-differing  edi- 
tions. 

Harding,  Karl  {b.  1775,  d.  1834),  German 
astronomer,  professor  of  astronomy  and 
director  at  Gottiugen  ;  received  the  Lalande 
medal  in  1803  for  hia  discovery  of  Juno. 

Harding,  Wyndham  (6.  1817,  d.  1855), 
English  civil  engineer,  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  earliest  railways,  advo- 
cated the  narrow  gauge  and  read  a  paper 
on  the  Statistics  of  the  Railway  Si/ntem  of 
Great  Britain  before  the  British  Association 
in  1848.  ILe  defrayed  the  expenses  of  the 
first  ship  which  carried  emigrants  to  Aus- 
tralia. 

Hardinge,  Henry,  Viscount  {b.  1785,  d. 
1856),  soldier  and  statesman ;  entered  the 
army  at  fifteen,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Peninsular  campaign,  being  with  Sir 
John  Moore  at  his  death,  but  was  not 
present  at  Waterloo  on  account  of  a  wound 
received  at  Liguy.  In  1828  he  became 
Secretary  for  War,  and  was  afterwards  Chief 
Secretai-y  for  Ireland.  In  1844  he  was 
named  Governor- General  of  India,  and,  as 
second  in  command  to  Sir  Hugh  Gough 
helped  him  to  defeat  the  Sikhs,  for  which 
services  he  was  created  viscount,  and  re- 
ceived pensions  both  from  the  Government 
and  the  India  Company.  Having  returned 
home,  he  was  appointed  master-general  of 
the  ordnance  in  1852,  and  succeeded  Wel- 
lington as  commander-in-chief. 

Hardinge,  General  the  Hon.  Sir  Arthur, 
K.C.B.  (6.  1828),  English  soldier,  second 
son  of  Viscount  Hardinge,  joined  the  army 
in  1844,  and  served  as  staff  oificer  in  the 
Sikh  war,  and  was  distinguished  in  the 
Crimea.  After  being  assistant  -  quarter- 
master-general in  Ireland,  he  became 
equerry  to  the  Prince  Consort,  and  subse- 
quently colonel  of  the  Coldstream  Guards. 
He  went  again  to  India  in  1868,  returning 
just  before  the  Afghan  war,  and  in  1881 
was  made  commander-in-chief  at  Bombay. 

Hardinge,  Charles,  Viscount  (6.  1822), 
elder  brother  of  the  last-named,  was  private 
secretary  to  his  father  in  India.  He  sat  in 
Parhament  from  1851  till  1856,  and  was 
under-secretary  of  War  under  Lord  Derby 
in  1858-9. 

Hardinge,  Nicholas  (ft.  1700,  d.  1758), 
English  writer  and  antiquary,  became  chief 
clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and,  having 
entered  Parliament  for  Eye,  was  secretary 
tp  t^e  Treasury  in  1752.  He  wrote  Denhill 
Iliad  and  some  Latin  verse,  and  was  a 
patron  of  nntiquaries. 

Haxdinge,    George    (6.   1744,    d.    1816), 


English  writer,  sou  of  last-named,  was 
successively  solicitor-general  to  the  queen, 
counsel  to  the  East  India  Company,  and 
attorney -general  to  the  queen.  He  wrote 
letters  to  Hurke  on  the  Impeachment  oj 
Hastings  and  the  Essence  of  Malone,  an 
attack  on  that  writer. 

Hardouin,  Jean  {b.  1646,  d.  1729),  French 
Jesuit,  whose  works — in  which  he  tried  to 
prove  from  medals  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  classics  were  mediaeval  forgeries,  were 
censured  by  his  Society ;  afterwards  edited 
Pling^s  Natural  History  and  The  Councils, 
the  latter  being  suppressed. 

Hardwick,  Philip  (6.  1793,  d.  1870),  Eng- 
lish architect,  son  and  father  of  an  archi- 
tect, built  a  new  hall  for  the  Goldsmiths' 
Company  in  1835,  also  the  hall  and  library 
of  Lmcolu's  Inn,  opened  in  1845.  He  was 
elected  F.E.S.  in  1828,  A.R.A.  1839,  and 
R.A.  1841,  and  was  subsequently  vice- 
president  of  the  Eoyal  Institute  of  British 
Artists. 

Hardwicke,  Philip  Yorke,  Earl  of  (J>. 
1692,  d.  1764),  lawyer,  entered  Parliament 
in  1717,  and  next  year  became  Solicitor- 
General.  After  being  Attorney-General 
for  ten  years,  he  became,  in  1730,  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  King's  Bench,  and  was  made  a 
peer.  In  1737  he  was  given  in  addition  the 
office  of  Lord  Chancellor,  which  he  held  till 
1756,  his  tenure  of  office  being  marked  by 
the  passing  of  the  Marriage  Act  He  did 
not  take  office  again,  but  his  advice  was 
much  valued. 

Hardwicke,  Philip,  2nd  Earl  of  (ft.  1720, 
d.  1790),  author  of  Athenian  Letters,  Walpo- 
liana,  etc. ,  and  editor  of  the  Hardwicke  State 
Fapers. 

Hardy,  Lady  Mary  DufFus,  novelist, 
widow  of  Sir  Thomas  DufFus  Hardy,  wrote 
descriptions  of  her  travels  in  America,  called 
Through  Cities  and  Prairie  Lands  and  Down 
South.  Her  most  successful  novels  were 
Paul  Wynter's  Sacrifice  and  Daisy  Nichol. 

Hardy,  Iza  DufFus,  daughter  of  last- 
named,  author  of  Glencairn,  Only  a  Lovt 
Story,  Lore,  Honour,  and  Obey,  Lore  in  Idle- 
ness, and  other  tales  ;  she  received  in  1891  a 
Civil  List  pension. 

Hardy,  Thomas  (ft,  1840),  novelist,  edu- 
cated as  an  architect,  was  bom  in  Dorset- 
shire, the  scene  of  his  novels  being  laid 
in  the  south  of  England,  the  early  Wessex. 
His  chief  works  are  Desperate  Remedies 
(1871),  Undei-  the  Greenwood  Tree  (1872), 
Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd  (1874),  The 
Trumpet  Major  (1880),  TJje  TTondlanders, 
TTte  Mayor  of  Casterhridqe  (1886),  and 
Wessex  Tales  (1888),  Test  of  the  D' Urber- 
villes,  etc. 


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Har 


Hardy,  Thomas  {b.  1752,  d.  1832),  poli- 
ticiau,  set  up  a  bootmaker's  shop  in  Pic- 
cadilly, but  soon  plunged  into  politics, 
beiag  the  chief  founder  of  the  London 
Corresponding  Society  in  1792.  In  1794 
he  was  prosecuted  with  Home  Tooke  and 
others  for  high  treason,  but  was  defended 
by  Erskine,  and  acquitted.  He  continued 
in  business  till  1815,  and  in  his  last  years 
was  supported  by  Sir  Francis  Burdett  and 
his  friends. 

Haxdy,  Sir  Thomas  Duffus  (6.  1804,  d. 
1878),  antiquarian,  entered  the  Record  Oilice 
in  1819,  and  ia  1861  became  deputy  keeper. 
He  edited  Close  Molls,  Horman  Rolls,  and 
Charter  Molls  ;  William  of  Malmesbury,  and 
Modus  Tenendi  Farliamenti  (1846).  His 
brother,  Sir  Wiluam  Hardy  (a.  1887),  suc- 
ceeded him  as  deputy  keeper. 

Hardy,  Sir  Thomas  Masterman,  Bart. 
(h.  1769,  d.  1839),  English  admiral,  friend 
of  Nelson,  with  whom  he  served  at  St. 
Viacent,  the  NUe  and  Trafalgar ;  was  created 
baronet  ia  1806,  and  was  subsequently  a 
lord  of  the  Admiralty  and  governor  of  Green- 
wich Hospital. 

Hare,  Augustus  John  Cuthbert  (6.  1834), 
English  writer,  nephew  of  Archdeacon  Hare, 
educated  at  Harrow  and  University  College, 
Oxford;  wrote  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life 
(18th  edition,  1884),  Epitaphs  from  Country 
Churchyards,  Walks  in  Rome,  Wanderings 
in  Spain,  and  many  books  of  travel. 

Haxe,  Francis,  D.D.  (b.  1665,  d.  1740), 
theologian,  successively  Dean  of  Worcester 
and  St.  Paul's,  and  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph 
and  Chichester,  opposed  Hoadley  ia  the 
Bangorian  controversy.  His  J)ijficulties 
and  Discouragement  which  attend  the  Study 
of  Scriptures  in  the  Way  of  Private  Judg- 
ment was  censured  by  Convocation. 

Haxe,  John  (Fairs)  {h.  1844),  actor,  made  his 
first  appearance  at  the  Prince  of  Wales' 
theatre  in  1865.  After  playing  under  the 
Bancrofts  for  several  years,  he  became,  in 
1875,  manager  of  the  Court  theatre ;  and 
in  1879  he  joined  Mr.  Kendal  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  St.  James's  theatre.  In  1889 
he  opened  the  Garrick  theatre  with  Mr. 
Pinero's  Profligate. 

Hare,  Julius  Charles  {b.  1795,  d.  1855), 
English  writer  and  theologian,  educated  at 
the  Charterhouse  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  he  became  fellow  in  1818, 
took  orders  in  1826,  and  in  1832  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  of  Hurstmonceux.  He 
travelled  much  in  Italy  and  Germany,  some- 
times having  Landor  as  companion.  In 
1840  he  became  Archdeacon  of  Lewes,  and 
in  1853  chaplain  to  the  Queen,  and  was  a 
Btrong  supporter  of  the  Broad  Church  move- 
meut.     In  1820  he  translated  Sintram,  and 


four  years  later  published  Guesses  at  Truth, 
which  was  written  in  collaboration  with  his 
brother,  Augustus  William,  who  died  at 
Rome  in  1833.  In  conjunction  with  Thirl- 
waU,  Julius  translated  Niebuhr's  Rome,  and 
in  1848  edited  Stirling's  Essays  and  Tales, 
with  a  life  of  the  author,  who  had  been  his 
curate  at  Hurstmonceux. 

Hare,  Robert  {b.  1781,  d.  1858),  American 
chemist,  professor  in  the  Pennsylvania 
University,  and  inventor  of  the  "  Drum- 
mond  Lamp,"  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe, 
the  calorimotor,  and  improved  the  voltaic 
pile. 

Hargrave,  Francis  (ft.  1741,  d.  1821), 
English  barrister,  recorder  of  Liverpool, 
established  in  the  case  of  the  negro  Somerset 
the  freedom  "of  slaves  upon  entering  British 
territory,  and  published  State  Trials  and 
Law  Trials.  His  collection  of  MSS.  is  now 
in  the  British  Museum. 

Hargraves,  Edmund  Hammond  (b.  1815), 
English  traveller,  in  1834  went  to  Australia 
as  a  farmer,  and  in  1849  discovered  gold  in 
California.  On  his  return  to  Australia  he 
made  similar  discoveries  there  (in  1851),  and, 
having  informed  the  Grovemment,  was  made 
crown  lands  commissioner,  and  received  a 
reward  of  £10,000.  In  1854  he  returned  to 
England,  and  published  Australia  and  her 
Gold  Mines. 

Hargreaves,  James  {d.  1778),  English 
mechanician,  invented  the  stock-cards,  and 
a  hand- worked  spinning- jenny.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  hostiHty  of  his  fellow-work- 
men he  had  to  remove  from  Stanhill  to 
Nottingham,  and  he  afterwards  set  up  a 
spinning  factory  at  Hockley.  A  grant  from 
the  Royal  Bounty  Fund  was  made  to  his 
daughter  by  Sir  Robert  Peel. 

Harlay,  AchiUe  d'  {h.  1536,  d.  1619), 
French  magistrate,  opposed  the  Due  de 
Guise  in  1585,  and  quelled  the  sedition  in 
Paris  in  1589. 

Harley.     [See  Oxford,  Earl  of.] 

Harley,  George,  F.R.S.  (6.  1829),  English 
medical  writer,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  in 
1850,  and  while  on  the  Continent  published 
La  Physiologic  du  Diabite  Suere  and  other 
works.  On  his  return  he  became  professor 
of  medical  jurisprudence  at  University  Col- 
lege, and  physician  to  the  Hospital.  In  1861 
he  gained  the  triennial  prize  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  and  as  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  contributed  many  papers  to 
the  Transactions.  Besides  numerous  medical 
works,  of  which  the  chief  is  one  on  Liver 
Diseases,  he  published  in  1877  The  Simplif  ca- 
tion of  English  Spelling,  and  in  1878  printed 
a  letter  to  Lord  Beaconsfield  on  the  same 
subject. 


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Harley,  Robert,  F.R.S.  {b.  1828),  mathe- 
maticiau,  became  in  ISGS  ^)astor  of  a  Con- 
gregatioual  church  at  Leicester,  in  which 
town  he  was  prominent  as  an  educationist. 
In  1872  he  became  vice-master  at  Mill  Hill 
school ;  in  1882  principal  of  Huddersfield 
College ;  and  in  1886  went  to  Oxford,  where 
the  degree  of  M.A.  was  conferred  on  him. 
He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
at  the  age  of  thirty-five,  and  has  written 
many  works  and  papers  on  mathematical 
subjects. 

Harlow,  George  Henry  (i.  1787,  d.  1819), 
English  portrait-painter,  pupil  of  Drum- 
mond  and  Sir  T.  Lawrence,  his  best-known 
picture  being  that  of  the  Trial  of  Queen 
Kathe^-ine,  into  which  portraits  of  the 
Kembles  were  introduced. 

Haxmodius,  an  Athenian  who,  with 
Aristogeiton,  killed  Hippias,  and  was  put 
to  death  by  his  brother,  Hipparchus, 
(514  B.C.). 

Haro,  Don  Luis  Mendez  de  {b.  1599, 
d.  1661),  Spanish  statesman,  nephew  of 
Olivarez,  whom  he  succeeded  as  minister  in 
1643  ;  was  chiefly  instrumental  ia  bringing 
about  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  in  1657. 

Harold  L,  King  of  England  [d.  1040), 
son  of  Canute  (Knut),  who  left  the  suc- 
cession to  him,  with  his  brother,  in  1035. 
He  usurped  the  whole  kingdom  in  1037, 
having  previously  banished  Queen  Emma, 
and  murdered  her  sons  by  JEthelred. 

Harold  IL  (d.  1066),  son  of  Godwine, 
succeeded  Edward  the  Confessor,  defeated 
the  invasion  of  Harald  Hardrada  of  Norway 
at  Stamford  Bridge,  September,  1066,  but 
was  himself  defeated  and  slain  by  William 
of  Normandy  at  Senlac,  near  Hastings,  on 
October  14.  Previous  to  his  accession  he 
had  commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Welsh. 

Haroun  Al  Easchid  {b.  763,  <?.  809), 
Khalif  of  Bagdad,  organised  his  dominions 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Eastern  empire  ; 
massacred  the  Barmecides ;  compelled  Nice- 
phorus  to  resume  payment  of  his  tribute, 
and  ravaged  his  dominions  when  the  peace 
was  not  kept ;  sent  an  embassy  to  Charles 
the  Great.  He  died  when  on  an  expedition 
against  Khorassan. 

Harpsfleld,  Nicholas  (d.  1583),  Roman 
Catholic  theologian.  Archdeacon  of  Canter- 
bury under  Queen  Mary,  but  imprisoned  by 
Elizabeth ;  wrote,  with  the  assistance  of 
Archbishop  Parker,  who  had  the  custody  of 
him,  Historia  Anglicana  Ecclesiastica.  His 
brother  John  (d.  1578)  was  made  Dean  of 
Norwich  by  Queen  Mary,  and  was  chaplain 
to  Bonner  and  a  great  persecutor. 

Harrington.    {See  Stenhope.] 


Harrington,  James  (b.  1611,  d.  1677), 
English  writer,  served  in  Holland  as  a 
soldier,  and  travelled  much  on  the  Con- 
tinent. He  attempted  to  mediate  between 
the  Parliament  and  King  Charles,  and  was 
with  the  latter  from  1646  until  his  death. 
After  the  Restoration  he  was  imprisoned  on 
a  charge  of  treason,  but  when  his  mind 
gave  way  was  released.  Besides  the  Oceana, 
he  wrote  other  political  works,  and  an  essay 
on  Virgil. 

Harrington,  Sir  John  (6.  1561,  d.  1612), 
Enghsh  writer,  godchild  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, translated  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso 
into  English  verse,  and  wrote  Nugce  An- 
tiquce  and  the  other  works  which  appear  in 
his  Remains. 

Harriot,  Thomas  (b.  1560,  d.  1621), 
English  mathematician,  taught  in  the 
family  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  accom- 
panied the  expedition  of  Grenville  to  Vir- 
ginia as  geographer,  giving  an  account  of 
that  country  in  A  Brief  and  True  Account 
of  the  New-Found  Land  of  Virginia.  He 
invented  a  method  of  algebraic  calculation 
which  was  afterwards  adopted  by  Des- 
cartes. 

Harris,  James  (*.  1709,  d.  1780),  English 
philosopher,  a  native  of  Malmesbury,  was 
appointed  in  1744  secretary  to  comptroller 
to  Queen  Caroline.  His  chief  work  was 
Hermes ;  or,  a  Philosophical  Inquiry  Con- 
cerning  Language  and  Universal  Grammar. 

Harris,  James  (son).  [See  Malmesbury, 
Earl  of.] 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler  (b.  1848),  Ameri- 
can writer,  almost  entirely  seK- educated, 
was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  at  the  age  of 
twelve,  but  afterwards  became  a  journalist. 
In  the  Constitution,  of  which  he  became 
editor,  appeared  in  1880  Uncle  Remus :  his 
Songs  and  Sayings,  which  was  followed  by 
other  similar  works. 

Harris,  Lord  (b.  1746,  d.  1829),  British 
soldier,  served  in  the  American  war  of 
Independence,  and  afterwards  in  India 
under  Cornwallis.  In  1799,  as  commander- 
in-chief,  he  conducted  the  expedition 
against  Tippoo  Sahib,  when  Seringapatam 
was  taken,  from  which  he  derived  the  title 
of  baron  awarded  him. 

Harris,  Lord  (h.  1851),  statesman,  fourth 
baron,  bom  in  Trinidad,  and  educated  at 
Eton  and  Christ  Church.  In  Lord  Salis- 
bury's first  government  he  was  under-sec- 
retary  for  India,  and  in  1866  went  to  the 
War  Office  in  a  similar  capacity.  In  1889 
he  became  governor  of  Bombay, 

Harris,  Sir  William  Snow  {b.  1792,  d. 
1867),  English  physicist,  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  winner  of  the  Copley 


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medal  iu  1835  ;  was  knighted  in  1847,  and 
received  in  1854  a  parliamentary  grant  of 
£5,000  for  his  system  of  lightning-con- 
ductors, which  were  generally  adopted  for 
public  buildings. 

Harrison,  Benjamin  {d.  1791),  American 
statesman,  was  one  of  the  committee  of 
correspondence  to  unite  the  colonies  in 
1773,  and  one  of  the  Vii-ginian  delegates  in 
Congress.  As  chairman  of  the  committee 
he,  in  1776,  introduced  the  resolution  de- 
claring independence.  Subsequently  he  was 
governor  of  Virginia.  In  1788  he  opposed 
the  ratification  of  the  Federal  Constitution, 
but  afterwards  accepted  it. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  LL.D.  [b.  1833), 
President  (twenty-third)  of  the  United 
States,  grandson  of  President  Harrison, 
was  born  at  North  Bend,  Ohio,  and  began 
to  practise  as  a  lawyer  in  Indianapolis  in 
1854.  In  1860  he  was  elected  reporter  of 
the  Indiana  supreme  court,  and  in  the  CivU 
war  he  raised  and  commanded  a  regiment 
for  the  Federal  aimy.  He  resumed  his 
civil  duties  in  1865,  and  practised  as  a 
lawyer  tiU,  in  1876,  he  was  nominated  by 
the  Republicans  for  the  state  governorship, 
but  was  not  elected.  In  1879  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Mississippi  Commission,  and 
next  year  was  chairman  of  the  Indiana 
Delegation  to  the  Chicago  Convention.  He 
was  a  strong  supporter  of  General  Garfield, 
who,  on  his  election,  offered  him  oifice, 
which  he  declined.  In  1881  he  became 
United  States  senator,  and  in  1888  was 
victorious  as  the  Republican  candidate  for 
the  presidency.  His  term  of  office  was 
marked  by  the  International  Copyright 
Bill  of  1891,  the  Behring  Sea  dispute,  the 
trouble  with  Chili,  and  a  diplomatic  quarrel 
with  Italy. 

Harrison,  Frederic  {b.  1831),  English 
philosopher,  educated  at  King's  College 
school  and  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  fellow ;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1858,  and  practised  as  a  conveyancer. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  Trades  Unions,  1867-9,  and  secretary  to 
the  Commission  for  the  Digest  of  the  Laws, 
1809-70.  In  1877  he  was  named  professor 
of  jurisprudence  and  international  law  by 
the  Council  of  Legal  Educatioru  He  was 
Home  Rule  candidate  for  London  University 
in  1886,  and  in  1889  was  elected  alderman  on 
the  County  Council.  He  adopted  tlie  doc- 
trines of  Comte,  and  became  the  Positivist 
leader  in  England.  He  is  author  of  Order 
and  I'roaress  (1875),  The  Choice  of  Books 
(1886),  Oliver  Vromirdl  {''Statesman  Series  " 
1888),  etc.,  and  translated  vox.  ii.  of  Comte's 
Positive  Polity. 

Harrison,  John  {b.  1693,  d.  1776),  Eng- 
lish mechanician,   made   chronometers   for 


determining  longitude  at  sea  between  1735 
and  1749,  and  was  rewarded  by  Govern- 
ment on  condition  that  the  inventions 
should  be  made  public.  The  Principles  of 
Mr,  Harrison's  Time-keeper  was  published 
in  1767. 

Harrison,  Thomas  {b.  1606,  d.  1660), 
soldier,  prominent  in  the  Great  Rebellion, 
lost  the  favour  of  Cromwell  on  account  of 
his  fanaticism  as  a  Fifth  Monarchy  man; 
was  tried  and  executed  after  the  Restoration 
as  a  regicide. 

Harrison,  William  Henry  {b.  1773,  d. 
1841),  ninth  President  of  the  United  States, 
distinguished  himself  in  wars  with  the 
Indians,  and  in  that  of  1812-15  with  Great 
Britain.  He  was  for  some  time  governor  of 
the  newly-formed  territory  of  Indiana,  and 
was  made  in  1828  minister  to  Columbia. 
After  his  recall  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  presidency,  but  was 
elected  in  1839  in  opposition  to  the  Demo- 
crat, Van  Buren.  He  died  suddenly  soon 
afterwards. 

Harrowby,  Francis,  Earl  of  (b.  1831), 
Enghsh  statesman,  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Christ  Church ;  he  entered  Parliament 
(as  Viscount  Sandon)  for  Lichfield  in  1856, 
and  represented  Livei-pool  from  1868  till 
j  his  accession  to  the  peerage  in  1882.  He 
was  at  first  a  Whig,  but  developed  into 
a  Conservative,  and  in  1874  was  appointed 
vice-president  of  the  Committee  of  Council 
on  Education,  having  previously  served  on 
many  committees  and  carried  the  Parochial 
Councils  Bill.  He  was  twice  offered  the 
chief  secretaryship  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant 
by  Lord  Beacousfield,  but  in  1878  entered 
the  cabinet  as  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trade.  In  Lord  Salisbury's  first  adminis- 
tration he  was  Lord  Privy  Seal,  but  did 
not  again  take  office.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Education  in 
1886. 

Harry,  "Blind"  (15th  century),  Scottish 
minstrel,  author  of  Acts  and  Deeds  of 
Wallace,  written  about  1475. 

Hart,  Ernest  (6.  1836),  English  sanitary 
reformer,  practised  for  some  years  as  a  sur- 
geon, and  was  co-editor  of  the  Lancet  and 
editor  of  the  British  Medical  Journal. 
Subsequently  he  edited  the  Sanitari/  Record, 
and  became  chairman  of  the  National 
Health  Society  and  the  Smoke  Abatement 
Committee.  In  the  MetropoUtan  Asylums 
Act  (1867)  his  suggt-stions,  made  in  a  con- 
tribution to  the  Fdrtn'iglttly  Review,  were 
embodied,  and  as  chairman  of  the  Parlia- 
mentary Bills  Committee  of  the  British 
Medical  Association  he  exercised  great 
influence  over  sanitary  legislation.  Hia 
proposals  for  the  creation  of  a  peasant  pro- 
prietary and  the  reclamation  of^  waste  landa 


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in  Ireland  were  adopted  by  the  Government 
in  the  Migration  clauses  of  the  Ti-amways 
Act.  By  his  wife  the  Donegal  Industrial 
Fund  was  set  on  foot. 

Hart,  James  McDougal  (b.  1828),  Ameri- 
can painter  of  Scottish  bii'th ;  born  at  Kil- 
marnock, but  lived  chiefly  in  America, 
gained  a  bronze  medal  at  the  Paris  Exhi- 
bition of  1889  with  In  the  Autumn  Jl'ooda 
and  Jf^/ien  the  Main  is  Over. 

Haxt,  Joel  T.  {b.  1810,  d.  1877),  American 
sculptor ;  after  being  apprentice  to  a  stone- 
cutter, went  to  Italy  to  study,  and  lived  at 
Florence  for  thirty  years.  The  best 
examples  of  his  work  were  Charity,  Woman 
Triumphant,  and  Penserosa.  He  invented 
an  apparatus  for  obtaining  mechanically 
the  outline  of  a  head  from  life. 

Hart,  Solomon  Alexander  (J.  1806,  d. 
1881),  English  painter  of  Jewish  extraction, 
was  elected  R.A.  in  1840.  His  speciality 
was  historical  subjects.  Among  his  best 
pictures  are  Wolseij  and  Buckingham  (1834), 
Michard  and  Saladin  (1835),  The  Polish 
Synagogue  (1840),  and  Milton  visiting  Galilei 
in  Prison  (1847). 

Hart,  William  (6.  1823),  American  land- 
scape-painter, brother  of  J.  M.  (q.v.),  was 
born  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  but  emigrated  with 
his  family  in  1831.  He  became  a  coach- 
painter  at  Albany,  but  afterwards  exhibited 
frequently  at  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Design,  of  which  he  became  a  member  in 
1858.  He  spent  three  years  in  Scotland 
(1850-3),  and  subsequently  set  up  a  studio 
in  New  York,  and  became  president  of  the 
Water-Colour  Society  (1870-3).  Among  his 
pictures  may  be  named  The  Last  Gleam, 
Landscape  with  Jersey  Cattle,  Morning  in 
the  Clouds,  and  A  Brook  Study. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret  (6.  1839),  American 
writer,  born  at  Albany,  was  at  different 
times  a  miner,  school-teacher,  printer,  and 
editor.  From  1864  to  1870  he  was  at  San 
Francisco  as  secretary  of  the  United  States 
Mint,  where,  in  1869,  he  published  The 
Heathen  Chinee.  He  was  named  American 
consul  at  Crefeld  iu  1878,  and  at  Glasgow 
in  1880,  and  after  leaving  the  latter  in  1885, 
came  to  live  in  London.  Chief  among  his 
works  are  Condensed  Novels  (1867),  TJie  Luck 
of  Roaring  Camp  and  Other  Sketches  (1870), 
Poetical  Works  (1871),  Tales  of  the  Argo- 
nauts (1875),  I7ie  Twins  of  Table  Mountain 
and  Other  Stories  (1879),  By  Shore  and  Sedge 
(1885),  A  Millionaire  of  Bough  and  Beady 
and  Devil's  Ford  (1887),  A  Ward  of  the 
Golden  Gate  (1890),  etc. 

Harting,  James  Edmund  (6.  1841).  Eng- 
lish zoologist,  active  in  promoting  bills  for 
the  protection  of  birds,  was  in  1882  awarded 
a  medal  by  the  Societe  d'Acclimatation  for 


!  scientific  publications,  chief  among  which 
I  were  'The  Ornithology  of  Shakespeare  criti- 
cally Examined,  etc.  (1871),  A  Handbook  of 
British  Birds  (1872),  Our  Summer  Migrants 

il875),  several  editions  of  White's  Natural 
{istory  of  Selborne,  Ostriches  and  Ostrich 
Farming,  British  Animals  Fxtinct  within 
Historic  Times,  etc. 

Hartington.     {See  Devonshire.] 

Hartley,  Sir  Charles  Augustus,  K.C.M.G. 
{b.  1825),  English  engineer;  served  in  the 
Crimea  as  captain  iu  the  Turkish  contingent 
engineers,  and  iu  1856  was  named  engineer- 
in-chief  to  the  European  Commission  of  the 
Danube.  In  1862  he  was  knighted.  In 
1867  he  gained  the  Tsar's  "  Grand  Compe- 
tition prize "  for  his  plan  for  enlarging 
Odessa  harbour.  He  was  employed  at 
various  times  by  the  Russian,  Austrian, 
Turkish,  Indian,  and  Roumanian  govern- 
ments, and  was  much  consulted  iu  the 
1  improvements  made  at  the  mouths  of  the 
Mississippi. 

Hartley,  David  {b.  1705,  d.  1757),  English 
philosopher,  educated  at  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow. 
Abandoning  the  idea  of  entering  the  Church, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  profession  of 
medicine,  practising  at  Newark,  Bury  St. 
Edmunds,  London,  and  Bath,  at  whicli  last 
place  he  died.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  by 
his  Observations  on  Man  (1749). 

Hartllb,  Samuel  {b.  circa  1600,  d.  after 
1662),  born  at  Elbin  m  Prussia,  and  came  to 
England  in  1628.  having  lost  his  property 
in  trade  and  agricultural  experiments,  pro- 
poimded  a  scheme  for  a  school  on  novel 
lines.  Cromwell  granted  him  a  pension  ; 
Milton  addressed  his  Tmrtate  on  Education 
Q644)  to  him,  as  did  Sir  vVilliam  Petty 
Two  Letters. 

Hartmann,  Albrecht  (J>.  1814),  Swiss 
writer,  whose  chief  works  are  Meister 
Putsch  und  seine  Gesellen  (1858),  Galerie 
beruhmter  Schiveizer  (1863-71),  Mnker  und 
Burger  (1865),  Schweizernovellen  (1877), 
and  Forlunat  (1879). 

Hartmann,  Alfred  (A.  1814),  Swiss  author, 
born  near  LaiigoTithal.  Berne,  and  educated 
at  Munich.  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin.  He 
finally  settled  at  Solothurm.  He  wrote 
Meister  Eitsch  und  seine  Gesellen  (1858), 
KUfabendsgeschichten  (1853-55),  etc. 

Hartmann,  Karl  Robert  Eduard  von  (J. 
1842),  German  philosopher,  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  army  through  lameness  in  1865, 
and  published  in  1869  his  Philosophie  des 
Unbeivussten,  which  went  through  many 
editions,  and  was  translated  into  Engli'^h 
in  Triibner's  Philosophical  Library.  Ha 
also    wrote    Phanoinenologie    des    sittlichen 


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Bewusstseins  (1878),  and  Bas  religiose  Be- 
wusstein  der  Mensckseit  im  Stufengange  seiner 
£ntwickelimg  (1882). 

Hartmann,  Moritz  (*.  1821,  d.  1872), 
poet,  bom  in  Bohemia ;  published  at  Leip- 
zig in  1845  Kelch  utid  Schwert,  which  was 
vei-y  popular,  but  brought  on  its  author 
the  wrath  of  the  Austrian  government. 
After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  took  an 
active  part  in  poHtics,  representing  Bohemia 
at  Frankfort,  and  was  a  zealous  supporter 
of  the  revolution  in  Vienna.  In  1849  he 
published  at  Frankfort  the  satirical  poem 
Meim-chronik  des  Ffaffen  Mauritius.  He 
now  wandered  in  Switzerland,  England, 
and  Ireland,  but  in  1850  settled  at  Paris, 
from  whence  he  went  to  the  Crimea  as 
correspondent  of  the  Cologne  Gazette.  He 
died  at  Vienna  after  further  wanderings. 
Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  was  author 
of  Ber  Krieg  um  dem  Wald,  a  romance.  Die 
Schatten  and  Novellen  (Hamburg,  1863),  and 
Brief e  aus  Jrland  (1851). 

Hartsoeker,  Nicolas  {b.  1656,  d.  1725), 
Dutch  physicist,  friend  of  Huyghens  and 
Leibnitz,  was  mathematical  tutor  to  the 
Tsar  Peter  when  on  his  travels;  made 
several  microscopic  discoveries,  and  was 
author  of  Cotyectures  Fhysiques  (1707),  Re- 
eueil  des  Bieces  de  Bhysique,  and  other 
works. 

Hartt,  Charles  Frederick  (Jb.  1840,  d. 
1878),  American  naturalist,  bom  at  Fred- 
ericton,  New  Brunswick,  while  a  student  at 
Acadia  College  made  geological  researches 
in  Nova  Scotia  and  afterwards  in  New 
Brunswick.  He  accompanied  the  Thayer 
expedition  to  Brazil  in  1865,  and  from  mate- 
rials collected  there  wrote  his  Geology  and 
Bhysical  Geography  of  Brazil  (1870).  After 
holding  several  professorships  in  America, 
he  was,  in  1875,  appointed  cliief  of  the  geo- 
logical survey  by  the  BraziHan  government. 

Hartzenbusch,  Juan  Eugenio  {b.  1806,  d. 
1880),  Spanish  dramatist  of  German  origin  ; 
was  employed  as  a  shorthand  writer  till  he 
obtained  a  position  in  the  royal  library  at 
Madrid,  which  enabled  him  to  devote  his 
talents  to  dramatic  writings.  Besides 
adapting  many Ereuch  plays,  he  was  author 
of  Los  Amantes  de  Teruel  (1836),  Bonna 
Mencia  (1838),  Alfonso  el  Casta  (1841),  and 
several  comedies,  besides  Ensayos  poeticos  y 
articulos  en  prosa. 

Harvard,  John  (d.  1638),  son  of  a  butcher 
in  Southwark,  was  educated  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1637  married 
and  went  to  New  Enp^land,  but  died  next 
year,  and  left  one  half  of  his  estate  to  be 
devoted  to  the  foundation  of  a  college  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

Harvey,    Sir    Eliab    (*.    1769,  d.   1830), 


English  naval  officer,  served  in  the  Napo- 
leonic wars,  and  was  made  rear-adnural 
after  Trafalgar,  in  which  he  was  captain  of 
the  Temeraire.  He  afterwards  had  a  dis- 
pute with  Lord  Gambler  and  was  dismissed 
for  insubordination,  but  ultimately  became 
admiral  and  G.C.B. 

Harvey,  Gabriel  {p.  1545,  d.  1630),  Eng- 
lish writer,  friend  of  Spenser,  contributed 
imder  the  name  "  Hobbinol "  ;  the  verses 
mefixed  to  the  Faery  Queene,  and  published 
Three  Wittie  Familiar  Letters  (1580),  as 
well  as  prophetic  almanacks. 

Harvey,  Sir  George  (i.  1806,  d.  1876), 
Scotch  painter,  exhibited  Covenanters  Freach- 
ing  in  1830,  The  Battle  of  Brumclog  (1836), 
The  Covenanters'  Communion  (1840),  and 
First  Beading  of  the  Bible  in  Old  St.  FauVs 
(1847).  He  became  a  Scottish  Academician 
in  1829,  was  elected  President  in  1864,  and 
was  knighted  in  1867.  In  1870  he  published 
Notes  of  the  Early  History  of  the  Scottish 
Academy. 

Harvey,  William  {b.  1578,  d.  1667)  Eng- 
lish physiologist,  discovered  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge and  at  Padua,  and,  on  his  return 
to  England,  became  physician  at  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's hospital  and  delivered  the 
Lumleian  lectures.  His  great  discovei-y 
was  described  in  Exercitatio  Anatomica  de 
Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis,  published  in 
1628.  He  was  afterwards  physician  to 
Charles  I.  and  warden  of  Merton  College, 
Oxford. 

Hasaa  ben  Sabbali  {b.  1056,  d.  1124), 
Persian  fanatic,  was  disgraced  by  the  sultan 
and  retired  to  the  mountains  of  Kiu'distan, 
where  he  f  oimded  a  sect  called ' '  Haschischin  " 
(Assassins),  from  the  drugs  which  he  gave 
them.  He  is  known  as  the  "Old  Man  of 
the  Mountains,"  or  Sheik  el  Djebel. 

Hasdrubal  {d.  207  B.C.),  brother  of  Han- 
nibal, commanded  in  Spain  with  some 
success,  but  having  invaded  Italy  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  Livius  and  Nero  at  tlie 

Metaiirus. 

Hasdrubal,  Carthaginian  general  during 
the  third  Punic  war;  defended  Carthage, 
but  surrendered  when  it  was  captured  (146 
B.C.),  and  died  in  Italy  some  time  after. 

Hase.  Charies  Benoit  (6.  1780,  d.  1864), 
French  Hellenist  of  German  extraction;  was 
in  early  life  tutor  to  Louis  Napoleon,  and 
afterwards  momber  of  the  Academies  of  In- 
scriptions and  Belles-Lettres,  professor  of 
German  at  the  I^cole  Polytechnique,  and  of 
ancient  and  modem  Greek  in  the  Royal 
School  of  Oriental  Languagfis,  as  well  as 
librarian  in  the  Bibliotheque  Eoyale. 

Hasebig,     Sir     Arthur,     Parliamentary 


Has 


(  426  ) 


Hat 


soldier,  was  one  of  the  "Five  Members." 
He  aiilod  Monk  in  the  Restoration. 

Hassan  {b.  625,  d.  669),  grandson  of 
Mahomet  and  son  of  Ali,  the  fifth  caliph, 
was  opposed  by  Moavviah  and  compelled  to 
abdicate  in  660. 

Hassan,  Prince  {b.  1854,  d.  1888),  Egyptian 
soldier  and  statesman,  third  son  of  Ismail ; 
was  educated  partly  in  England,  and,  after 
serving  in  the  Prussian  army,  was  appointed 
ia  1876  commander-in-chief  of  the  Egyptian 
army.  After  serving  in  the  Russo-Turkish 
war,  he  became  Egyptian  war  minister,  and 
was  again  commander-in-chief.  In  1885  he 
was  with  Lord  Wolseley  in  the  Soudan. 

Hassan -Ali -Khan  (b.  1821),  Persian 
statesman  and  soldier,  rendered  distin- 
guished services  to  the  shah  in  the  Khorasan 
in  1848,  and  later  during  the  rising  of  the 
Babis,  after  which  event  he  was  employed 
as  a  diplomatist  in  England,  France,  and 
Italy. 

Hassan  ben  Ali,  foimder  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Beys  of  Tunis ;  put  to  death  Ibrahim 
Bey  in  1706  and  assumed  the  title,  but  was 
himself  deposed  and  beheaded  by  his  nephew 
in  1735. 

Hasse,  Johann  Adolph  (i.  1699,  d.  1783), 
German  musical  composer,  called  in  Italy 
"II  bassone,"  went  to  Naples,  where  he 
met  Scarlatti  and  composed  the  music  of 
Sesostrate.  At  Venice  he  composed  a 
Miserere,  and  married  Faustina  Bordoui. 
He  was  invited  to  London  as  a  rival  to 
Handel,  but  soon  returned  to  Dresden, 
where  he  was  patronised  by  Frederick  the 
Great.  At  Milan,  when  composing  for  the 
marriage  of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  he 
met  Mozart,  and  predicted  his  success. 

Hassein  Ali  {d.  1720),  Indian  statesman,  a 
descendant  of  Mahomet;  with  his  brother 
Abdoola,  assisted  Ferokshere  to  seize  the 
imperial  power  at  Delhi,  but,  when  the 
latter  plotted  against  him,  made  an  alliance 
with  the  Mahrattas  and  put  the  usurper  to 
death.  He  now  became  all-powerful,  but 
was  assassinated  when  on  the  march  against 
Nizam-ool-Moolk,  Soubadar  of  the  Dec- 
can. 

Hasselquist,  Friedrich  (6.  1722,  d.  1752), 
Swedish  naturalist,  pupil  of  Linnaus,  who 
made  use  of  the  materials  collected  by  him ; 
studied  botany  in  Palestine  and  Egypt,  but 
died  when  about  to  return. 

Hassen  Shah  Gungoo  (d.  1358),  Indian 
king,  was  declared  king  on  the  deposition 
of  Mahomet  Toghluk,  and  consolidated  the 
Mahometan  possessions  in  western  India 
into  one  great  kingdom. 

Hastings,  Sir  Charles,  M.D.  (6.  1794,  d. 


1866),  English  physician,  graduated  at 
Edinburgh  and  practised  at  Worcester; 
founded  the  British  Medical  Association, 
and  wrote  Illustrations  of  the  Natural  Sis- 
tort/  of  Worcestershire. 

Hastings,  Francis,  Marquess  (b.  1764,  d. 
1826),  English  general  and  statesman,  served 
in  the  American  war,  and  was  created  Lord 
Moira,  opposed  the  Irish  union,  and  was  in 
1813  made  Governor- General  of  India.  He 
subdued  the  Mahrattas  and  Pindarees,  ad- 
vocated the  education  of  the  natives,  and 
carried  out  many  public  works  at  Calcutta 
and  Delhi.  He  was  opposed,  however,  by 
a  strong  party  among  the  directors,  and 
was  accused  of  partiality  and  corruption. 
He  was  recalled  and  censured  in  1822,  and 
died  as  governor  of  Malta. 

Hastings,  Warren  {b.  1732,  d.  1818),  Eng- 
lish administrator  in  India  ;  went  to  Bengal 
as  a  writer  in  1750,  but  was  seven  years 
later  appointed  agent  of  the  East  India 
Company  at  the  court  of  the  Nabob  of 
Bengal.  In  1764  he  returned  to  England, 
where  he  remained  four  years  studying 
Eastern  literature.  On  his  retxim  to  India 
he  became  a  member  of  the  council  of 
Madras,  and  in  1772  governor  of  Bengal,  a 
position  which  in  1774  became  that  of 
Governor-General  of  India.  He  was  now 
involved  in  quarrels  with  his  Council,  and 
sent  in  his  resignation,  which,  however, 
when  accepted,  he  disavowed.  The  Sup- 
reme Court  decided  in  his  favour,  and  he 
was  reappointed.  During  his  first  term  of 
office  he  sold  the  vale  of  Rohilcund  to  Sujah 
Dowlah  and  obtained  the  execution  of 
Nuncomar,  his  enemy.  During  his  second 
term,  in  order  to  obtain  money,  he  took 
those  measures  against  the  Rajah  of  Benares 
and  the  Nabob  of  Oude  which  were  after- 
wards charged  against  him,  but  left  the 
affairs  of  the  Company  in  a  very  prosperous 
condition.  Three  years  after  his  return  he 
was  impeached  before  the  Lords  for  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanours,  but,  after  a  trial 
which  proceeded  at  intervals  for  seven  years, 
and  in  spite  of  the  eloquence  of  Burke  and 
Sheridan,  he  was  acquitted  in  1795.  He 
was  ruined  by  the  expense,  but  was  granted 
an  annuity  by  the  Court  of  Directors. 

Hatfield,  Thomas  {d.  1381),  Bishop  of 
Durham ;  appointed  when  a  layman  at  the 
instance  of  Edward  III.,  to  whom  he  had 
been  secretary;  led  the  English  at  the 
battle  of  Neville's  Cross,  and  founded 
Hatfield  Hall  and  Trinity  (originally  Dur- 
ham)  College,  Oxford. 

Hatherley,  Lord,  William  Page  Wood 
{b.  1801,  d.  1881),  English  lawyer,  called 
to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  in  1845  took  silk. 
He  was  Liberal  member  for  Oxford  from 
1847  to    1852,  and    was    Solicitor-General 


Hat 


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Han 


in  1851-2.  After  serving  on  the  chancery 
commission  he  became  Vice-Chancellor, 
and  in  1868  was  named  lord  justice  of  the 
Court  of  Appeal  in  Chancery,  being  also 
Bwom  of  the  Privy  Council.  In  the  same 
year  he  became  Lord  Chancellor  and  re- 
ceived a  peerage,  but  his  health  obliged 
him  to  resign  in  1872. 

Hatsell,  John  (d.  1820),  jurist,  clerk  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  author  of  Cases  of 
Frivileges  of  Farliament  to  1628  (1776),  and 
Precedents  of  Froceedings. 

HattO  {d.  970),  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  sub- 
ject of  the  "Rat  Tower"  legend  founded 
on  the  Chronicles  of  Magdeburg. 

Hatton,  Sir  Christopher  {b.  1540,  d.  1591), 
English  courtier  and  judge,  a  great  favourite 
with  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  called  him  her 
*'  Liddes,"  and  made  him  captain  of  her 
guard,  vice-chamberlain,  and  (1587)  Lord 
Chancellor.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  the  trial  of  Mary  Stuart. 

Hatton,  John  Liptrot  (p.  1809,  d.  1886), 
English  composer,  bom  in  Liverpool,  and 
almost  entirely  self-taught,  produced  in 
1844  at  Drury  Lane  the  operetta  The  Queen 
of  the  Thames.  After  a  visit  to  Vienna,  he 
published  several  songs  under  the  pseudonym 
"Czapek,"  and  in  1838  went  to  America. 
As  director  of  music  during  Charles  Kean's 
management  of  the  Princess's  theatre,  he 
cova.T^o5QdiTa.Ma\ciovMacbetha,uA.Sardaiiapalus 
(185.'3),  Faust  and  Marguerite  (1854),  Henrg 
VIII.  (1855),  Richard  II.  (1857),  Xmg  lear, 
The  Merchant  of  Venice,  and  Much  Ado 
About  Nothing  (1858).  Besides  cathedral  ser- 
vices and  anthems,  he  composed  Robin  Hood, 
a  cantata  (1856),  Hezekiah,  an  oratorio 
(1877),  and  a  great  number  of  songs  and 
part  songs,  To  Anthea,  Simon  the  Cellarer, 
etc. 

Hatton,  Joseph  (6.  1839),  novelist  and 
journalist,  came  to  London  in  1868  and 
edited  the  Geiitleman^s  Magazine,  collabo- 
rated with  Mr.  Harvey  in  a  History  of 
Newfoundland,  and  also  wrote  a  book  on 
Borneo,  Bg  Order  of  the  Tsar,  The  Old  House 
at  Sandicich,  and  other  novels,  as  well  as 
Irring's  Impressions  of  America,  Old  Lamps 
and  New,  and  some  plays. 

Hatzfeldt,  Graf  von  {b.  1831),  German 
diplomatist,  was  secretary  to  Prince  Bis- 
marck at  Paris  in  186'i,  and  one  of  his 
diplomatic  suite  at  the  time  of  the  French 
war.  In  1874  he  became  imperial  minister 
at  Madrid,  and  was  subsequently  ambas- 
sador at  Constantinople,  foreign  secretary, 
and  (1885)  German  ambassador  in  London. 

Hauff,  Wilhelm  (J).  1802,  d.  1827),  German 
poet  and  novelist,  author  of  Lichtenstein 
(1826),  Die  Bettlerin  vom  Font  des  Arts,  and 


Bas  Bild  des  Kaisers,  as  well  as  Marchen. 
Uhland  wrote  an  elegy  on  his  death. 

Haughton,  Sir  Graves  Champney  (4. 1789, 
d.  1849),  Irish  OrientaUst,  left  the  army  to 
become  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  Haileybury 
(1817',  and  compiled  a  Bengal  Grammar  and 
a  Bengali- Sanscrit- English  iJictionarg. 

Haughton,  William  (16th  century),  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  author  of  Ferrcx  and  Forrex, 
licensed  in  1600 ;  also  collaborated  with 
Dekker  and  others. 

Haugwitz,  Christian,  Graf  von  (h.  1752, 
d.  1832),  Prussian  statesman  ;  as  ambassador 
at  Vienna,  negotiated  the  convention  of 
Eeicheubach  and  the  treaty  of  Pilnitz  ;  was 
foreign  secretary  from  1792  till  the  invasion 
of  Hanover  in  1803,  when  he  retired.  He 
was  recalled  in  1805,  and  after  Austerlitz 
ceded  Anspach,  Cleves,  and  Neufchatel  to 
France  in  exchange  for  Hanover.  He  soon 
retired  from  office,  having  embroiled  Prussia 
with  England  without  ha\iug  gained  the 
real  friendship  of  Napoleon.  He  left  Frag- 
me>its  of  Memoirs,  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  justify  himself. 

Haukal,  Abul  Kasem  Mohammed  Ibn 
(10th  century),  Arabian  traveller,  author  of 
a  Book  of  Roads  and  Kingdoms,  descriptive 
of  Mahometan  countries. 

Haubsbee,  Francis  (b.  1650,  d.  circa  1713), 
Englisli  physician,  one  of  the  earliest  writers 
on  electricity,  on  which  subject  he  con- 
tributed papers  to  the  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  also  pubhshed  Fhysico- 
Mcchanical  Fxperimcnts  on  various  Subjects 
touching  Light  and  Electricity. 

Hauptmann,  Moritz  (*.  1792,  d.  1868), 
German  music  composer  and  music-teacher, 
pupil  of  Spohr ;  was  appointed  in  1842 
cantor  at  the  Thomas-schule,  Leipzig,  and 
had  von  Biilow  and  Joachim  as  pupils. 
His  works  include  an  opera,  Matlulde  (1824). 

Haureau,  Barthelemy  {b.  1812),  French 
historian  and  publicist ;  edited  for  seven 
years  the  Courrier  de  la  Sarthe,  and  having 
bocome  librarian  at  Le  Mans  wrote  a  History 
of  Roland.  He  left  the  town  in  1845  and 
rejoined  the  staff  of  the  National,  and  was 
also  for  a  short  time  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly.  He  afterwards  became 
keeper  of  manuscripts  at  the  National 
Library  and  director  of  the  Imprimerie 
National.  Among  his  historical  works  are 
Fran<;ois  F^  et  sa  Cour,  Charlemagne  et  sa 
Cour,  Singularites  Hisioriqucs  et  Litteraires, 
and  Hi.stoire  de  la  Fhilosophie  Scolastiqiie. 

Haussman,  George  Eugfene,  Baron  (!>. 
1809),  French  administrator ;  began  his 
career  as  an  advocate,  but  after  1830  took 
part  in  politics,  and  was  made  by  Napoleon 
III.  prefect  of  the  Seine.     In  tliis  capacity 


Han 


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Haw 


he  set  about  the  embellishment  of  Paris 
with  great  recklessness,  and  in  1870,  having 
declined  to  resign,  was  dismissed  by  imperial 
decree.  After  a  short;  absence,  he  returned, 
entered  into  large  speculations,  and  was  in 
1877  elected  deputy  for  Ajaccio. 

Haussonvllle,  Joseph  de  Mion,  Comte  d' 
(h.  1809),  French  politician  and  writer,  an 
active  member  of  the  Assembly  between 
1842  and  1848;  was  elected  academician  in 
1869,  but  had  previously  been  obliged  to 
leave  France  on  account  of  his  opposition  to 
the  Bonaparte  regime.  In  1870  he  published 
La  France  et  la  Frusse  devant  V Europe,  and 
subsequently  established  farms  in  Algeria 
for  refugees  from  Alsace,  and  wrote  Ristoire 
de  la  Reimion  de  la  Lorraine  a  la  France,  etc. 

Hauterive,  Alessandre,  Comte  d'  {b.  1754, 
d.  1830),  French  diplomatist ;  gained  the 
favour  of  Napoleon  by  his  manifesto,  Etat 
de  la  France,  an.  viii.,  and  as  his  secretary 
was  engaged  in  all  his  diplomatic  afEairs, 
enjoying  the  confidence  also  of  Talleyrand. 
After  the  peace  he  devoted  himself  to 
literature,  his  chief  work  being  Elements  de 
VEconomie  Folitique. 

Haiiy,  Bene  Just  (b.  1743,  d.  1822), 
miaeralogist,  was  elected  member  of  the 
Academie  des  Sciences  for  his  discovery  of 
the  laws  of  crystallisation.  During  the 
revolution  he  was  protected  by  his  pupU, 
Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire,  and  afterwards  enjoyed 
the  favour  of  Napoleon.  His  collection 
■was  purchased  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
but  redeemed  by  the  National  Assembly. 

Haiiy,  Valentine  (b.  1745,  d.  1822),  edu- 
cationist, brother  of  last-named ;  wrote 
Essai  sur  V Education  des  Aveugles,  invented 
the  method  of  teaching  the  blind  by  raised 
letters,  and  established  schools  for  them  at 
Paris,  Berlin,  and  St.  Petersburg. 

Havelock,  Sir  Arthur  Elibank,  K.C.M.G. 
(h.  1844),  colonial  administrator,  was  suc- 
cessively president  of  Nevis,  chief  commis- 
sioner of  the  Seychelles,  governor  of  the  west 
African  settlements,  of  Trinidad,  Natal 
(1885),  and  Ceylon  (1890). 

Havelock,  Sir  Henry  {b.  1795,  d.  1857), 
English  soldier ;  was  entered  at  the  Temple 
in  1813,  but  two  years  later  joined  the  army, 
and  in  1823  went  to  India,  where  he  served 
tu  the  first  Burmese  war,  of  which  he  wrote 
an  account  (Campaigns  in  A rva).  He  held 
a  command  in  the  first  Afghan  war,  and 
afterwards  served  in  the  Mahratta  and  Sikh 
wars.  After  a  short  absence  on  leave,  he 
returned  to  India  in  1854  as  adjutant- 
general,  and,  after  commanding  a  division  in 
the  Persian  campaign,  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Mutiny  by  the  relief  of  Cawnpore  and 
Lucknow,  but  was  then  besieged  there,  and 
died  before  the  second  relief  by  Sir  Colin 


Campbell.    A  baronetcy  and  a  pension  had 
been  awarded  him. 

Havergal,  Wilham  Henry  (b.  1793,  d. 
1870),  English  divine  and  composer,  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  composed  A 
Hundred  Fsalm  and  Hymn  Tunes,  Summer 
Tid^  is  Coming,  and  other  works,  besides 
editing  chants,  and  publishing  some  ser- 
mons. Feanoes  Kidlet  {b.  1836,  d.  1879), 
his  daughter  by  his  first  wife,  published 
The  Ministry  of  Song  and  some  poems.  Her 
brother  Henry  (d.  1875)  built  an  organ  with 
his  own  bauds,  and  pubHshed  chants  and 
hymn  tunes. 

Hawes,  Stephen  (15th  century),  English 
poet,  groom  of  the  chamber  to  Henry  VIL, 
wrote  The  Temple  of  Glasse,  The  Fassetyme 
of  Fleasure,  and  other  works. 

Hawes,  WilUam  (6.  1736,  d.  1808),  physi- 
cian, the  first  to  maintain  the  possibility  of 
resuscitation  of  those  apparently  drowned, 
founded  the  Royal  Humane  Society  (1774) ; 
also  wrote  An  Account  of  Dr.  Goldsmith't 
Last  Illness. 

Hawke,  Edward,  Lord  (J.  1705,  d.  1781), 
admiral,  gained  several  victories  over  French 
fleets,  notably  that  of  Quiberon  ia  1759  ;  was 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  from  1766  to 
1771. 

Hawker,  Robert  Stephen  (b.  1803,  d.  1875), 
divine  and  poet,  educated  at  Oxford,  where 
he  gained  the  Newdigate  prize,  obtained  in 
1834  the  vicarage  of  Morwenstow  in  Corn- 
wall, and,  under  the  influence  of  his  sur- 
roundings, wrote  Tendrils  by  Reuben,  Corn- 
ish Ballads  {1869),  Echoes  from  Old  Cornwall 
(1845),  The  Song  of  the  Western  Men,  and 
The  Quest  of  the  Sangreal  (1864). 

Hawkesworth,  John,   LL.D.    (d.   1773), 

essayist  and  novelist,  editor  of  The  Adven- 
turer, The  Voyages  of  Cook,  and  others. 

Hawkins,  Benjamin  Waterhouse  {b.  1807, 
d.  1889),  geologist,  constructed  the  models 
of  extinct  animals  in  the  Crystal  Palace 
gardens,  afterwards  went  to  America  on  a 
lecturing  tour,  and  was  there  employed  in 
similar  work.  He  wrote  Elements  of  Form, 
Co7}iparative  Views  of  the  Human  and 
Animal  Frame  (1860),  etc. 

Hawkins,  Csesar  (6.  1798,  d.  1884), 
surgeon,  brother  of  the  provost  of  Oriel, 
was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie  at  St. 
George's  hospital,  and  was  surgeon  to  it 
from  1829  till  1861,  when  he  became  con- 
sulting-surgeon. He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  was  the  first  surgeon 
who  practised  ovariotomy  with  success. 

Hawkins,  Edward,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  etc. 

{b.  1780,  d.  1867),  archaeologist  and  numis- 
matist, became  keeper  of  antiquities  at  the 


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British  Museum  in  1824,  made  an  immense 
collection  of  political  caricatures  and 
Cheshire  views,  and  was  author  of  The 
Silver  Coins  of  England  (1841)  and  Descrip- 
tions of  the  Anglo-Gallic  Corns  and  Ancient 
Marbles  in  the  British  Museum. 

Hawkins,  Edward,  D.D.  {b.  1789,  d. 
1882),  theologian  and  scholar,  educated  at 
Merchant  Taylors  and  St.  John's,  Oxford, 
was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  in  1813,  and 
succeeded  Copleston  as  provost  in  1828, 
Keble  and  Newman  being  also  candidates. 
In  1840  Dr.  Hawkins  was  Bampton  lecturer, 
and  in  1847  became  Ireland  professor  of 
exegesis.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Dr.  Arnold,  and  one  of  Burgon's  Twelve 
Good  Men. 

Hawkiiis,  Frederick  (*.  1849),  dramatic 
critic,  author  of  A  Biography  of  Edmund 
Kean  (1869),  Annals  of  the  French  Stage 
(1884)  and  The  French  Stage  in  the  18th 
Century  (1888), 

Hawkins,  Sir  Henry  {b.  1816),  judge,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1843,  became  Queen's 
Counsel  in  1858,  and  had  a  very  large 
practice  on  the  home  circuit.  He  was  re- 
tained for  the  defence  in  the  Saurin  v.  Starr 
case  (1869),  and  for  the  prosecution  in  the 
Tichbome  case,  and  was  engaged  in  Lord  St. 
Leonard's  will  case.  In  1876  hewasappointed 
judge  in  the  Queen's  Bench  Division. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John  {d.  1595),  navigator; 
made  three  voyages  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
curing African  slaves,  but  in  the  last  was 
attacked  and  severely  defeated  by  the 
Spaniards  (1568)  ;  did  much  to  re-organise 
the  English  fleet,  the  results  of  his  work 
being  seen  at  the  Armada  invasion,  when 
he  was  rear-admiral ;  afterwards  made 
further  attacks  on  the  Spaniards,  and  died 
after  his  repulse  from  Porto  Rico. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John  (*.  1719,  d.  1789), 
musical  writer,  a  descendant  of  the  above ; 
wrote  The  General  Sistory  of  the  Science  and 
Practice  of  Music  (1776),  and  also,  having 
been  an  original  member  of  the  Literary 
Club  in  Ivy  Lane,  The  Life  and  Works  of 
Dr.  Johnson. 

Hawkins.  William  {d.  1613),  navigator, 
went  to  India  with  Finch  in  1607,  and  was 
authorised  to  trade  by  the  Mogul,  quarrelled 
with  the  Portuguese,  but  married  and  settled 
at  Agra,  which,  however,  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  by  the  intriftues  of  the  Omrahs,  and 
died  on  his  way  back  to  England. 

Hawkshaw,  Sir  John  (*.  1811,  rf.  1891), 
civil  engineer,  assisted  Alexander  Nimmo  m 
the  construction  of  government  works  in 
Ireland,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  was 
manager  of  the  Bolivar  copper  mines  :  also 
constructed  greater  part  of  the  Lancashire 


and  Yorkshire  railway ;  became  president 
of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  He 
proposed  in  1870  the  scheme  for  a  Channel 
tunnel,  was  knighted  in  1873,  and  was  iu 
1875  president  of  the  British  Association, 
Besides  technical  papers,  he  wrote  Reminis- 
cences of  South  Atnerica  (1838). 

Hawksmoor,  Nicholas  {b.  1666,  d.  1736"), 
architect,  pupil  of  Wren,  designed  several 
of  the  fifty  churches  erected  in  the  reign  of 
Anne,  and  rebuilt  part  of  All  Souls',  Oxford. 

Hawkwood,  Sir  John  {d.  1394),  English 
soldier  of  fortune,  employed  by  Edward 
III.,  and  by  Florence,  Pisa,  and  other 
Italian  cities ;  founded  an  English  hospital 
at  Home  about  1390. 

Hawtbame,  JuUan  (b.  1846),  American 
writer,  son  of  Nathaniel,  bom  at  Boston ; 
went  to  Germany  in  1868,  and  studied 
engineering  at  Dresden,  and  on  his  return 
served  on  the  staff  of  hydrographic  engineers 
under  McLellan,  after  which,  having  had 
some  literary  successes,  he  returned  to 
Dresden,  where  he  stayed  till  1874;  whUe 
living  in  England  wrote  Idolatry,  Saxon 
Studies,  Garth  (1877),  Sebastian  Strane 
(1880),  and  several  collections  of  short 
stories.  After  his  return  to  America  he  also 
published  Fortune's  Fool,  Dust,  and  several 
short  stories,  as  well  as  a  biography  of  his 
father.  He  visited  Europe  in  1889  in  con- 
nection with  a  delegation  of  working  men 
sent  to  make  industrial  investigations. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel  (*.  1804,  d.  1864), 
novelist,  bom  at  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  where 
Longfellow  and  Franklin  Pierce  were  his 
friends,  and  after  a  residence  at  home 
(during  which  he  wrote  his  Twice  Told  Tales) , 
was  appointed  in  1838  weigher  and  ganger 
at  Boston  by  Bancroft,  who  was  then 
collector  of  the  customs  there.  In  1841, 
being  a  Democrat,  he  lost  this  office,  and 
went  to  live  with  the  Brook  Farm  Com- 
munity. In  1843  he  married,  and  went  to 
Concord,  and  from  1846  to  1849  he  was 
surveyor  at  Salem.  In  1863  President  Pierce 
named  him  consul  at  Liverpool,  but  he  re- 
signed in  1857,  and  travelled  three  years  in 
France  and  Italy,  writing  The  Marble  Faun 
when  at  Rome.  On  his  return  to  America 
he  wrote  a  book  on  England,  Our  Old  Home. 
Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  was  the 
author  of  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse  (1846), 
The  Scarlet  Letter  (1850),  The  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables  (1851),  and  The  Blithdale 
Romance. 

Hay,  John  {b.  1838),  American  diplomatist 
and  writer,  bom  at  Salem,  Indiana,  was 
aide-de-camp  and  adjutant  to  President 
Lincoln,  and  employfd  diplomatically  at 
Paris,  Vienna,  and  Madrid.  In  1870  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  Neva  York  Tribune, 


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and  became  editor  in  1881.  His  chief 
writings  are  Fike  County  Ballads  (1871),  and 
A  Life  of  President  Lincoln,  in  collaboration 
with  John  Nicolay. 

Hay,  Eight  Hon.  Sir  John  C.  Dalrymple, 
K.C.B.,  etc.  {b.  1821),  English  admiral, 
entered  the  navy  in  1834,  served  ia  the  first 
KaiJir  war,  and  in  the  operations  on  the 
Syrian  coast,  being  specially  gazetted  for 
gallantry  at  Tortosa,  and  subsequently  in 
the  East  ludies  and  China,  destroying  the 
pirate  fleet  of  Ohinapoo  in  1849,  and  that 
of  Shap'ng'tzar.  He  also  took  part  in  the 
capture  of  Kertch  and  Kinburn^  and  the 
bombardment  of  Sebastopol.  He  entered 
Parliament  for  Wakefield  as  a  Conservative 
in  1862,  lost  his  seat  in  1865,  but  represented 
Stamford  from  1866  to  1880,  and  Wigtown 
from  1880  to  1885.  He  was  a  lord  of  the 
Admiralty  from  1866  to  1868,  and  author  of 
Our  Naval  Defences  and  several  other  works. 

Haydn,  Josef  (J.  1732,  d.  1809),  Austrian 
composer,  son  of  a  coach-builder  at  Rohrau 
in  Lower  Austria,  who  had  musical  tastes. 
He  was  sent  to  Vienna  at  an  early  a^e, 
where  his  first  opera,  Ber  Krumme  Teufcl, 
was  produced  in  1753,  his  first  quartette  in 
1754,  and  his  first  Symphony  in  B  in  1760. 
He  .-ifterwards  became  kapellmeister  to 
Prince  Esterhazy,  for  whose  new  theatre  he 
composed  La  Fedeltd,  Premiata  (1780),  Or- 
lando Palatine  (1782),  and  Arinida  (1784). 
He  visited  London  in  1791,  and  gave 
successful  concerts,  continuing  ia  England 
two  years  on  his  return  visit  in  1794.  In 
England,  too,  he  conceived  his  Schopfung 
{Creation),  which  was  published  in  1798, 
and  produced  at  Vienna  in  the  following 
year.  Li  1800  he  composed  the  Seasons 
(Jahreszeiten),  and  his  other  works  include 
a  Hymn  to  the  Emperor,  several  quartettes, 
sonatas,  etc. 

Haydon,  Benjamin  Robert  {b.  1786,  d. 
1846),  English  painter,  son  of  a  Plymouth 
stationer;  exhibited  in  1807  The  Repose  of  the 
Holy  Family  in  Egypt.  A  dispute  arose  as 
to  the  hanging  of  his  picture  Bentatus,  and 
he  became  involved  ia  debt  in  consequence 
of  his  quarrels  with  the  Academy  and  his 
patrons.  Though  a  public  subscription  was 
raised,  his  circumstances  improved  but 
slowly,  though  his  lectures  in  Scotland  were 
well  received,  and  he  committed  suicide  on 
the  failure  of  the  exhibition  of  his  Banish- 
ment of  Aristides  and  Nero  Playing.  Besides 
these,  his  chief  works  were  Lazarus,  The 
Mock  Election,  The  Reform  Banquet,  and 
Xenophon  and  the  Ten  Thousand  seeing  the 
Sea, 

Hayes,  Augustus  Allen  (*.  1806,  d.  1882), 
American  chemist,  discovered  the  organic 
alkaloid  sanguinaria,  investigated  the  gene- 
ration of  steam,  and  conducted  researches 


on  the  action  of  alcohol,  the  formation  of 
guano,  and  other  subjects. 

Hayes,  Catherine  (b.  1825,  d.  1861), 
English  vocalist,  daughter  of  a  dressmaker 
at  Limerick,  was  taught  singing  under  Sapio 
in  Dublin,  and  afterwards  studied  in  Paris. 
She  made  her  debut  at  Marseilles,  in  /  Pun- 
tani,  was  prima  donna  at  La  Scala,  Milan, 
and  afterwards  sang  at  Vienna,  Venice, 
London,  and  in  America. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard  {b.  1822), 
American  president  (nineteenth),  was  bom  at 
Delaware,  Ohio ;  practised  as  an  attorney  in 
the  Ohio  courts,  and  after  1849  at  Cincinnati. 
In  the  Civil  war  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself,  more  particularly  at  the  battles  of 
Fisher's  Hill  and  Cedar  Creek,  Virginia. 
At  the  end  of  1865  he  took  his  seat  in 
Congress  as  a  Republican,  denounced  repu- 
diation of  the  debt,  and  opposed  increased 
pay  to  members.  In  1867  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Ohio,  and  was  re-elected  two 
years  later,  but  was  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  Congress  in  1872.  With  con- 
siderable reluctance  he  agaia,  in  1873,  came 
forward  for  the  governorship,  and  carried 
the  election  on  secular  education  and 
"  honest  money. "  In  1876  he  was  elected 
president,  in  opposition  to  Tilden,  his  plat- 
form being  civil  service  reform,  the  currency, 
and  pacification  of  the  South.  He  was 
successful  in  carrying  out  the  last,  but  on 
the  other  points  met  with  much  opposition. 
In  1879  he  vetoed  the  Chinese  Immigration 
Bill,  and  also  that  to  prohibit  military  inter- 
ference (so-called)  at  elections. 

Hayley,  William  (b.  1745,  d.  1820), 
English  writer,  friend  of  Gibbon  and 
Cowper,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  wrote  poems,  two  of  which 
were  attacked  in  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers.  His  Life  of  Cowper  appeared  in 
1803. 

Haymerle,  Baron  Heinrich  von  (4.  1828, 
d.  1881),  Austrian  statesman,  began  his 
career  as  sub-intcpreter  at  Constantinople 
in  1850,  and,  after  having  been  chargi 
d''a.ffaires  at  Athens,  Frankfort,  and 
Dresden,  re-established  relations  between 
Austria  and  Denmark ;  was  engaged  ia  the 
negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  treaty  of 
Prague  ia  1866,  was  created  baron,  and  sent 
to  Berlin.  After  representing  Austria  at 
Constantinople,  and  agaia  at  Athens  and 
Rome,  he  took  part  in  the  Berlin  Congress, 
and  having  succeeded  Coiint  Andrassy  aa 
foreign  minister  in  1879,  promoted  the 
Triple  Alliance. 

Hajmau,  Julius  Jakob  Baron  von  (J.  1786, 
d.  1853),  Austrian  general,  natural  son  of  the 
Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel ;  entered  the  army 
in  1801,  and  attained  the  rank  of  field - 
marshal  in  1844.    In  the  Italian  campaigns 


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Hea 


of  1848-9  his  severity  was  notorious,  as  also 
in  Hungary,  where,  in  1849,  he  gained  the 
battles  on  the  Theiss,  stormed  Raab,  and 
executed  some  very  rapid  marches.  In 
1850  he  was  dismissed  for  intractability,  and 
in  the  course  of  his  travels  came  to  London, 
and  was  severely  assaulted  at  the  brewery 
of  Barclay  and  Perkins. 

Hayter,  Sir  George  (6.  1792,  d.  1871), 
English  painter,  was  awarded  by  the  British 
Institution  in  1815  a  prize  of  200  guineas  for 
his  picture  of  the  prophet  Ezra,  and  was 
soon  after  appointed  portrait-  and  miniature- 
painter  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg 
and  the  Princess  Charlotte.  His  Trial  of 
Lord  Russell,  exhibited  in  1825,  made  his 
reputation,  and  he  afterwards  painted  The 
Trial  of  Queen  Caroline,  The  Meeting  of  the 
First  Reformed  Farliament,  and  many  por- 
traits of  the  Royal  Family. 

Hayter,  Right  Hon.  Sir  W.  Goodenough, 
Bart  (b.  1792,  d.  1878),  statesman,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1819,  and  practised 
till  1839.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
from  1837  to  1865,  and  held  the  offices  of 
Judge-Advocate-Geueral,  1847-9,  and  Secre- 
tary to  the  Treasury  from  the  latter  year, 
with  a  short  interval,  till  1858,  when  he 
received  a  baronetcy.  In  1861  his  services 
as  Liberal  "  whip  "  were  acknowledged  by  a 
public  dinner,  at  which  Lord  Palmerston 
presided.  He  retired  from  affairs  in  1865, 
and  was  accidentally  drowned  neax  his 
house  in  Berkshire  in  1878. 

Hayward,  Abraham  (6.  1802,  d.  1884), 
English  writer,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1832,  but  gave  himself  to  writing.  In  1833 
he  brought  out  a  prose  translation  of  Faust, 
and  became  a  correspondent  of  Tieck,  Fouque, 
Hitzig,  and  other  eminent  Germans.  He 
founded  and  edited  the  Law  Magazine,  wrote 
f or  the  .3/orwtw^  Chronicle,  and  in  1861  edited 
the  Letters  and  Literary  Remains  of  Mrs. 
Fiozzi.  His  essays  and  articles  contributed 
to  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  were,  many 
of  them,  republished,  and  he  had  a  wide 
acquaintance  among  leading  contempo- 
raries.    He  was  a  brilliant  talker. 

Hayward,  Sir  John  {b.  1500,  d.  1627), 
English  historical  writer,  author  of  The  Life 
and  Raiqne  of  Henrie  TV.  (for  the  dedication 
of  which  he  was  imprisoned  by  Elizabeth), 
Life  and  Raigne  of  Edward  VI. ,  and  other 
works. 

Hazael,  Syrian,  who  killed  Ben-hadad, 
usurped  the  throne  (885  B.O.),  and  made  war 
on  Israel  soon  after. 

Hazlitt,  William  {h.  1778,  d.  1830)  critic 
and  essayist,  son  of  a  Nonconformist 
Minister:  as  an  artist  became  acquainted 
with  Leigh  Hunt  and  Lamb,  and  published 
his  Essay  on  the  Frinciples  of  Human  Action, 


after  which  he  contributed  to  the  Examiner 
many  essays,  including  The  Round  Table 
(1817),  Table  Talk  (1821),  criticisms  on  The 
Spirit  of  the  Age  (1825),  and  lectured  on 
Elizabethan  dramatists  at  the  Surrey  Insti- 
tution. He  also  wrote  Characters  of  Shake- 
speare's  Flays  (1817),  View  of  the  Content- 
porary  English  Stage,  and  a  Life  of  Napoleon. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Stoddart, 
editor  of  the  Times,  but  separated  from  her 
in  1822. 

Hazlitt,  William  Carew  {b.  1834),  grand- 
son of  the  last-named,  author  of  his  Life 
(1867),  of  a  History  of  the  Venetian  Re- 
public, and  A  Bibliographical  Handbook  to 
the  Early  Literature  of  Great  Britain. 

Head,  Barclay  Vincent,  Ph.D.  (i.  1844), 
numismatist,  entered  the  British  Museum 
in  18G4,  and  became  assistant-keeper  of  coins 
in  1871.  His  chief  works  are  Historia 
Nmnorum  (1887),  and  works  on  the  coinage 
of  Syracuse,  Persia,  and  Boeotia. 

Head.  Sir  Edmund  Walker,  Bart.  {h.  1805, 
d.  186S),  administrator  and  writer.  After 
being  poor-law  commissioner,  he  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1847,  governor  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  was  from  1854-61  Governor- 
General  of  Canada.  On  his  return  he  became 
Civil  Service  Commissioner,  and  in  1857 
Privy  Councillor.  He  was  author  of  a  Hand- 
book of  the  Spanish  and  French  Schools  of 
Painting  (1847),  and  of  a  similar  work  on 
the  German  and  Flemish  schools  (1854). 

Head,  Sir  Francis  Bond,  Bart.  (b.  1793, 
d.  1875),  administrator  and  writer,  served 
in  the  Engiueers  at  Waterloo,  and  in  1825 
headed  a  mining  expedition  to  Rio  de 
la  Plata,  of  which  he  gave  an  account  in 
Rough  Notes  of  a  Jwirney  across  the  Pampas. 
In  1835  he  was  named  by  Lord  Glenelg 
governor  of  Upper  Canada,  and  succeeded 
m  putting  down  the  rebellion.  He  was 
created  baronet  in  1838,  and  sworn  of  the 
Privy  Council  in  1867.  He  also  received  a 
pension  for  his  contributions  to  Uterature, 
among  which  were  A  Life  of  Bruce,  the 
Traveller  (1830),  and  The  Defenceless  State 
of  Great  Britain  (1850). 

Head,  Richard  {d.  1678  or  1686),  English 
writer,  author  of  The  English  Rogue,  and  a 
play  entitled  ^ic  e<  JJbique;  or,  the  Humours 
of  bublin. 

Headley,  Joel  Tyler  (*.  1814),  American 
writer,  author  of  Napoleon  and  his  Marshals, 
Washington  and  his  Generals,  A  History  of 
the  Second  War  between  England  and  the 
United  States  (1853),  and  biographies  of 
American  statesmen.  His  brother,  Phineas 
(6.  1819),  wrote  a  Life  of  Kossuth  and  othei- 
works. 

Healy,  Timothy  Michael  {b.  1865),  Irish 


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politician ;  after  being  clerk  in  a  telegraph 
office,  became  in  1879  secretary  to  Mr. 
Paruell,  and  in  1880  entered  Parliament  for 
Wexford.  He  was  author  of  the  "  Healy 
clause"  in  the  Land  Act  of  1881;  was 
imprisoned  in  1882  for  using  inflammatory 
language,  and  next  year  was  returned  for 
Mouaghan  county.  At  the  general  election 
he  was  returned  both  for  the  latter  and 
for  South  Londonderry,  but  sat  for  Lon- 
donderry. Meanwhile,  he  had  been  called 
to  the  Irish  bar.  In  1886  he  opposed  the 
nomination  of  Captain  O'Shea,  Mr.  Parnell's 
candidate  for  Clare.  He  lost  his  seat  at  the 
general  election,  but  was  returned  for 
North  Longford  in  1887.  In  1890  he  became 
one  of  the  leading  opponents  of  Mr.  Parnell's 
leadership. 

Heapy,  Thomas  (6. 1775,  d.  1835),  English 
painter,  one  of  the  earliest  members  of  the 
Water- Colour  Society,  and  first  president  of 
the  Society  of  British  Artists. 

Heaxne,  Samuel  {b.  1745,  d.  1792),  tra- 
veller; served  in  the  navy  for  some  years, 
but  afterwards  entered  the  service  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company  (whose  territories  he 
explored  between  1769  and  1772),  by  whom 
he  was  sent  to  discover  a  North -West 
Passage. 

Hearne,  Thomas  (*.  1678,  d.  1735), 
antiquary,  held  the  post  of  sub -librarian  at 
the  Bodleian,  but  resigned  rather  than  take 
the  oaths  to  George  I.  ;  published  Leland''s 
Collectanea,  Leland''s  Itinerary,  and  several 
mediaeval  works,  and  left  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  MSS.  to  the  Bodleian  Library. 

Heath,  James  {b.  1756,  d.  1834),  engraver, 
the  best  examples  of  his  work  being  West's 
Death  of  Nelson,  and  Wright's  Bead  Soldier. 

Heath,  Christopher,  F.R.C.S.  (3.  1835), 
surgeon ;  became  Holme  professor  of  clini- 
cal surgery,  and  surgeon  to  University 
College  Hospital,  1875 ;  fellow  of  King's 
College,  and  member  of  the  coimcil  of  the 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1881,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Clinical  Society  of  London, 
1889-91.  He  wrote  A  Course  of  Operative 
Surgery,  illustrated  (2nd  edition,  1884), 
Injuries  and  Diseases  of  the  Jaws  (3rd  edition, 
1884),  and  Student's  Guide  to  Surgical  D  lay - 
nosis  (2nd  edition,  1883),  and  edited  A 
Dictionary  of  Practical  Surgery  (1886). 

Heath,  Nicholas  {d.  1579),  divine,  suc- 
cessively Bishop  of  Rochester  and  of  Wor- 
cester. As,  however,  he  refused  under 
Edward  VI.  to  sign  the  form  for  the  ordi- 
nation of  bishops,  he  was  imprisoned,  but 
was  released  by  Mary,  and  made  Archbishop 
of  York,  President  of  Wales,  and  in  1556 
Lord  Chancellor.  He  was  deprived  by 
Elizabeth  for  refusing  the  oath  of  su- 
premacy, and  imprLsoned  for  some  years. 


Heathcoat,  John  {b.  1785,  d.  1861), 
machinist,  invented  a  machine  for  making 
Buckingham  lace,  which  was  patented  in 
1808.  His  factory  at  Loughborough  was 
attacked  by  the  Luddites  in  1816,  and  ho 
then  removed  to  Tiverton,  where  he  re- 
vived the  .woollen  trade;  and  he  repre- 
sented the  town  in  Parliament  from  1831  to 
1854. 

Heathcote,  Sir  Gilbert,  Bart.  {b.  1774, 
d.  1851),  sportsman,  one  of  the  best-known 

Eatrons  of  the  turf  in  his  day ;  represented 
dncoln   from   1796  to   1806,  and  Rutland 
fi-om  1812  to  1841. 

Heathcote,  Sir  William  {b.  1801,  d. 
1881),  politician,  represented  Hampshire 
from  1826  to  1831,  and  after  the  Reform 
was  member  for  the  northern  division 
from  1837  to  1849.  In  1854  he  was  col- 
league of  Mr.  Gladstone  as  member  for 
Oxford  University,  retaining  the  seat  till 
1868,  when  he  retired  and  was  made  Privy 
Councillor. 

Heathfleld.     {See  EUiot.] 

Heaton,  John  Henniker  (6.  1850),  Anglo- 
Australian  writer,  sou  of  Colonel  Heaton, 
R.E.  ;  emigrated  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and 
after  farming,  joined  the  New  South  Wales 
press.  He  represented  that  colony  at  the 
Amsterdam  Exhibition  of  1883,  and  acted 
for  Tasmania  at  the  Berlin  Telegraphic 
Conference  in  1885,  in  which  year  he  came 
to  England  and  obtained  a  seat  in  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Conservative,  and  advocated 
postal  reforms  with  some  success.  He  is 
author  of  The  Australian  Dictionary  oj 
Dates  and  Men  of  the  Time,  A  Short 
Account  of  a  Canonisation  at  Rome,  and  The 
Manners,  Customs,  etc.,  of  the  Australian 
Aborigines. 

Heber,  Reginald,  D.D.  (b.  1783,  d. 
1826),  poet  and  hymn-writer»  educated  at 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  where  he  gained 
the  Newdigate,  the  EngUsh  essay,  and  the 
Latin  poem,  and  became  fellow  of  All  Souls'. 
He  took  orders  in  1807,  was  Bampton 
lecturer  in  1817,  and  in  1823  went  to  India 
as  Bishop  of  Calcutta. 

Heberden,  WilUam  {b.  1710,  d.  1801), 
physician,  practised  ten  years  at  Cambridge, 
and  contributed  to  Athenian  Letters,  but 
afterwards  removed  to  London ;  became  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  founded 
t  Medical  Transactions  of  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians. He  left  at  his  death  Comynentarii  de 
Morborum  Sistoria  et  Curatione,  a  record  of 
his  experiences. 

Hubert,  Antoine  Auguste  (*.  1817),  French 
painter,  exhibited  at  ttie  Louvre  in  1839  his 
Le  Tasse  en  Prison,  which  was  purchased 
by  Qovemment  for  the  Grenoble  museum. 


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Among  his  other  works  were  La  Malaria 
(1850),  a  portrait  of  Priuce  Napoleon  (1853), 
and  Les  I'illes  d^Aiito,  which  were  shown  at 
the  exhibition  of  1855 ;  La  Jeune  Fille  au 
Jfaits  (1863),  David  d'' Angers,  exhibited  at 
the  exhibition  of  1867,  and  La  Hultaue 
(1879).  He  was  director  of  the  French 
academy  at  Rome  from  1866  to  1873. 

Hebert,  Jacques  Rene  (J).  1755,  d.  1794), 
French  revolutionist ;  edited  the  iufamous 
Fere  Diwhesne,  was  liberated  by  the  mob 
when  arrested  in  1793  for  plots  against  the 
lives  of  the  Girondists,  but  was  next  year 
guillotined  at  the  desire  of  Robespierre. 

Heck,  Jan  van  (17th  century),  Dutch 
painter,  studied  at  Rome,  and  met  with 
much  patronage  there ;  returned  to  Ant- 
werp, and  painted  flowers  and  fruit  and 
some  landscapes. 

Heck,  Nicolas  van  der  {d.  1608),  painter, 
pupil  of  Nseghel,  chose  landscapes  and 
historical  scenes  as  subjects;  three  of  the 
latter  are  in  the  town  house  of  Alkmaar, 
where  he  died.  His  son,  Maetin,  painted 
ruins  in  the  style  of  Roghmann. 

Hecker,  Justus  Friedrich  Karl  {b.  1795,  d. 
1850),  German  physician,  son  of  Augustus 
Hecker,  who  wrote  a  General  History  of  the 
Natural  Sciences  and  Medicine  ;  wrote  many 
medical  treatises,  the  chief  of  which  were 
History  of  Medicine  (1822-9),  Histori/  of 
Modern  Medicine  (1839),  The  Black  l)eaih 
(1832),  and  On  Visions  (1848),  etc. 

Hecquet,  Philippe  (i.  1661,  d.  1737), 
French  physician,  called  "the  French 
Hippocrates,"  advocated  bleeding,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  original  of  "San- 
grado  "  in  Gil  Bias. 

Hedlinger,  Jean  Charles  (b.  1691,  d.  1771), 
Swiss  engraver  of  medals,  was  some  time 
director  of  the  Swedish  mint,  and  executed 
dies  for  the  Pope,  the  Tsarina,  and  the  King 
of  Denmark. 

Hedwig,  Johann  (*.  1730,  d.  1799), 
German  botanist,  author  of  Stirpes  Crypto- 
gamicm  ;  was  the  first  to  distinguish  between 
the  sexes  in  mosses. 

Hedwlga,  St.  (*.  1731,  d.  1399),  Queen 
of  Pol'ind,  converted  her  husband  Jagellon, 
and  caused  the  Bible  to  be  translated  into 
Polish. 

Heem,  Jan  Davitze  van  {b.  1600,  d.  1674), 
Dutch  painter  of  fruit  and  flowers,  whose 
works  were  in  much  request.  His  father 
and  his  sou  were  also  artists. 

Heemskerk,  or  Hemskerk,  Egbert  {b.  1645, 

d.   1704),    Dutch  painter   of   the   school   of 

Brouwer,   his  subjects   beiutt   chosen  from 

the  wild  and  grotesque ;  he  died  in  London. 

00 


He  is  to  be  distinguished  from  another  of 
the  same  name,  called  Egbert  "the  Old." 

Heera  Sing  {d.  1844),  a  Sikh  rajah, 
succeeded  his  father  as  minister,  and 
proclaimed  Dhuleep  Sing,  sou  of  the  late 
rajah,  but  was  obliged  by  his  enemies  to 
flee  from  Lahore,  and  was  pursued  and 
killed. 

Heere,  Lucas  van  {b.  1534,  d.  1584), 
Flemish  painter  and  poet,  executed  altar- 
pieces  for  St.  Peter's  chuich,  Ghent,  and 
v>bcu  in  England  painted  ijortraits  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  Lord  Darnley,  and  the  Duchess 
of  Suffolk. 

_Heeren,  Arnold  Hei-mann  Ludwig  (6. 
1760,  d.  1842),  German  historian,  professor 
of  philosophy,  and  subsequently  of  history, 
at  Gcittiugeu.  His  historical  works  include 
Ideen  iiber  Tolitik,  der  Alten  Welt,  ti-ans- 
lated  into  English  in  1833 ;  Geschiclite 
der  Staaten  des  Alterthiims,  and  Geschichte 
der  europa%schen  Staatensystems,  translated 
in  1834.  He  also  wrote  a  Life  of  Heyne, 
whose  daughter  he  married. 

Hefner-Alteneck,  Jacob  von  {b.  1811), 
German  writer  on  mediaeval  art,  director  of 
the  Munich  museum  since  1868,  wrote 
Kimstwerke  und  GerathscJinften  des  Mittel- 
alters  und  der  lienaissance  (1848),  Eisenwerke 
oder  Ornaniente  der  Schmicdekimst  des  Mitt, 
und  der  Ren  (1864),  translated  into  French 
by  Ram^e  (1869),  and  Ornaniente  alter  Meis- 
ter  (1871),  etc. 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich  (6.  1770, 
d.  1831),  idealist  philosopher,  studied  philo- 
sophy and  theology  at  Tubingen  with 
Schelling,  whom  he  joined  in  1801  at  Jena 
as  extraordinary  jDrofessor,  and  published 
with  him  a  philosophical  journal.  In  1807 
he  published  Plicenomenologie  des  Geistes. 
He  was  rector  of  the  Niiruberg  gymnasium 
from  1808  to  1816,  when  he  obtained  a 
professorship  at  Heidelberg,  removing  two 
years  later  to  Berlin.  His  chief  works 
were  Wissenschaft  der  Logik  (1812-16), 
Encyklopddie  der  philosophischen  Wissen- 
schaften  (1817),  and  Fhilosophie  des  Fechts 
(1821). 

Hegesippus  (2nd  century),  ecclesiastical 
historian,  author  of  Fraf/ineiit.s  of  the  Freach- 
ing  of  the  Apostles,  which  ai'e  contained  in 
the  Spicilegium  of  Grabe. 

Heidegger,  Johann  Jacob  (6.  1660,  d. 
1749),  Swiss  adventurer,  came  to  England 
in  1710  and  enlisted  in  the  Guards,  gained 
many  acquaintances,  and  ni)])ears  in  the 
Tatler  as  "the  Swiss  Count";  was  asso- 
ciated in  1729  with  Handel  in  his  attempt  to 
establish  an  Italian  opera-house. 

Heil,  Daniel  van  {h.  1604,  d.  1662),  Dutch 
landscape-painter,   bom    at    Brussels,    the 


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best  of  whose  pictures  were  the  Burning  of 
Sodom  and  the  T/te  Destruction  of  Troy. 
His  brother,  Jan  Baptist  {b.  1609),  was  a 
portrait -painter ;  aud  another,  Leonabd 
{b.  1603),  painted  flowers  and  insects. 

Helm,  Francjois  Joseph  (6.  1787,  d.  1865), 
Fi-ench  painter,  pupil  of  Vincent ;  first  ex- 
liibited  at  Paris  in  1812,  was  employed  to 
decorate  the  Louvre  galleries.  His  chief 
pictures  are  The  Taking  of  Jerusalem  btj 
Titus,  Victory  of  Jtidas  Alaccabceus,  and 
Louis  FhiUppe  receiving  the  Deputies  at  the 
Palais  Royal. 

Heine,  Heiurich  (*.  1799,  d.  1856),  Ger- 
man poet,  was  born  at  Diisseldorf  of  Jewish 
parents,  and  sent  to  Hamburg  to  prepare 
for  a  commercial  life,  but  preferred  studying 
law.  At  Bonn  he  was  pupil  of  Schlegel, 
and  at  BerUn  made  the  acquaiutance  of 
Vamhagen  von  Ense.  In  1825  he  renounced 
Judaism,  and  after  1830  lived  at  Paris,  where 
he  married  Mathilde  Mirat.  He  travelled 
much,  but  in  1847  had  an  attack  of  paralysis, 
and  soon  after  became  blind.  His  chief 
works  are  Biich  der  Lieder  (1827),  followed 
by  other  poems ;  Reisebilder  {\9i2b-^l)\  Der 
Salon  (1834-40) ;  Ueber  Borne,  a  satire ; 
Deutschland  ein  Winter indrchen,  and  Atta 
Troll. 

Heineccius,  Johaun  Gottlieb  {h.  1681,  d. 
1 741 ) ,  German  j  urist ;  invented  a  new  method 
of  teaching  law,  and  wrote  Uleinenta  Juris 
Gerinanici  and  other  works. 

Heinecken,  Christian  {b.  1721,  d.  1725), 
German  child,  bom  at  Liibeck;  lived  only 
four  years,  but  within  that  time  passed  an 
examination  ia  German,  Latin,  French  and 
Low  Dutch,  and  delivered  twelve  speeches 
before  the  King  of  Denmark. 

Heinsius,  Anton  (Jb.  1641,  d.  1720),  Dutch 
statesman,  friend  of  William  of  Orange,  for 
whom  when  in  England  he  governed  as 
Grand  Pensionai-y ;  was  the  chief  founder 
and  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Grand  AlU- 
ance  against  Louis  XIV. ,  and  opposed  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  as  inadequate ;  was  dis- 
graced for  the  expenses  he  had  incurred 
during  the  war. 

Heinsius,  Daniel  (b.  1580,  d.  1655),  Dutch 
scholar,  pupil  aud  friend  of  ScaUger,  and 
professor  and  librarian  at  Leyden,  where  he 
published  treatises,  De  Satird  Horatiand, 
some  poems,  a  tragedy,  and  many  editions 
of  the  classics. 

Heinsius,  Nikolaas  (b.  1620,  d.  1681), 
scholar  and  diplomatist,  son  of  the  last- 
named  and  friend  of  Gronovius  and  Voss ; 
visited  Paris,  Oxford,  and  Italy  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  MSS.,  and  having 
dedicated  some  Latin  poems  to  Christina  of 
Sweden,  was  invited  to  her  court,  and  sent 


to  Italy  by  her ;    was  afterwards   Dutch 
ambassador  in  Sweden,  France,  and  Russia. 

Heinzelmann,  Samuel  P.  {b.  1822,  d.  1880), 
American  general;  served  against  the  In- 
dians of  Cfuif omia  and  in  the  Mexican  war, 
aud  was  appointed  in  1861  inspector-general 
of  the  forces  ;  was  wounded  at  Bull  Run, 
aud  distinguished  himself  in  command  of  a 
division  at  Williamsburg  and  Fair  Oaks, 
aud,  after  serving  in  the  Virginian  campaign, 
held  the  command  at  Washington,  and 
headed  the  22ud  corps  at  Chancellorsville 
aud  Gettysburg.     In  1869  he  retired. 

Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus. 

Helena,  Princess  [Princess  Christian] ,  (*. 
1846),  third  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria, 
married  in  1866  Priuce  Christian  of  Schles- 
wig  Holstein  Sonderburg-Augustenburg. 

Helena,  St.  {d.  circa  328),  wife  of  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus,  Emperor  of  Rome,  and 
mother  of  Constantiue,  was  divorced  in 
292,  when  he  assumed  the  purple,  aud  in 
311  became  a  Christian.  She  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  Holy  Land  in  305,  and  built 
churches  in  Bethlehem  and  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives. 

Hellodorus  (Jl.circ.  400),Bishopof  Tricca, 
wrote,  iu  Greek,  the  romance  JEthiopica, 
which  has  been  frequently  translated. 

Heliogabalus  {b.  204,  d.  222),  Roman 
"Emperor,  elected  when  fourteen,  became 
notoiious  for  his  eccentricity  and  cruelty, 
making  himself  a  god  and  his  horse  consul ; 
was  properly  Varius  Airtus  Bassianus. 

Hell,  Maximilian  {b.  1720,  d.  1792),  Hun- 
garian Jesuit  astronomer ;  became  professor 
at  Vienna,  where  an  observatory  was  built 
for  him,  and  was  sent  by  the  Danish  govern- 
ment iu  1769  to  Lapland  to  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus. 

Heller,  Karl  {d.  1880),  German  naturalist 
and  traveller,  traversed  in  1845  the  greater 
part  of  South  America  for  the  Vienng,  Hor- 
ticultural Society,  and  in  1848  travelled  in 
North  America.  On  his  return  he  was  made 
professor  at  Gratz,  and  published  Reise- 
berichte  aus  Mexico,  Beitrdge  zur  Ndhern 
Kenntniss  Mittelamerikas,  etc. 

Heller,  Stephan  {b.  1813),  Hungarian 
pianist  and  composer,  boi-n  at  Pesth ; 
made  his  first  appearance  at  the  age  of 
nine,  and  spent  three  years  under  Hahn  at 
Vienna,  after  which  he  undertook  a  tour 
with  his  father  in  Poland  and  Germany, 
and  then  remained  at  Augsburg  for  six 
years.  In  1838  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
composed  many  works.  Studies  for  the 
Piano,  etc. 

Helpers,  Jan  Frederik  {b.  1767,  d.  1813), 


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Dutch  poet,  author  of   The  Dutch  Nation 
(1812-13)  and  some  earlier  poems. 

Helmersen,  Gregory  de  {b.  1803,  d.  1885), 
Russian  naturalist  and  traveller,  studied  at 
Doi-pat,  and  accompanied  his  master,  En- 
gelhardt,  in  1828  in  a  scientific  voyage  to  the 
Volga ;  afterwards  entering  the  service  of 
the  government,  was  employed  to  supervise 
an  exploration  of  the  Southern  Ural  moun- 
tains. Having  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Humboldt  he  visited  Germany  and  Italy, 
and  on  his  return  was  engaged  in  further 
exploration  for  the  government  in  Asia,  the 
results  of  which  he  published.  He  after- 
wards went  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  and 
was  director  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Institute 
of  Mines  from  1865  to  1872. 

Helmholtz,  Hermann  von  {h.  1821), 
German  physiologist,  bom  at  Potsdam, 
studied  medicine  at  Berlin,  and  held  pro- 
fessorships of  physiology  at  Konigsberg, 
Bonn,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin  (1871)  suc- 
cessively, during  the  occupation  of  which  he 
invented  a  mirror  for  studying  the  retina  of 
the  living  eye,  and  produced,  among  others, 
the  foUowiug  works :  Ueher  die  Erhaltung 
der  Kraft  (1847),  Uandhnchder  Physiologische 
Optik  (1856-66),  Populdre  wissenschaftVichen 
Vortrdge  (1865-76),  etc. 

Helmont,  Jean  Baptists  van  (b.  1577,  d. 
1644),  Belgian  chemist  and  metaphysician; 
in  the  course  of  thirty  years  of  investigation 
discovered  the  spirit  of  hartshorn,  and  the 
aerial  part  of  spa- waters,  which  he  called 
"  gas  "  (from  geist),  etc. 

Helmont,  Segres  Jacob  van  (6.  1683,  d. 
1726),  Flemish  painter,  bom  at  Antwerp, 
went  to  Brussels,  where  are  many  of  his 
pictures,  as  Za  Profanation  du  Saint  Sacre- 
ment  in  Ste.  Gudule,  and  Le  Sacrifice  d'Elie 
in  the  Hotel  de  ViUe.  There  are  also  some 
of  his  works  at  Antwerp,  Ghent,  and  in 
private  galleries. 

Helolse.     [See  Abelard.] 

Helps,  Sir  Arthur  (jb.  1813,  d.  1875),  Eng- 
lish writer,  son  of  a  London  merchant, 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  met  Tennyson,  Monckton 
Milnes  and  others ;  was  private  secretary 
to  Mr.  Spring  Rice,  and  afterwards  to  Lord 
Morpeth  :  and  in  1859  became  clerk  of  the 
Privy  Council.  He  edited  the  speeches  of 
the  Prince  Consort,  and  was  made  K.C.B. 
in  1872 ;  his  chief  works  were  Essays 
(1841),  Friends  in  Council  (1847-51),  and  The 
Spanish  Conquest  in  America  (1855-61). 

Heist,  Bartolomeus  van  der  {d.  circa 
1670),  Dutch  painter,  whose  portraits  were 
of  peculiar  excellence,  notably  the  Muster 
of  the  Burgher  Guard  at  Amsterdam. 

HelT^tlus,    Claude   Adrien   {h.  1716,   d. 
cc2 


1771),  French  philosopher,  son  of  Jean 
Claude  {d.  1755),  physician  to  Louis  XIV. 
and  Louis  XV. ,  obtained  through  the  queen 
the  appointment  of  farmer-general,  but  re- 
signed it  after  some  years  ;  married  Made- 
moiselle de  Ligneville,  and  studied  philo- 
sophy. His  chief  work,  I)e  VEsprit  (1750), 
was  condemned  to  be  burnt  by  the  Par- 
lement  de  Paris.  He  visited  England  in 
1764. 

Hely-Hutchinson,  John  {b.  1715,  d.  1794), 
Irish  educationist  and  politician,  provost 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  into  the  curri- 
culum of  which  he  tried  to  introduce  athletic 
exercises  ;  was  a  member  of  the  Irish  Par- 
liament, and  secretary  for  Ireland  in  1777. 

Hely-HutcMnson,  Hon.  Sir  Walter  Fran- 
cis, K.C.M.G.  {b.  1849),  colonial  adminis- 
trator, second  son  of  the  fourth  Earl  of 
Donoughmore ;  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  called  to  the 
bar  in  1877 ;  private  secretary  to  Sir  Her- 
cules Robinson ;  colonial  secretary  of  Bar- 
badoes  (1877),  chief  secretary  at  Malta 
(1883)  and  lieutenant-governor  (1884) ; 
governor  of  the  Windward  Islands  1886. 

Hemans,  Felicia  Dorothea,  nee  Browne  {b. 
1794,  d.  1835),  English  verse-writer,  wrote 
Early  Blossoms  before  she  was  fifteen,  and 
afterwards  Domestic  Affections,  Hymns  for 
Children,  etc.  She  died  in  Dublin,  where 
she  lived  after  Captain  Hemans  left  her. 

Hemling,  or  Memling,  Hans  {d.  circa 
1500),  Flemish  painter,  a  collection  of  whoso 
pictures  are  at  Bruges. 

Hemmingford,  or  Hemmingburgh,  Wal- 
ter de  {d.  area  1347),  Canon  of  Guisborough, 
and  writer  of  a  Chronicle  of  Enaland  from 
1066  to  1308. 

Hemoo  <fi.  1564),  Hindoo  statesman,  min- 
ister of  Adil  Shah  Soor,  Emperor  of  Delhi, 
after  some  years  of  government  was  de- 
feated and  put  to  death,  by  order  of  Hoo- 
mayen,  rival  of  the  reigning  emperor. 

Hemsley,  William  Botting,  F.R.S.  (6. 
1843\  English  botanist,  son  of  a  gardener 
in  Su.'isex,  received  an  appointment  at  Kew 
in  1863,  and  became  in  1890  principal 
assistant  at  the  herbarium.  His  principal 
works  are  the  botany  of  the  "  ChalUrujer  " 
Expedition,  and  editions  of  Salvin  and  of 
Godman's  Biologia  Centrali-Americana. 

H6nault,  Charles  Jean  (b.  1685,  d.  1770), 
French  historian,  educated  at  the  Jesuits' 
college,  Paris,  became  in  1710  president  of 
the  Chambre  des  Enquctes,  and_  in  1723 
director  of  the  Acad^mie  Fran^aise.  He 
wrote  an  Alrege  Chronologigue  de  VHistoWe 
de  France. 

Henderson,  Alexander  (-6.  1683,  d.  1640), 


Hen 


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Hen 


Scotch  niiiiister,  author  of  the  "Solenm 
League  aud  Covenant,"  afterwards  one  of 
the  commissioners  appointed  to  treat  with 
Charles  I.,  whom  he  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade to  renounce  Episcopacy. 

Henderson,  Sir  Edmund,  Lieutenant- 
Colonel.  K.C.B.  {h.  circa  1820),  soldier 
and  administrator ;  entered  the  army 
in  1S38.  was  made  surveyor- general  of 
prisons  and  chairman  of  the  Directors  of 
Convict  Prisons  in  1863,  and  was  chief  com- 
missioner of  the  Metropolitan  Police  from 
1869  till  1886. 

Henderson,  John  (6.  1747,  d.  1785),  actor, 
made  his  appearance  at  Bath  as  Hamlet  in 
1772  under  the  name  of  Courtney,  and  after- 
wards played  Shylock,  Fulstaff,  and  other 
characters  at  the  Haymarket  and  Drury 
Lane. 

Henderson,  John  {b.  1757,  d.  1788),  Eng- 
lish scholar,  bom  at  Ballagarance  in  Ireland ; 
taught  Latin  at  the  age  of  eight  in  Kings- 
wood  school,  Bath,  and  Greek  when  he  was 
twelve  at  Lady  Huntingdon's  Welsh  col- 
lege. He  was  sent  to  Oxford  by  Dean 
Tucker,  and  was  at  Pembroke  College  with 
Dr.  Johnson,  but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
alchemy. 

Henderson,  Thomas  {b.  1798,  d.  1844), 
Scottish  astronomer,  assisted  Dr.  Young  in 
his  Nautical  Almanack,  and  was  sent  by  the 
Admiralty  in  1331  to  take  charge  of  the 
Cape  observatory.  During  his  two  years' 
residence  he  made  many  observations,  and 
became  on  his  return  first  astronomer  royal 
of  Scotland. 

Hengist  [d.  488),  Saxon  leader,  with  his 
brother,  Horsa,  in  449  landed  in  the  Isle  of 
Thauet,  and  at  first  supported  the  Britons 
against  the  Picts  and  Scots,  but  afterwards 
quarrelled  with  his  allies.  Horsa  was 
killed  at  Aylesford,  but  his  brother  con- 
quered Kent  and  founded  a  kingdom. 

Henkel,  Johann  Friedrich  (6.  1679,  d. 
1744),  G-erman  naturalist,  author  of  Flora 
Saturnizaus,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  sys- 
tematic arrangement  of  minerals. 

Henley,  Anthony  (6.  1660,  d.  1711),  Eng- 
lish poUtieian  and  patron,  a  strong  Whig, 
and  contributor  to  the  Tatler  and  Medley  ; 
was  a  great  amateur  in  m.usic,  and  patron  of 
actors. 

Henley,  John  (6.  1692,  d.  1756),  clergy- 
man, known  as  "Orator  Henley"  on 
account  of  his  preaching.  Being  unable  to 
obtain  preferment  in  the  Church,  he  gave 
lectures  or  orations,  to  which  admission 
was  not  free,  and  in  which  he  attacked  the 
authorities.  He  was  ridiculed  by  Pope  in 
the  Dimciad,  and  in  two  of  Hogarth's  cari- 
catures. 


Henley,  Joseph  Warner  (6.  1793,  d. 
1884),  politician,  educated  at  Oxford, 
entered  Parliament  for  Oxfordshire  as  a 
Conservative  in  1841,  and  supported  Peel 
till  his  adoption  of  Free  Trade.  In  1852 
Lord  Derby  appointed  him  President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade,  and  he  was  sworn 
of  the  Piivy  Council  in  the  same  year. 
He  resumed  ofiice  in  1858,  but  resigned 
soon  after,  being  opposed  to  the  Eeform 
Bill,  but  did  not  retire  from  public  life  till 
1878. 

Henley,  Robert.     [See  Northington.] 

Hennequin,  Antoine  Louis  (b.  1786,  d. 
1840),  French  jurist,  while  serving  with  the 
artillery  in  Germany  in  1806  pleaded  for 
some  peasants  at  a  court-martial,  and  after 
the  peace  devoted  himself  to  legal  pursuits, 
and  became  a  distinguished  advocate,  giving 
a  fine  exhibition  of  his  powers  in  the  defence 
of  Berard  in  1826.  He  entered  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  in  1830,  and  made  a  reputation 
there  as  an  orator. 

Henner,  Jean  Jacques  (b.  1829),  French 
painter,  bom  in  Alsace,  whose  chief  pictures 
are  Jemie  Baigneur  Endormi  (1863),  La 
Chaste  Suzanne  (1865),  purchased  by  the 
government  and  placed  in  the  Luxembourg ; 
Alsacienne  (1870),  presented  by  Gambetta  to 
the  ladies  of  Alsace,  and  more  recently  Le 
Christ  Mort  (1873),  St.  Jerome  (1881),  and 
Rerodiade  (1887). 

Hennessy,  Professor  Henry,  F.E.S.  (6. 
1826),  Irish  mathematicia'Q  and  physicist ; 
born  at  Cork,  pubUshed  in  1851,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society,  Researches 
in  Terrestrial  Physics.  In  1855  he  was  made 
professor  of  physics  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
University  of  Ireland,  and  in  1374  became 
professor  of  applied  mechanics  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Science.  He  proposed  the  polar 
decimal  system  in  regard  to  weights  and 
measures. 

Hennessy,  Sir  John  Pope,  K.C.M.G.  (6. 
133i,  d.  1891),  colonial  administrator,  bom 
at  Cork ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1861, 
entered  Parliament  (as  Conservative)  for 
King's  County  in  1859  and  took  great  part 
in  Irish  questions,  supporting  concurrent 
endowment  and  amendment  of  the  land 
laws.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Labuan,  of  the  West  African  settle- 
ments Ln  1872,  and  the  Bahamas  in  the  fol- 
lowing year ;  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
1875  ;  Hongkong,  1877,  and  the  Mauritius, 
1882.  In  the  latter  he  disagreed  -wath  Mr. 
Clifford  Lloyd,  but  was  restored  to  office. 
In  1890  he  was  elected  for  North  Kilkenny 
as  a  Home  Ruler,  in  opposition  to  Mr. 
Parnell's  nominee.  He  wrote  Raleigh  in 
Ireland,  and  contributed  at  various  times  to 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
the  Reports  of  the  British  Association. 


Hen 


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Hen 


Heurici,  Olaus,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  etc.  (4. 
1840),  German  matheinaticiaii,  born  in  Hol- 
Btein ;  in  1865  came  to  London,  where  four 
years  after  he  was  made  professor  of  pure 
mathematics  at  University  College,  and  in 
lb84  of  mechanics  and  mathematics  at  the 
London  Institute.  In  1883  he  became 
president  of  the  Mathematical  Society.  He 
wrote  several  papers  on  mathematics  and 
physics  in  CrtUt'' n  Journal  and  the  Frocead- 
ingti  of  the  Mathematical  Society. 

Henrietta  Anne  (6. 1644,  d.  1670),  English 
priucess,  daughter  of  Charles  I.,  married 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  by  whom  she  was  pro- 
bably poisoned.  She  was  the  chief  agent 
between  Charles  II.  and  Louis  XIV.,  being 
especially  concerned  iu  the  treaty  of  Dover. 

Henrietta  Maria  (".  ItiOU,  d.  1669),  Queen 
of  England,  wile  of  Charles  I.  aud  daughter 
of  Henry  IV.  of  France  ;  was  married  in 
1625,  and  withdrew  from  England  in  1644, 
having  been  very  unpopular  as  a  Romanist ; 
she  only  revisited  it  once  (at  the  Restoration). 

Henriot,  Franc^ois  (6.  1761,  d.  1794), 
French  revolutionist ;  after  having  been  a 
police  spy,  was  iu  1792  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  September  "massacres,"  and  next  year, 
as  chief  of  the  Sansculottes,  marched  to  the 
Convention,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of 
the  Girondins.  Afterwards  he  became  one 
of  Robespierre's  chief  supporters,  and,  as 
vice-president  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal, 
tried  to  rescue  him  when  arrested,  but 
failed,  and  was  tlwnwn  out  of  the  window 
of  the  Hotel  de  VUle  by  his  colleague, 
Coffinhal,  and  was  next  day  guillotined. 

Henry,  Emperor  of  the  East  {d.  1216), 
son  of  Baldwin  VIII.  of  Flanders,  suc- 
ceeded the  Emperor  Baldwin  in  1206, 
having  recently  defeated  Theodore  Lascaris. 
He  caused  a  mock  union  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches  in  1215. 

Henry,  Prince  of  Battenberg  {b.  1858), 
married  H.R.H.  Princess  Beatrice,  and  was 
appointed  governor  of  Carisbrooke  Castle, 
with  the  title  of  Royal  Highness. 

Henry,  Prince  of  Prussia  {h.  172fi.  d.  1802), 
Prussian  general,  brother  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  his  chief  assistant  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war :  jrained  especial  distinction  at 
the  relief  of  Breslau  and  the  battle  of  Frei- 
berg. He  was  offered  the  crown  of  Poland, 
but  declined  it. 

Henry,  Prince  of  Wales  (6.  1594.  d.  1612), 
eldest  son  of  James  I. ,  friend  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  and  other  men  of  note. 

Henry,  Joseph  {h.  1797,  d.  1878).  Ameri- 
can physicist,  to  whom  has  been  attributed 
the  first  electro-magnetic  machine.  A 
Mp:norinl  of  Joseph  JTenry  was  issued  by 
order  of  Congress  (1880). 


Henry,  Matthew  (fc.  1662,  d.  1714), 
Nonconformist  minister ;  is  best  known  by 
his  Commentary  on  the  Bible  (1710). 

Henry,  Patrick  {b.  1736,  d.  1799),  Ameri- 
can politician,  nephew  of  Robertson  and 
cousin  of  Lord  Brougham ;  practised  as  an 
advocate  in  Vii-giuia,  where  he  first  came 
into  prominence  in  1763  by  his  pleading  in 
the  case  of  clerical  incomes  ;  was  an  active 
opponent  of  the  Stamp  Act,  and  the  chief 
leader  of  the  revolution  in  Virginia,  being 
more  extreme  in  his  views  than  Washing- 
ton. He  was  for  some  years  governor  of 
his  state,  during  which  he  opposed  the 
Federal  constitution  as  not  democratic 
enough.  He  was  an  eloquent  but  reckless 
speaker,  and  was  obliged  to  resume  his  pro- 
fession in  order  to  cover  his  heavy  debts. 

Henry,  William,  M.D.  (6.  1775,  d.  1836), 
English  chemist  and  physician,  made  F.R.S. 
and  won  the  Copley  prize  for  his  papers  on 
the  absorption  of  water  by  gas,  and  on 
muriatic  acid  gas. 

Henry,  Hon.  William  Alexander  (6. 1816), 
Canadian  statesman,  bom  at  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  in  the  Assembly  of  which  colony  he 
eat  for  many  years.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  union  of  the  British  American 
provinces,  and  came  to  London  in  1866, 
together  with  delegates  from  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick,  and  presented 
a  scheme  which  was  adopted.  He  wa« 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Canada  in  1875. 

Henry  of  Blois,  or  of  Winchester   {d. 

1171),  English  statesman,  to  whose  influ- 
ence as  Bishop  of  Winchester  his  brother 
Stephen  was  chiefly  indebted  for  his  crown. 
Caring  more,  however,  for  the  interests  of 
the  Church  than  for  secular  affairs,  he  gave 
him  but  a  lukewarm  support,  and  even 
joined  Matilda  when  she  lirst  invaded  the 
coimtry,  though  he  afterwards  turned 
against  her. 

Henry  of  Huntingdon  (12th  century), 
early  English  historian,  whose  Chronicle 
extends  from  the  earliest  times  to  1154. 

Henry  of  Portugal  (b.  1394,  d.  1460), 
"the  Navigator,"  Duke  of  Viseu  and 
fourth  son  of  King  John  of  Portugal  ; 
directed  the  voyages  which  discovered 
Madeira  and  the  mouths  of  the  Senegal ; 
made  an  expedition  against  Tangiers,  and 
invented  the  astrolabe. 

Henry  I.,  King  of  Castile  (6.  1204,  d. 
1217).  succeeded  Alfonso  IX.  in  1216,  but 
was  accidentarlly  killed  by  a  tile  the  next 
year. 

Henry  II.  {b.  1333,  d.  1379),  natural  son 
of  Alfonso  XI.,  was  legirimatised  by  the 
Pope,    and    assisted    against   his    brother, 


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Hen 


Pedro  the  Cruel,  by  Du  Guesclin,  but  was 
defeated  at  Navarette  by  the  Black  Priuce. 
Wlieu  the  brothers  met  afterwards,  Pedro 
was  killed,  aud  Heury  of  Trastamare  ob- 
taiued  the  throne. 

Henry  III.  {b.  1379,  d.  1406),  surnamed 
"the  lutinu,"  put  aa  end  to  the  regeucy 
when  only  fourteen ;  tried  to  mediate 
between  the  rival  popes,  Benedict  XIII. 
aud  Boniface  III.  ;  defeated  the  Portuguese 
aud  the  African  corsairs,  and  rebuilt  the 
palace  at  Madrid. 

Henry  IV.  {b.  1425,  d.  1474),  "the  Im- 
potent," produced  a  civil  war  by  the  way  in 
which  he  treated  his  queen,  and  was 
obliged  to  acknowledge  as  heir  his  sister 
Isabella  (q.v.),  soon  after  which  he  died. 

Henry  I.,  King  of  England  (b.  1068,  d. 
113-5),  youngest  son  of  William  I.,  seized 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  William  II. 
(1100),  and  forced  Robert  to  be  content 
with  Normandy,  but  deprived  him  of  this 
also  after  the  battle  of  Tenchebrai ;  married 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  III.  and 
descendant  of  the  Saxon  kings  ;  established 
"  Justices  in  Byre,"  the  court  of  exchequer, 
and  a  standard  of  weights  and  measures, 
abolished  the  curfew,  and  compromised  the 
Investiture  question  by  an  agreement  with 
Pasclial  II.  His  charter  was  the  foundation 
of  the  Great  Charter. 

Henry  IL  (*.  1133,  d.  1189),  grandson  of 
last-named,  and  son  of  Maud  aud  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet ;  came  to  the  throne  in  1154, 
married  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  (divorced 
wife  of  Louis  VII.),  and  acquired  by  the 
marriage  Guienne  aud  Poitou ;  put  down 
private  war  and  jurisdictions,  and  subdued 
the  last  great  feudal  rising,  which  was 
aided  by  William  the  Lion,  of  Scotland, 
whom  he  compelled  to  do  homage ;  was 
engaged  in  a  long  quarrel  with  Becket  aa 
reijreseutative  of  the  immunity  of  clerks 
from  civQ  jurisdiction,  and  sanctioned  the 
first  expedition  agaiast  Irelaud,  afterwards 
accepting  the  kingdom.  His  last  years 
were  much  troubled  by  wars  with  his  sons. 
The  most  important  enactments  of  his  reign 
were  the  Assizes  of  Clarendon  and  North- 
ampton, and  the  Assize  of  arms,  besides  the 
grant  of  charters  to  towns.  He  was  the 
most  powerful  prince  of  his  time,  was 
offered  the  imperial  throne,  and  possessed 
by  various  titles  the  greater  part  of  France. 

Henry  m.  (b.  1206,  d.  1272),  son  of  John 
by  Isabella  of  Angouleme  ;  came  to  the 
throne  in  1216  when  a  minor,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  long  reign  provoked  much 
hostility  by  his  foreign  favourites  and  his 
submission  to  papal  exactions,  discontent 
culminating  in  the  Barons'  war  (1262-5), 
in  which  he  was  defeated  at  Lewes  and 
compelled   to    submit   to    control    of    the 


Government  by  De  Montf ort  and  his  friends. 
These,  however,  quarrelled  among  them- 
selves, aud  at  Evesham  De  Montfort  waa 
defeated  and  slain.  During  this  reign  the 
Great  Charter  (with  importaut  clauses 
omitted)  was  frequently  renewed,  and 
Westminster  Abbey  was  almost  entirely 
built. 

Henry  IV.  (b.  1366,  d.  1413),  son  of  John, 
Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  grandson  of 
Edward  III.,  with  the  help  of  the  Percies 
aud  Nevilles  deposed  Richard  II.  (1399),  by 
whom  he  had  been  banished,  and  after- 
wards defeated  at  Shrewsbury  a  com- 
bination between  the  former  and  the  Scots 
aud  Welsh.  In  his  reign  the  statute  "  De 
Hseretico  Combureudo "  was  passed,  aud 
Parliament  exercised  a  firm  control  over 
the  Government. 

Henry  V.  {b.  1388,  d.  1422),  son  of 
Henry  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1413; 
twice  invaded  France,  and  won  the  battle 
of  Agincourt  in  1415,  and  by  the  treaty  of 
Troyes  married  Katherine  of  France,  aud 
secured  the  succession  to  the  throne. 

Henry  VI.  {b.  1421),  son  of  Henry  V., 
married  Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  was 
crowned  in  142D  at  London,  and  at  Paris  in 
1431.  During  his  reign  all  the  English 
dominions  in  France  except  Calais  were 
lost,  the  rising  of  Cade  took  place,  and  the 
wars  of  the  Roses  raged.  The  king  was  de- 
posed, imprisoned,  and  probably  murdered. 

Henry  VII.  (J.  about  1456,  d.  1509),  first 
of  the  Tudor  dynasty,  son  of  Edmund 
Tudor  and  Margaret  Beaufort,  a  des- 
cendant of  John  of  Gaunt ;  invaded  Eng- 
land in  1485,  and  defeated  Richard  III.  at 
Bosworth,  after  which  he  mairied  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Ed'.vard  IV.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  three  Yorkist  risings,  which  he 
defeated,  by  the  measures  he  enforced 
agaiast  the  nobles,  by  his  system  of  mar- 
riages with  foreign  princes,  and  the  enact- 
ment of  Poyning's  law. 

Henry  VIII.  {b.  1491,  d.  1547),  son  of 
Henry  VII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1509, 
married  Katherine  of  Aragon,  wife  of  his 
deceased  brotlier,  his  divorce  from  whom 
was  the  proximate  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
Papal  jurisdiction  was  renounced,  more 
especially  by  the  Acts  of  Supremacy  and  of 
Appeals,  but  the  king  was  strongly  averse 
to  doctrinal  changes.  The  early  years  of 
the  reign  were  marked  by  a  war  with 
France,  in  which  Henry  took  part  in  person; 
attempts  at  uuion  with  Scotland  were  made, 
but  defeated  by  French  and  papal  influence ; 
a  system  of  balance  was  maintained  in 
foreign  relations  ;  a  large  amount  of  eccle- 
siastical property  was  annexed  to  the  Crown, 
which  gained  complete  control  over  the 
Chiirch ;  the  rising  called  the  Pilgrimage  of 


Hen 


(439) 


Hen 


Grace  was  suppressed;  and  the  kin^ 
became  practically  absolute,  being  granted 
by  Parliament  the  right  of  making  laws  by 
proclamation,  and  of  settling  the  succession 
in  bis  wHl. 

Henry  I.,  King  of  France  {b.  1011,  d. 
1060),  succeeded  his  father,  Eobert  I.,  in 
1031,  and  was  engaged  in  constant  war, 
more  particularly  with  "William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  whom  he  had  at  first  aided  and 
replaced  in  his  dukedom. 

Henry  II.  (6.  1519,  d.  1559),  son  of 
Francis  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1547.  By 
his  alliance  with  the  German  Protestants 
acquired  Metz,  Toul,  aud  Verdun,  while  he 
also  regained  Calais  from  the  English.  He 
carried  on  his  father's  war  with  ISpaiu  with 
some  success  until  the  disaster  at  St. 
Queutiu,  and  died  of  a  wound  inflicted  in 
a  tournament  held  to  celebrate  its  con- 
clusion by  the  marriage  of  hia  daughter  and 
PhiUp  n. 

Henry  III.  {b.  1551,  d.  1589),  son  of 
Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de  Medicis,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother,  Charles  IX.,  as  king  of 
France  in  1574.  He  at  first  took  part 
against  the  Huguenots,  but  the  tyranny  of 
the  League  at  length  forced  him  to  resist. 
He  was  obliged  to  leave  Paris,  but  soon 
obtained  the  assassination  of  the  Due  de 
Guise,  after  which  he  was  besieging  Paris, 
in  alliance  with  Henry  of  Navarre,  when 
he  was  assassinated  by  Clement. 

Henry  IV.  (*.  1553,  d.  1610),  as  son  of 
Anthony  of  Navarre,  a  descendant  of 
Louis  IX.,  was  founder  of  the  Bourbon 
dynasty,  succeeding  Henry  III.  iu  1589. 
His  marriage  with  Marguerite  de  Valois, 
in  1572,  was  the  occasion  of  the  Bartholomew 
massacres.  In  1576  he  quitted  the  court 
and  became  leader  of  the  Huguenots  and 
opponent  of  tlie  League,  being  the  rival  of 
the  Guises  for  the  succession.  He  defeated 
them  at  Arques  and  Ivry,  but  was  unable 
to  conquer  Paris  without  becoming  a  Roman 
Catholic,  which  he  did  in  1593.  He  con- 
cluded peace  with  Philip  II.  at  Vervius,  and 
issued  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  The  rest  of  his 
reign  was  occupied  by  domestic  reforms. 
He  was  assassinated  by  Ravaillac. 

Henry,  King  of  Portugal  (d.  1114),  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  assisted  Alfonso 
VI.  in  his  wars  with  the  Moors,  and  man-ied 
his  daughter,  aud  in  1109  assumed  the  title 
of  count  and  lord  of  all  Portugal.  He  was 
killed  in  the  siege  of  Astorga. 

Henry  II.,  "  the  Cardinal"  [b.  1580),  took 
orders  and  became  Archbishop  of  Evora. 
Having  named  no  successor,  there  was  a 
contest  for  the  throne  of  Portugal,  and  the 
Spaniards  became  possessod  of  the  country 
tiU1640. 


Henry  I.,  Emperor  of  Gennany  (b.  876, 
d.  936),  "Henry  the  Fowler,"  granted  the 
first  municipal  charters,  and  repulsed  the 
Danes,  Hungarians,  and  Huns. 

Henry  IL  (6.  972,  d.  1024),  "Henry  the 
Saint"  or  "the  Lame;"  after  having  been 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  succeeded  Otho  as  em- 
peror, and  was  the  last  of  the  House  of 
Saxony.  He  put  down  his  vassals  with  & 
firm  hand,  but  was  docile  to  the  popes. 

Henry  III.  {b.  1017,  d.  1056),  "the 
Black,"  became  emperor  in  1039;  nominated 
three  Germans  to  the  papacy,  and  invested 
the  Normans  with  the  duchy  of  Calabria ; 
also  carried  on  successful  wars  with  the 
Hungarians  and  Bohemians. 

Henry  rv.  (b.  1050,  d.  1106),  son  of 
Henry  III. ,  began  the  Investiture  disputes 
with  the  papacy,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
deposed  Gregory  VII.,  but  was  himself 
excommunicated  and  deposed,  and  was 
obliged  to  submit  at  Canossa  in  1076,  but 
iu  1084  again  invaded  Italy,  and  captured 
Eome.  In  Germany  he  had  enemies  in 
Rudolf  of  Swabia  (whom  he  defeated 
finally  atWolksheim  in  1080),  in  the  Saxons, 
and  in  his  sons,  Conrad  and  Henry,  by  the 
latter  of  whom  he  was  dethroned. 

Henry  V.  {b.  1081,  d.  112.5),  son  of  last- 
named  ;  was  associated  with  his  father  in 
1098,  and  afterwards  dethroned  him,  car- 
ried on  the  Investiture  quarrel,  which  was 
settled  in  1122,  and  was  the  first  husband 
of  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of 
England. 

Henry  VI.  (b.  1165.  d.  1197),  "the 
Severe,"  son  of  Frederic  I.  (Barbarossa), 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1190  ;  imprisoned 
Richard  I.  of  England,  and  conquered 
Apulia  and  Sicily.  His  wife  conspired 
against  and  poisoned  him. 

Henry  VII.  {b.  1262,  d.  1313),  son  of  the 
Count  of  Luxembourg ;  elected  to  the  empire 
in  1308  by  the  six  electors,  invaded  Italy, 
subdued  the  LoniLards,  and  restored  the 
Visconti  at  Milan.  He  acquired  Bohemia 
through  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of 
Wenceslaus. 

Henry  I.,  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony 
(d.  1126),  "the  Black,"  united  the  Guelf 
estates,  but  ruled  feebly  and  abdicated. 

Henry  II.  (6.  1102,  d.  1139),  "the  Proud," 
successor  of  last-named;  man-ied  the  heiress 
of  the  Emperor  Lothaire,  and  acquired 
Brunswipk ;  was  regent  of  the  empire  in 
1132,  aud  was  elected  emperor  in  opposition 
to  Conrad  III.,  but  yielded  after  being  put 
to  the  ban  of  the  empire. 

Henry  HI.  (h  1129,  d.  IW).  "the  Lion," 
son  and  successor  of  Henry  II. ,  renounced 


Hen 


(440) 


Her 


but  afterwards  recovered  Bavaria,  and 
founded  Munich  (1157)  ;  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England ;  was 
deprived  of  Bavaria  and  Saxouy  for  re- 
fusing to  accompany  the  emperor  to  Italy, 
and  banished  twice,  spending  a  short  time  in 
England  (1183-.')). 

Henryson,  Robert  (loth  century)  Scotch 
poet,  a  Benedictine  monk,  whose  Fabils 
appeared  at  Edinburgh  in  1621,  and  his 
Testament  of  Faire  Cresseide  in  1593. 

Hensel,  Fanny  Cecile  {b.  1805,  d.  1847), 
German  composer,  sister  of  Mendelssohn, 
was  bom  at  Hamburg,  and  married  W. 
Hensel,  a  painter.  She  composed  songs  and 
melodies. 

Henselt,  Adolph  {b.  1814),  German  pianist 
and  teacher,  a  pupil  of  Hummel,  went 
to  St.  Petersburg  in  1838,  and  was  ap- 
pointed court  pianist.  He  also  visited 
England  (1867).  His  chief  compositions 
are  Etudes  and  a  Concerto  in  F  Minor. 

Henslow,  John  Stevens  (b.  1796,  d.  1861), 
English  naturalist ;  was  elected  professor 
of  mineralogy  at  Cambridge  in  1S22,  took 
orders  two  years  later,  and  in  1827  became 
professor  of  botany.  From  1839  he  lived 
at  Hitchin,  where  he  introduced  allot- 
ments. His  chief  works  were  Principles 
of  Descriptire  and  Physiological  Botany 
(1850),  Dictionary  of  Botanical  Terms  (1846), 
and  essays  on  The  Diseases  of  Wheat  in  the 
Journals  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 

Henslowe,  Philip  {d.  1616),  was  in  1584 
lessee  of  the  Rose  Theatre,  Bankside,  and 
for  many  years  was  partner  with  Edward 
AlIejTi.  His  Diary  (1593-1609)  is  preserved 
at  Duhvich  College, 

Hephsestion  (d.  325  B.C.),  friend  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  was  wounded  at  Arbela, 
ajid  married  a  daughter  of  Darius. 

Heraclitus  (5th  century  B.C.),  Greek 
philosopher,  wliose  system  was  based  on 
that  of  Pythagoras  ;  lived  at  Ephesus,  where 
his  writings  were  deposited  in  the  Temple  of 
Diana. 

Heraclius  (*.  575,  d.  641),  Emperor  of  the 
East ;  was  crowned  in  610,  having  dethroned 
Phocas ;  after  twelve  years'  fighting,  de- 
feated Chosroes,  King  of  Persia,  and  drove 
back  the  barbarians  from  Constantinople, 
but  was  unable,  in  his  later  years,  to  resist 
the  inroads  of  the  Syrians. 

H^raultde  Sechelles,  Marie  Jean  {b.  1760, 
rf.  1794),  French  advocate  and  revolutionist, 
friend  of  Buffon  and  Mirabeau  ;  was  elected 
president  of  the  Convention  in  November, 
1792,  and  acted  vrith  "  the  Mountain,"  but 
was  guillotined  as  a  Dantonist  in  April,  1794, 
being  accused  of  favouring  the  emigres. 


Herbart,  Johann  Friedrich  (A.  1776.  d. 
1841),  German  realist  philosopher;  born  at 
Oldenburg,  studied  under  Fichte,  at  Jena, 
but  opposed  his  system  as  well  as  those  of 
Hegel  and  Schelling.  He  was  professor  at 
Gottingen  in  1805,  and  again  in  1S33,  the 
intervening  time  being  spent  in  a  similar 
chair  at  Konigsberg.  He  met  Pestalozzi  in 
his  earlier  years,  and  embodied  his  method 
in  his  own  Padagogik. 

Herbert.    \See  Carnarvon  and  Pembroke.] 

Herbert,  George  {b.  1593,  d.  1632),  English 
poet,  brother  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury ; 
was  fellow  of  Trinity,  and  pubHe  orator  at 
Cambridge,  and  a  gi'eat  fa\ouiite  vrith 
James  I.,  Bacon,  and  Bishop  Audrewes, 
but  gave  up  his  secular  ambitions  and  be- 
came a  country  parson  at  Bemerton,  near 
Salisbury,  where  he  wrote  The  Temple^  and 
The  Country  Parson,  a  prose  work. 

Herbert,  John  Rogers  [b.  1810,  d.  1890), 
painter,  began  to  exhibit  at  the  Academy 
in  1830.  After  attracting  attentiou  by  The 
Appointed  Hour  (British  Institution,  1834), 
he  went  to  Italy,  and  chose  Italian  subjects, 
but  afterwards  became  known  as  a  painter 
of  religious  pictures,  his  best  works  being 
the  series  of  nine  pictures  which  decorate 
the  peers'  robing-room  at  Westminster, 
and  King  Lear  Disinheriting  Cordelia.  He 
became  A.R.A.  in  1841,  and  R.A.  in  1848, 
but  retired  in  1886,  his  later  works  being 
little  esteemed. 

Herbert,  Sir  Thomas  (d.  1682),  English 
traveller ;  author  of  Some  Tears'"  Travel  in 
Africa  and  Asia  the  Great,  the  result  of  his 
experiences  with  Sir  D.  Cotton  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Persia  and  other  countries.  He 
also  wrote  Threnodia  Carolina,  an  account 
of  the  last  days  of  Charles  I.,  whom  he 
attended  as  representative  of  the  Parlia- 
ment. 

Herbert  of  Cherbury,  Edward,  Lord  {b. 
circa  1583,  d.  1648),  English  philosopher  and 
statesman ;  served  under  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  and  was  afterwards  sent  by  James 
I.  as  ambassador  to  Paris.  He  was  the  first 
English  Deist,  his  opinions  being  set  forth 
in  De  Veritate  (1624),  and  other  works.  He 
also  wrote  a  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of 
Henry  VIII. 

Herbert  of  Lea,  Sidney,  Lord  {b.  1810,  d. 
1861),  English  statesman,  second  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Pembroke  :  represented  Wiltshire  as 
a  Conservative  from  1832  to  1860 ;  was 
named  secretary  to  the  Admiralty  in  1841, 
and  in  1845  became  a  cabinet  minister  as 
Secretary  at  War.  He  at  first  supporied 
the  Corn  Laws  against  Cobden,  but  was  after- 
wards one  of  the  leading  Peelites  or  Liberal- 
Conservatives.  In  1852  he  was  again  Sec- 
retary at  War,  but  retired  on  the  passing 


Her 


(441) 


Her 


of  the  Sebastopol  resolutions.  He  returned, 
however,  to  the  same  post  under  Lord 
Pahnerston  in  1859,  and  his  last  term  of 
office  was  marked  by  the  organisation  of  the 
Volunteer  force.  He  was  created  a  peer  a 
few  months  before  his  death. 

Herbst,  Johann  Friedrich  (*.  1743,  d.  1807), 
German  naturaUst ;  wrote  The  Natural 
History  of  Crabs  (1702-1S04),  Worms  and 
Insects. 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried  {b.  1744,  d. 
1803),  Gennan  philosopher  and  poet ;  born 
of  poor  parents  at  Mohruugen ;  afterwards 
went  to  Konigsberg  to  learn  surgery,  but 
became  acquainted  with  Kant,  and  turned 
to  philosophy.  When  at  Strasbui-g  he  met 
Goethe,  and  soon  became  court-preacher 
and  councillor  at  Weimar.  His  chief  works 
were  Sttmmeii  der  Tolker  (1778),  Ideen  Zur 
Geschichte  der  Menschheit  (1784-91),  and 
Alteste  Urkunde  des  Menschen  geschlechts 
(1774). 

Herewaxd,  The  Wake,  an  English  squire 
who  held  the  Isle  of  Ely  against  William 
the  Conqueror  1070-71.  He  probably  be- 
came reconciled  to  William,  but  much  of 
his  history  is  legendary. 

Heribert  I.  ((I.  943),  Gomte  de  Cham- 
pagne, took  prisoner  Charles  the  Simple, 
and  shut  tim  up  till  death  at  Peronne.  His 
son  married  the  widow  of  the  latter. 

Hericart  de  Thury  {b.  1776,  d.  1854), 
French  geologist  and  engineer  ;  directed  the 
operations  for  the  consolidation  of  the  cata- 
combs (1830),  and  was  author  oi  Mineralogie 
Synoptique  and  Description  des  Catacombes 
de  Paris  (1815). 

Heriot,  George  (b.  1653),  founder  of 
Heriot's  hospital  at  Edinburgh ;  was  gold- 
smith to  James  I.,  who  called  him  "Jingling 
Geordie." 

Herkomer,  Hubert,  R.A.  {b.  1849),  Eng- 
lish artist  of  German  extraction,  son  of  a 
wood-carver  at  Waal,  Bavaria,  who  settled 
at  Southampton  when  his  son  was  thirteen. 
He  first  e^bited  in  the  Dudley  Gallery, 
and  in  1875  exhibited  at  the  Academy  The 
Last  Muster.  Missing  (1881)  was  his  next 
great  picture,  and  in  1885  his  portraits  of 
Mr.  V.  Stanford  and  Miss  Grant  were  much 
admired.  The  Chapel  of  the  Charterhouse 
(1889)  was  purchased  for  the  Chantrey 
bequest,  and  the  artist  became  Slade  pro- 
fessor of  fine  art  at  Orford  in  1885, 

Hermann.    [See  Arminius.] 

Hermann,  Armand  {b.  1759.  d.  1795), 
French  revolutionist,  friend  of  Robespierre, 
through  whom  he  became  Minister  of  the 
Interior  and  Foreign  Minister,  and  whose 
fall  he  shared. 


Hermann,  Johann  Gottfried  Jakob  (6. 
1772,  d.  1S48),  German  philologist,  author 
of  I)e  Metris  Gracorum  et  Jtomanontm  Toct- 
arum  (1796),  and  De  Mythologid  Grcecorum 
Antiquissimd  (1807). 

Hennas,  early  Christian  writer,  author  of 
The  Shep]ierd ;  is  identified  by  some  with 
the  disciple  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (Romans 
xvi.  14),  and  by  others  with  Hermes,  brother 
of  Pius,  Bishop  of  Rome  (/,  141). 

Hermes  Trismegistus,  a  mythical  per- 
souage  of  the  Egj-ptians,  supposed  to  have 
lived  2000  B.C. 

Hermogenes  (2nd  century),  African  Stoic 
philosopher,  against  whom  TertulUan  wrote. 

Hermogenes  of  Tarsus  (2nd  century), 
Greek  rhetorician;  author  of  the  Art  of 
Rhetoric,  taught  at  Rome,  is  said  to  have 
lost  his  memory  and  power  of  speech  in  his 
twenty-fifth  year. 

Herod  Agrippa.    [See  Agrippa.] 

Herod  Antipas  (/.  1st  century),  son  of 
Herod  the  Great,  became  Tetrarch  of  Galilee 
(4  B.C.),  beheaded  John  the  Baptist  in  31, 
was  deposed  and  exiled  in  39. 

Herod  the  Great  (6.  73  b.c,  d.  3  b.c), 
King  of  Judaea ;  put  to  death  his  wife 
Mariamne  and  two  sons  ;  massacred  the 
children  of  Bethlehem,  and  rebuilt  the 
Temple. 

Herodianus  (3rd  century),  Greek  historian, 
bom  at  Halicarnassus,  whose  History  of 
Rome  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Poli- 
tian. 

Herodotus  {b.  circa  480  B.C.,  d.  circa  408), 
Greek  historian  ;  travelled  in  Egypt,  Pales- 
tine, and  Babylon  ;  composed  his  History  in 
Samos. 

Herold,  Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand  {b.  1791, 
d.  1833),  Fi'ench  composer,  chief  among 
whose  productions  were  Zes  Rosieres  (1817) ; 
Le  Muletier  (1823) ;  Marie  (1826) :  La  Son-^ 
namhde,  a  ballet ;  Zampa  (1831) ;  and  Lc  Pre 
aux  Clercs  (1832). 

Herophilus  {circa  300  B.C.),  Greek  physi- 
cian, disciple  of  Praxagoras,  some  of  whose 
writings  are  preserved  with  those  of  Galen  ; 
is  said  to  have  practised  vivisection  at 
Alexandria. 

Herrera,  Fernando  de  {b.  1634,  d.  1597), 
Spanish  poet,  called  "el  Divino"  by  his 
contemporaries;  wrote  an  ode  on  the  battle 
of  Lepanto,  and  some  prose  works. 

Herrera,  Francisno  de  {b.  1576,  d.  1656), 
Spanish  painter,  called  "el  Viejo,"  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  son  (q.v.)  ;  fotinded  a 
new  school,  and  was  master   of  Velasquez 
Being     suspected     of     coining,     he     took 


Her 


(442) 


Her 


sanctuary,  aud  painted  a  fine  altar-piece  at 
Seville,  in  consideratioii  of  which  he  waa 
pardoned. 

Herrera,  Francisco  do  (5.  1622,  d.  1686, 
sou  of  preceding,  called  "  el  Mozo,"  fled  to 
Rome,  and  studied  architecture,  but  returned 
to  Seville  on  his  father's  death.  He  was 
associated  with  Murillo  in  founding  the 
academy  there,  and  was  afterwards  made 
court-painter  by  Philip  IV.  He  painted 
portraits,  tavern-scenes,  aud  fish. 

Herrera  y  Tordesillas,  Antonio  (6.  1549, 
d.  1625),  Spanish  historian,  whose  chief  work 
was  Sistoria  General  de  los  Hechos  de  los 
Castellanos. 

Herrick,  Robert  <6.  1591,  ci.  1674),  EngUsh 
poet,  son  of  a  London  goldsmith ;  studied 
law  at  Cambridge,  but  afterwards  took  or- 
ders, and  obtained  a  crown  living  in  Devon- 
shire, from  which  he  was  ejected  in  1648, 
but  was  reinstated  at  the  Restoration.  His 
chief  work  is  Hesperides  (1648). 

Herries.  John  Charles  {b.  1778,  d.  1855), 
statesman;  was  commissary-general  from 
1811  to  1816,  and  auditor  of  the  Civil  List 
from  that  year  to  1823,  when  he  entered 
Parliament,  aud  was  made  secretary  to  the 
Treasury.  In  1827  he  was  for  a  short  time 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  ;  was  master  of 
the  Mint  and  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and 
Secretary  at  War  in  Peel's  first  ministry,  and 
was  president  of  the  board  of  control  under 
Lord  Derby  in  1852. 

Herring',  John  Frederick  {b.  1795,  d.  I860), 
painter,  for  some  time  drove  a  coach  on 
the  Xorth-road ;  his  subjects  were  chiefiy 
animals,  and  especially  race-horses. 

Herring,  Thomas,  D.D.  (J).  1671,  d.  1757), 
divine,  successively  Bishop  of  Bangor  and 
Archbishop  of  York  and  Canterbury;  was 
called  the"  Red  Herring,"  from  his  zeal  in 
roasing  the  country  in  favour  of  the  Hano- 
verian dynasty. 

Herschell,  Sir  William  {b.  1738,  d.  1822), 
English  astronomer  of  German  birth,  son 
of  a  hautboy-player  in  the  Hanoverian 
Guards  ;  having  obtained  in  1766  the  post  of 
organist  at  the  Octagon  Chapel,  Bath,  be- 
came an  active  musician,  but  also  studied 
astronomy,  and,  with  the  aid  of  his  sister, 
constructed  the  Newtonian  telescope.  In 
1780  he  sent  his  first  paper  to  the  Royal 
Society,  and  next  year  discovered  Uranus, 
and  was  appointed  private  astronomer  to  the 
king.  At  Slough  he  constructed  another 
telescope ;  was  knighted  in  1788,  in  1789 
gained  the  Copley  medal,  and  in  1820  became 
first  president  of  the  Astronomical  Society. 
His  sister,  Caeoline  {d.  1848),  waa  of  great 
assistance  to  him,  and  received  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Astronomical  Society. 


Herscliell,  Sir  John  Frederick,  Bart.  (4. 
1792,  d.  1871),  astronomer,  son  of  last- 
named  ;  was  senior  wrangler  at  Cambridge  ; 
devoted  himself  at  first  to  law  and  chemistry, 
but  soon  adopted  his  father's  pursuits.  He 
received  the  gold  medal  and  the  Lalande 
medal,  and  the  Copley  medal  for  his  mathe- 
matical researches.  After  having  been 
knighted,  and  made  president  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  he,  in  1833,  went  to 
the  Cape  to  survey  the  southern  heavens, 
and  was  created  a  baronet  at  the  Queen's 
coronation.  He  was  author  of  a  Discourse 
on  the  iStudy  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Outlines 
of  Astronomy,  aud  treatises  on  meteorology, 
physical  geography,  and  the  telescope.  He 
was  master  of  the  Mint  from  I80O  to  1855, 
and  made  some  important  chemical  dis- 
coveries. 

Herschell,  Right  Hon.  Lord  (*.  1837), 
English  lawyer  aud  statesman,  educated  at 
Bonn  and  University  College,  Loudon ;  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1860,  became  Queen's 
Counsel  in  1872,  and  entered  Parliament  as  a 
Liberal  in  1874.  He  was  recorder  of  Car- 
lisle from  1873  to  1880,  in  which  year  he  be- 
came Solicitor- General.  In  1886  he  was 
defeated  for  North  Lancashire,  but  was  made 
Lord  Chancellor.  In  1888  he  was  president 
of  the  Royal  Commission  to  inquire  into  the 
proceedings  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Works.  He  was  again  Lord  Chancellor 
in  1892. 

Hersent,  or  Hersan,  Charles  (d.  circa  1670), 
French  preacher,  attacked  the  monks,  and 
wrote  Optatus  Gallus  ;  the  book  was  burnt, 
and  the  author  excommunicated  (1650). 

Hertslet,  Sir  Edward  (6.  1824),  English 
administrator  ;  entered  the  Foreign  Office  in 
1840,  became  sub-librarian  in  1855,  and 
librarian  two  years  later.  In  1878  he  went 
to  Berlin  with  the  embassy  as  secretary,  and 
was  knighted  for  his  services.  He  is  author 
of  HertskVs  Cmnmercial  Treatise,  begun  by 
his  father,  The  Map  of  Europe  by  Treaty, 
and  many  similar  works. 

Hertz,  Heurik  (6.  1798,  d.  1870),  Danish 
dramatist,  whose  chief  work,  Kong  Rene's 
Batter,  waa  translated  into  English  and 
German. 

Hertzberg,  Ewald  Graf  von  (6.  1725,  d. 
1795),  Prussian  statesman  ;  foreign  minister 
for  thirty  years  ;  negotiated  the  peace  of 
Hubertsburg,  that  between  Russia  and 
Sweden  in  1762,  and  the  treaty  of  Reichen- 
bach,  besides  taking  part  in  the  first  par- 
tition of  Poland  and  the  pacification  of  the 
Netherlands. 

Herv6,  Florimond  Rouger  (6.  1825), 
French  composer,  bom  at  Foudoin,  near 
Arros,  has  been  musical  director  at  several 
Paris  theatres.     Z'(Eil  Creve,  ChiipSrie,  Lt 


Her 


(443) 


Hey 


Fetit  Faust,  are  some  of  his  most  successful 
light  operas. 

Hervey,  Hon.  andEight  Rev.  Lord  Arthur, 
D.D.  {b.  1S08).  English  divine,  fourth  son 
of  the  first  Marquis  of  Bristol ;  educated  at 
Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Camhridge ;  be- 
came Archdeacon  of  Sudbury  in  1862,  and 
was  nominated  to  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells 
in  1859. 

Hervey,  James  {h.  1714,  d.  1758),  English 
poet,  author  of  Meditations  among  the  Tombs, 
etc. 

Hervey,  Lord  John  {b.  1696,  d.  1743), 
Whig  statesman,  the*'Sporus"  of  Pope's 
satires  ;  was  lord  privy  seal  under  Walpole 
(1740-2),  and  \eii  Memoirs  oj  tue  Court  of 
George  II. 

Hesiod  {fl.  circa  800  B.C.),  Greek  poet, 
author  of  Works  and  Bays  and  Theogony. 

Hess,  Peter  von  (^i.  1792,  d.  1871).  Ger- 
man painter,  executed  for  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria  The  Battle  of  Leipsic,  and  accom- 
panied Otto  to  Greece  to  paint  his  entry 
into  Athens.  His  brother,  Heinrich  {d. 
1863),  was  also  employed  by  the  King  of 
Bavaria. 

Hesse,  Alexander  (*.  1806,  d.  1879),  French 
painter,  membre  de  I'lustitut,  and  first-class 
medallist,  whose  chief  pictures  were  Les 
Sonneurs  funebres  rendus  au  Titien  (1833), 
Une  RepuoUque  (1848),  and  portrait  of  Pre- 
sident Barthe  (1861). 

Hessels  or  Estius,  Wilhelm  (6.  1542,  d. 
1613),  Flemish  theologian,  author_  of  Ilis- 
toria  Marti/rittm  Gorcomienslum,  in  which 
he  eulogised  Balthasar  Gerard,  assassin  of 
William  of  Orange. 

Heurtley,  Charles  Abel,  D.D.  (6.  circa 
1806),  English  theologian,  Bampton  lecturer 
in  1845,  and  in  1853  Margaret  professor  of 
divinity  and  canon  of  Christ  Church.  He 
is  author  of  Harmonia  Symbolica,  a  col- 
lection of  creeds  belonging  to  the  Western 
Church  (1858),  and  editor  of  Be  Fide  et 
Symbole. 

Hewett,  Sir  Prescott  Gardner,  Bart., 
F.R.S.  [d.  1891),  surgeon,  educated  at  St. 
George's  Hospital  and  at  Paris :  became 
president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
in  1876,  and  received  a  baronetcy  in  1883. 
He  was  also  surgeon -in -ordinary  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  one  of  the  serjeant- 
surgeons. 

Hewett,  Sir  William  Nathan  Wrighte, 
K.C.B.  («.  1834.  d.  1888),  English  admiral, 
served  in  the  Burmese  war  (1851),  in  China 
(1857),  and  during  the  Crimean  campaign. 
He  was  made  K.C.B.  for  his  services  in  the 
Ashantee  war,  and  commanded  against  the 
Congo  pirates  in  1875,  and  in  Egj^t  (1382). 


In  1886  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Channel  fleet. 

Hewitson,  Wi.liam  Chapman  {b.  1806,  d. 
1878),  English  uatui-aUst ;  author  of  British 
Oology  (1833-42),  Illustrations  of  Biumal 
Lepidoptera  (1863),  and  other  works. 

Hewson,  William,  F.R.S.  (6.  1739,  d. 
1774),  English  physiologist,  friend  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  was  awarded  the  Copley  medal 
in  1770  for  his  researches  in  connection  with 
the  lymphatic  system  and  the  thymus  gland. 
He  also  exposed  the  errors  of  Leuwenhoek 
in  relation  to  blood  corpuscles. 

Heyden,  Jan  van  der  (6.  1637,  d.  1712), 
Dutch  painter,  his  subjects  being  chiefly 
architectural,  and  especially  dealing  with 
Amsterdam. 

Heylin,  Peter  (b.  1599,  d.  1662),  English 
theologian,  author  of  Life  of  Archbishop 
Laud,  and  histories  of  Episcopacy,  the 
Presbyterians,  and  the  lieformation. 

Heyne,  Christian  Gottlob  (6.  1729,  d. 
1812),  German  scholar,  bom  in  great  poverty 
at  Chemnitz  ;  was  invited  by  Count  Briihl 
to  Dresden,  and  made  copyist  in  the  library ; 
and  after  becoming  sub -librarian,  and  losing 
all  his  property  at  the  siege  of  Dresden,  was 
appointed  in  'l763  to  a  professorship  at 
Gottingen,  during  the  tenure  of  which  he 
edited  several  classics,  notably  Virgil  and 
Homer.  His  daughter,  Therese  (d.  1829), 
married  Forster,  and  then  Huber,  and  wrote 
JS'otes  on  Holland  (1811)  and  Flkn  Fercy 
(1822). 

Heyse,  Paul  Johann  Ludwig  (b.  1830), 
poet  and  novelist,  son  of  a  professor  at  Ber- 
lin ;  in  1852  went  to  Italy  to  examine  MSS., 
and  in  1854  to  Munich,  where  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Franz  Kugler.  He  is  author  of 
Francesca  di  Mtmim  (1850),  Bie  Pfalzer  in 
Irland  (1855),  Elizabeth  Charlotte  (I860), 
tragedies;  Thekla.a.  poem  (1858);  Gesam- 
melte  Kovellen  in  Versen  (1863),  Troubadour 
Novellen  (1882),  etc. 

Heytesbury,  William  a' Court,  Lord  (A. 
1779,  d.  I860),  English  diplomatist;  was 
ambassador  at  Madrid  (1820),  at  Lisbon 
(1824),  at  St.  Petersburg  (1828-32),  and  Lord- 
lieutenaut  of  Ireland  from  1844  to  1846. 

Heywood,  James,  F.R.S.  {b.  1810),  poli- 
ticiau  and  writer,  bom  at  Manchester,  and 
educated  at  Trinity,  Cambridge ;  _  entere_d 
Parliament  for  North  Lancashire  in  1847, 
and  in  1850  moved  an  address  for  a  com- 
mission of  inquiry  into  the  English  and  Irish 
universities.  He  obtained  the  removal  of 
religious  tests  (1854-6),  and  was  able  to  take 
his  own  degree  in  1857.  He  wrote  a  History 
of  University  Subscription  Tests,  and  trans- 
lated Huber's  English  Universities,  and 
other  works. 


Hey 


(  444  ) 


Hig 


Heywood,  Jolm  (d.  1565),  English  poet, 
"the  Epigiammatist,"  iu  great  favour  with 
Heury  VIII.  and  Mary,  ou  whose  death  he 
weut  to  Mechliu.  His  chief  work  was  Tlie 
Spider  and  the  Fly.  Some  poems  by  his  sou, 
Jaspee  (d.  1598),  are  priuted  iu  The  Faradlne 
of  Dainty  Devices. 

Hejrwood,  Thomas  (6.  circa  1570),  drama- 
tist and  actor,  a  native  of  Liucolushire, 
and  fellow  of  Peterhouse,  Cambridge.  He 
began  to  write  plays  iu  1596;  the  chief  of 
them  being,  A  Woman  Killed  with  Kindnens 
hdO?),  The  Enylish  Traveller  (1633),  aud 
The  Captives. 

Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  succeeded  Ahaa 
about  726  B.C.,  and  defeated  the  invasion  of 
the  Assjiians. 

Hiao-King-Ti,  Emperor  of  China  (*.  188 
B.C.,  d.  141  B.C.),  made  au  immense  hospital 
for  old  men,  widows,  aud  orphans. 

Hiao-Tsoung  {b.  1469,  d.  1505),  Emperor 
of  China,  of  the  Ming  dj-nasty ;  numbered 
his  people,  and  set  ou  foot  a  revision  of  laws 
and  customs. 

Hiao-Wen-Ti  (b.  202  e.g.,  d.  157  b.c), 
Emperor  of  China,  revoked  the  laws  by 
which  parents  were  made  responsible  for 
the  crimes  of  their  children,  and  introduced 
mutilation  as  a  punishment. 

Hickes,  George  {b.  1642,  d.  1715),  English 
clergyman  and  Saxon  scholar,  deprived  of 
his  living  as  a  non- juror  1689  ;  was  author 
at  Institutiones  Grammaticce  Anylo-Saxonica 
et  Mceso-Gothicce. 

Hicks,  EUas  (6.  1748,  d.  1830),  Ameri- 
can preacher  and  Quaker  controversialist; 
bom  in  Long  Island,  strongly  discoun- 
tenanced slavery,  and  caused  a  schism  among 
the  Society  of  Friends  by  the  breadth  of  his 
views. 

Hicks,  Henry,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  {b.  1837),Eng- 
lish  geologist ;  graduated  at  St.  Andrew's  in 
1878,_and  practised  at  St.  David's  from  1862 
to  1871,  when  he  came  to  London,  and  pub- 
lished the  results  of  his  geological  researches 
in  Wales  aud  Scotland.  He  was  president 
of  the  London  Geologists'  Association, 
1883-85. 

Hicks,  William,  "  Hicks  Pasha  "  (b.  1830, 
a.  1883),  English  soldier;  entered  the  Bom- 
bay  army  in  1849,  served  in  Bengal,  1857-9, 
m  the  Rnhilcund  campaign,  the  Mutiny,  and 
tiie  Abyssiman  war,  and  was  gazetted 
colone  in  1880.  In  1883  he  was  appointed 
by  Baker  Pasha  chief  of  the  staff  in  the 
bouaan,  and  in  September  of  that  year  was 
surrounded  and  destroyed  while  on  the 
march  through  the  desert  to  Khartoum. 

Hicks,  William  Mitchinson,  F.R.S.  (fc. 
I860),   mathematician ;    was  fellow   of   St. 


John's  College,  Cambridge,  from  1876  to 
1887,  and  became  principal  of  Firth  College, 
Sheffield,  1883.  At  the  British  Association 
of  1881-2  he  read  a  liepwt  on  Recent  Fro- 
yrens  in  Hydro-Dynamics,  and  is  the  author 
of  many  mathematical  works. 

Hicks-Beach,  Eight  Hon.  Sir  Michael 
Edward,  Bart.  {b.  1837),  statesman,  educated 
at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  entered  Parha- 
ment  in  1864  as  Conservative  member  for 
East  Gloucestershire.  He  was  parhamentary 
secretary  to  the  Poor  Law  BoaTd  in  1868, 
Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  in  1874,  and 
entered  the  cabinet  in  1877,  becoming  Secre- 
tary for  the  Colonies  next  year.  After  a 
period  of  opposition,  during  which  he  made 
at  least  one  powerful  speech,  he  became 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  aud  leader  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in  May,  1885.  On 
the  return  of  Lord  Salisbury  to  power  he 
was  at  first  Irish  Secretary,  but  was  obUged 
to  resign  owing  to  ill-health,  and,  after  a 
short  retirement,  became  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  (1888). 

Hien-Foung  {b.  1831,  d.  1861),  Emperor 
of  China  ;  cume  to  the  throne  in  ISoO,  and 
had  infmediately  to  encounter  a  rebellion. 
Nankin  was  taken  by  the  rebels  in  1853, 
and  after  his  defeat  at  Pali-Kao  in  1860  the 
emperor  submitted  to  conditions  dictated  by 
the  English  and  French. 

Hiero  I.,  ruler  of  Syracuse  {d.  467  B.C.), 
succeeded  Gelon  in  478  B.C.,  and  defeated 
the  Etruscan  fleet  at  Cumse  four  years  after; 
was  the  patron  of  ^schylus  and  Pindar. 

Hiero  II.  {d.  215  B.C.),  served  under 
Pyrrhus,  and  was  made  King  of  Sji'acuse 
in  270  B.C.  :  allied'himself  with  Eome  against 
the  Mamertines,  aud  afterwards  with  Car- 
thage ;  after  making  peace  with  Eome  in 
263  he  remained  her  ally. 

Hieronymus.     [See  Jerome.] 

Hiffeman,  Paul  {h.  1719,  d.  1777),  Irish 
writer,  befriended  by  Garrick  and  Gold- 
smith, wrote  The  Ticklers  and  Tlie  Tuners. 

Higden,  Ralph  {d.  1363),  Benedictine 
chronicler,  author  oi  Poh/ehronicon,  a  trans- 
lation of  which  was  printed  by  Caxton. 

Higgins,  Matthew  James  (b.  1810,  d. 
1868),  Irish  critic  and  contributor  (under 
the  _  pseudonyms  of  "Paterfamilias."  "A 
Civilian,"  and  especially  of  "Jacob  Om- 
nium ")  to  the  Times.  A  collection  of  his 
works,  called  Social  Sketches,  was  printed  in 
1857.  As  husband  of  a  daughter  of  Sir 
Henry  Tichborne,  he  was  active  in  opposing 
the  fraudulent  claims  of  Arthur  Orton. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth  {h.  1823), 
American  writer,  bom  at  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, at  first  a  Unitarian  minister,  entered 


Hig 


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Hil 


keenly  into  the  movement  against  slavery, 
and  was  severely  woimded  during  the  Civil 
war.  Among  his  works  are  Malhone  :  an  Old- 
port  Ho/nance  (1869)  and  Oldport  Bays  (1874), 
Sarvard  Memonal Biographies  (1866),  Brief 
Biographies  of  European  Statesmen  (1875), 
Common-sense  about  Women  (1881),  and 
Women  and  Men  (1888). 

Highmore,  Joseph  {b.  1692,  d.  1780), 
English  portrait-painter  ;  executed  the  por- 
traits of  members  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath 
on  its  revival,  and  wrote  Principles  of  Per- 
spective. 

Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries  (h.  401,  d.  449), 
devoted  his  riches  to  charity,  withstood  the 
Pope's  claims,  and  perhaps  drew  up  the 
Athanasian  creed. 

Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poitiers  (d.  367),  wrote 
A  Treatise  on  the  Trinitg,  and  opposed  the 
Arians  at  Constantinople  and  Milan. 

Hilary,  Bishop  of  Rome  {d.  467),  suc- 
ceeded Leo  I. ,  and  opposed  the  Eutychians 
and  Nestorians. 

Hildebrand.     [See  Gregory  "VII.  ] 

HUdebrant,  Eduard  (6.  1818,  d.  1868), 
German  painter,  bom  at  Dantzig  ;  was  for 
some  time  an  assistant  of  Elrause,  the  marine 
painter,  and  aft«rwards  travelled  for  two 
years  in  Egypt,  India,  China,  and  America, 
and  foiinded  his  landscapes  on  the  scenery 
of  those  countries. 

HUdebrant,  Ferdinand  Gottlieb  (h.  1804, 
d.  1874),  painter  of  the  Diisseldorf  school, 
bom  at  Stettin  ;  studied  under  Schadow, 
and  went  with  him  to  Italy  in  1830.  His 
chief  pictures  were  Judith  and  Holophernes, 
The  Brigand,  The  Murder  of  the  Young 
Princes,  Othello  and  Desde)nona,  and  many 
Shakespearian  scenes. 

Hildegarde,  Samt  {b.  1100,  d.  1178),  Ab- 
bess of  St.  Rupert  on  the  Rhine,  wrote  many 
works  of  a  mystical  character,  and  letters. 

Hildreth,  _  Richard  {b.  1807,  d.  1865), 
American  historian,  author  of  a  History  of 
the  United  States  (1849-52),  Japan  as  it  Was 
(1855)  ;  Tlie  White  Slaue,  a  novel ;  was  for 
some  time  consul  at  Trieste. 

Hiles,  Henry,  Mus.Doc.  {b.  1826),  English 
writer  on  music,  bom  at  Shrewsbury  ;  after 
being  organist  in  London  and  Manchester, 
was  appointed  in  1880  lecturer  on  harmony 
at  Owens  College.  His  chief  works  are  The 
Grammar  of  Music  and  Part-writing :  or. 
Modern  Counterpoint,  and  he  composed  The 
Crusaders,  a  cantata,  and  several  songs  and 
anthems. 

Hilgenfeld,  Adolf  Bernard  (1823),  Ger- 
man theologian  of  the  Tubingen  school, 
professor  at  Jena  from  1850  to  1869.    HLs 


chief  works  are  Bas  Evangelium  und  die 
Brief e  Johanms  (1849),  Ueber  die  Evangelien 
(1854),  Ber  Kanon  und  die  Kritik  des  "Neuen 
Testament  (1863),  and  Novum  Testamentum 
Extra  Canonum  Receptum. 

Hill,  Aaron  (b.  1685,  d.  1750),  English  poet, 
mentioned  in  IVieBunciad,  author  of  Camillus 
and  Laj'a,  also  wrote  words  for  Handel,  and 
a  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

Hill,  David  Octavius  {h.  1812,  d.  1870), 
Scotch  painter ;  at  the  age  of  eighteen  a 
foundation  member  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy,  painted  the  Establishment  of  the 
Free  Hirk,  many  scenes  from  Scottish  pea- 
sant-life, and  afterwards  landscapes. 

HiU,  Frank  Harrison  {b.  1830),  English 
joumaUst';  was  called  to  the  bar,  went  to 
Ireland  to  edit  the  Northern  Whig  in  1860, 
and  edited  the  Baily  Neivs  from  1870  to 
1886.  He  published  in  1873  Political  Por- 
traits and  The  Political  Adventures  of  Lord 
Beaconsjield,  and  also  wrote  the  life  of 
Canning  in  the  "  English  Worthies  "  Series, 
and  of  Grey  in  the  "  Statesmen  "  Series. 

Hill,  Matthew  Davenport  (6.  1792,  d. 
1872),  reformer  of  the  criminal  law,  brother 
of  Sir  Rowland  Hill ;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1819,  and  defended  Cartwright  and 
Carlile,  the  Nottingham  rioters  of  1831, 
and  the  Rebeccaites  in  1843.  He  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  1834,  and  recorder 
of  Bii-mingham  in  1839,  and  was  also  a 
member  of  Parliament  from  1S32  to  1835. 
In  1843  he  aided  in  the  foundation  of 
the  Society  for  the  Amendment  of  the 
Criminal  Law,  and  in  1857  published  his 
Suggestions  for  the  Repression  of  Crime,  and 
was  active  in  the  establishment  of  reforma- 
tories. His  daughter,  Joanna,  and  her 
sisters  assisted  him  in  his  work,  and  carried 
it  on  after  his  death. 

Hill,  Octavia  {b.  circa  1838),  English  social 
reformer ;  with  the  help  of  Mr.  Ruskin  pur- 
chased and  managed  poor  property  in  Mary- 
lebone  and  Drury  Lane,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  foundation  and  growth  of  the 
Charity  Organisation  Society. 

HiU,  Sir  Richard  {b.  1733,  d.  1808), 
English  Methodist  controversialist ;  attacked 
Oxford  University  in  Pietas  Oxoniensis 
(1768)  for  the  expulsion  of  six  under- 
graduates as  Methodists  ;  entered  Parliament 
in  1781,  and  sat  till  1806,  being  a  telling 
spea  ker. 

Hill,  Rowland  (b.  1744,  d.  1833),  English 
Dissenter,  brother  of  preceding,  took  orders 
in  the  Church,  but  opened  an  Independent 
chapel  in  Blackfriars-road  in  1783;  pub- 
lished Village  Bialogues  in  1801. 

Hill,  Sir  Rowland,  K.C.B.  (A.  1795,  i. 
1874),  founder  of  the  peony  post,   son  of 


Hil 


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Hiu 


T.  W.  Hill,  of  Birmingham,  and  named  after 
tlie  preaclier,  issued  iu  1837  his  pamphlet  ou 
Fost  Ojfice  lU'form,  the  suggestions  of  which 
were  carried  into  effect  iu  184U.  He  held  a 
position  in  the  Treasury  for  two  years,  but 
lost  it  on  the  change  of  government.  He 
received,  however,  a  public  testimonial  in 
184G,  when  he  became  secretary  to  the  Post 
Office.  He  retired  iu  1864  on  his  full  salary, 
having  also  been  knighted  in  1860.  As 
chairman  of  the  Brighton  railway,  he  started 
the  first  express. 

HiU,  Rowland,  Viscount  {b.  1772,  d.  1842), 
English  general,  son  of  Sir  John  Hill,  dis- 
tinguished himself  under  Abercromby  in 
Egypt,  and  in  1808  went  to  Spain.  In  1809 
he  became  lieutenant-general,  and  com- 
manded the  2nd  army  corps  in  Portugal. 
In  1814  he  was  created  Baron  Hill  of 
Almarez,  for  the  capture  of  the  forts  of  that 
name,  and  at  Waterloo  headed  the  brigade 
which  repulsed  the  Old  Guard.  He  was 
made  commander-in-chief  in  1828,  and 
viscount  in  1842. 

Hillel  the  Elder  {b.  112  b.c,  d.  8  b.c), 
Jewish  rabbi,  father  of  a  school  of  oral 
tradition,  much  of  which  is  contained  in  the 

Mishna. 

Hillel  the  Younger  (4th  century),  director 
of  the  Jewish  school  at  Tiberias,  descendant 
of  preceding,  reformed  Jewish  chronology, 
aud  was  author  of  the  Gemara. 

HiUer,  Ferdinand  {b.  1811,  d.  1885), 
German  pianist  and  composer,  born  of 
Jewish  parents  at  Frankf  ort-on-Main,  played 
in  public  at  ten,  and  began  to  compose  at 
twelve.  He  was  placed  with  Hummel  at 
Weimar,  and  accompanied  him  to  Vieuua, 
where  he  saw  Beethoven  ou  his  death-bed. 
He  stayed  at  Paris  from  1828  to  1835,  where 
he  made  known  the  works  of  the  German 
masters.  He  afterwards  went  to  Milan, 
where  he  met  Liszt  and  Rossini,  and  pro- 
duced Eomilda.  In  1839  he  produced  at 
Leipzig,  under  the  superinteudence  of  Men- 
delssohn, his  I)ie  Zerstbrung  Jerusaleins, 
As  kapellmeister  at  Cologne  he  organised 
the  Conservatoire  there,  and  from  1850  he 
conducted  the  Lower  Rhine  festivals.  He 
visited  England  in  1871  and  1872. 

HiUer,  or  Hiiller,  Johann  Adam  (b.  1728, 
d.  1804),  German  composer,  bom  near 
Gorlitz,  studied  law  and  music  at  Leipzig, 
and  vras  appointed  tutor  by  Coimt  Briihl 
in  1758.  He  was  made  director  of  con- 
certs, and  founded  a  school  for  perform- 
ing the  oratorios  of  Handel  and  other 
masters.  His  concerts  spirituels  were  the 
piogenitors  of  the  Geivandhaus  concerts. 
He  also  composed  for  the  theatre  Sing- 
spiele. 

Hilliard,   Nicholas    (6.    1547,    d.    1619), 


English  portrait-painter  of  the  school  of 
Holbein ;  was  also  a  carver  and  embosser  of 
gold. 

Hilton,  John  {d.  1655),  English  Royalist 
composer ;  author  of  A  yres :  or.  Fa  Las,  Catch 
That  Catch  Can,  and  many  madrigals  and 
catches. 

HUton,  Walter  {d.  1396),  English  Car- 
thusian monk,  wrote  The  8cak :  or.  Ladder 
of  Perfection,  a  poem,  about  1440. 

Hilton,  William  {b.  1786,  d.  1839),  painter, 
began  to  exhibit  at  the  Academy  in  1803, 
and  gained  several  prizes  at  the  British  In- 
stitution. In  1813  he  became  A.R.A.,  in 
1818  R.A.,  and  in  1827  keeper  of  the 
Academy.  His  Christ  Crowned  with  Thorns 
is  now  at  South  Kensington,  and  Edith  Dis- 
covering the  Dead  Body  of  Harold,  with 
several  others,  is  in  the  National  Gallery. 

Hincmar  {d.  882),  Archbishop  of  Rheims, 
favourite  of  Louis  le  Debonuaire  and  a  great 
persecutor. 

Hincks,  Edward,  D.D.  {b.  1792,  d.  1866), 
Irish  archaeologist,  author  of  Monograms 
from  Assyrian  Monuments  discovered  the 
Persian  cuneiform  vowel  system. 

Hincks,  Sir  Francis  (b.  1807,  d.  1885), 
Canadian  statesman,  grandson  of  last  named, 
was  born  at  Cork,  and  went  to  Canada  in 
1831.  In  the  rebellion  he  took  the  Liberal 
side,  and  in  1841  became  member  of  the  first 
Parliament  held  after  the  Union  and  ia- 
spector-geueral  of  public  accounts,  which 
office  he  agam  held  in  1848.  In  1851  he 
became  premier,  and  developed  greatly  the 
economic  resources  of  the  country,  holding 
office  till  1854.  He  then  visited  England, 
was  governor  of  Barbadoes  from  1855  to 
1862,  and  from  that  year  till  1869  of  British 
Guiana.  After  this  he  returned  to  Canada, 
and  was  finance  minister  under  Sir  John 
Macdonald  till  1873.  He  was  author  of 
The  Folitical  History  of  Canada,  1840-55. 

Hind,  John  Russell  {b.  1823),  English 
astronomer,  born  at  Nottingham,  came  to 
London  ia  1840  as  a  civil  engineer's  assistant, 
but  obtained  a  post  iu  the  Royal  Obser- 
vatory. In  1844  he  became  F.R.A.S.,  and 
two  years  later  published  The  Solar  System. 
In  1847  he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the 
King  of  Denmark  for  the  discovery  of  a 
planet,  in  1850  discovered  Victoria,  and  in 
the  years  1851-4  several  others.  In  1852  he 
was  granted  a  pension,  and  received  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Astronomical  Society,  and  the 
Lalande  medal.  In  1880  he  became  jjresi- 
dent  of  the  Astronomical  Society.  His  chief 
works  are  Expected  Return  of  the  Great 
Comet  of  1266  and  1556  (1848),  Astronomical 
Vocabulary  (1852),  and  Descriptive  Treatise 
on  Comets  (1857). 


Hin 


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Hoa 


Hingeston-Randolph,  Francis  Charles 
{b.  1833),  antiquary  and  divine,  became 
prebendary  of  Exeter  in  1885.  His  chief 
works  are  Specimens  of  Ancient  Cornish 
Crosses,  etc.,  and  a  collection  of  Royal  and 
Historical  Letters  in  the  Hetgn  of  Henry 
IV. 

Hiouen-Thsang  (6.  603,  d.  664),  Buddhist 
traveller  and  philosopher;  traversed  Asia, 
and  collected  many  books  in  India,  which  he 
translated  into  Chinese.  A  French  trans- 
lation of  his  account  of  his  travels  has  been 
made. 

Hippaxchus  [Jl.  circa  150  B.C.),  Greek 
philosopher  ;  established  the  theory  of  the 
sun,  compiled  a  catalogue  of  stars,  and  in- 
vented a  planisphere. 

Hipparchus  and  Hippias,  Peisistratidae, 
succeeded  Peisistratus  in  628  B.C.  as 
"tyrants"  at  Athens,  but  the  former  was 
slain  by  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton,  and 
Hippias  was  expelled  by  the  Alcmaionidae, 
and  fled  to  Persia.  He  was  killed  at  Mara- 
thon. 

Hippocrates  {b.  460  B.C.,  d.  357),  Greek 
physician,  practised  at  Athens  and  Pella, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  science  of 
medicine.  He  wrote  The  Nature  of  Man, 
Epidemics,  Aphorisms,  and  other  works. 

Hire.     \_Sce  La  Hire.] 

Hirst,    Thomas    Archer,    Ph.D.,   F.E.S. 

{b.  1830),  English  mathematician,  bom 
at  Heckmondwike,  iorksliire,  met  Tyndall 
at  Halifax,  and  afterwards  joined  him  at 
Marburg  (Hesse-Cassel).  After  studying  at 
Gottingen  and  Berlin,  he  became  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Eoyal  Institu- 
tion. In  1857  he  ascended  Mont  Blanc  with 
TjTidall.  On  his  return  in  1860  became 
mathematical  master  at  University  College 
school.  He  was  one  of  the  original  mem- 
bers of  the  Mathematical  Society  and 
president  1872-4,  and  was  subsequently 
professor  of  physics  and  of  mathematics  in 
University  College,  Loudon,  general' secre- 
tary to  the  British  Association,  assistant- 
registrar  of  London  University,  and  director 
of  studies  at  the  Royal  Xaval  School. 

Histiseus  {d.  circa  494),  tyrant  of  Miletus, 
saved  the  army  of  Darius  at  the  Danube 
(513  B.C.)  ;  was  made  ruler  of  Mitylene,  but 
subsequently  instituted  the  Ionian  revolt, 
and  was  put  to  death. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  D.D.  (*.  1793,  d. 
1864),  American  geologist,  sometime  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in 
Amherst  College,  of  which  he  became 
president  in  1844.  He  was  appointed  head 
of  the  Massachusetts  geological  survey  in 
1830,  and  came  to  Eiirope  in  1850  to  visit 
the  agricultural  schools.      His  chief  work 


was  The  Religion  of  Geology  and  its  Connected 
Sciences  (1851). 

Hittorf,  Jacob  Ignatius  (b.  1793,  d.  1867), 
Gennan  architect  and  archaeologist,  em- 
ployed by  Louis  Philippe,  Napoleon  III., 
and  the  Republic  ;  was  author  of  V Archi- 
tecture Folychrome  ch-ez  les  Grecs,  and  some 
works  on  Sicilian  architecture. 

Hitzig,  Ferdinand  (6.  1807,  d.  1875), 
German  biblical  critic,  professor  at  Zurich 
and  Heidelberg,  wrote  Bcgriff  der  Xritik 
am  altcn  Testament praktisch  erortert  (critical 
works  on  the  minor  prophets),  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel  (1869-70),  and  many  other 
works. 

Hoadley,  Benjamin,  D.D.  {b.  1676,  d. 
1761) , English  theologian.  Bishop  successively 
of  Bangor  (1715),  Hereford,  Salisbury,  and 
Winchester,  whose  sennon  before  George  I. 
on  March  31,  1717,  occasioned  the  Ban- 
gorian  controversy. 

Hoadley,  Benjamin  (6.  1706,  d.  1757), 
physician,  sou  of  preceding ;  attended  George 
II.  and  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  and 
wrote  The  Suspicious  Husband,  a  comedy 
(1747). 

Hoadley,  John  (i.  1711,  d.  1776),  English 
writer  and  divine,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
friend  of  Garrick  and  Hogarth ;  published 
his  father's  works,  and  wrote  several 
di'amas,  The  Contrast,  etc.,  and  the  oratorio 
Jephthah. 

Hoar,  Ebenezer  {b.  1816),  American 
la-vvj^er,  bom  at  Concord,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1839,  and  was  successively  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  senate,  judge  of  Com- 
mon Pleas,  and  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  In  1870  his  nomination  as  tJuited 
States  senator  was  not  confirmed.  He  had 
previously  been  United  States  attorney- 
general,  and  in  1872  entered  Congress.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Washington  Treaty 
Commission  in  1871. 

Hoar,  George  Frisbie  (b.  1826),  politician, 
brother  of  last-named,  after  having  been 
member  of  the  State  House  of  Represent- 
atives and  Senate,  was  elected  member  of 
Congress  in  1868,  and  three  times  re-elected. 
He  was  elected  United  States  senator  in 
1877,  was  re-elected  in  1883  and  1889.  He 
presided  over  the  Republican  Convention  of 
1880,  and  served  on  the  Electoral  Commis- 
sion of  1876. 

Hoare,  Prince  {b.  1755,  d.  1834),  painter 
and  dramatist,  was  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  wrote  Xo  Song — Xo  Supper, 
and  other  pieces.  His  father,  William  {d. 
1792),  was  one  of  the  first  Royal  Acade- 
micians. 

Hoare,  Sir  Richard  Colt  (b.  1758,  d.  1838), 


Hob 


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Hoe 


English  antiquary,  translated  and  annotated 
The  Itinerari/  of  Giraldus  Canibreusis,  and 
began  histories  of  ancient  and  modern  Wilt- 
shire, besides  giving,  in  his  Classical  Tour 
through  Italy,  an  account  of  his  ti-avels. 

Hobart-Hampden,  Hon.  Augustus  Charles 
{b.  1S22,  '/.  1SS6),  English  sailor,  known  as 
Hobart  Pasha,  was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Buckinghamshire,  and  entered  the  royal 
navy  iu  1836.  He  did  good  service  in  South 
America  in  the  suppression  of  the  slave 
trade,  served  in  the  Crimea,  being  present 
at  Bomarsund  aud  Sweaborg,  and  retired  on 
half  pay  in  1860.  He  nest  took  service  as  a 
blockade  runner  in  the  American  Civil  war, 
and  afterwards,  having  entered  the  Turkish 
navy,  suppressed  the  revolt  in  Crete  in  1867, 
and  was  created  admiral  and  pasha.  His 
name  was  struck  off  the  British  Navy  List 
when  he  commanded  against  the  Greeks, 
but  it  was  restored  iu  1874.  He  was  again 
struck  off  for  commanding  the  Turkish  fleet 
in  the  war  of  1877-8,  in  which  England  was 
neutral,  but  was  reinstated  with  the  rank 
of  vice-admiral  in  1885. 

Hobbema,  Meindert  or  Minderhert  {b. 
1638,  d.  1709),  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
pupil  of  Ruysdael ;  several  of  his  pictures 
are  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Hobbes,  Thomas  {b.  1588,  d.  1679), 
philosopher,  bom  at  Malmesbury  and 
educated  at  Oxford ;  met  Descartes  aud 
Gasseudi  at  Paris  when  tutor  to  members 
of  the  Devonshire  family  ;  was  afterwards 
mathematical  tutor  to  Prince  Charles 
(Charles  II.).  He  received  a  pension  at 
the  Restoration,  but  his  chief  works  were 
censured  by  Parliament ;  these  were  The 
Leviathan  and  De  C'ire.  He  also  wrote 
Behemoth,  a  history  of  the  Civil  war. 

Hobhouse,  Right  Hon.  Baron  {b.  1819), 
English  lawyer,  became  a  member  of  the 
Chancery  bar  in  1845,  and  practised  subse- 
quently in  the  Rolls  court.  He  was  obliged 
to  retire  on  account  of  ill-health  iu  1866,  but 
was  appointed  Cliarity  Commissioner  in  1869, 
and  member  of  the  Council  of  India  in  1872, 
being  knighted  on  his  retirement  from  that 
post  five  years  later.  In  1881  he  became 
Privy  Councillor  and  member  of  the  Judicial 
Committee,  and  in  1885  received  a  peerage. 

Hobhouse,  John  Cam  (b.  1786,  d.  1869), 
Lord  Broughton,  chiefly  remembered  as  the 
friend  of  Byron.  As  a  Liberal  he  repre- 
sented Westminster,  Nottingham,  and  Har- 
wich, and  was  Irish  Secretary  and  President 
of  the  Board  of  Control.  In  1831  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  baronet,  and  was  made 
a  peer  in  1851. 

Hoche,  Lazare  (b.  1763,  d.  1797),  French  '  Hoefer,  J.  C.  Ferdinand  (b.  1811,  d.  1878), 
republican  general,  rose  from  the  ranks,  German  chemist  and  writer ;  after  fighting 
and  at  twenty-five  commanded  the  army  of     La    the  Greek    war    of   independence  and 


the  Moselle ;  was  imprisoned  owing  to  the 
spite  of  St  Just,  but  sent  to  La  Vendee  on 
his  release,  which  country  he  succeeded  in 
pacifying.  Afterwards  he  commanded  an 
expedition  which  was  intended  to  make  a 
descent  on  Ireland,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  Germany  against  the  Austrians.  He 
died  in  camp  under  suspicious  circumstances. 

Hodges,  William,  R.A.  (i.  1744,  d.  1797), 
artist,  painted  scenes  from  the  countries 
visited  by  him  in  Captain  Cook's  second 
voyage  ;  made  a  fortune  iu  India,  and,  after 
living  iu  London,  went  to  Russia. 

Hodgkinson,  Eaton  (b.  1789,  d.  1861), 
eugiueer,  co-operated  with  Fairbaim  in  his 
inventions,  and  obtained  the  gold  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society  aud  liis  election  as  fellow 
for  his  ExyeriineHtal  Researches  on  tihe 
Strength  of  TMars  of  Cast-iron  and  Other 
Materials. 

Hodgson,  Brian  Houghton  {b.  1800), 
Orientalist ;  entered  the  Indian  civil  ser- 
vice iu  1818,  was  secretary  to  the  embassy  in 
Nepaul  from  1820  to  1829,  and  resident  there 
from  1833  to  1843,  when  he  retired.  In 
1824  he  discovered  the  Sanscrit  Buddhist 
scriptures,  and  four  years  later  wrote  an 
article  on  Buddhism  in  the  Asiatic  Re- 
searches. Copies  of  this  aud  others  of  his 
woi'ks  were  distributed  throughout  Europe 
at  the  author's  expense,  and  in  1835  the 
Grand  Lama  entered  into  correspondence 
with  him,  and  sent  him  valuable  Tibetan 
works.  He  spent  most  of  his  time  in  India 
till  1858,  and  was  elected  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1877,  besides  receiving 
numberless  distinctions  from  foreign  socie- 
ties. His  chief  publications  are  Literature 
and  Religion  of  the  Buddhists  of  the  North 
(1841),  Aborigines  of  India  (1847),  and 
various  essays  on  Tibetan  and  Indian 
subjects. 

Hodgson,  John  Evan,  R.A.  (5.  1831), 
painter,  spent  most  of  his  early  years  in 
Russia  in  his  father's  business,  but  in  1853 
returned  to  England,  aud  three  years  later 
exhibited  his  first  picture.  He  painted  at 
first  historical  pictures,  but  after  his  visit  to 
Africa  made  a  speciality  of  African  subjects. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  The 
Patriot  Wife  (1857),  First  Sight  of  the 
Armada  (1863),  several  Arabian  studies 
(1868-71),  A  Tunisian  Bird-Seller  (1873), 
I  A  Shipwrecked  Sailor  Waiting  for  a  Sail 
{\SSl),  Ragasselma:  the  Water-Dance  (188S), 
aud  Robert  Burns  at  the  Plough  (1887). 

Hody,  Humphrey  {b.  1659,  d.  1706), 
i  scholar,  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford,  and 
j  patron  of  Wadham  College. 


Hoe 


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Hoh 


travelling,  became  secretary  to  Cousin,  and 
translated  Kant's  Kritik  into  French.  He 
was  appointed  by  the  French  Government 
to  report  on  German  medical  schools,  edited 
the  NouveUe  Biographie  Generate,  and  wrote 
a  Histoire  du  Chimie. 

Hoey,  Frances  Sarah  (6.  1830),  English 
writer,  author  of  A  House  of  Cards,  A 
Stern  Chase  (1886),  and  other  novels,  and 
translator  of  Memoires  de  Madame  de 
Reinusat,  Frederic  le  Grande  et  Marie 
Therese,  etc. 

Hofer,  Andreas  (6.  1767,  d.  1810),  Tyrolese 
patriot  and  innkeeper,  headed  the  revolt  by 
which  the  Bavarians  were  driven  from  the 
Tyrol  in  1809,  and  recaptured  Innsbruck 
from  them  and  their  French  allies.  Austria 
having  been  compelled  to  abandon  the  pro- 
vince by  the  peace  of  Vienna,  the  French 
again  made  an  invasion  and  were  defeated 
by  Hofer,  who  was  at  last  betrayed  and 
shot  at  Mantua.  His  family  was  afterwards 
ennobled  by  the  emperor. 

Hoftoan,  Charles  Fenno  (b.  1806,  d.  1884), 
American  writer,  friend  of  Bryant,  esta- 
blished in  1833  The  Knickerbocker  Magazine, 
and  afterwards  wrote  A  Winter  in  the  West, 
Wild  Scenes  in  Forest  and  Prairie,  and  some 
novels  and  poems.  The  last  thirty-five 
years  of  his  life  he  passed  in  a  lunatic 
asylum  at  Harrisburg. 

Hoffman,  David  {b.  1784,  d.  1854),  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  writer,  professor  of  law  in 
the  Marj^land  University  (1817-1836),  was  in 
England  from  1847  to  1853,  when  he  contri- 
buted American  articles  to  the  Times,  and 
was  engaged  in  writing  his  Chronicles 
selected  from  the  Originals  of  Cartapahilm, 
the  Wandering  Jew,  which  he  left  unfinished. 

Hoffmann,  Ernst  Theodor  [b.  1776,  d. 
1822),  German  novelist  and  musician, 
director  of  the  theatre  at  Leipzig  and 
Dresden.  His  Contes  appeared  in  1830 ;  the 
opera  Undine  was  the  best  of  his  musical 
works.  He  also  drew  caricatures  against 
Napoleon  and  the  French. 

Hoffmann,  Friedrich  (6.  1660,  d.  1742), 
chemist  and  physician,  professor  at  Halle ; 
was  the  first  to  point  out  the  value  of  the 
Seidlitz  springs. 

Hofftaiann  von  Fallersleben,  August 
Heinrich  (6.  1798,  d.  1874),  Hanoverian 
potit  and  philologist,  friend  of  the  Grimms ; 
lost  his  professorship  at  Breslau  on  account 
of  his  Unpolitische  Lieder,  but  was,  after 
many  wanderings,  allowed  to  settle  in 
Prussia  in  1848.  Among  his  philological 
publications  were  Fimdgruben  fur  Geschichte 
deutsche  Sprache  und  Literatur  (1830-37), 
Reineke  Vos  (1834),  and  Monument- Eluo- 
nensia  (containing  the  Ludwigslied),  and 
D  S 


among  his  verses  the  chief  were  Deutsche 
Liederbuch  and  Rhsinleben. 

Hofmann,  August  Wilhelm,  F.R.S.  (4. 
1818),  German  chemist,  born  at  Giessen, 
where  he  entered  the  laboratory  of  Liebig  ; 
lived  in  England  from  1845  to  1864,  was 
director  of  the  London  College  of  Chemistrj', 
and  edited  Fownes'  Manual  of  Chemistry .  He 
then  obtained  a  chair  at  Berlin,  and  foimded 
the  German  Chemical  Society.  He  dis- 
covered aniline,  and  wrote  Einleitung  in  die 
Moderne  Chimie  (1865). 

Hogan,  John  (6.  1800,  d.  1857),  Irish 
sculptor,  entirely  self-taught,  the  best 
specimens  of  whose  work  were  Fve  after 
her  Expulsion  contemplating  a  Dead  Dove, 
the  Dead  Christ,  and  Drunken  Faun. 

Hogartb,  William  (6.  1697,  d.  1764), 
English  artist,  at  first  engraved  for  book- 
sellers, while  also  painting  portraits; 
married  clandestinely  a  daughter  of  Sir 
James  Thomhill,  whom  he  conciliated  by 
his  Harlofs  Progress.  It  was  followed  by 
the  Rake's  Progress  (1735),  Marriage  a  la 
Mode  (1745),  Industry  and  Idleness  (1747), 
and  numerous  caricatures.  Though  quite 
uneducated,  he  wrote  a  theoretic  work,  The 
A?ialysis  of  Beauty  (1754).  In  a  contro- 
versy with  Wilkes  he  replied  by  caricatures 
instead  of  by  writing. 

Hogg,  Jabez,  M.R.C.S.  (b.  1817),  EngUsh 
surgeon,  was  at  school  with  Dickens ;  wrote 
The  Illustrated  Lotidon  SpeUing-Book,  Ele- 
ments of  Natural  and  Experimental  Philo- 
sophy, and  The  History,  Construction,  and 
Application  of  the  Microscope.  He  also  be- 
came surgeon  to  the  Westminster  Ophthal- 
mic Hospital  and  similar  institutions,  and 
published  A  Manual  of  Ophthalmoscopic 
Surgery,  and  The  Cure  o/  Cataract. 

Hogg,  James  {b.  1770,  d.  1835),  Scottish 
poet,  called  the  "Ettrick  Shepherd;"  was 
a  cowherd,  and  for  ten  years  a  shepherd. 
His  poems  and  ballads  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  Scott,  whom  he  helped  with  The 
Border  Minstrelsy,  the  chief  of  his  own 
works  being  The  Mountain  Bard  (1803), 
The  Queen's  Wake  (1813),  and  a  collection 
of  poems  published  in  1822. 

Hogg,  Thomas  Jefferson  {b.  1792,  d.  1862), 
English  writer;  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Shelley  at  Oxford,  and  began  a  life  of  him, 
two  volumes  of  which  appeared  in  1858.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1817,  and  in  1833 
became  a  municipal  corporation  commis- 
sioner. 

Hohenlolie-Schmingsfiirst,  Prinz  Clod- 
wig  Victor  von  (J>.  1819),  German  states- 
man, was  in  the  Prussian  service  till  1845, 
when  he  settled  in  Bavaria.  He  was  sent 
by    the    Frankfort    ministry    to    Athens, 


Hoh 


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Hol 


Florence,  and  Rome  as  ambassador,  and, 
after  a  period  of  retirement,  began  to  take 
an  active  part  in  Bavarian  aflfairs,  becoming 
minister  in  1867  and  advocating  an  imperial 
policy.  In  1870  he  resigned  on  accoimt  of 
opposition  to  his  auti-papal  policy,  but,  as  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Peers,  obtained  the 
participation  of  Bavaria  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war.  In  1871  he  entered  the 
German  parliament,  of  which  he  soon 
became  vice-president ;  was  ambassador  at 
Paris  in  1874,  plenipotentiary  at  Berlin  at 
the  congress,  and  afterwards  governor  of 
Elsass-Lothringen. 

Hohenzollem,  H.R.H.  Leopold  fitienne, 
Hereditary  Prince  of  (6.  183o),  succeeded 
his  father  in  1885,  having  previously  become 
known  in  Europe  on  account  of  his  candida- 
ture for  the  Spanish  throne,  which  was  the 
proximate  cause  of  the  Franco -Prussian 
war. 

Holanda,  Francisco  de  (6.  1515,  d.  1584), 
Portuguese  painter,  friend  of  Michael  Angelo, 
was  patronised  by  John  III.  of  Portugal, 
whose  sous  he  taught;  composed  treatises 
on  ancient  painting  and  the  art  of  drawing, 
and  discovered  a  new  way  of  laying  on 
colour. 

Holbach,  Paul  Heinrich  Dietrich,  Baron  d' 
{b.  1723,  d.  1789),  French  philosopher,  wrote 
Le  Christianisme  Divoile,  U Esprit  du  Clerge, 
which  was  condenmed  to  be  burnt,  Le  Si/s- 
tetne  de  la  Nature,  Moralite  Universelle,  etc. 

Holbein,  Hans  (6.  1494  or  5,  d.  1543),  Swiss 
painter,  architect,  and  carver,  painted  the 
portrait  of  Erasmus  at  Basel,  and  went  to 
England  with  an  introduction  from  him  to 
Sir  Thomas  More.  He  was  given  a  large 
salary  by  Henry  VIII.,  besides  payment  for 
his  pictures,  among  which  were  portraits  of 
Henry  and  some  of  his  queens.  In  the 
Surgeons'  Hall  there  is  also  a  work  of  his 
representing  Henry  VIII.  granting  a  charter 
to  the  company.  BeatKs  Dance,  engraved 
from  his  own  designs,  is  the  best  example 
of  his  work  of  this  kind, 

Holberg,  Ludwig,  Baron  (J.  1684,  d. 
1754),  Danish  poet  and  historian,  travelled 
much  on  foot,  studied  two  years  at  Oxford, 
and  obtained  a  professorship  at  Copenhagen. 
He  made  a  large  fortune  by  his  writings, 
which  include  Feder  Faars,  a  mock-heroic 
poem,  Niels  Klims  Underjordiske  Seise,  a 
satire,  with  some  comedies  and  historical 
works. 

Holboume,  Sir  Robert  {d.  1647),  English 
lawyer  and  member  of  the  Long  Parliament ; 
opposed  ship-money,  but  afterwards  joined 
the  king,  and  was  made  privy  coimcillor ; 
endeavoured  to  mediate  between  king  and 
Parliament. 

Holcroft,   Thomas    {b.    1746,    d.    1809), 


dramatic  writer,  son  of  a  shoemaker;  was 
at  first  a  groom  aud  then  an  actor,  and 
wrote  besides  his  memoirs,  which  were  con- 
tinued by  Hazlitt,  several  comedies,  of 
which  I'/ie  Road  to  Ruin  is  the  only  one  now 
ever  seen, 

Holden,  Hubert  Ashton,  LL.D.  (6.  1822), 
English  scholar,  educated  at  King  Edward's 
school,  Birmingham,  aud  at  Trinity,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1847, 
having  been  senior  classic  in  1845.  After 
being  vice-priucipal  of  Cheltenham  and 
head-master  of  Ipswich,  he  was  made  in 
1SS)0  fellow  of  the  University  of  London. 
He  is  author  of  the  compilations  Foliar utn 
Silvula,  and  F'oliorum  Centuries,  several 
editions  of  the  classics  (Aristophanes,  etc.), 
aud  lives  of  the  Gracchi,  Sulla,  Nicias,  etc. 

Hole,  Samuel  Reynolds,  D.D.  (b.  1819), 
Dean  of  Rochester,  educated  at  Newark 
and  Brasenose  College,  Oxford;  was  pre- 
bendary of  Lincoln  m  1875,  and  chaplain, 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1885, 
and  wrote  A  Little  Tour  in  Lreland  (1858), 
illustrated  by  Leech,  and  A.  £ook  about 
Roses  (1859), 

Hole,  William  (b.  1846),  Scotch  painter, 
educated  at  Edinburgh ;  was  apprenticed  as 
a  civil  engineer,  but,  after  his  return  from 
Italy,  adopted  art  as  his  profession,  and  be- 
came an  associate  of  the  Scottish  Academy  in 
1878,  and  an  academician  in  1889.  Among 
his  etchings  are  Quasi  Cursores  (1884),  the 
Canterbury  Filgrims  (1888),  and  others 
after  Crome,  Millet,  and  Constable.  His 
paintings  include  The  Evening  of  Cidloden 
and  Prince  Charlie's  Parliament,  etc. 

Holinshed,  Raphael  (d.  circa  1580), 
English  historian,  published  Chronicles  oj 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland 

Holkar,  Mulhar  Rao  {b.  1693,  d.  1769), 
founder  of  the  Mahratta  dynasty  of  that 
name,  was  a  shepherd  until  employed  by 
Peshwa  Bajee  Rao,  who  in  1759  made  him 
soubadar.  His  armies  ravaged  the  whole  of 
Northern  India,  and  were  not  checked  until 
the  defeat  by  the  Afghans  at  Paniput. 

Holkar,  Tukajee  Rao  {b.  1727,  d.  1797), 
was  practically  the  ruler  of  the  Mahrattas 
under  Ahlia  Bye,  and  largely  extended 
their  power  in  Northern  India,  while  also 
defeating  Tippoo  Sultan  in  the  south. 

Holkar,  Jeswunt  Rao  {d.  1811),  natural 
son  of  Tukajee,  on  whose  death  he  fled,  but, 
having  obtained  command  of  a  predatory 
band,  assumed  the  title  of  "  Servant  of 
Khundi  Rao"  (son  of  the  late  Holkar  and 
rival  of  Kasi  Rao,  the  reigning  one),  and 
invaded  his  native  state.  He  won  a  great 
battle  in  1798,  after  which  the  troops  of 
Kasi  Rao  deserted,  and  Jeswunt  became  all 
but  nominal  ruler.    In  1803  he  joined  Sindia 


Hoi 


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Hol 


agaiust  the  British,  and  was  at  first  suc- 
cessful, but  after  his  defeat  by  Lake  his 
troops  mutioied.  Soon  after  this  Khuudi 
Udo  died  suspiciously,  and  Kasi  R^o  was 
murdered.  After  obtaining  power,  how- 
ever, Jeswunt  became  gradually  insane. 

Holker,  Sir  John  (6.  1828.  d.  1882),  Eng- 
lish lawyer ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1854, 
practised  at  Manchester  and  in  Loudon,  and 
became  Queen's  Counsel  in  18(i8,  and  a 
leader  on  the  northern  circuit.  Having 
entered  Parliament  in  1872  as  Conservative 
member  for  Preston,  he  was  appointed 
Solicitor- General  by  Mr.  Disraeli,  and  in 
1875  became  Attorney  -  General.  He 
was  appointed  Lord  Justice  by  Mr.  Glad- 
stone. 

HoU,  Frank  (b.  1845,  d.  1888),  painter, 
son  of  Francis  Holl,  the  engraver,  was 
elected  A.R.A.  in  1878,  and  E.A.  in  188:J. 
Among  his  pictures  are  The  Gifts  of  i/ie 
Fairies  (1879),  Ordered  to  the  Front  (1880), 
Home  Again  (1881),  and  portraits  of  Lord 
Wolseley,  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  and  Mr. 
Bright,  etc. 

Holl,  William  {b.  1807,  d.  1871),  en- 
graver, sou  of  the  portrait  engraver  of 
the  same  name,  illustrated  Moore's  works. 
An  English  Merry-making,  after  Frith, 
and  several  portraits  after  Richmond.  His 
brother,  Francis,  also  eminent  as  an  en- 
graver, especially  for  his  chalk  heads  after 
Richmond,  was  elected  A.R.A.  in  1883. 

Holland,  Sir  Henry.  M.D.  (6.  1788,  d. 
1873),  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Queen 
and  Prince  Consort ;  wrote  Travels  in  the 
Ionian  Islands,  Chapters  on  Mental  Physi- 
ology, and  several  medical  and  philosophical 
essays. 

Holland,  Henry  Richard,  third  Lord  (6. 
1773,  d.  1840),  Whig  statesman,  son  of 
Stephen,  Lord  Holland,  and  nephew  of 
Charles  James  Fox,  by  whom  his  education 
was  superintended ;  travelled  much  on  the 
Continent,  and,  having  entered  Parliament 
in  1798,  became  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of 
Lancaster,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  in 
1830.  He  left  Memoirs  of  the  Whig  Tarty 
and  other  works. 

Holland,  Henry  Scott  (6,  1847),  theo- 
logian,  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol,  be- 
came senior  student  of  Christ  Church  in 
1870,  and  in  1884  was  made  canon  of  St. 
Paul's.  He  has  written  Logic  and  Life 
(1SS2),  Creed  and  Character  (1886),  and 
contributed  to  Lux  Mundi. 

Holland,  Lord.     {See  Henry  Fox.] 

HoUand,    Philemon    (6.    1551,   d.    163G), 

Engli'-li  scholar,  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 

Cambridge,  and  head-master  of  Coventry ; 

was  called,  from  his  numerous  translations 

dd2 


of  the  classics,  etc.,  the  "  Translator- general 
of  his  age." 

HoUand,  Thomas  Erskine,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 

(6.  1835),  jurist,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1863,  and  practised  on  the  home  circuit,  but 
was  elected  Chichele  professor  of  inter- 
national law  at  Oxford  in  1874.  Chief 
among  his  works  are  Sekct  Titles  from  the 
Digest  (1874-81),  in  collaboration  with  C.  L. 
Shadwell,  A  Manual  of  Naval  Prize  Law 
(1888),  and  Elements  of  Jurisprudence. 

HoUar,  Wenceslaus  (6.  1607,  d.  1677), 
Bohemian  engraver,  patronised  by  Charles  I. 
and  the  Earl  of  Arundel ;  fled  to  Holland 
after  the  war,  but  returaed  at  the  Res- 
toration. His  engravings  are  said  to  have 
numbered  2,000. 

Holies  or  Hollis,  Denzil,  Lord  (6.  1597, 
d.  1681),  English  politician,  a  leading  mem- 
ber of  the  opposition  under  James  I. ;  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  by  Charles  I.,  and  was 
one  of  the  "five  members."  Being  a  Pres- 
byterian, however,  he  was  opposed  to  the 
power  of  the  army,  and  was  obliged  to 
remain  in  France  till  the  death  of  Cromwell. 
He  received  a  peerage  from  Charles  II.,  and 
went  as  ambassador  to  France,  but  refused 
to  connive  at  the  transactions  between 
Charles  and  Louis  XIV. 

Holman,  James  (6.  eirea  1787,  d.  1857), 
English  naval  officer,  who  lost  his  sight,  and 
afterwards  became  known  as  "the  Blind 
Traveller  "  ;  wrote  accounts  of  his  Voyage 
Round  the  World  (1827-34),  and  his  Tr'avelt 
in  Russia. 

Holmes,  Abiel  (6.  1763,  d.  1837),  Ameri- 
can historian,  born  in  Connecticut ;  author 
of  Annals  of  America. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell  (&.  1809),  son  of 
Abiel  Holmes  by  his  second  wife,  was  bom 
at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1829.  Next  year  he  be- 
came known  as  the  author  of  the  verses 
agaiust  breaking  up  the  frigate  Constitution. 
He  studied  law  at  Cambridge  (Massa- 
chusetts), and  then  passed  three  years  at 
Paris,  where  he  took  a  medical  degree  in 
1836.  On  his  return  he  became  an  active 
practitioner  in  his  native  state,  and  wrote 
several  treatises  on  medical  subjects.  The 
Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast- table.  The  Pro- 
fessor at  the  Breakfast-table,  and  The  Poet 
at  the  Breakfast-table  first  appeared  in 
the  Atlantic  Monthly.  Besides  some  early 
volumes  of  verse,  he  is  author  of  Elsie 
Venner  (1861),  and  The  Guardian  Angel 
(1869),  novels ;  memoirs  of  J.  L.  Motley 
and  R.  W.  Emerson  ;  of  several  essays  and 
later  verse,  and  of  One  Hundred  Pays  in 
Europe  (1887).   In  1886  he  visited  England. 

Holroyd.     [See  Sheffield.] 


Hoi 


(  452  ) 


Hon 


Holste,  or  Holstenius,  Lucas  (6.  1596,  d. 
1661),  Gennau  theologian,  abjured  Protest- 
Butisiu  under  Jesuit  iutiueuce  at  Paris,  aud 
weut  to  Rome,  where  he  was  patronised  by 
the  pope  aud  Cardinal  Barberiui.  In  ItioG 
he  received  Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden, 
into  the  Roman  communion. 

Holt,  Sir  John  (6.  1642,  d.  1710),  English 
judge,  was  removed  from  the  recordership 
of  Loudon  under  James  II.  for  opposition 
to  the  repeal  of  the  Test  Act ;  was  elected 
to  the  Convention  Parliament,  and  after 
the  Revolution  made  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  and  a  Privy  Councillor.  He 
was  offered  the  chancellorship  in  1700,  and 
left  Report  of  Divers  Cases  in  Fleas  of  the 
Crouii  under  Charles  II. 

Holte,  John  (/.  circa  1500), English  school- 
master, fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford ; 
published  the  first  Latin  grammar  in  Eng- 
land, which  he  called  Lac  Fiierorum ;  or, 
Mylke  for  Chyldren.  It  was  printed  by 
Wynken  de  Worde  in  1497. 

Holtzapffel,  Charles  {d.  1847).  German 
mechanician,  settled  in  England ;  wrote 
Turning  and  Mechanical  Manipulation,  and 
introduced  improvements  in  lathes  aud 
mathematical  instruments. 

HolweU,  John  Zephauiah  {b.  1711,  d. 
1798),  English  administrator  and  writer, 
bom  in  Dublin ;  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company  in  1732,  and  when 
member  of  the  Bengal  Council  in  1756, 
defended  Fort  William  against  Surajah 
Dowlah,  aud  was  one  of  the  survivors  from 
the  "Black  Hole."  In  1759  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  BengaL 

Holzer,  Johanu  (6. 1708,  d.  1740),  German 
engraver  and  painter,  some  of  whose  work 
is  to  be  found  at  Augsbui-g. 

Holyoake,  George  Jacob  {b.  1817),  a  well 
known  supporter  of  Co-operation,  on  which, 
as  well  as  on  Atheism,  etc.,  he  has  produced 
several  works. 

Homtoerg,  William  (6.  1652,  d.  1715), 
German  chemist,  bom  at  Batavia  ;  while  m 
Italy  discovered  the  method  of  making 
luminous  the  Bologna  stone,  and  weut 
thence  to  England,  where  he  worked  with 
Boyle.  After  working  at  Stockholm  for 
some  years,  he  came  to  France,  was  patron- 
ised by  Colbert,  aud  became  physician  to  the 
Duke  of  Orleans. 

Home,  Daniel  Dunglas  (6.  1833,  d  1886), 
spiritualist,  boni  near  Edinburgh ;  went  to 
the  United  States  in  1840,  and  became 
known  as  a  "  medium  "  from  the  age  of 
seventeen.  He  came  to  London  about 
1853,  but  made  many  visits  to  other  coun- 
tries, and  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Church  in  1856,  but  expelled  some  years 
after.     He  visited  Russia  with  Dumas  pire. 


and  in  1858  married  a  Russian  lady,  who 
died  in  1862.  In  1863  he  went  to  Italy,  aud 
was  befriended  by  Mrs.  Browning  and 
others.  He  received  a  large  gift  of  money 
from  a  Mrs.  Lyons,  which,  however,  he 
lost  some  j^ears  after  as  the  result  of  a  law- 
suit. He  married  another  Russian  in  1871, 
and  died  msane. 

Home,  Sir  Everard  (6.  1756,  d.  1832), 
Burgeon,  brother-in-law  of  John  Hunter, 
whose  MSS.  he  destroyed ;  practised  in 
Loudon  for  forty  years,  wrote  many  medical 
treatises,  and  was  for  some  years  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  He  was 
made  a  baronet  by  George  IV. 

Home,  Henry.     \_See  Karnes,  Lord.] 

Home,  John  (*.  1722,  d.  1808),  Scottish 
minister,  fought  for  the  Hanoverian  cause 
during  the  "  Forty-tive,"  and  obtained  a 
living.  His  Itonglas  was  rejected  by  Garrick 
in  1749,  but  produced  at  Edinburgh  seven 
years  after  with  great  success.  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  the  RebeUwn  of  1745, 
and  obtained  a  sinecure  from  Lord  Bute. 

Homer,  held  by  some  to  be  the  author  of 
the  Iliad  aud  Odyssey ;  by  others  only  of 
one  of  these  ;  by  others,  again,  to  be  a  mere 
name. 

Hommaire  de  Hell,  Iguace  Xavier  {h. 
1812,  d.  1848),  French  geologist  and  travel- 
ler, was  employed  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment in  several  scientific  missions,  and 
discovered  the  Dnieper  iron  mines.  He  was 
I  also  employed  by  the  French  government 
in  similar  work,  and  just  before  his  death 
entered  the  service  of  the  Shah. 

Hompescli,  Baron  Ferd3J.and  von  (b. 
1744,  d.  1803),  last  grand-master  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  abdicated  in  favour  of 
the  Tsar  Paul  I. 

Honaiu,  Abou-Yezid  (9th  century), 
Arabian  physician,  translated  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  Hippocrates,  and  Galen,  and 
also  the  Elements  of  Euclid. 

Hondecoeter,  Melchior  de  (6.  1636,  d. 
1695),  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Utrecht,  his 
subjects  being  chiefly  game  and  wild  fowl. 

Hondt,  Abraham,  or  Hondius  (6.  1638,  d. 
1695),  Dutch  painter  of  animals,  came  to 
England  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and 
died  there.  A  Bog  Market  and  The  Siege 
of  Troy  are  specimens  of  his  work. 

Hondt,  Henry  (Jj.  1576),  engraver,  called 
"the  Elder"  to  distinguish  him  from  a  son 
of  Jost ;  engraved  portraits  of  the  reformers 
and  some  landscapes. 

Hondt,  Jost  or  Jodocus  (6.  1563,  d.  1611), 
Flemish  engraver,  employed  by  Alexander 
of  Parma  ;  came  to  England,  and  pubUshed 


Hon 


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Hoo 


several  works,  besides  engraving  the  maps 
for  Drake's  Voyaffen  a.nd  Speed's  collection. 

Hone,  Nathaniel  {d.  1784),  Irish  painter, 
settled  in  Loudon,  and  was  a  foundation 
member  of  the  Academy,  but  resigned 
owing  to  the  rejection  of  a  picture  by  him 
which  was  a  satire  on  Reynolds. 

Hone,  William  {b.  1780,  d.  1842),  English 
writer,  bom  at  Bath,  unsuccessful  as  a  pub- 
lislier  and  in  an  attempt  to  establish  a 
savings  bank;  wrote  political  squibs,  and 
was  several  times  tried  for  blasphemy,  but 
always  acquitted.  He  wrote  The  Apocry- 
phal New  Testament,  Ancient  Mysteries,  the 
Eveiy-Bay  Book,  the  Table-book,  etc. 

Honorius,  Flavins  (5.  384,  d.  423),  last 
Emperor  of  the  West,  sustained,  by  the  help 
of  Stilicho,  invasions  by  the  Goths  and 
Vandals,  but  on  the  death  of  the  latter  was 
obliged  to  retire  to  Ravenna,  Rome  having 
been  sacked  by  Alaric. 

Honorius  I.,  Pope  of  Rome  {d.  638),  suc- 
ceeded Boniface  V.  iu  62,3 ;  was  accused  of 
favouring  the  Monothelites,  and  resisted  by 
the  Welsh  clergy. 

Honorius  IL  [d.  1130),  elected  in  1124  ; 
unsuccessfully  opposed  the  Noimans  in 
Southern  Italy.  The  title  had  been  pre- 
viously assumed  by  the  anti-pope  Cadalous 
in  1061. 

Honorius  III.  (d.  1227),  succeeded  Inno- 
cent III.  in  1216;  supported  the  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses,  and  was  engaged 
in  repeated  contests  with  the  people  of 
Rome. 

Honorius  IV.  {d.  1287),  succeeded  Mar- 
tin IV.  in  1285,  and  supported  the  house  of 
Aujou  against  that  of  Aragon ;  issued  a 
bull  against  the  Apostolicals. 

Honthorst,  Gerard  van  (*.  1590,  d.  1656), 
Dutch  painter  (called  Gerardo  della  Notte) 
of  the  school  of  Caravaggio  ;  was  patronised 
by  Charles  I.,  and  taught  the  Queen  of  Bo- 
hemia and  her  children.  His  Christ  Before 
Pilate,  in  the  Justiuiaui  Gallery,  was  one  of 
his  best  works. 

Hood,  Alexander.     [See  Bridport.] 

Hood,  Robin,  a  celebrated  outlaw,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  Sherwood  Forest  in 
the  time  of  Richard  I. 

Hood,  Sir  Samuel  {d.  1814),  admiral, 
served  under  his  cousin  (qv.)  in  the 
Mediterranean,  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  the  Nile,  and  iu  an  action  off  Rochefort 
lost  an  arm  ;  afterwards  held  the  naval 
command  in  the  East  Indies. 

Hood,  Samuel,  Viscount  {h.  1724,  d. 
1816),  admiial ;  after  service  under  Rodney 


and  Saunders,  became  commander  of  the 
West  Indian  squadron,  and  received  a 
peerage  for  his  share  in  Rodney's  victory 
over  Grasse.  He  had  previously  success- 
fully opposed  Fox  as  candidate  for  West- 
minster. As  commander  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean fleet  he  captured  Toulon  and  drove 
the  French  from  Corsica.  After  his  resig- 
nation he  was  created  viscount. 

Hood,  Thomas  (6.  1799,  d.  1845),  poet, 
son  of  a  publisher ;  as  sub-editor  of  the 
London  Magazine  in  1821,  became  connected 
with  Lamb  and  others.  A  Cinl  List  pension 
was  granted  in  1844  to  his  wife,  his  own 
health  having  broken  down.  Among  his 
chief  works  were  IFhims  and  Oddities,  The 
Comic  Annual,  Miss  Eilmansegg,  and  various 
pieces,  of  which  the  Song  of  the  Shirt  and 
the  Bridge  of  Sighs  are  the  best  known. 

Hood,  Tom  {b.  1835,  d.  1874),  son  of  pre- 
ceding, wrote  several  novels,  RuUs  of 
lihyme,  and  books  for  children,  and  was 
editor  of  Fan  for  several  years. 

Hoofdt,  Pieter  Cornelis  (6.  1581,  d.  1647), 
Dutch  historian,  author  of  a  History  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  other  historical  and 
poetical  works. 

Hoogeveen,  Hendrik  {b.  1712,  d.  1791), 
Dutch  philologist,  rector  of  the  college  of 
DeHt,  author  of  JJoctrina  Farticularum  Lin- 
guce  Gracce,  long  considered  a  standard 
authority. 

Hoogstraaten,  Dirck  van  (6.  1596,  d. 
1640),  Flemish  painter,  whose  works  are 
very  rare. 

Hoogstraaten,  Samuel  van  {h.  1627,  d. 
1678),  painter  and  writer,  son  of  Diick,  was 
placed  in  the  studio  of  Rembrandt.  He  was 
patronised  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III., 
and  lived  some  time  iu  England,  and  especi- 
ally excelled  in  the  rendering  of  inanimate 
obj  ccts. 

Hook,  James  (6.  1746,  d.  1827),  English 
composer,  born  at  Norwich,  studied  under 
Garland,  and  composed  The  Ascension,  an 
oratorio;  The  Soldier^ s  Return,  and  other 
operas,  and  some  two  thousand  songs. 

Hook,  James  Clarke  (b.  1819),  painter, 
in  1840  obtained  the  travelling  pension 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  and.  after  spending 
more  than  a  year  in  Italy,  returned  to 
London,  and  was  elected  A.R.A.  iu  1850, 
and  R.A.  in  1860.  During  his  first  period 
his  subjects  were  drawn  from  French  and 
Italian  history,  Pampilus  relating  his  Story, 
A  Dream  of  Venice,  Othello's  Description  of 
Desdemonn,  etc.  After  this  he  painted 
several  pastorals— 2%e  Ship-Boy's  Letter, 
The  Fisherman's  Good-night,  etc.  His  more 
recent  pictures  deal  with  marine  subjects — 
The  Trawlers  (18G2),  Caller  Merrin'  (1882), 


Hoo 


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Ho^ 


Tho  Sea-weed  Raker  (1889),  A  Jib  for  the 
New  Smack  (1890),  etc. 

Hook,  Theodore  Edward  (*.  1788,  d. 
1841),  novelist  aud  wit,  sou  of  James  Hook, 
wrote  Faid  Pry  oud  other  light  dramatic 
pieces.  Through  the  iuflueuce  of  the  Re- 
gent lie  became  accouiitaut-general  of  the 
Mauritius,  but  his  carelessness  led  to  liis 
arrest  and  return  home  in  1818.  While  in 
prison  from  1823  to  1825  he  edited  Jb/i«  Bull, 
aud  in  1836  imdertook  the  New  Monthly. 
Among  his  novels.  Jack  Brag,  Gilbert  Gur- 
ney,  and  Sayings  and  Doings  were  the  most 
popular. 

Hook,  "Walter  Farquhar  (b.  1798,  d.  1875), 
di%Tne,  nephew  of  last-named,  was  for 
twenty-two  years  vicar  of  Leeds,  during 
which  he  set  on  foot  the  re-building  of  the 
parish  church,  aud  built  many  others.  In 
1859  he  was  appointed  Dean  of  Chichester 
He  wrote  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Cantei 
bury,  and  several  other  works. 

Hooke,  Robert  {b.  1635,  d.  1703),  mathe- 
maticiau,  assisted  Boyle,  the  chemist,  and 
made  several  astronomical  instruments ;  and 
after  the  Great  Fire  superintended  the  re- 
building of  the  city.  He  also  claimed  to 
have  discovered  before  Newton  the  law  of 
gravitation. 

Hooker,  or  Vowell,  John  (b.  1524,  d. 
IGOl),  historian,  a  member,  first  of  the 
Irish,  and  then  of  the  English,  Parliament ; 
edited  and  added  to  Holinshed's  Chronicle. 

Hooker,  Joseph  {b.  1814,  d.  1879), 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Massachusetts ; 
resigned  his  commission  to  go  to  California 
in  1853,  but  returned  to  the  army  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  war,  aud  particularly 
distinguished  himself  at  Williamsburg,  aud 
afterwards  at  Fair  Oaks,  Glendale,  aud 
Malvern.  He  compelled  Jackson  to  evacuate 
Manassas,  took  a  promiuent  part  in  the 
Maryland  campaign,  aud  was  iu  1863  given 
the  command  of  the  anny  of  the  Potomac. 
In  the  ensuing  campaign  Jackson  was 
mortally  wounded,  but  the  Confederates 
were  successful,  and  Hooker  resigned  his 
command.  He  was  more  successful  in  the 
relief  of  Chattanooga,  but  was  disappointed 
in  not  succeeding  to  the  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Tennessee. 

Hooker,  Sir  Joseph  Dalton,  M.D.  {b. 
1817),  EngUsh  botanist,  son  of  Sir  W.  J. 
Hooker,  was  bom  in  Suffolk,  and 
educated  at  Glasgow,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  accompanied  the  expedition  of 
Sir  .James  Ross  to  the  southern  seas.  In 
1846  he  was  made  botanist  to  the  Geological 
Survey,  aud  uext  year  went  to  India. 
While  investigating  the  flora  of  th  Hima- 
layas he  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Rajah 
of  Sikkim.      After  his  return   he    became 


assistant-director  aud  then  director  of  Kew 
Gardens.  In  1860  he  went  to  Syria,  aud 
made  a  study  of  its  oaks ;  and  in  1868,  as 
president  of  the  British  Association,  gave 
his  assent  to  the  theory  of  evolution.  In 
1871  he  went  to  Morocco,  and  brought  back 
a  large  collection  of  plants.  In  1873  he 
became  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
was  knighted  in  1877.  His  chief  works  are 
Botany  of  the  Antarctic  Voyage,  Himalayan 
Journals,  The  Student's  Flora  of  the  British 
Islands,  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Morocco,  etc. 

Hooker,  Richard  (5.  1554,  d.  1600), 
theologian,  of  humble  parentage ;  was 
born  near  Exeter,  and  sent  to  Oxford  at 
the  expense  of  Bishop  Jewell ;  became  fellow 
of  Corpus,  and,  in  1585,  master  of  the 
Temple.  While  here  he  was  charged  with 
heresy,  but  befriended  by  Archbishop  Wliit- 
gift.  He  soon  retired,  however,  for  the 
purpose  of  study,  aud  in  the  livings  of  Bos- 
combe  and  Bishopsbounie  wrote  his  Eccle- 
siastical Polity,  which  he  had  just  time  to 
finish.  James  I.  called  him  the  "  learned 
and  judicious  Mr.  Hooker," 

Hooker,  Sir  WiUiam  Jackson  (5,  1785,  d. 
I860),  botanist,  professor  at  Glasgow,  and 
afterwards  curator  of  Kew  Gardens ;  was 
knighted  in  1835,  aud  wrote  A  Century  of 
Ferns  and  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Iceland. 

Hoole,  John  {b.  \T11,  d.  1803),  English 
scholar  in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company;  translated  Tasso's  Gerusalemme 
Liberata,  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,  and 
some  pieces  of  Metastasio. 

Hoomayoon  {b.  1505,  d.  1556),  Emperor  of 
Delhi,  succeeded  Baber  in  1530,  conquered 
Goojerat,  but  was  compelled  to  quit  his 
dominions  and  take  refuge  in  Afghanistan 
by  Khan  Soor,  Kiug  of  Bengal.  After 
thirteen  years  he  collected  an  army,  won  the 
battlb  of  Paniput,  aud  was  again  emperor. 
Soon  after  this,  however,  he  fell  over  a 
parapet,  and  died  from  his  injuries. 

Hooper,  John  {b.  U%,  d.  1555),  English 
divine ;  after  being  a  Cistercian  monk,  joined 
the  reformers,  and  was  obliged  to  go  abroad. 
On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  he  returned, 
and  was  made  Bishop  of  Gloucester,  but 
was  at  first  unwilling  to  take  the  oath  of 
supremacy  or  to  go  through  the  necessary 
ceremonies.  During  the  Marian  persecu- 
tion he  was  arrested,  examined,  aud  burnt 
at  Gloucester,  enduring  great  sufferings. 

Hoosliung,  Sooltan  {d.  1432),  King  of 
Malwah,  was  defeated  aud  made  prisoner 
two  years  after  his  accession  by  Mozaffir 
Shah,  King  of  Goojerat,  but  escaped  and 
enjoyed  a  prosperous  reign,  during  which  he 
founded  the  mountain  city  of  Maudoo,  and 
erected  a  mausoleum  for  himself. 

Hope,    Alexander   James    Beresford    (4. 


Hop 


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Hor 


1820,  d.  1887),  Euglish  politician,  educated 
at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ; 
was  member  of  Parliament  for  Maidstone 
from  1841  to  18',2,  and  from  1857  to  1859. 
He  represented  Cambridge  University  from 
1868  to  1887,  was  president  of  the  Royal 
Institute  of  British  Architects  from  1855  to 
1867.  He  wrote  Strictly  Tied  Up  (1880)  and 
The  Brandreths  (1882),  etc. 

Hope,  Frederick  W.,  F.E.S.  {h.  1797, 
d.  1872),  entomologist,  author  of  The 
ColcopterisV s  Manual,  founded  a  professor- 
ship of  zoology  at  Oxford  in  1861,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  University  Museum  a  fine 
entomological  collection,  a  library,  and 
many  portraits. 

Hope,  Sir  James  (*.  1808,  d.  1881),  ad- 
miral, entered  the  navy  in  1822,  served,  in 
the  Plate  expedition  and  during  the  Russian 
war,  and  was  knighted  for  his  skill  in  con- 
ducting the  operations  on  the  Chinese  coast 
in  1859-60. 

Hope,  Sir  John  {h.  1766,  d.  1823),  general, 
served  in  the  West  Indies,  at  the  Helder, 
and  in  Egj'pt ;  and  when  in  Spain  con- 
ducted the  embarkation  of  the  troops 
after  the  death  of  Sir  John  Moore.  After 
heading  a  division  in  the  Walcheren  expedi- 
tion, he  again  went  to  the  Peninsula,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Bayonne.  He  was 
created  Baron  Nidry,  and  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded to  the  earldom  of  Hopetoun. 

Hope,  Thomas  {b.  1774,  d.  1831),  traveller 
and  author,  made  an  eight  years'  tour  in 
Europe  and  the  East,  and  wrote  Anastasius 
(1819),  a  novel,  Moxsthold  Furniture  and 
JDecorations  (1805),  Modern  Costumes  (1812), 
and  some  essays. 

Hopetoun,  John  Hope,  Earl  of  (*.  1860), 
English  administrator,  after  being  Conserva- 
tive "  whip  "  in  the  Lords,  a  lord-in-waiting, 
and  lord  high  commissioner  to  the  Church  of 
Scotland  (1887-8-9),  was  made  governor  of 
Victoria  in  the  latter  year. 

Hdpital.     [See  L'H6pital.] 

Hopkins,  Edward  John,  Mus.Doc.  {b.  1818), 
organist  and  composer,  pupil  of  Walmisley ; 
was  a  choiister  in  the  Cha2)el  Royal,  St. 
James's,  and,  after  being  organist  at  several 
London  churches,  was  appointed  to  the 
Temple  in  1843,  and,  besides  publishing 
several  organ  arrangements  and  anthems, 
was  author  (vrith  Dr.  Rimbault)  of  The 
Organ  :  its  History  and  Constutction. 

Hopkins,  John  Henry  (*.  1792,  d.  1868), 
American  Bishop  of  Vermon*;,  bom  in 
Dublin ;  emigiated  in  1800,  and  was  engaged 
in  commerce,  and  practised  as  a  barrister 
before  taking  orders.  He  wrote  works  on 
The  Distinctive  Principle  of  Episcopacy ,  The 
Primitive  Church,  etc. 


Hopkins,  Lemuel  (*.  1750,  d.  1801), 
American  poet,  practised  as  a  doctor,  and 
served  in  the  Ajnerican  army  during  the 
revolutionary  war ;  established  and  took 
chief  part  in  The  Anarchiad. 

Hopkins,  Mark  {b.  1802,  d.  1887), 
American  educationist,  principal  of  Wil- 
liams College  from  1836  to  1872,  and  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy,  wrote  The  Law 
of  Love  and  Love  as  a  Law  and  An  Outliiie 
Study  of  Man.  Among  his  pupils  was 
President  Garfield. 

Hopkins,  Matthew  (17th  century),  witch- 
finder,  very  active  in  the  eastern  counties 
between  1645  and  1647 ;  published  The  Dis- 
covery of  Witches  in  the  latter  year. 

Hopkins, Samuel  (4.  1721,  d.  1803),  Ameri- 
can divine,  founder  of  a  Calviuistic  school 
of  theology  called  after  him  ;  was  one  of  the 
earliest  advocates  of  emancipation,  and  freed 
his  own  slaves. 

HopMnson,  Francis  (b.  1737,  d.  1791), 
American  writer,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence ;  wrote  The 
Battle  of  the  Kegs  (1778),  The  Pretty  Story 
(1774),  The  Political  Catechism  (1777),  and 
other  works  in  prose  and  verse.  His  son, 
Joseph  {d.  1842),  judge  of  the  United  States 
Distiict  Court,  wrote  Mail  Columbia  .' 

Hopkinson,  John,  D.Sc.  {b.  1849),  English 
mathematician,  educated  at  Owens  College 
and  Cambridge,  where,  in  1871,  he  was 
senior  wrangler  and  first  Smith's  piizeman ; 
practised  as  an  engineer  in  Birmingham  and 
London,  and  introduced  many  improvements 
in  lighthouse  apparatus.  He  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1878,  and  in  1890  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers. 

Hopper,  Thomas  (d.  1856),  English  archi- 
tect, patronised  by  the  Regent,  from  whom 
he  refused  knighthood,  introduced  the 
"cottage  oruee"  style,  and  designed  niai\y' 
buildings  in  London. 

Hoppner,  Henry  Parkins  (b.  1795,  d. 
1833),  navigator,  was  rewarded  by  Parlia- 
ment for  his  services  with  Parry  and  Ross 
in  the  arctic  regions,  but  never  recovered 
from  the  results  of  exposure. 

Hoppner,  John,  R.A.  (b.  1759,  d.  1810), 
artist,  self-tauglit,  father  of  the  preceding ; 
painted  portraits ;  also  translated  Tales  from 
the  Tooti  Nameh. 

Hopton,  Arthur  {b.  1588,  d.  1614),  mathe- 
matician, friend  of  Selden,  wrote  On  the 
Geodetic  Staff  for  Surveying  and  other  works. 

Horatius  Coccles,  mythical  Roman  hero, 
supposed  to  have  defended,  single-handed 
(507  B.C.),  the  Pons  Sublicius  against  the 
army  of  Porsenna. 


Hor 


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Eor 


Horatius  Flaccus,  Quintus  (b.  65  B.C.,  d. 

8  B.C.),  Latin  poet,  sou  of  a  freednian, 
fought  at  Pliilippi  on  the  republican  side ; 
was  introduced  by  Virgil  to  the  notice  of 
Augustus  and  Mteceuas,  and  regained  his 
confiscated  property,  besides  receiving  the 
gift  of  a  villa  at  Tibur  from  the  latter.  His 
chief  works  were  Odes  and  Epodes,  Epistles, 
Satires,  and  the  Ars  Foetica. 

Hore,  Edward  Coode,  F.R.G.S.  (*.  1848), 
English  explorer  ;  after  visiting  all  parts  of 
the  world  as  a  merchant  sailor,  was  sent  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1877  to 
Central  Africa,  where  he  lived  for  several 
yeai-s,  and  discovered  the  outlet  of  Lake 
Tanganyika.  He  wrote  A  Boat  Journey 
Across  Africa  and  A  Ray  of  Light  in  the 
Dark  Continent.  His  wife  was  the  first 
■white  woman  to  reach  the  shores  of  Lake 
Tanganyika,  and  wrote  To  Lake  Tanganyika 
in  a  Bath  Chair. 

Honoisdas  (6th  century),  Roman  pontiff, 
made  peace  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  churches. 

Hormisdas  IV.,  King  of  Persia  (6th 
century),  last  of  the  Sassanides,  favoured 
the  Chjristians,  but,  having  been  defeated  by 
Tiberius,  Emperor  of  the  East,  was  de- 
throned and  miudered  by  his  subjects. 

Horn,  Arvid  Bernard,  Count  (b.  1664,  d. 
1742),  Swedish  statesman,  chief  of  the 
"  Hats  ;  "  was  the  chief  instrument  in  the 
revolution  of  1719,  when  Prince  Frederick 
of  Hesse-Cassel  was  elected  king. 

Horn,  Charles  Edward  {d.  1849),  English 
vocalist  and  composer;  son  of  a  German 
musician,  took  tenor  parts  at  the  English 
opera-house  and  elsewhere,  and  composed 
Cherry  Ripe,  Pve  been  Roaming,  and  other 
songs,  as  well  as  the  score  of  /  Know  a 
Bank. 

Horn,  Clas  Christersson  (*.  1520,  d.  1558), 
Swedish  admiral,  served  in  the  amiy  against 
the  Russians  and  Danes,  and  won  the  battle 
of  ffiland  and  other  victories. 

Horn,  Justef  Carlsson  {b.  1592,  d.  1657), 
Swedish  general,  served  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  and  was  made  prisoner  at  Nord- 
lingen  ;  was  afterwards  minister  of  war. 

Horn,  Philippe  de  Montmorency,  Comte  de 
(b.  1522,  d.  1568),  Flemish  noble  and  patriot ; 
served  with  distinction  under  Charles  V. 
and  Philip  II.,  but  was  arrested  and  executed 
on  account  of  his  opposition  to  some  of  the 
Spanish  measures  in  the  Netherlands. 

Hornby,  Sir  Geoffrey  Phipps,  K.C.B.  (h. 
1825),  English  admiral ;  entered  the  service 
in  1837,  was  at  the  bombardment  of  Acre, 
and  afterwards  served  under  Percy  at  the 
Cape,  and  under  his  father  in  the  Pacific. 


He  commanded  the  Mediterranean  fleet  in 
1878,  became  president  of  the  Naval  College 
in  1881,  and  was  a  lord  of  the  Admiralty 
imder  Lord  Beaconsfleld. 

Hornby,  James  John,  D.D.  (*.  1826), 
scholar  and  divine,  brother  of  preceding, 
educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol ;  was  fellow 
of  Brasenose  (1849-54),  principal  of  Cosiu's 
Hall,  Durham  (1854-64),  and  head-master 
of  Eton  (1808-84),  in  which  latter  year  he 
became  provost. 

Home,  George  (*.  1730,  d.  1772),  Bishop 
of  Norwich,  author  of  a  Commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  etc.;  vehemently  opposed  Newton. 

Home,  Richard  Henry  "Hengist"  (J.  1803, 
d.  1884),  poet  and  dramatist,  served  in  the 
Mexican  navy  throughout  the  war  with 
Spain,  and,  after  some  adventures  among 
the  American  Indians,  came  back  to  Eng- 
land, and  vnrote  Orion,  The  Death  of  Marlowe, 
Cosmo  de  Medici,  and  edited  Spirits  of  the 
Age.  From  1852  to  1869  he  lived  in  Aus- 
tralia, where  he  became  a  great  swimmer. 
In  1874  he  received  a  Civil  List  pension. 

Home-Tooke.     [See  Tooke.] 

Homemann,  Friedrich  (p.  1772),  German 
traveller  ;  went  to  Africa  in  1797,  and  was 
last  heard  of  in  1800.  His  Journal  waa 
published  in  1882. 

Homer,  Francis  (6.  1778,  d.  1817),  poli- 
tician, bom  at  Edinburgh,  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1806,  was  named  president  of  the 
Bullion  Committee  in  1810,  and  moved  next 
year  the  resimiption  of  cash  payments.  He 
declined  office,  and  died  in  Italy.  He  joined 
Brougham,  Mackintosh,  and  the  leading 
"Whigs  in  founding  the  Edinburgh  Review. 

Homer,  Leonard  (6.  1785,  d.  1864),  geolo- 
gist, brother  of  preceding,  took  part  in  the 
foundation  of  the  Edinburgh  School  of  Arts, 
and  the  Academy ;  was  warden  of  London 
University  for  some  years,  and  inspector  of 
factories.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  president  of  the  Geological 
Society  in  1847.  Besides  popular  works  on 
geology,  he  was  author  of  a  Treatise  on  the 
Employment  of  Children  in  Factories,  and  of 
a  translation  of  Villari's  Life  and  Times  of 
Savonarola. 

Horrebov,  Peder  (*.  1679,  d.  1764),  Danish 
astronomer,  son  of  a  fisherman ;  became  pro- 
fessor at  Copenhagen,  and  was  visited  by 
Peter  the  Great,  and  invited  to  Russia.  He 
invented  a  method  for  computing  the  height 
of  the  Pole,  and  vsTote  several  works.  His 
sons,  Christian  and  Peder  {d.  1812),  were 
also  eminent  astronomers. 

Horrocks,  Jeremiah  {b.  probably  1619,  d. 
1641),  English  astronomer,  bom  atToxteth, 
and  educated  at  Cambridge ;  was  the  first  to 


Hor 


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Hou 


observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  and  formed  a 
theory  of  lunarmotion,  which  was  afterwards 
adopted  by  Newton.  Hediedvery  young,  and 
bis  posthumous  works  were  published  iu  1673. 

Horsley,  John  Callcott,  R.A.  {b.  1817), 
painter,  son  of  W.  Horsley ;  exhibited  at  the 
British  Institution  The  Chess  Players  aud 
other  pictures,  and  at  the  Roj'al  Academy 
The  Fride  of  ike  Village,  The  Contrast,  A 
Merry  Ch  ase  in  Haddon  Hall  ( 1 882) ,  etc.  His 
St.  Augustine  Preaching  gained  a  prize  of 
£200  at  Westminster  Hall,  and  he  was  one 
of  the  six  artists  selected  to  decorate  West- 
minster Palace,  while  his  Religion  was  ap- 
proved for  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1882  he 
was  elected  treasurer  of  the  Academy. 

Horsley,  Samuel  (b.  1733,  d.  1806),  theo- 
logian,  successively  Bishop  of  St.  David's, 
Bochester,  and  St.  Asaph  ;  edited  Newton's 
works  (1779-85),  and  held  a  controversy 
with  Priestley  on  the  subject  of  his  History 
of  the  Corruptions  of  Christianity. 

Horsley,  WUliam  [b.  1774,  d.  1858),  mu- 
sician,  organist  of  Ely  chapel  aud  the 
Charterhouse,  friend  of  Mendelssohn,  com- 
posed By  Cello's  Arbour  and  other  glees. 

Horsman,  Right  Hon.  Edward  (6.  1807, 
d.  1876),  statesman,  nephew  of  the  Earl  of 
Stair,  represented  Cockermouth  from  1836 
to  1852,  Stroud  from  /853  to  1868,  and  Lis- 
keard  from  1869  to  1876.  He  was  a  lord  of 
the  Treasury  in  1841,  and  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland  from  1854  to  1857.  In  1866  he  was 
numbered  among  the  AduUamites. 

Hort,  Fenton  John  Anthony,  D.D.  (*. 
1828),  theologian,  bom  in  Dublin,  and  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  where  he  was  thud 
classic,  and  fellow  of  Trinity  from  1852  to 
1857.  After  holding  a  cure  in  Hertfordshire, 
he  returned  to  Cambridge  in  1872  as  fellow 
of  Emmanuel,  and  was  elected  in  1878  Hul- 
sean  professor  of  divinity.  He  was  one  of 
the  revisers  of  the  New  Testament,  and, 
with  Dr.  Westcott,  edited  the  revised  Greek 
text. 

Hortense,  Queen  of  Holland  Q>.  1783,  d. 
1837),  daughter  of  Josephine  Beauhamais  ; 
married  Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland, 
but  lived  unhappily  with  him,  and  was 
separated  in  1810.  Obliged  to  leave  Paris, 
she  went  to  live  in  Switzerland.  Her 
youngest  son  was  Napoleon  III. 

Hortensius,  Quintus  (6.  114  b.c,  d.  50 
B.O.),  Roman  orator  ;  was  colleague  of  Cicero 
as  augur,  and  consul  iu  69  B.C.  Hia  daugh- 
ter, Hortensia,  obtained  the  diminution  of 
a  tax  on  women  by  her  eloquence. 

Hosea  (J.  circa  800),  Jewish  prophet. 

Hosbea,  last  King  of  Israel,  became  tribu- 
tary to  Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria,  but 


having  allied  himself  with  So,  King  of 
Egypt,  against  him,  was  dethroned  about 
731  B.C. 

Hosius,  Bishop  of  Cordova  (d.  361),  is 
said  to  have  converted  Constantine,  and 
became  his  chief  ecclesiastical  adviser  ;  pre- 
sided over  the  Councils  of  Nice  (325)  and 
Sardica  (347) ,  but  was  afterwards  banished 
by  the  Arians. 

Hosmer,  Harriet  (b.  1830),  American 
sculptor,  bom  at  Watertoim,  Massachusetts, 
was  a  pupil  of  Gibson  at  Rome,  and  exe- 
cuted busts  of  Daphne,  ^none  (1855), 
Beatrice  Cenci  (1857),  and  Zenobia  in 
Chains.  She  also  devised  a  method  for 
converting  ItaUan  limestone  into  marble. 

Hossein  {b.  625,  d.  680),  second  son  of 
Ali,  and  grandson  of  Mohammed,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  siege  of  Constanti- 
nople, but  perished  in  an  attempt  to  wrest 
from  Yezid  the  sovereignty. 

Hotman,  Ffan9ois  {b.  1524,  d.  1590), 
French  jurist;  obhged  as  a  Huguenot  to 
leave  France  after  St.  Bartholomew,  went 
to  Switzerland,  where  he  taught  law.  He 
is  the  supposed  author  of  VtndicicB  contra 
Tyrannos,  which  appeared  under  the  name 
"  Junius  Brutus." 

Hottinger,  Jean  Henri  (b.  1620,  d.  1667), 
Swiss  Orientalist;  professor  of  theology  at 
Zurich,  aud  of  oriental  languages  at  Hei- 
delberg, compiled  a  Historia  Orientalis  and 
a  lexicon  of  seven  eastern  languages ;  was 
drowned  when  about  to  go  to  Leyden.  His 
son,  who  wrote  An  Ecclesiastical  Uistory  of 
Sivitzerland,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
another  of  the  same  name,  also  professor  at 
Zurich,  who  died  in  1819,  aud  wrote  an 
Essay  towards  a  Comparison  of  the  German 
with  the  Greek  and  Roman  Poets. 

Houbraken,  Arnold  {b.  1660,  d.  1719), 
Dutch  writer,  author  of  The  Great  Theatre 
of  the  Butch  and  Flemish  Painters. 

Houbraken,  Jacob  (*.  1698,  d.  1780), 
engraver,  sou  of  last-named,  executed  the 
etchings  for  his  father's  book,  and  the  fine 
engravings  which  appeared  in  Heads  of 
Illustrious  Persons  in  Great  Britain  (1748). 

Houcbard,  Jean  (6.  1740,  d.  1793),  French 
revolutionary  general ;  won  the  victory  of 
Hocdschoote  over  the  allied  troops,  and 
compelled  the  English  to  evacuate  Dunkirk, 
but  was  soon  after  guillotined  for  not  follow- 
ing up  his  success. 

Houdin,  Jean  Eugene  Robert  (6.  1805,  d. 
1871),  French  conjurer,  was  employed  by 
the  emperor  to  confound  the  Algerian 
wizards  in  1856,  and  wrote  Confidences  d'un 
Prestidigitateur  and  Trickeries  des  Greet 
DcvoiUes. 


Hoa 


(  458  ) 


How 


Houdon,  Jeau  Autoiue  {b.  17-11,  d.  1828), 
French  sculptor,  produced  busts  of  Cathe- 
riue  II.,  Fraukliu  aud  Moliere,  etc.,  besides 
statues  of  St.  Bruno  aud  St.  John  Lateran 
executed  at  Eome. 

Hougn,  John  {b.  1651,  d.  1743),  Euglish 
divine ;  having  been  elected  president  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  opposition  to 
the  nominee  of  James  II.,  was  expelled ;  was 
restored  after  the  Revolution,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  Lichfield,  aud  Worcester. 

Houghton,  Richard  Monckton  Milues, 
Lord  (6.  1809,  d.  1885),  English  wi-iter; 
after  leaving  Cambridge,  where  he  had 
been  with  Tennyson  aud  others,  tra- 
velled for  several  years,  and  wrote 
verses  descriptive  of  the  places  he  visited, 
Buch  as  Memorials  of  Many  Seasons  and 
Poetry  for  the  People  (1840) ;  Poems,  Legend- 
ary and  Sistorical,  smdi  Palm  Leaves  (1844). 
His  chief  prose  work  was  Monographs,  Per- 
sonal and  Social  (1873)  ;  and  he  also  edited 
Keats'  Life  and  Literary  Remains  (1848) 
Monckton  Milues  sat  for  Pontefract  as  a 
Liberal  from  1837  to  1863,  but  had  been  at 
first  a  follower  of  Peel.  He  wrote  several 
pamphlets,  especially  that  called  The  Meal 
union  of  England  and  Ireland,  advocating 
concurrent  endowment.  He  was  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  patron  of  men  of 
letters. 

Houssaye,  or  Housset,  Arsene  (6,  1815), 
French  romance- writer  aud  critic  ;  having 
come  early  to  Paris  and  made  the  acquaiut- 
auce  of  Gautier  and  Jules  Jauin,  fia-st 
attracted  attention  by  his  art-criticisms  aud 
his  Galerie  de  Portraits  du  18^ne  Steele  (1844). 
His  reputation  was  made  by  his  Histoire  de 
Peinture  Flamande  et  HoUandaise  (1846). 
lu  1849  he  obtained  throUj-^h  Mile.  Rachel 
the  direction  of  the  Theatre  Fran(;ais. 
On  resigning  this  he  wrote  romances  aud 
historical  studies,  of  which  Mile,  de  la  Val- 
liere  et  Mdme.  de  Montespan,  Les  Parisiennes, 
and  Les  Grandes  Bames  were  the  chief. 

Houston,  Samuel  (6.  1793,  d.  1863), 
American  general,  passed  his  youth  among 
the  Cherokees,  and,  after  serving  with  Jack- 
son against  the  Creeks,  and  having  been 
governor  of  Tennessee,  returned  to  Arkansas, 
and  did  his  best  to  redi'ess  the  wrongs  of  the 
Indians.  Subsequently  he  took  part  in  the 
framing  of  the  Texas  constitution,  and 
succeeded  in  freeing  it  from  Mexico  aud 
incorijorating  it  with  the  Union. 

Houtman,  Cornelius  (6.  1560),  Dutch 
sailor,  who  founded  the  East  Indian  trade 
of  Holland :  was  made  prisoner  in  his  second 
voyage  by  the  King  of  Sumatra,  aud  never 
heard  of  again. 

Hoveden,  Roger  de  (12th  century),  chap- 
lain to  Heury  II.,  and  author  of  a  chronicle 
Bxtending  from  7.32  to  1202. 


How,  William  Walsham,  D.D.  (*.  1828), 
English  divine,  educated  at  Shrewsbary  and 
Oxford,  became  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  and 
suffragan  Bishop  of  Bedford  in  1879,  and 
in  1888  the  first  Bishop  of  Wakefield.  He 
wrote  Plain  Words,  Practical  Sermons,  etc. 


\See    Catherine, 


Howard,    Catherine. 

Queen.] 

Howard,  Edward,  Cardinal  {b.  1829),  son 
of  I'^lward  Gyles  Howard  ;  was  bom 
at  Nottingham,  aud,  after  serving  in  the 
Life  Guai-ds,  entered  the  Church  of  Rome 
at  the  age  of  twenty-six,  aud  was  employed 
by  Pius  IX.  in  the  Goa  schism,  aud  after- 
wards in  Italy.  He  was  made  cardinal  in 
1877,  and  archpriest  of  the  basilica  of  St. 
Peter  in  1881. 

Howard,  Edward  (<f.  1841),  novelist, 
lieutenant  in  the  navy,  wrote  The  Ola 
Conunodore,  Mattlin  the  Reefer,  etc. 

Howard,  Henry  (6.  1757,  d.  1842),  Eng- 
lish writer,  author  of  Memorials  of  the 
Howard  Family.  He  assisted  Liugard  and 
Tytler  in  their  historical  works. 

Howard,  Heury,  R.A.  (*.  1769,  d.  1847), 
historical  painter,  whose  chief  pictures  were 
JEneas  and  Anchises  (1796),  and  The  Birth 
of  Venus  (1829). 

Howard,  Sir  Henry  Francis,  G.C.B.  (6. 

1809),  diplomatist,  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  Brazil  in  1853,  at  Lisbon  1855,  Hanover 
18.59,  aud  Bavaria  1866.  Whilst  charge 
d'affaires  at  Berlin  he  negotiated  in  1852 
the  treaty  made  in  that  year. 

Howard,  John  (6.  1726,  d.  1790),  philan- 
thropist: acquired  a  knowledge  of  prisons 
when  detained  in  France  in  his  youth,  and 
devoted  his  wealth  to  their  reform,  visiting 
all  the  English  and  many  of  the  Continental 
prisons.  He  afterwards  took  up  the  cause 
of  infectious  diseases  aud  their  preventives, 
aud  visited  the  chief  lazarettos  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. While  settiug  out  for  the  East 
■with  a  similar  object  he  died  of  fever  in  the 
Crimea. 

Howard,  Luke  (6.  1772,  d.  1864),  chemist, 
auihor  of  The  Climate  of  London  (1818-20), 
and  an  Essay  on  Clouds  (1802),  in  which  he 
first  distinguished  their  various  kinds. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis  (b.  1830),  American 
general,  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run, 
lost  an  arm  at  Fairoaks,  and  commanded  a 
division  at  Fredericksburg.  He  was  de- 
feated at  Chaucellorsville,  but  took  Gettys- 
burg, and  afterwards  commanded  Sher- 
man's right  wing.  In  1872  he  went  to  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona  as  special  conunissioner. 

Howard  of  Eflangham,  Lord  {b.  1536,  d. 
1624),    admiral,    commanded    the    English 


How 


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Hua 


fleet  which  opposed  the  Armada,  and  in 
1594  captured  Cadiz,  and  was  made  Earl  of 
Nottingham.  He  was  afterwards  employed 
by  James  I. 

Howard  de  Walden,  Lord  (6.  1799,  d. 
1868),  diplomatist ;  was  under-secretary  for 
Foreign  affairs  under  Canning,  and  after- 
wards represented  England  at  Stockholm, 
Lisbon,  and  Brussels. 

Howe,  Elias  (A.  1819,  d.  1867),  American 
mechauician,  bom  at  Spencer,  Massa- 
chusetts, the  son  of  a  miller  ;  invented  the 
first  sewing-machine  in  1846. 

Howe,  Jack  {d.  1721),  English  politician  ; 
sat  in  the  Convention  Parliament,  and  after- 
wards as  member  for  Gloucester ;  became 
notorious  for  his  virulent  Toryism,  by  which 
he  incurred  the  personal  displeasure  of 
William  III.  Under  Anne  he  became  a 
Privy  Councillor  and  paymaster-general. 

Howe,  Joseph  (6.  1804,  d.  1873),  colonial 
statesman,  bom  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia ; 
obtained  municipal  privileges  for  cities 
in  the  British  colonies  ;  was  colonial  agent 
in  England  on  several  occasions,  and  was 
one  of  the  originators  of  the  idea  of  re- 
sponsible government  in  the  colonies.  In 
1870  he  was  made  secretary  of  state  for  the 
provinces  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Howe,  Eichard,  Earl  (6.  1725,  d.  1799), 
admiral,  called  by  his  men  "  Black  Dick ;  " 
took  part  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  the 
American  war,  and  the  Revolutionary  war, 
winning  a  great  victory  over  the  French 
off  Ushant  on  June  1st,  1794.  He  became 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1783,  and 
was  created  an  earl  in  1788. 

Howe,  William,  Lord  (6.  1725,  d.  1814), 
general ;  succeeded  Clinton  as  commander 
of  the  English  troops  in  the  American  war, 
won  the  battle  of  Long  Island  in  1776,  and 
took  New  York  ;  defeated  Washington  at 
Brandywine  in  the  following  year,  and  re- 
pulsed him  at  Germanstown.  He  was  re- 
called in  May,  1778. 

HowelDha  (d.  948),  Prince  of  South 
Wales,  united  the  whole  country  under  him 
in  939 ;  made  a  journey  to  Rome  with  the 
object  of  preparing  a  code,  and  owned  the 
suzerainty  of  Athelstan  in  926. 

Howell,  James  (b.  1594,  d.  1666),  traveller 
and  author,  employed  abroad  in  1626,  secre- 
taiy  to  liOrd  Scroop,  represented  Richmond 
in  1627,  with  Leicester  in  Denmark  in  1632, 
and  clerk  to  the  Privy  Council  in  1642.  He 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Fleet  for  several 
years,  but  at  the  Restoration  was  made  His- 
toriographer -  royal.  Author  of  Epistolce 
B.o-Elian(e,  etc. 

Howell,  Laurence  (b.  16G0,  a.  1720), 
English  nonjuror,  author  of  Synopsis 
Canonuin,  and  The  Case  of  Sc/iisiii  in  the 
Church  of  England  Stated,  for  which  last  he 
was  fined,  imprisoned,  and  degraded. 


Howells,  William  Dean  {b.  1837),  American 
novelist,  bom  at  Martinsville,  Ohio ;  was 
United  States  consul  at  Venice  from  1861 
to  1865.  From  1871  to  1880  he  edited  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  but  soon  began  to  devote 
his  time  to  novel-writing.  Chief  among 
his  novels  are  The  Lady  of  the  Aroostook 
(1879),  A  Modern  Instance  (1882),  A  Fearful 
Responsibility ,  etc.  (1881),  and  The  Shadow 
of  a  Dream  (1820).  He  also  wrote  lives  of 
Lincoln  and  Hayes,  Modern  Italian  Poets 
(1888),  and  some  poems. 

Howick,  Lord.    \_See  Grey,  Charles.] 

Howitt,  William  (6. 1792,  d.  1879),  English 
writer  (a  Quaker)  ;  married  Mary  Bothamin 
1819,  and  with  her  wrote  The  Forest  Minstrel 
(1823)  and  The  Desolation  of  Eyam  (1827), 
poems.  In  1831  he  produced  The  Book  of  the 
Seasons,  in  1838  Rural  Life  in  England,  and 
Homes  and  Haunts  of  the  British  Poets 
(1847).  In  1851  he  visited  the  Australian 
goldflelds.  Mary  Howitt  joined  him  in 
writing  Ruined  Abbeys  of  Great  Britain,  and 
herself  wrote  Tales  of  Eiiylish  Life  (1881). 
She  died  in  1888,  having  entered  the  Roman 
church. 

Howland,    Sir   WilUam,    K.C.M.G.     (6. 

1811),  Canadian  statesman;  born  in  New 
York  State,  removed  to  Canada  in  1830, 
and  became  a  large  mill-owner.  Having 
entered  the  Legislature,  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Executive  Council  in  1862,  minister  of 
finance  1862-3,  receiver-general  1863-4, 
and  again  in  1866 ;  postmaster-general 
1864-6,  and  minister  of  inland  revenue  in 
1867.  From  1868  to  1873  he  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Ontario. 

Howley,  William  (J>.  1765,  d.  1848),  Bishop 
of  London  1813-28;  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury 1828-48. 

Howorth,  Henry  Hoyle  U>.  1842),  his- 
torian ;  bom  in  Lisbon,  and  educated  at 
Rossall ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1867,  and 
entered  Parliament  for  Salford  as  a  Con- 
servative in  1886.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
History  of  Chingiz  {Genghis)  Khan  and  his 
Ancestors,  The  Mammoth  and  the  Flood,  and 
A  History  of  the  Mongols. 

Howson,  John  Saul  (6.  1816,  d.  1885), 
theologian,  became  principal  of  Liverpool 
College  in  1849,  and  Dean  of  Chester  in 
1867.  He  was  the  author,  with  Rev.  W.  J. 
Conybeare,  of  The  Life  and  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul  (1852),  and  Horce  Petrince  (1883). 

Hozier,  Pierre  d'  (6.  1592,  d.  1660),  French 
genealogist,  patronised  by  Louis  XIV., 
compiled  Genealogie  des  Families  de  la  France 
(150  vols,  in  Ms.).  His  son,  Louis  (d. 
1767),  published  Armorial  General  de  la 
France. 

Huarte  Navarro,  Juan  de  Dios  (16th 
century),  Spanish  philosopher  and  physician; 
author  of  Exaitien  de  Ingenios. 


Eua 


(  460) 


Hug 


Huayna-Capac  (d.  1525),  Emperor  of 
Peru,  reigned  tor  fifty  years  ;  conquered  aud 
civilised  Quito,  and  died  of  despair  soou  atter 
the  arrival  of  the  first  Spaniards. 

Huber,  Francois  (d.  1750,  d.  1830),  blind 
Swiss  naturalist,  son  of  Jean,  born  at  (je- 
neva ;  made  many  discoveries  about  bees, 
aud  published  them  in  his  Nouvelles  Obser- 
vations sur  Ics  Abeilles.  His  son,  Pieeee 
(d.  1841),  was  author  of  Recherches  sur  les 
Fourmis. 

Huber,  Jean  (i.  1722,  d.  1790),  painter 
and  silhouettist ;  also  studied  aeronautics, 
and  wrote  Note  sur  la  Maniere  de  Biriger  les 
Ballons  fondee  sur  le  vol  des  Oiseattx  (1784). 

Huber,  Johann  Rudolf  {b.  1658,  d.  1748), 
painter,  called  "the  Tiutoret  of  Switzer- 
land ";  passed  some  time  in  Italy  aud  at  the 
court  of  Wiirtemberg,  aud  painted  portraits 
and  historical  pieces. 

Hubert,  St.  {d.  121),  apostle  of  the  Ar- 
dennes, and  patron  saint  of  huntsmen. 

Hubert  de  Burgh  {d.  1243),  English  states- 
man and  soldier ;  served  Richard  I.  and 
John,  having  charge  of  Prince  Arthur  at 
Falaise.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  III. 
he  defended  Dover  against  the  dauphin,  and 
defeated  the  French  fleet,  and  was  regent 
for  some  years.  In  1227  he  was  made  Earl 
of  Kent,  and  justiciary  for  life,  but  was  re- 
moved in  1232,  aud,  taken  from  sanctuary, 
was  committed  to  the  Tower.  In  1234  he 
was  reconciled  to  Henry,  but  never  took 
office  again. 

Hiibner,  Baron  Josef  (b.  1811,  d.  1892), 
Austrian  diplomatist ;  entered  the  service 
tmder  Mettemich,  and  became  consul  at 
Leipzig  about  1844.    In  1848  he  was  detained 

Erisoner  at  Milan  by  the  Italians  ;  next  year 
e  became  ambassador  at  Paris ,  and  signed  the 
treaty  of  1856.  He  was  recalled  in  1859,  and 
subsequently  became  minister  of  poUce  at 
Vicuna.  After  his  retirement  he  wrote  Life 
and  Times  of  Sixtits  V.  and  Through  the 
British  Empire,  which  have  been  translated. 

Hiibner,  Rudolf  Julius  Benno  (b.  1806,  d. 
1882),(iermau  painter,  a  native  of  Silesia ;  -pvo- 
fessor  and  afterwards  director  of  the  royal 
gallery  at  Dresden ;  painted  The  Departure  of 
Naomi, HappinessandSleep,etc.,ax\Aexh\\>ite(i 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867  The  Dispute 
hetueen  Luther  and  Eck,  and  other  pictures. 
He  also  published  some  sonnets  and  songs. 

Hucbald  (6.  840,  d.  930),  monk  of  St. 
Amand;  is  believed  to  have  invented  a 
method  of  musical  notation. 

^Huclitenburgh,  Johann  van  (*.  1646,  d. 
1733),  Dutch  painter  and  engraver  of  battle- 
pieces  in  the  manner  of  Wouvermans;  ex- 
amples of  his  work  are  in  the  Louvre. 


Hudson,  Charles  T.  (6.  1848),  English 
naturalist ;  discovered  Pedalion  mirum  and 
several  new  species  of  rotifera.  He  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1889, 
and  was  president  of  the  Microscopical 
Society  1888-90. 

Hudson,  Henry  {d.  1611),  English  sailor, 
made  several  voyages  for  the  East  India 
Company  ;  discovered  Hudson's  Bay,  but, 
having  been  overcome  by  his  men  was  cast 
adrift  in  a  boat. 

Hue,  Francois  {b.  1151,  d.  1819),  servant 
of  Louis  XVI.,  whose  Dernihes  Anneea  he 
published  in  1806. 

Huerta,  Vincente  de  la  {h.  1730,  d.  1787), 
Spanish  writer,  author  of  La  Raquel,  a 
tragedy,  and  of  Theatro  Uispanol,  a  collection 
of  the  best  Spanish  plays. 

Huet,  Pierre  (fi.  1630,  d.  1721),  French 
scholar.  Bishop  of  Avranches ;  was  chief 
editor  of  the  Delphiu  classics,  and  wrote  a 
treatise  against  Descartes. 

Hufeland,  Christof  WUl  {b.  1762,  d.  1836), 
German  physician,  author  of  a  treatise  on 
the  art  of  prolonging  life  {Macrobiotik). 

Huggins,    William,    D.C.L.,  LL.D.    (*. 

1824),  English  astronomer;  built  a  private 
observatory  in  1855,  and  was  elected  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  for  his  discoveries  with 
the  spectroscope  ten  years  later ;  afterwards 
re-examined  the  nebulae  aud  the  spectra  of 
comets,  and  obtained  photographs  of  violet 
parts  of  the  star  spectra,  by  means  of  which 
data  were  gained  for  the  determination  of 
the  relative  ages  of  the  stars  and  of  the  sun. 
He  received  the  Lalande  medal  in  1872,  was 
])resident  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society 
from  1876  to  1878,  aud  was  elected  president 
of  the  British  Association  for  1891. 

Hugh  Capet  (d.  996),  Count  of  Paris,  first 
King  of  France,  in  987  was  crowned  on 
the  death  of  Louis  V.,  and  obtained  the 
kingdom  for  his  descendants. 

Hugh  the  Great,  or  le  Blanc  (<£.  956), 
Count  of  Paris  and  Duke  of  France  ;  carried 
on  war  with  Charles  the  Simple  and  Louis 
IV.  ;  was  excommunicated  at  the  Council  of 
Ingelheim,  and  having  made  Lothaire  king, 
received  from  him  Burgundy  and  Aquitaine. 

Hughes,  David  Edward  (6.  1831),  Ameri- 
can mechanician ;  was  bom  in  London,  but 
early  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  In 
1850  he  was  made  professor  of  music  at 
Bardstown,  in  Kentucky,  and  soon  suc- 
ceeded to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  same  college.  In  1854  he  took  out  a 
patent  for  his  printing  telegraph,  which 
was  soon  after  tried  and  adopted  in  France, 
after  having  been  rejected  in  England.  It 
was  adopted  here  in  1863,  and  is  now  almost 


Hug 


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Hnm. 


in  universal  use.  In  1878  Professor  Hughes 
announced  the  invention  of  the  microphone, 
and  in  1879  that  of  the  iuduction  balance.  In 
1880  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, and  received  the  gold  medal  in  1885. 

Hughes,  John  (6.  1787,  d.  1857),  English 
wi'iter,  author  of  the  Boscobel  Tracts,  and 
composer  of  the  Small-Coal  Man,  sometimes 
attributed  to  Theodore  Hook  and  Barham. 

Hughes, Thomas  (6. 1823), English  wi-iter; 
educated  under  Arnold  at  Rugby,  and  at 
Oriel ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1848,  and  sat 
in  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  for  Lambeth 
(1865-8),  and  Frome  (1868-74).  He  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  1869,  and  county  coixrt 
judge  in  1882.  His  chief  works  are  Tom 
BrowrCs  School  Bays  (1857),  Tom  Brown  at 
Oxford  (1861),  and  A  Memoir  of  Daniel 
Macmillan. 

Hugo,  King  of  Italy  {d.  circa  947),  sou  of 
Thebault,  Count  of  Aries,  married  Marozia, 
and  governed  cruelly ;  was  subdued  by  Be- 
renger,  and  returned  to  France. 

Hugo,  Victor-Marie,  (*.  1802,  d.  1885), 
French  poet  and  romance-writer,  bom 
of  noble  parents  at  Besau9on ;  began  to 
write  verse  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  soon 
deserting  classic  models,  became  the  founder, 
with  Sainte-Beuve  and  others,  of  the  French 
romantic  school.  In  like  manner  his  early 
royaUsm  gave  place  to  ardent  republicanism. 
Cromwell,  Le  Dernier  Jour  d'un  Condamney 
Marion  Belorme,  and,  above  all,  Hernnni, 
were  strongly  censured  by  the  Academie ; 
but  Charles  X.  would  not  prohibit  the  per- 
formance of  the  last.  Le  £oi  s'amuse  was, 
however,  interdicted  by  the  ministry.  Be- 
tween the  years  1830-40  appeared  also  N6t7-e- 
I)ame  de  Paris,  and  several  volumes  of  verse, 
and  the  poet  was  elected  to  the  Academie  in 
1841.  In  1845  he  also  became  pairde  France. 
In  1848  he  was  elected  by  Paris  to  the  Con- 
stitutional Assembly,  and  acted  with  the 
Moderates,  but  in  the  next  Assembly  he  be- 
came one  of  the  orators  of  the  Left,  and, 
having  attempted  to  resist  the  coup  d''etat  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  was  banished  in  1851.  He 
lived  chiefly  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  and 
vsTote  Les  Contemplations  and  La  Legende  des 
Siecles.  He  refused  to  avail  himself  of  the 
amnesties  of  1859  and  1869,  but  returned  to 
Paris  in  1870.  In  1866  appeared  Les 
Travailleurs  de  la  Mer,  and,  after  the  return, 
Quatre-vingt  Treize  (1872),  L'Histoire  dUm 
Crime  (1877),  and  many  other  works.  Her- 
nani  was  revived  in  1867,  and  Hu^o  became 
a  senator  in  1879.  He  was  buned  in  the 
Pantheon,  which  was  secularised  for  the 
purpose.  Chief  among  his  lyrics  were  his 
early  Odes  et  Ballades,  LesFeuille^d'Automne 
(1831),  Les  Chants  du  Crepmcule  (1835),  Le» 
Rayons  et  les  Ombres  (1840),  and  Chansons 
des  Rues  et  des  Bois  (1865).     The  romance, 


Les  Miser ables  (1862),  was  translated  into 
twelve  languages. 

Hugues  d' Amiens  {d.  1164),  Abbot  of 
Eeadiug,  and  afterwards  Archbishop  of 
Rouen ;  quaiTelled  with  Henry  I.,  and  ra- 
tii'ed  to  Italy,  but  was  present  at  the  coro- 
nation of  Henry  IL 

Hugues  de  Clugny  {d.  1109),  Abbot  of 
Cluguy ;  mediated  between  Gregory  VII. 
and  the  Emperor  Henry  IV. 

Hugues  de  Sainte  Marie  (r2th  century), 
Abbot  of  Fie ury;  author  of  Chronicon  Florea- 
cense  and  Be  Potestate  Regaii  et  de  Sacerdotali 
Bigtiitate. 

Hulin,  Pierre  (6.  1758,  d.  1841),  French 
soldier,  conspicuous  at  the  taking  of  the 
Bastille ;  served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy, 
and  w^s  president  of  the  council  which  con- 
demned the  Comte  d'Eughien;  afterwards 
held  high  commands  in  Germany  and 
Austria. 

Hull,  Edward,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  (6.  1829), 
British  geologist,  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dubhu,  1850,  aud  was  for  the  next 
twenty  years  employed  in  the  geological 
sm-vey  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  became 
director  in  Ireland,  aud  professor  of  geology 
at  the  Dublin  College  of  Science  in  1869,  aud 
in  1883  was  named  head  of  an  expedition 
sent  by  the  Palestine  Exploration  Society 
to  Palestine  and  Arabia  Petraea.  In  1890 
he  received  the  Murchison  medal.  His 
chief  works  are  The  Coalfields  of  Great 
Britain,  Sketch  of  Geological  History  (1887), 
and  A  Text-book  of  Physiography  (1888). 

Hullah,  John  Pyke  (6.  1813,  d.  1884), 
musical  writer,  bom  at  Worcester ;  after 
being  professor  of  music  at  King's  College, 
was  inspector  of  training  schools  from 
1874  to  1882,  in  which  year  he  received  a 
Civil  List  pension.  Besides  some  operas. 
The  Village  Coquettes  (words  by  Dickens'), 
The  Barber  of  Bassora,  etc.,  he  wrote  The 
Grammar  of  Harmony,  and  republished  his 
lectures  imder  the  name  of  The  History  of 
Modern  Music  and  The  Transitional  Period 
of  Musical  History. 

HuUmandel,  Charles  J.  (6.  1789,  d.  1850), 
English  lithographer,  son  of  a  German 
musician,  invented  the  litho-tiut  process. 

Hulls,  Jonathan  (18th  century),  published 
a  description  of  aud  took  out  a  patent  in 
1737  for  a  machine  for  using  steam  as  a 
motive-power  for  boats. 

Hulse,  John  (6.  1708,  d.  1790),  English 
clergyman,  of  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  left  funds  for  the  foundation  and 
endowment  of  the  Hulseau  lectureship. 

Humbert,  Joseph  Amable  (6.  1767,  d. 
1823),  French  general,  at  first  a  dealer  in 


Hum 


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Hum 


rabbit-skius  ;  conimauded  the  expeditiou  of 
179S  to  Ireland,  but  was  defeated  by  Coru- 
wallis  aud  surreudered,  after  which,  being 
suspected  by  Napoleou,  he  was  seut  to  the 
West  Indies,  and  joined  the  insurrectiou  of 
the  Spanish  colomsts. 

Humbert  I.  [or  rv.]«  King  of  Italy  (6. 
1844),  distinguished  himself  as  Prince  of 
Piedmont  iu  the  Austrian  war,  and  nearly 
lost  his  life  at  Custozza :  succeeded  Victor 
Emmanuel  as  King  of  Italy  iu  1878.  In  that 
year  an  attempt  to  assassinate  him  was 
made,  but  his  popularity  increased,  aud 
culminated  after  his  exertions  iu  1884 
during  the  cholera  epidemic.  His  reign 
has  been  marked  by  the  formation  of  the 
Triple  Alliance. 

Humbert  11.,  Dauphin  of  Vieunois  (6, 
1313,  d.  135.5),  ceded  Dauphin^  and  Vien- 
nois  to  Philip  VI.  of  France,  and  retired 
into  a  monastery  in  1349. 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander, 
Barou  von  {b.  1769,  d.  1859),  German  natura- 
list aud  geographer,  born  at  Berlin,  was  a 
pupilofHeyueandBlumeubachatGottingen, 
and  studied  mining  at  Freiberg  with  Jame- 
son. In  1799,  with  Bonpland,  he  set  out  on 
his  travels,  which  lasted  five  years,  during 
which  he  visited  Teneriffe  and  explored 
South  America  aud  Cuba.  After  1807  he 
lived  chiefly  in  Paris,  and  his  Vonagcs  aux 
Eigions  Equinoxiales  du  Nouveau  Continent 
appeared  between  1809  and  1825.  In  1810 
and  1811  he  also  published  Yues  des  Cor- 
dilleres  aud  Essai  Politique  mr  Nouveau 
Espagne.  In  1814  he  came  to  England,  aud 
in  1822  visited  Rome  and  Naples.  After 
studying  chemistry  with  Gay-Lussac  aud 
Berthollet,  he  left  Paris  for  Berlin  in  1827. 
Two  years  after  he  made  a  rapid  journey 
across  Siberia,  and  between  1830  and  1848 
was  employed  on  various  diplomatic  mis- 
sions. Between  1835  aud  1838  appeared  his 
Examen  Critique  de  la  Geogrnphie  du 
Nouveau  Continent,  and  between  1845  and 
1848  his  Cosmos. 

Humboldt,  Karl  Wilhelm  von  (*.  1767, 
d.  1835),  philologist  aud  statesman,  elder 
brother  of  the  above ;  vrrote  a  criticism  on 
Hermann  und  iJorothea  in  1800,  and,  after 
philological  researches  made  in  retirement, 
went  in  1802  as  Prussian  minister  to  Rome, 
but  soon  returned  to  Berlin,  of  whose  uni- 
versity he  was  one  of  the  chief  fouuders 
wheu  minister  of  public  instruction.  Signed 
the  capitulation  of  Paris  in  1815,  was  at 
Frauktort  in  1816,  and  at  the  Congress  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  iu  1818,  but  retired  from 
public  life  next  year.  His  chief  works  were 
JEsthetische  Tersuche  (1799),  Pi-ufnng  dcr 
Untersuchugen  ilber  die  Urbewohner  Mispa- 
niens  vermittehi  der  Boikischen  Sprache 
(1821),  etc. 


Hume,  David  (*,  1711,  d.  1776),  philo- 
sopher aud  liistorian,  bom  at  Edinburgh ; 
after  being  a  merchant's  clerk  at  Bristol, 
studied  iu  France  for  several  years,  and 
published  iu  1739  his  Treatise  on  Human 
Nature.  His  Essays,  Moral  and  Political, 
which  appeared  iu  1741,  attracted  some 
attention.  After  being  secretary  aud  tutor, 
he  became  a  librarian  at  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1763  went  to  Paris  as  secretary  to  the 
British  embassy,  aud  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  philosophes.  After  this  he  lived  in 
London,  and  was  under- secretary  of  state. 
His  History  of  England  appeared  between 
1754  aud  1762,  and  the  Natural  History  of 
Religion  in  1755. 

Hume,  Hamilton  (6.  1797,  d.  1873),  Aus- 
tralian explorer,  born  at  Paramatta  ;  vdth 
W.  H.  Hovell  made  the  first  overlaud  jour- 
ney (1824),  from  Sydney  to  Port  Philip,  and 
discovered  Lake  Bathurst,  the  Goulbum 
Plains,  etc.,  receiving  a  grant  of  land  for 
his  services.  He  afterwards  went  with 
Sturt  to  the  Macquarie  river. 

Hume,  Joseph  {h.  1777,  d.  1855),  poli- 
tician, boru  at  Montrose;  went  to  India 
in  1797  as  an  army-surgeon,  and  became 
interpreter  and  commissary-general,  being 
with  Lake  in  the  Mahratta  war.  In  1812  he 
became  member  for  Weymouth,  but  his 
extreme  views  compelled  an  early  retire- 
ment. Having  meanwhile  formed  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Beutham  and  the  elder  Mill, 
he  was  returned  for  Aberdeen  in  1818,  and 
afterwards  represented  Middlesex,  Kil- 
kenny, and  Montrose.  He  was  energetic 
in  reducing  expenses,  and  in  his  protests 
against  flogging  in  the  army,  press-gangs, 
and  imprisonment  for  debt ;  aud  he  also 
detected  the  Orange  plot  of  1835.  He  pro- 
moted the  establishment  of  savings  banks, 
and  the  Laucasteriau  system  of  education. 

Hummel,  Johann  Nepomuk  {b.  1778,  d. 
1837),  Germau  pianist  aud  composer,  kapell- 
meister to  Prince  Esterhazy  and  the  King  of 
Wiirtemberg,  and  pupil  of  Mozart  and 
Haydu  ;  was  director  of  the  theatres  of 
Stuttgardt  aud  Weimar,  and  composed 
several  operas,  two  masses,  and  some 
pianoforte  pieces. 

Humphreys,  Henry  Noel  {b.  1810,  d. 
187^),  English  antiquary,  author  of  Ancient 
Coins  and  Medals  (1850),  Coinage  of  the 
British  Empire,  and  British  Moths. 

Humphry,  Sir  George  Murray,  M.D., 
F.R.S.  {b.  1820),  surgeon,  born  at  Sudbury, 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Cambridge 
18G6,  and  of  surgery  1883.  In  1868  he 
became  a  member  of  the  council  of  the 
College  of  Surgeons,  and  subsequently 
fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  aud 
vice-president  of  the  British  Medical  Asso- 
ciation.    He   was  knighted  iu   1891,  aud 


Hun 


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Hun 


his  chief  works  are  A  Treatise  on  the 
Muman  Skeleton  (1858),  On  Myology  (1872), 
and  Old  Age  (1889). 

Hiumeric  {d.  484),  King  of  the  Vandals, 
succeeded  Genseric  in  477,  and  as  an  Arian 
persecuted  the  orthodox. 

Hiumlades,  Johannes  Corvinus  (d.  1456), 
Hungarian  general  and  voivode  of  Transyl- 
vania; defeated  the  Turks  at  Kunobitza 
and  other  places,  was  regent  of  the  king- 
dom for  some  years,  and  was  defeated  at 
Cossova  in  1448,  but  afterwards  dispersed 
the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  Danube,  and  made 
a  name  for  himself  by  his  storming  of  Bel- 
grade (1456).    He  died  of  his  wounds. 

Hunnius,  Gilles,  or  ^gidius  (6.  1550,  d. 
1603),  Lutheran  reformer,  opposed  the  Cal- 
vinists,  and  drew  up  the  articles  now  used 
in  the  Saxon  Church. 

Hunt,  AHred  WHliam  (6.  1830),  English 
painter,  won  the  Newdigate,  and  became 
fellow  of  Corpus  Christi  College  ;  exhibited 
Llyn  Idwal  at  the  Academy  in  1856,  and 
other  pictures  admired  by  Euskin  ;  joined 
the  Water-Colour  Society,  and  afterwards 
exhibited  many  water-colours  and  oils  in 
the  Turner  manner. 

Hunt,  Frederick  Knight  {d.  1854), 
journalist;  established  the  Medical  Times, 
edited  the  Pictorial  Times,  and,  after  being 
assistant  to  Dickens,  became  editor  of  the 
Daily  News  in  1851.  He  wrote  The  Fourth 
Estate :  a  History  of  the  English  Newspaper 
Fress. 

Hunt,  Eight  Hon.  George  Ward  (J.  1825, 
d.  1875),  statesman,  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1851,  and  returned  for  Xorthamptonshire 
as  a  Conservative  in  1857.  After  having 
been  financial  secretary  to  the  Treasury,  he 
became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  1868, 
and  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1874. 

Hunt,  Henry  (Jb.  1773,  d.  1835),  Radical 
reformer,  called  "  Orator  Hunt ;  "  engaged 
in  farming  for  many  years,  but,  after  suf- 
fering imprisonment  for  challenging  his 
superior  officer  in  the  yeomanry,  became 
one  of  the  early  Radicals.  He  was  rejected 
at  Bristol  and  several  other  places,  but  sat 
for  Preston  from  1830  to  1833.  For  his 
speech  at  Spa  fields,  which  led  to  the 
•'  Manchester  massacre,"  he  was  sent  to 
prison  for  three  years,  where  he  wrote  his 
Autobiography. 

Hunt,  James,  Ph.D.  (*.  1833,  d.  1869), 
physiologist,  founder  and  first  president 
of  the  Anthropological  Society,  which  fiirst 
met  in  1863. 

Hunt,  JamesHenry Leigh  (6. 1784,  d.  1859), 
essayist  and  critic;    after  having  been  m 


the  office  of  his  brother,  an  attorney,  and  a 
clerk  in  the  War  Office,  became  "in  1808 
editor  of  the  Examiner,  with  Hazlitt  and 
Lamb  on  his  stafF,  and  was  fined  and  im- 
prisoned for  two  years  (1813-15)  for  an 
attack  on  the  Regent.  While  in  prison  he 
wrote  Rimini,  and  in  1821  went  to  Italy  to 
join  Byron  and  Shelley  in  the  establishment 
of  a  paper.  This  came  to  little  on  account 
of  Shelley's  death  and  Byron's  going  to 
Greece,  but  while  in  Italy  Hunt  wrote  The 
Religion  of  the  Heart,  and  translated  Bacco 
in  Toscana.  On  his  retui'n  he  published 
Byron  and  his  Contemporaries  (1828),  Cap- 
tain Sword  and  Captain  Pen  (a  poem),  and 
in  1840  The  Legend  of  Florence.  Having 
received  a  Civil  List  pension,  and  an  annuity 
from  Mrs.  Shelley,  he  devoted  his  last  years 
to  critical  essays  {Wit  and  Humour,  etc.), 
and  to  the  composition  of  his  Auto- 
biography. 

Hunt,  Robert  (6.  1807,  d.  1887),  geol- 
ogist, self-educated ;  was  first  professor 
of  mechanical  science  in  the  School  of 
Mines,  and  afterwards  became  keeper  of 
mining  records  at  the  liluseum  of  Practical 
Geology,  and  F.R.S.  He  originated  the 
Miners'  Association  of  Cornwall  and  Devon, 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  to  inquire 
into  unworked  coalfields  in  1866,  and  wrote, 
besides  the  Handbook  to  the  Exhibitions  of 
1851  and  1862,  a  work  on  photography 
(1842),  Researches  in  Light,  The  Poetry  of 
Science,  and  several  other  works. 

Hunt,  Thomas  Sterry  (6. 1826),  American 
scientist,  bom  at  Norwich,  Connecticut ; 
was  employed  in  the  geological  survey  ojf 
Canada  in  1847,  and  became  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Laval  University,  Quebec.  In 
1872  he  was  given  the  chair  of  geology  in 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1859,  and  was 
president  of  the  Canadian  Society  in  1884-5. 
He  is  author  of  Mineral  Physiology  and 
Physiography  (1886),  A  Neiv  Basis  for 
Chemistry,  and  Systematic  Mineralogy. 

Hunt,  William  Henry  (6.  1790,  d.  1864), 
painter,  son  of  a  tin-plate  worker ;  was 
apprenticed  to  John  Varley,  and  first  ex- 
hibited about  1814,  joining  the  old  Water- 
Colour  Society  ten  years  later.  Of  his 
figure-pieces,  'The  Blessing  and  I'/ie  Shy 
Sitter  may  be  mentioned,  but  he  was 
chiefly,  perhaps,  known  for  his  pictures  of 
fruit  and  flowers. 

Hunt,  William  Holman  (6.  1827),  painter 
of  the  pre-Raphaelite  school,  son  of  a 
London  warehouseman  ;  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Varley,  and  studied  at  the 
Academy.  In  1853  he  exhibited  Claudio  and 
Isabella  and  The  Awakened  Conscience,  and 
in  1854  The  Light  of  the  World,  now  in 
Keble  College  Library.    After  this  he  went  to 


Hnn 


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the  East,  aud  on  his  returu  yaiuted  The 
Scapegoat  (1856),  The  Fmduig  of  the 
Saviour  in  the  Temple  (1850),  aud  Isabella 
a»d  the  Pot  of  Basil  (1866).  Among  his 
more  recent  pictiu-es  are  The  Festival  of 
St.  Sivithin,  The  Shadoiv  of  Death,  and  The 
Triumph  of  the  Innocents,  etc. 

Hunter,  Colin,  A.R,A.  (h.  1841),  English 
pa  inter,  bom  and  educated  at  Helensburgh, 
where  he  was  for  some  years  a  clerk.  Chief 
among  his  pictiu-es  are  Traiclers  Waiting  for 
Darkness  (1873) ;  Salmon  Stake-Nets  (1875), 
now  at  Sydney;  Their  Only  Harvest  (1878), 
purchased  for  the  Chantrey  Bequest ;  Wait- 
ing for  the  Homeward  Bound,  at  Adelaide ; 
Herring  Market  at  Sea  (1884),  at  Man- 
chester;  The  Hills  of  Morven  (1890). 

Hunter,  John  {b.  1728,  d.  1793),  Scottish 
surgeon,  brought  up  as  a  turner,  went  to 
London  in  1748,  and  was  with  the  expe- 
dition to  Belle-isle  in  1761.  He  became 
surgeon-extraordinary  to  the  king  in  1 776, 
and  published  Natural  History  of  the 
Human  Teeth,  and  other  papers.  His  col- 
lection was  bought  by  the  nation  for 
£15,000.  Anne,  his  wife  {d.  1821),  wrote 
T}>e  Mermaid's  Song,  and  other  poems. 

Hunter,  John  Kelso  (6.  1802,  d.  1873), 
Scottish  artist,  son  of  an  Ayrshire  cobbler, 
worked  at  his  father's  trade  while  he  also 
painted ;  exhibited  at  the  Academy  a  por- 
trait of  himself  as  a  cobbler,  and  wrote, 
among  other  works,  Retrospect  of  an 
Artist's  Life  (1868). 

Hunter,  Joseph  {b.  1783,  d.  1861),  English 
clergyman,  assistant-keeper  of  the  records, 
aud  author  of  A  History  of  Hallamshire, 
and  other  topographical  works,  as  well  as 
of  Historical  Tracts  (1849). 

Hunter,  William  (d.  1815),  Scotch  sur- 
geon and  Orientalist,  went  to  Java,  and  was 
for  some  time  professor  at  Calcutta.  He 
wrote  An  Account  of  Pegu,  and  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Asiatic  Society  for  many  years. 

Hunter,  Sir  William  Guyer,  K.C.M.G.  (6. 
1831),  English  surgeon,  entered  the  Indian 
medical  service,  aud  served  in  the  Mutiny 
and  the  Burmese  wars.  In  1876  he  was 
made  principal  of  the  Grant  Medical 
College,  and  in  1879  vice-chancellor  of 
Bombay  uuiversity.  In  1883  he  served  on 
the  Cholera  Commission  in  Egypt,  and  in 
1885  entered  Parliament  for  Central  Hack- 
ney as  a  Conservative. 

Hunter,  Sir  Wilham  Wilson  (6.  1840), 
Indian  civilian  ;  educated  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, went  to  India  in  1862,  and  was 
sent  to  Orissa  during  the  famine  of  1866. 
After  having  been  on  the  Bengal  secre- 
tarial staff,  he  became  in  1871  director- 
general  of  statistics.     In  1881  he  was  made 


an  additional  member  of  the  Viceroy's 
coimcil,  and  in  1886  member  of  the  finance 
committee.  In  1887  he  was  knighted.  He 
is  author  of  Indian  Musalmans,  Brief 
History  of  the  Indian  People,  a  Life  of 
Lord  Mayo,  and  other  works  on  Indian 
subjects. 

Huntingdon,  Selina,  Countess  of  {b.  1707, 
d.  1791),  was  the  patron  of  Whitefleld,  and 
the  founder  of  a  sect  which  bears  her  name. 
She  founded  schools,  and  spent  large  sums 
in  private  charity.  Her  Memorials  were 
written  by  A.  H.  New. 

Huntington,  Daniel  (6.  1816),  American 
painter,  born  at  New  York ;  studied  under 
S.  B.  F.  Morse  and  in  Italy,  and  visited 
England  in  1851,  when  he  painted  the  por- 
traits of  several  well-known  persons. 
Among  his  productions  may  be  mentioned 
The  Toper  Asleep  and  The  Bar-Room  Poli- 
tician, The  Roman  Penitents  and  The  Com- 
munion  of  the  Sick  (in  Italy),  Lady  Jane 
Grey  arid  Feckenham  in  the  Tower,  The 
Republican  Court,  Titian  and  Charles  V., 
and  several  Shakespearian  subjects. 

Huntington,  Robert  {b.  1636, «?.  1701),  Ori- 
entalist  and  divine,  was  chaplain  at  Aleppo 
and  travelled  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  and 
Cyprus,  collecting  MSS.,  which  are  now  in 
the  Bodleian.  After  his  return  he  became 
provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
Bishop  of  Raphoe. 

Huntsman,  Benjamin  (J.  1704,  d.  1776), 
EngUsh  inventor  of  cast  steel. 

Huot,  Jean  Nicolas  (6.  1790,  d.  1845), 
French  naturalist,  travelled  in  the  Crimea 
and  the  Kouban,  and  brought  out  Nouveau 
Cours  Slementaire  de  Geologie  (1837-8), 
Nouveau  Manuel  Complet  de  Geologie 
(1841). 

Huppazoli,  Francisco  (b.  1587,  d.  1702),  a 
Piedmontese,  who  lived  to  the  age  of  105, 
married  five  times,  and  had  about  fifty 
children.  He  left  in  manuscript  Journal 
d^s  £venements  les  Plus  Importants  de  mon 
Temps. 

Hurlstone,  Frederick  Yeates  (6.  1801,  d. 
1869),  English  artist,  exhibited  at  the 
Academy  from  1821  to  1830,  and  after- 
wards at  the  Society  of  British  Artists,  of 
which  he  became  president.  At  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1855,  to  which  he  sent  Arthur 
and  Constance  and  The  Farewell  of  Boabdil 
to  Granada,  he  was  awarded  a  gold  medal. 

HusMsson,  William  {b.  1770,  d.  1830), 
statesman,  was  returned  as  a  Tory  for 
Morpeth,  and  became  in  1804  secretary 
to  the  Treasury.  From  1814  till  1823  he' 
was  Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests, 
aud  then  became  President  of  the  Board  of 


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Hut 


Trade,  and  a  cabinet  minister.  Under 
Canning,  whom  he  regarded  as  his  leader, 
he  was  Secretary  for  the  Colonies.  Though 
opposed  to  reform,  he  resigned  his  post 
under  the  Duke  of  Wellington  on  a  question 
of  this  nature.  After  this  the  Canningitea 
acted  partly  with  the  Opposition.  Hus- 
kissou  was  killed  by  an  engine  in  Septem- 
ber, 1830,  at  the  opening  of  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  Eailway.  He  did  much  to 
forward  economical  improvements,  and  is 
said  to  have  written  Canning's  tinaucial 
speeches. 

Huss,  or  Hus,  Johann  (6.  probably  1369,  d. 
1415),  Bohemian  reformer,  attacked  abuses 
in  Prague  university  and  among  the  clergy, 
and  opposed  German  predominance.  He 
was  excommunicated  by  John  XXIII.  for 
giving  adhesion  to  WycLiffe's  doctrines,  and 
afterwards  wrote  his  Traetatus  de  liceleaid. 
Having  gone  to  the  Council  of  Constance 
under  a  safe-conduct  from  the  emperor, 
his  enemies  procured  his  imprisonment  as  a 
heretic,  and,  on  refusal  to  retract,  he  was 
burnt. 

Hussein  Pacha  {b.  1773,  d.  1838),  last 
Dey  of  Algiers,  dethroned  by  the  French 
after  a  two  years'  blockade  of  the  coast. 

Husson,  Jean  Houore  (6.  1803,  d.  1864), 
French  sculptor,  pupil  of  David  d' Angers ; 
gained  the  gold  medal  at  the  Exhibition  of 
1837  for  his  L'Ange  Gardien  Offrant  d  Lieu 
un  Pecheur  Repentant,  now  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg museum.  Other  specimens  of  his 
work  are  statues  of  Bailly  and  Voltaire  at 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  a  marble  bust  of  Louis 
Philippe  at  Eome,  and  a  statue  of  Victory 
made  for  the  fimeral  ceremony  of  Napoleon 
I.  in  1840. 

Hutcheson,  Francis  (6.  1694,  d.  1747), 
Scotch  metaphysician,  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Glasgow,  wrote  A  Sijstem  of 
Moral  Philosophy  and  other  works. 

Hutchinson,  John  {b.  1616,  d.  1664), 
colonel  in  the  Parliamentarian  army  during 
the  Great  Rebellion,  defended  Nottingham 
against  the  Royalists,  and  was  one  of  the 
commission  who  tried  the  king.  His 
Memoirs  were  written  by  his  wife. 

Hutchinson,  John  {b.  1674,  d.  1734), 
English  divine,  author  of  Mose'is  Prineipia, 
founder  of  a  so-called  philosophical  school, 
which  asserted  that  all  philosophy  and 
theology  were  contained  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

Hutchinson,  Jonathan,  F.R.S.  (6.  1828), 
English  surgeon ;  was  president  of  the 
Hunterian  Society  1869-70,  and  subse- 
quently of  the  Pathological  and  Ophthalmo- 
logical,  and  professor  of  surgery  in  the 
College  of  Surgeons   1877-83.     He  was  a 

KB 


member  of  the  Royal  Commission  of  Inquiry 
into  the  condition  of  the  London  fever  and 
small-pox  hospitals  in  1881. 


Hutchinson,  J.  Hely. 
chinsou.] 


[See   Hely-Hut- 


Hutchinson,  Thomas  (6.  1711,  d.  1780), 
administrator,  born  at  Boston  ;  became 
chief  justice  and  lieutenant-governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  entrusted  with 
the  enforcement  of  the  Stamp  Act.  In 
1774  he  was  removed  from  the  post  of 
governor,  and  came  to  England,  his  cor- 
respondence with  the  home  government 
having  been  published  by  Franklin.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Colony  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay. 

Hutchinson,  Thomas  Joseph,  M.D.  {b. 
1820),  administrator,  bom  in  Ireland,  was 
appointed  in  1855  consul  at  the  Bight 
of  Biafra  and  Fernando  Po.  As  consul  at 
Rosario  in  the  Argentine  Republic  he  ex- 
plored the  Salado  Valley  in  search  of  wild 
cotton  in  1862-3,  and  was  consul  at  Callao 
from  1870  to  1873,  when  he  was  gi-anted  a 
pension.  He  wrote,  among  other  works. 
Impressions  of  Western  Africa  (1858), 
Buenos  Ayres  and  Argentine  Gleanings, 
(1865),  and  Two  Years  in  Peru  (1874),  and 
was  delegate  of  the  British  Anthropological 
Institute  to  the  International  Geographical 
Congress  at  Venice  in  1881. 

Hutchison,  John,  R.S.A.  {h.  1832),  sculp- 
tor, executed  the  carvings  for  the  picture- 
gallery  of  Arbroath  in  1852,  began  to  ex- 
hibit in  the  Scottish  Academy  in  1856,  and 
three  yeai-s  later  modelled  the  bust  of 
Harold  Hardrada  which  was  bought  for  Lord 
DufEeriu.  He  became  librarian  of  the  Scot- 
tish Academy  in  1877,  and  treasurer  in  1886. 
He  executed  a  bust  of  the  Queen  in  1888, 
and  has  several  times  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy. 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von  (6.  1488,  d.  1523), 
German  reformer  and  poet ;  ran  away 
from  the  Fulda  monastic  school,  travelled 
and  served  in  the  Imperial  army ;  defended 
Reuchliu,  and  attacked  obscurantism  in 
PJpistolce  Obscurorum  J'irorum,  and  was 
knighted  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian  with 
the  title  of  "Imperial  Poet  and  Orator." 
He  afterwards  became  known  by  his  edition 
of  Valla's  work  on  the  Donative  of  Con- 
stantine  as  a  Reformer. 

Button,  Charles,  F.R.S.  (6. 1737,  d.  1823), 
English  mathematician,  bom  at  Newcastle, 
author  of  a  Mathematical  and  Philosophical 
Dictionari/  (1796),  and  a  Course  of  Mathe- 
matics (1798). 

Hutton,  James  (6.  1726,  d.  1797),  geol- 
ogist, bom  and  educated  at  Edinburgh ; 
was    the    foimder    of    the    Plutonian    or 


Hut 


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Hyp 


volcanic  theory.  His  chief  works  are  The 
Trogress  of  Reason  from  Sense  to  Science  and 
Fhilosophy,  aud  A  Theory  of  the  Earth, 
with  Proof  and  Illustrations. 

Hutton,  William  {b.  1723,  d.  1815),  Eng- 
lisli  writer,  the  son  of  poor  parents  at 
Derby  ;  was  a  stocking- weaver  and  then  a 
bookseller  at  Birmingham,  where  his  house 
was  destroyed  by  the  rioters  in  1791.  He 
■wrote  The  Court  of  Ecquests  and  several 
local  histories,  and  his  Autobiography  was 
jniblished  after  his  death. 

Huxliam,  John,  F.R.S.  (6.  1694,  d.  1768), 
Ijhysician,  studied  under  Boerhaave  at 
Leyden,  practised  at  Plymouth  for  thirty 
years,  and  advocated  the  use  of  tincture  of 
bark. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  F.R.S.  {b.  1825), 
biologist,  son  of  a  schoolmaster  at  Ealing; 
as  surgeon  in  the  royal  navy  went  to 
Haslar,  and  with  the  Rattlesnake  to  Aus- 
tralia, New  Guinea,  and  the  East  Indies. 
During  the  voyage  he  sent  papers  to  the 
Royal  Society,  and  soon  after  his  return 
in  1854  left  the  navy  and  devoted  him- 
self to  scientific  work.  In  1854  he  became 
professor  of  natui'al  history  iu  the  School 
of  Mines.  In  1859  his  Oceanic  Hydrozoa 
was  published  by  the  Ray  Society,  and 
his  Lessons  in  Elementary  Physiology  ap- 
peared in  1866,  his  Elementary  Biology  in 
1875,  and  the  Crayfish  in  1881.  He  ac- 
cepted and  popularised  the  theory  of  evo- 
lution in  Mail's  Place  in  Nature  (1863), 
became  professor  of  physiology  at  the 
Royal  Institution,  iuspector  of  fisheries, 
and  in  1883  president  of  the  Royal 
Society.  Besides  the  works  mentioned, 
he  wrote  Lay  Sermons  (1870),  Hume  ("  Men 
of  Letters'''  Series),  Science  and  Culture 
(1881),  and  carried  on  several  religious 
controversies  with  Professor  Wace,  Mr. 
Gladstone,  and  others.  He  it  was  who  in- 
vented and  applied  to  himself  the  term 
"Agnostic." 

Huyghens,  Christian  {b.  1629,  d.  1693), 
Dutch  natural  philosopher  and  astronomer, 
was  compelled  to  leave  Paris  by  the  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  He  had  been 
iavited  to  France  by  Colbert,  and  during 
his  residence  there  visited  England,  and  was 
made  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
applied  the  pendulum  to  clocks,  ascertained 
the  laws  of  collision  of  elastic  bodies,  and 
discovered  the  rings  of  Saturn. 

Huysum,  Jan  van  (b.  1682,  d.  1749),  Dutch 
painter  (whose  father  and  brothers  were  also 
artists  of  some  note),  painted  flowers,  fruit, 
and  landscapes. 

Hyacinthe,  Pere.     [See  Loison.] 

Hyde,  Anne  (6.  1637,  d.  1671),  first  wife  of 


James,  Duke  of  York  (afterwards  James  II.), 
and  daughter  of  Lord  Clarendon.  The 
marriage  was  not  brought  about  without 
great  oj)position  from  the  royal  family. 

Hyde,  Edward.     \_See  Clarendon.] 

Hyde,  Thomas  {b.  1636,  d.  1703),  Orient- 
ahst,  became  Bodley's  librarian,  Laudian 
professor  of  Arabic  and  professor  of 
Hebrew.  He  wrote  Historia  Religionis 
Veterum  Personum,  and  assisted  Walton  with 
his  Polyglot  Bible. 

Hyder  All  {b.  1728,  d.  1782),  Indian  prince, 
rose  from  a  low  position  to  be  general-in- 
chief  of  the  forces  of  Arivas,  Rajah  of  Serin- 
gapatam,  and  introduced  European  discijiline 
among  his  troops.  He  at  last  assumed  the 
sovereignty  himself,  made  conquests  from 
the  Mahrattas,  and  invaded  the  temtories 
of  the  British  East  India  Company.  Peace 
was  made  in  1769  with  the  latter,  but  war 
continued  with  the  Mahrattas.  Hyder  All 
died  after  having  begun  another  war  with 
the  Company,  in  which  he  had  at  first  gaiued 
some  successes. 

Hymers,  John,  D.D.  {b.  1803,  d.  1887), 
English  mathematician,  was  second  wrangler 
in  1826,  and  was  elected  fellow  ajid  tutor  of 
St.  John's  College.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  and  other  societies,  and  was  author  of 
Treatises  on  Differential  Equations,  The  In- 
tegral Calculus,  Conic  Sections,  etc. 

Hyndford,  John,  Earl  of  (b.  1701,  d.  1767), 
dif)lomatist,  after  being  a  representative 
peer  of  Scotland  and  lord  high  com- 
missioner to  the  General  Assembly,  was 
sent  as  envoy-extraordinary  to  Prussia  in 
1741,  where  he  arranged  the  treaty  of 
Breslau  between  that  country  and  Austria. 
In  1744  he  went  to  Russia,  was  made  privy 
councillor  in  1756,  and  was  ambassador  at 
Vienna  from  1752  to  1764. 

Hyiidman,  Henry  Mayers  {b.  1842), 
socialist,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and,  as  correspondent  of  the 
Pall  Mall  Gazette,  went  to  Italy  in  1866. 
After  travelling  in  America  and  the  colonies, 
he  became,  in  1881,  one  of  the  chief  founders 
of  the  Social  Democratic  Federation.  In 
1886  he,  with  John  Bums  and  others,  was 
charged  with  inciting  the  mob  who  com- 
mitted outrages  at  the  West  End,  but  was 
acquitted.  He  is  author  of  The  Historic 
Bases  of  Socialism  in  England  (188.3),  and 
he  had  controversies  with  Herbert  Spencer 
and  Bradlaugh  (the  latter  viva  voce)  on  social 
subjects. 

Hypatia  {b.  circa  370,  d.  415),  daughter  of 
Theon,  head  of  the  Platonic  school  of  Alex- 
andria, gave  public  lectures  in  philosophy, 
but  was  brutally  murdered  by  the  partisaus 
of  the  Patriarch  Cyril. 


syp 


(467) 


Ign 


Hyperides  {d.  322  e.g.),  Athenian  orator, 
disciple  of  Plato,  is  thought  to  be  the  author 
of  one  of  the  Fhiltppics  of  Demosthenes, 
whose  banishment  he  procured.  He  was 
tortured  and  put  to  death  by  Antipater  after 
the  battle  of  Cranon. 

Hyrcanus  John  [d.  106  s.a),  Jewish  high 


priest,  son  of  Judas  Maccabaeus,  resisted 
Antiochus  Sidetes,  and  conquered  Samaria 
and  Idumea. 

Hjnrcanus  II.,  his  son,  was  dethrone  ~  by 
his  brother,  Aristobulus,  restored  by  the 
Romans,  but  again  dethroned  and  put  to 
death  by  Heiod  (30  B.o.)« 


lamblichus  {d.  circa  330),  a  Neoplatonic 
philosopher,  a  disciple  of  PoiplijTy,  born  at 
Chalcis,  in  Sjn-ia.  Among  his  works  are  a 
Life  of  Pythagoras  and  possibly  a  treatise 
on  the  Mysteries  of  the  Egyptians. 

Ibarra,  Joachim  (6.  1725,  d.  1785),  a 
Spanish  printer,  bom  at  Saragossa. 

Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury ;  was  alternately  deposed  and  rein- 
stated by  several  councils. 

Ibn-Doreid  (6.  838,  d.  933),  a  famous 
Arabian  poet,  bom  at  Bassorah.  He  died 
at  Bagdad. 

Ibn-Ehaldoou,  Abd-er-Rahman  (6.  1332, 
d.  1406),  Arabian  poet,  bom  at  Tunis; 
became  grand  cadi  of  the  Maleldte  sect  at 
Cairo.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Persians, 
Arabs,  and  Berbers. 

Ibn-KTiallikan,  or  Khilcan  (A.  1211,  d. 
1282),  grand  cadi  of  Damascus;  wrote  a 
Biographical  Dictionary,  part  of  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  M.  de  Slane 
(1842-3). 

Ibrahim,  Pasha  of  Egypt  (*.  1789,  d. 
1848),  succeeded  his  father,  Mehemet  Ali, 
in  1848,  but  reigned  only  two  months. 

Ibrahim  Bey  {b.  circa  1735,  d.  1817), 
Mameluke  chief,  bom  ia  Circassia,  became 
governor  of  Cairo.  He  withdrew  to  Syria 
during  Bonaparte's  invasion.  After  the 
massacre  of  the  Mamelukes  by  Mehemet 
Ali  he  fled  into  Nubia. 

Ibsen,  Henrik  {b.  1828),  Norwegian  dra- 
matist, appointed  director  of  the  theatre  at 
Bergen  in  1852,  and  in  1857  of  that  at 
Chnstiania.  Among  his  plays  are  Brand 
(l866).  Peer  Gynt  (1867),  The  Pillars  of 
Society  (1877),  The  Doll's  Mouse  (1879), 
Ghosts  (1881),  etc. 

Ibycus,  a   Greek  lyric  poet  of  the  6th 
century  B.C.,  bom  at  Bhegium.    Fragments 
of  his  poems  remain. 
EB  2 


Icttnns,  a  Greek  architect  of  the  5th 
century  B.C.,  built  the  Parthenon,  and  the 
temples  of  Demeter  at  Eleusis,  and  Apollo 
Epicurius,  near  Phigaleia. 

Iddesleigh,  Stafford  H.  Northcote,  Earl 
of  (i.  1818,  d.  1887),  statesman,  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Oxford ;  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1847,  entered  Parliament  as 
Conservative  member  for  Dudley  (1855), 
represented  Stamford  1858-66,  and  North 
Devon  1866-85.  He  was  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  under  Lord  Derby  (1866-8), 
was  transferred  to  the  India  office  in  1868, 
and  became  Chancellor  of  the  Txchcquer  in 
the  ministry  of  Mr.  Disraeli  (1; M).  When 
the  latter  was  raised  to  the  peenige  he  be- 
came leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1885,  and  made 
Fii-st  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  in  1886  was 
appointed  Foreign  Secretary. 

Iffland,  August  Wilhelm  {b.  1759,  d,  1814), 
German  actor  and  dramatist,  appointed 
director  of  the  Berlin  theatre  in  1796. 

Ignarra,  Niccolo  (b.  1728,  d.  1808),  Italiaa 
antiquary,  professor  in  the  Royal  Uni- 
versity of  Naples ;  wrote  De  Palastra 
Neapolitana  Commentarium,  etc. 

Ignatieff,  Nicholas  Paulovitch  (b.  1832), 
Russian  diplomatist  and  soldier,  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador  at  Pekiu  in  1859  aud  at 
Constantinople  in  1864.  Here  he  gradually 
assumed  a  defiant  attitude  towards  the  Porte, 
proposing  hard  terms  at  the  Conference  of 
Constantinople  (1876).  In  1877  he  went  on  a 
mission  to  the  European  courts,  endeavour- 
ing to  gain  their  aid  against  Turkey.  He 
was  minister  of  the  interior  in  1881-2. 

Ignatius  (r/.  circa  107),  saint  and  martyr, 
probably  a  disciple  of  St.  John,  became 
Bishop  of  Antioch  about  69.  Duriug  the 
persecution  under  Trajan  he  was  taken  to 
Rome,  and  suffered  death  in  the  amphi- 
theatre. On  the  journey  he  wrote  epistles 
to  the  churches  in  Asia,  concerning  which 
there  has  been  much  controversy. 


Ign 


(468) 


Inn 


Ignatius,  Father  (Joseph  Leycester  Lyne) 
{b.  iSoT),  after  working  under  Mr.  Lowder 
at  St.  (jeorge's-in-the-East,  took  the  vow 
and  habit  of  a  monk  (18(32),  and  attempted 
to  revive  monasticisra  in  England,  establish- 
ing a  Benedictine  community  at  Llanthony 
Abbey,  where  he  now  resides. 

Ihre,  Johan  {b.  1707,  d.  1780),  Swedish 
scholar,  firofessor  of  belles-lettres  and  politi- 
cal science  in  the  university  of  Upsala.  His 
cliiei  work  is  a  Glossarium  Suio-Gothicum. 

Ilbert,  Courtenay  Peregrine,  C.S.I. , 
CLE.  {b.  1841),  as  legal  member  of  the 
council  of  the  Viceroy  of  India  (1882-6), 
originated  the  Ilbert  Bill  for  amending 
criminal  procedure,  the  Bengal  Tenancy 
Bill,  and  other  important  measures. 

Imbert,  Joseph  Gabriel  {b.  1654,  d.  1740), 
French  artist,  became  a  monk,  and  painted 
sacred  subjects.  His  masterpiece  is  a  Gal- 
vai-ij. 

Immermaim,  Karl  Leberecht  [b.  1796,  d. 
1840;,  Gei-man  dramatist  and  poet,  author 
of  The  Frinces  of  Syracuse,  a  comedy  (1821), 
and  King  Periander,  a  tragedy  (1823),  etc. 

Ina,  King  of  the  "West  Saxons  {d.  728), 
succeeded  Ceadwalla  in  689  ;  defeated  the 
King  of  Kent  (694),  and  gained  some  terri- 
tory from  the  Britons.  In  728  he  withdrew 
to  Rome,  where  he  died.  He  drew  up  a 
code  of  the  customary  law  of  Wessex. 

Inchbald,  Elizabeth  {b.  1753,  d.  1821), 
novelist  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Stanning- 
field,  in  Suffolk,  daughter  of  a  farmer 
named  Simpson;  came  to  London  when 
sixteen  to  gain  a  Livelihood  on  the  stage, 
and  married  Mr.  Inchbald,  an  actor.  Her 
Simple  Story  and  Nature  and  Art  rank  high 
among  works  of  fiction. 

Inchofer,  Melchior  {b.  1584,  d.  1648),  a 
learned  Jesuit,  author  of  an  unfinished 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  Hungary. 

Incledon,  Charles  Benjamin  {b.  1763,  d. 
1826),  singer,  bom  at  St.  Kevem,  in  Corn- 
wall ;  after  serving  in  the  royal  nairy,  made 
his  first  appearance  in  London  in  1790,  and 
rapidly  acquired  great  popularity.  He  was 
particularly  successful  in  singing  ballads 
such  as  Black  Eyed  Susan,  The  Arethusa, 
and  The  Storm. 

Indore,  Maharajahs  of.  The  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Malhar  Rao,  son  of  a  shepherd, 
about  1694.  The  following  maharajahs 
have  reigned  during  this  century : — Jaswant 
Rao  Holkae  (6.  circa  1775,  d.  1811),  who 
did  much  to  restore  the  power  of  his  family ; 
Malhae  Rao  Holkak  (6.  1805,  d.  1833), 
who  became  feudatory  to  Britain  in  1818 ; 
Haei  Rao  (d.  1843) ;  Takaji  Rao  Holkae 
(*.  1825,  d.  1886;),  selected  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment ;  Bhao  Rhao  Holkae  {b.  1855). 


Ingelow,  Jean  (&.  1820),  became  known 
as  a  poetess  at  an  early  age.  She  has  also 
written  OJf'  the  Skelligs  (1872),  Fated  to  be 
Free  (1875),  and  other  novels.  A  collection 
of  her  poems  was  brought  out  in  1880. 

Ingenhousz,  Jan  {b.  1730,  d.  1799),  a 
celebrated  Dutch  physician  and  chemist. 

IngersoU,  Jared  {b.  1749,  rf.  1862),  Ameri- 
can j  uiist  and  statesman. 

IngersoU,  Robert  Green  {b.  1833),  Ameri- 
can lawyer  ;  was  colonel  of  a  Federal  regi- 
ment 1862-65,  and  in  1866  State  Attomey- 
General.  Is  a  well-known  orator  and 
anti-Christian  lecturer. 

Inghirami,  Francesco  {b.  1772,  d.  1846), 
ItaUan  archasologist,  wrote  Monuinenti 
Etruschi,  etc. 

Inghirami,  Tommaso,  called  "II  Fedra" 
(i.  1470,  d.  1516),  Italian  scholar  and 
orator,  wrote  in  Latin  a  commentary  on 
Horace's  Be  Arte  Poetica,  and  other  works. 

Inglis,  Henry  David  {b.  1795,  d.  1835), 
bom  at  Edinburgh,  visited  several  European 
countries,  and  wrote  descriptions  of  his 
travels. 

Inglis,  Sir  John  (b.  1814,  d.  1862),  general, 
commanded  the  garrison  at  Lucknow,  after 
the  death  of  Lawrence  and  Banks,  till 
relieved  by  Havelock. 

IngUs,  Sir  Robert  {b.  1786,  d.  1855), 
member  of  Parliament  for  Oxford  Uni- 
versity from  1829  to  1847,  was  a  leader  of 
the  extreme  Tory  party,  and  vigorously 
opposed  the  Maynooth  grant. 

Ingram,  John  H.  (b.  1849),  has  written  a 
Memoir  of  Poe  (1874),  and  contributed  a 
Life  of  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  (1888) 
to  the  '■'Eminent  Women"  Series,  of  which 
he  is  editor. 

Ingram,  John  Kells,  LL.D.  (6.  1823), 
was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  in  1866 ;  has  delivered 
some  important  addresses  on  economical  sub- 
jects, and  contributed  the  article  Political 
Economy  to  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica. 

Ingres,  Jean  Dominique  Auguste  (6.  1780, 
d.  1867),  French  artist,  painted  the  Apo- 
theosis of  Homer  (1827),  the  Source,  and 
other  works  in  the  classical  style.  He  was 
also  a  good  musician. 

Ingulph  {d.  1109),  secretary  of  William, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  who,  after  the  Con- 
quest, made  him  abbot  of  Crowland  (1085). 
The  history  of  the  abbey  which  bears  his 
name  is  now  known  to  be  a  forgery. 

Innocent  I.  (rf.  417),  Pope,  a  native  of 
Albano,   elected  Bishop  of  Rome  in  402; 


Inn 


(469) 


irv 


zealously   upheld    the    supremacy    of    the 
Roman  see.    He  excommunicated  Pelagius. 

Innocent  II.,  Pope  {d.  1143),  elected  in 
1130 ;  was  expelled  from  Rome  by  the  sup- 
porters of  Anacletus  11.  ;  excommunicated 
his  rival  in  a  council  held  at  Pisa  (1134)  ; 
in  1138  was  reinstated  by  the  Emperor 
Lothar ;  banished  Arnold  of  Brescia  (1139), 

Innocent  III.,  Pope  {b.  cirm  1160,  d.  1216), 
son  of  Count  Trasimund,  a  Roman  noble; 
elected  in  1198,  aimed  at  making  the  papacy 
supreme  in  all  European  affairs.  In  1212 
he  deposed  the  Emperor  Otho,  setting  up 
Frederick  11.  in  his  place.  His  dispute  with 
John  of  England  concerning  the  appoint- 
ment of  Langton  to  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury lasted  from  1207  to  1213.  In  that  year 
John  admitted  Langton,  and  surrendered 
England  to  the  pope,  at  the  same  time  re- 
ceiving it  back  as  a  papal  fief.  Innocent 
favoured  the  fourth  crusade  (1200),  and  in- 
stigated the  Albigensian  persecution  (1214). 
The  fourth  Lateran  Council  was  held  in  1215. 

Innocent  IV.,  Pope  (d.  1254),  a  member 
of  the  Fieschi  family  of  Genoa,  elected 
in  1243  ;  was  forced  by  Frederick  II.  to  re- 
tire to  Lyons  in  1244.  At  a  council  held 
there  in  1245  the  emperor  was  excommimi- 
cated  and  deposed.  After  his  death,  in  1250, 
Innocent  returned  to  Rome.  He  now  had 
to  contend  with  Frederick's  sons,  Conrad 
IV.  and  Manfred  of  SicOy,  and  was  finally 
defeated  by  the  latter  in  1254. 

Innocent  X.,  Pope  {Giovanni  Battista 
Pamfili),  {b.  1572,  d.  1655),  elected  in  1644  ; 
issued  a  biill,  condemning  the  propositions 
of  Jansen,  in  1653. 

Innocent  XL,  Pope  (Benedict  Odescalchi) 
(6.  1611,  d.  1689),  elected  in  1676;  was  in- 
volved in  a  dispute  with  Louis  XTV.  regard- 
ing the  claims  of  foreign  ambassadors  to  a 
right  of  asylum  within  their  own  palaces  and 
in  the  neighbourhood,  which  led  him  to  act 
against  James  II.  of  England. 

Iphicrates  {b.  419  B.C..  d.  circa  350  B.C.), 
Athenian  general ;  introduced  a  Hght  target 
in  place  of  the  heavy  shield  ;  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Spartans  near  Corinth  (392) ; 
saved  Sparta  when  attacked  byEpaminondas 
(369)  ;  duiing  the  Social  war  took  part  in 
an  expedition  against  Bj'zantium. 

Ireland,  John  (h.  1761,  d.  1842),  Dean  of 
Westminster,  contributed  to  the  Quarterly 
Review,  and  wrote  numerous  theological 
works. 

Ireland,  Samuel  William  Henry  {b.  MTl, 
d.  183')),  forger  of  Shakesperean  documents, 
and  finally  of  a  play,  Vnrtigern^  which  was 
acted  at  Drury  Lane,  John  Kemble  taking 
a  part.  The  fraud  was  detected,  and  the 
author  obliged  to  confess. 


Irenseus  (6.  circa  140,  d.  202  or  208),  saint 
and  martj'r ;  a  disciple  of  Polycarp  ;  bom  in 
Asia  Minor  ;  succeeded  Pothinus  as  Bishop 
of  Lyons  in  178,  and  is  believed  to  have  been 
a  victim  in  the  persecution  of  Septimius 
Severus.  His  treatise  Against  Heresies  is 
very  valuable. 

Irene  {b.  circa  lb2,  d.  803),  Empress 
of  the  East,  bom  at  Athens,  after  the  death 
of  her  husband,  Leo  IV.  (780),  acted  as 
regent  for  her  son  Constantine.  In  790  he 
assumed  the  government,  but  in  797  he  was 
deprived  of  his  sight  by  Iiene,  who  usurped 
the  throne.  In  802  she  was  banished  by 
Nicephorus  to  Lesbos,  where  she  died. 

Ireton,  Henry  (Jb.  1610,  d.  1651),  soldier 
and  statesman  ;  after  studying  for  the  law, 
joined  the  Parliamentary  army,  and  com- 
manded the  left  wing  at  Naseby ;  in  1646 
married  CromwelFs  daughter,  Bridget :  took 
part  in  the  trial  and  condemnation  of  Charles 
I. ;  accompanied  Cromwell  to  Ireland,  and, 
after  his  return,  remained  there  as  lord- 
deputy. 

Irving,  Edward  (6. 1792,  d.  1834),  founder 
of  the  "Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church"; 
educated  at  Edinburgh  University  ;  entered 
the  Scottish  chiu'ch,  and  became  assistant  to 
Dr.  Chahners  at  Glasgow  (1819).  In  1822 
he  became  minister  at  Hatton  Garden, 
London,  where  his  preaching  drew  large 
congregations,  and  in  1826  removed  to  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  Regent  Square.  He 
now  formed  heretical  opinions,  especially  in 
regard  to  prophecy,  which  led  to  his  sus- 
pension in  1833. 

Irving,  Henry  [John  Henry  Brodribb], 

{b.  1838),  actor,  born  at  Keinton,  near  Glas- 
tonbury ;  acted  at  the  Theati-e  Royal,  Edin- 
burgh, from  1856  to  1859,  and  afterwards 
for  seven  years  at  Manchester.  He  played 
in  London  in  1859,  but  attracted  Uttle  notice 
till  his  appearance  at  St.  James's  theatre 
in  1866.  He  soon  established  a  connection 
with  the  Lyceum,  of  which  he  became 
manager  in  1878.  There  he  has  played  his 
chief  parts,  in  conjunction  with  Miss  Ellen 
Terry,  producing,  amongst  other  plays, 
Hamlet  (1878),  The  Merchant  of  Venice 
(1879),  Faust  (1886),  Macbeth  (1889),  and 
Henry  VIII.  (1892). 

Irving,  Washington  (J>,  1783,  d.  1859), 
American  man  of  letters,  son  of  a  New  York 
merchant;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1806, 
but  devoted  himself  to  literature.  In  1810 
he  became  a  partner  in  his  brother's  com- 
mercial establishment,  which  failed  in  1817. 
He  lived  in  Em-ope  from  1815  to  1832,  acting 
as  secretary  to  the  American  embassy  in 
London  from  1829  to  1831.  From  1842  to 
1846  he  was  United  States  minister  to  Spain, 
Ajnong  his  works  are  Knickerbocker'' s  His- 
tory of  Neio  York  (1809),  Geoffrey  Crayon''» 


Isa 


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Itu 


Sketch  Book  (1819),  The  Life  of  Columbus 
(1828),  The  Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of 
Granada  (1829),  andiUveaoi Mahomet  (1850), 
and  TTashington  (1855-9). 

Isaac,  Hebrew  patriaich,  sou  of  Abraham 
and  Sarah  ;  married  Rebecca,  aud  settled  at 
Gerar,  iuthe  country  of  the  Philistiues,  where 
he  amassed  great  wealth.  He  died  at 
Hebrou  at  the  age  of  180. 

Isaac  I.  (Comneuus)  (d.  1061),  Emperor 
of  the  East,  chosen  in  place  of  Michael  VI., 
in  1057  :  ruled  till  1059,  when  he  became  a 
monk. 

Isaac  II.  (Augelus)  {d.  1204),  succeeded 
Audiouicus  Comuenus  (1185) ;  was  deposed 
aud  imprisoned  by  his  brother  Alexis  (1195) ; 
recovered  his  throne  during  the  fourth  cru- 
sade (1203). 

Isabella  of  CastUe  (6.  1451,  d.  1504), 
daughter  of  John  II. ;  was  married  to  Fer- 
dinand of  Aragou  in  1469,  and  in  1474  suc- 
ceeded her  brother,  Henry  IV.,  on  the  throne 
of  Castile.  Isabella  promoted  the  expedition 
of  Columbus.  She  was  a  wise  aud  humane 
ruler,  but  her  reUgious  zeal  led  her  to  con- 
sent to  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition. 

Isabella  of  France,  Queen  of  England 
(6.  1290,  d.  1357),  daughter  of  Philip  the 
Fair  of  France  and  wife  of  Edward  II.  ; 
formed  an  illicit  connection  with  Roger 
Mortimer,  Earl  of  March,  and  induced  Par- 
liament to  depose  her  husband,  in  whose 
murder  she  was  probably  concerned.  In 
1330  she  aud  her  paramour  were  suddenly 
seized  by  Edward  III.,  and  Isabella  spent 
the  remainder  of  her  life  in  confinement  at 
Castle  Rising,  Norfolk. 

Isabella  II.,  ex-Queen  of  Spain  (b.  1830), 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  her 
father,  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1833.  Her  uncle, 
Don  Carlos,  challenged  her  claim,  but  was 
finally  defeated  by  Espartero  in  1839.  In 
1843  Isabella  married  her  cousin,  Don  Fran- 
cis d'Assisi,  Duke  of  Cadiz.  The  govern- 
ment was  alternately  in  the  hands  of 
Espartero  and  the  queen-mother,  Christina  ; 
after  the  fall  of  the  former  in  1843,  Christina 
exercised  much  influence,  but  was  expelled 
from  Spain  in  1854.  Espartero  was  again  in 
power  from  1854  to  1856 ;  after  his  resig- 
nation a  period  of  confusion  aud  disorder  en- 
sued. Isabella,  supported  by  the  Pope, 
pirrsued  a  reactionary  and  oppressive  policy, 
and  was  driven  from  the  country  by  an  in- 
surrection in  1868.  In  1870  she  abdicated 
in  favour  of  her  son  Alfonso.  She  now 
resides  chiefly  at  Paris. 

Isabey,  Jean  Baptiste  {b.  1767,  d.  1855), 
French  artist,  painted  miniatures  of  the 
Bonaparte  family  suid  of  many  European 
sovereigns. 


Isaeus,  Atlienian  orator,  lived  in  the  earlier 
half  of  the  5th  century  B.C. 

Isaiah,  Hebrew  prophet  of  the  8th  century 
B.C.  ;  passed  his  life  at  Jerusalem,  where  he 
is  said  to  have  been  sawn  asunder  by  King 
Manasseh.  He  is  known  to  have  had  a  wife 
and  two  sons. 

Ishmael  (b.  circa  1900  b.c,  d.  1773  B.C.), 
sou  of  Abraham  and  Hagar,  and  ancestor  of 
the  Arabians. 

Isidore,  St.  {b.  circa  570,  d.  636),  Bishop 
of  Seville,  renowned  for  his  learning ;  he 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Goths,  Vandals,  and 
Sueves,  Origines,  or  Libri  Etymologiarum 
XX.,  etc. 

Isidore,  St.  (6.  circa  370,  d.  450),  an 
ecclesiastical  writer,  head  of  a  monastery 
near  Pelusium. 

Isla,  Jose  Francisco  (b.  1703,  d.  1781),  a 
Spanish  Jesuit;  wrote  The  llistory  of  Fray 
Gerundio,  a  satire  on  the  ignorance  and 
superstition  of  the  monks. 

Ismail  Pasha,  Khedive  of  Egypt  (b.  1830), 
succeeded  his  uncle.  Said,  in  1863.  He  in- 
troduced many  reforms,  but  burdened  the 
country    with    debt,   and  was   deposed  in 

1879. 

Ismail  I.  {b.  1487,  d.  1524).  Shah  of  Persia, 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Sofees. 

Ismail  II.  {d.  1577),  Shah  of  Persia. 

Isnard,  Maximin  {b.  1751,  d.  1830),  an 
eloquent  Girondist  orator ;  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1791 ;  was  proscribed 
in  1793,  but  escaped  by  hiding  himself. 

Isocrates  (S.  436,  d.  338  b.c),  Athenian 
orator,  taught  at  Athens,  but,  owing  to  his 
timidity,  never  spoke  in  public.  On  hearing 
of  the  battle  of  Chseronea  he  refused  to  take 
food  and  died  of  starvation.  Twenty-one 
of  his  orations  remain. 

Israels,  Josef  (6.  1824),  Dutch  artist,  has 
painted  numerous  pictures  dealing  with 
peasant  and  seafaring  life. 

Istria,  the  Princess  Dora  d',  the  name 
assumed  by  the  Princess  Helen  Ghika  (6. 
1829),  niece  of  Prince  Gregory  IV.  of  Wal- 
lachia.  She  has  greatly  interested  herself  in 
the  political  and  social  welfare  of  the  Greeks 
and  the  Slav  races  in  Turkey  and  Northern 
Europe,  and  has  also  published  Les  Femmes 
en  POrioit  (1858),  and  other  works. 

Iturbide,  Augustin  de  (6.  1783,  d.  1824), 
Emperor  of  Mexico  ;  took  the  lead  in  freeing 
Mexico  from  the  yoke  of  Spain,  and  was 
proclaimed  emperor  (1822) ;  was  exiled  by 
the  Republican  party  in  1823  ;  attempting  to 
return  the  following  year,  was  arrested  oa 
the  sea-coast,  and  shot. 


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Ivan  III.,  of  Russia,  or  Ivan  Vasilie- 
Vitch  I.  {b.  1439,  d.  1505),  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1462.  He  freed  Russia  from  the 
Tartars  by  his  victory  over  their  Khan 
Ahmed. 

Ivan  IV.,  or  Ivan  Vasilievitch  II.,  "the 
Terrible" (*•  1'530,  d.  loS4),  came  to  thethrone 
in  1533,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Czar  in 
1547.    He  overthrew  the  Tartars,  driving 


them  from  Kasan  and  Astrakhan  into  the 
Crimea. 

Ivan  VI.  {b.  1740,  d.  1764),  became  Czar 
in  1740,  but  was  deposed  in  1741,  and  as- 
sassinated by  Catherine's  command. 

Iveteaux,  Nicholas  Vauquelin  Seigneur 
des  (6.  1559,  d.  1649),  French  poet,  wrote 
L  Institution  d'un  Frince,  etc 


Jablonski,  Daniel  Ernest  (J.  1660,  d.  1741), 
a  German  Protestant  theologian. 

JablonsM,  Paul  Ernest  {b.  1693,  d.  1757), 
son  of  the  preceding,  professor  of  theology 
at  Frankfort-ou-the-Oder,  was  learned  in 
Coptic,  and  wrote  Pantheon  ^gyptiorum, 
etc. 

Jackson,  Andrew  {h.  1767,  d.  1845), 
American  general  and  statesman,  son  of  an 
Irish  immigrant ;  served  while  a  boy  in  the 
War  of  Independence,  afterwards  studied 
law,  and  was  one  of  the  original  representa- 
tives of  Tennessee  in  Congress ;  became  a 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee 
in  1798 ;  suppressed  the  Creek  Indians  in 
1813 ;  during  the  war  with  England  com- 
pletely defeated  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  near 
Kew  Orleans  (1814)  ;  was  elected  president 
in  1828,  and  re-elected  1832,  in  which 
capacity  he  signaUsed  himself  by  his  defence 
of  the  Union. 

Jackson,  John  (6.  1686,  d.  1763),  an 
English  clergj-man,  noted  for  his  Arian 
views,  wrote  some  treatises  on  the  Trinity, 
and  a  valuable  work  called  Chronological 
Antiquities. 

Jackson,  John,  R.A.  (b.  1778,  d.  1831),  a 
portrait-painter.  His  best  portraits  are 
those  of  Flasman  and  Canova. 

Jackson,  Thomas  JefEerson,  "Stonewall" 
(6.  1824,  d.  1863),  American  general;  took 
part  in  the  Mexican  campaign ;  became 
professor  in  the  Military  Institute  at  Lex- 
ington (1852) ;  when  the  Civil  war  broke 
out,  became  a  colonel  in  the  Confederate 
army;  gained  his  nickname  by  "standing 
like  a  stone  wall "  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run  (1862)  ;  gained  several  victories  during 
I860,  the  most  important  being  that  over 
Hooker  at  Chancellorsville.  Ho  died  from 
the  effects  of  his  wounds. 

Jackson,  William  {b.  1730,  d.  1803), 
organist  of  Exeter  cathedral,  composed 
Bougs,  canzonets,  and  sonatas.     He  was  also 


a  landscape-painter,  and  wrote  a  treatise 

On  the  Present  State  of  Music,  etc. 

Jacob,  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  son  of  Isaac 
and  Rebecca.  He  was  also  named  Israel, 
whence  his  descendants  are  called  Israelites 
or  Children  of  Israel. 

Jacob,  Henry  {b.  circa  1562,  «^.  circa  1626), 
originally  rector  of  Cheriton  in  Kent ;  in 
consequence  of  a  work  advocating  church 
reform,  was  obliged  to  withdi-aw  to  Leyden. 
On  his  return  he  became  minister  of  the 
first  Independent  congregation  in  England. 
He  afterwards  settled  in  Virginia,  where  he 
died. 

Jacobi,  Friedrich  Heinrich  (b.  1743,  d. 
1819),  German  man  of  letters  and  philo- 
sophical writer,  bom  at  Diisseldorf ,  became 
minister  of  state  in  1772;  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Academy  at  Munich  in 
1805 ;  maintained  a  correspondence  with 
Goethe,  and  was  engaged  in  controversies 
with  Moses  Mendelssohn  and  Schelling. 
His  chief  works  are  AlluilPs  Correspondence 
(1779),  Woldemar  (1781),  and  Of  Divine 
Things  and  their  Revelation  (1811). 

Jacobi,  Johann  Georg  (b.  1740,  d.  1814), 
a  German  poet,  brother  of  the  preceding. 

Jacobini,  Ludovico  {b.  1832,  d.  1887), 
Cardinal,  was  papal  nuncio  at  Vienna  from 
1874  to  1880,  and  in  1878-9  did  much  to 
settle  the  difficulties  which  arose  between 
Germany  and  Russia. 

Jacobs,  Friedrich  Christian  Wilhelm  {b. 
1764,  d.  1847),  Gennan  philologist,  spent 
most  of  his  life  at  Gotha,  where  he  was 
librarian  to  Duke  Ernst  II.  Besides  his 
critical  works,  of  which  theAnthologiaGrceca 
was  the  chief,  ho  wrote  Alhci)i  und  Theodor 
(1802),  Mosalieti's  Nachlass,  etc.,  also  several 
papers  on  contemporary  politics. 

Jacoby,  Johaun  (6.  1805,  d.  1877),  a  Ger- 
man politician,  whose  pamphlets  on  behalf 
of  religious  ami  civil  freedom  often  brought 
him  into  conflict  with  the  government. 


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Jacopone,  or  Jacopo  da  Todi  (d.  130G), 
an  Italiau  monk  and  poet,  left  Canti 
Spiriiiiali,  and  is  supposed  to  have  written 
the  hjTnu  Stabat  Mater. 

Jacotot,  Joseph  (6.  1770,  d.  1840),  bom 
at  Dijon,  appointed  professor  of  French  in 
the  uuiversity  of  Louvain  in  1818 ;  devised 
a  new  method  of  education. 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie  {b.  1752,  d.  1834), 
French  mechanician,  invented  the  Jacquard 
loom,  exhibited  in  1801. 

Jacquemart,  Jules  {b.  1837,  d.  1880), 
French  artist,  best  known  by  his  etchings, 
of  which  those  for  his  father's  Histoire  de  la 
Forcelaine,  and  Histoire  de  la  Ceraniique, 
and  for  Gemmes  et  Joyaiix  de  la  Couronne, 
are  good  examples. 

Jagellon  [b.  1354,  d.  1434),  Duke  of 
Lithuania,  became  ruler  over  Polaud  in 
1386  by  his  marriage  with  Queen  Hedwig. 
He  introduced  Christianity  into  Lithuania. 

Jago,  James  {b.  1815),  physician,  has 
written  Entoptics  (1864),  Entacoustics  (1868), 
and  other  works. 

Jahn,  Johann  (6, 1750,  d.  1816),  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Vienna 
in  1789  ;  was  forced  to  resign  in  1806  owing 
to  his  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament 
(1804),  and  Archceologia  Biblica  (1805),  which 
were  put  ia  the  index. 

Jahn,  Otto  {b.  1813,  d.  1869),  German 
archaeologist,  philologist,  and  art-critic, 
professor  at  Leipzig  (1847-51)  and  Bonn 
(1855-69),  wrote  a  Life  of  Mozart  (1856-9), 
and  several  philological  works. 

James,  St., the  "Greater"  Apostle  {d. circa 
44),  was  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa. 

James,  St.,  "the  Less"  {d.  circa  63), 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  the  sou  of  a  sister  of  the 
Virgin ;  wrote  the  epistle  which  bears  his 
name,  and  became  Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 
According  to  Josephus,  he  was  put  to  death 
by  the  high-priest  Ananias. 

James,  George  Paine  Rainsford  (b.  1801, 
d.  1860),  historical  novelist,  author  of 
Richelieu  (1829),  Henry  Masterton  (1832), 
etc.    He  died  in  Venice. 

James,  Henry  {b.  1843),  American  novelist 
and  critic,  has  lived  chiefly  in  Europe. 
Among  his  novels  are  The  Europeans  and 
Daisy  Miller. 

James,  Sir  Henry,  Q.C.  (i.  1828),  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1869,  and  was 
Attorney-General  under  Mr.  Gladstone, 
1873-74  and  1880-5. 

James,  Thomas  Lemuel  (fc.  1831),  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  politician;   he  effected 


important  reforms  in  the  postal  service 
of  New  York,  and  was  made  postmaster- 
general  by  President  Garfield  in  1881. 

James,  William  {d.  1827),  wrote  a  well- 
known  Naval  History  of  Great  Britain, 
which  extends  from  1792  to  1820. 

James  Francis  Edward,  called  the  Cheva- 
lier de  St.  George,  or  "the  Pretender"  (Jb. 
1688,  d.  1758),  son  of  James  II.  and  Mary 
of  Modena,  was  bi-ought  up  in  France  as  a 
Roman  Catholic.  He  was  in  correspondence 
with  several  leading  statesmen  during  the 
reign  of  Anne,  and,  after  the  accession  of 
George  I.,  attempted  to  seize  the  kingdom 
by  force.  Risings  took  place  in  the  northern 
counties  and  Scotland  simultaneously  (1715), 
but  the  former  were  suppressed  at  Preston, 
and  the  latter  at  Sheriffmuir.  In  December 
James  himself  lauded  in  Scotland,  but  his 
presence  did  little  to  animate  his  troops, 
and  it  was  determined  to  abandon  the  enter- 
prise. The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  chiefly 
in  Italy. 

James  I.,  of  Aragon  Q).  1208,  d.  1276), 
became  king  in  1213. 

James  II.,  of  Aragon   {b.  circa  1260,  d. 

1327),  became  king  in  1285. 

James  I.,  of  Scotland  (6.  1394,  d.  1437), 
of  the  house  of  Stuart ;  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  English  while  on  his  way  to  France 
in  1405,  and  confined  in  the  Tower.  Two 
years  later  he  was  removed  to  Windsor, 
where  he  composed  his  poem  The  King's 
Quair,  and  first  saw  his  future  wife,  the 
Lady  Joan  Beaufort.  On  his  release  in 
1424  he  determined  to  put  an  end  to  feudal 
anarchy  in  Scotland.  The  Duke  of  Albany 
and  other  nobles  were  executed,  but  at 
length  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  and  he  was  assassinated. 

James  II.  (6.  1430,  d.  1460),  son  and 
successor  of  the  preceding ;  was  engaged  in 
a  struggle  with  the  Douglas  family,  and 
supported  Henry  VI.  of  England.  He  was 
slaiu  whilst  besieging  Roxburgh  castle. 

James  IV.  (6.  1472,  d.  1513),  became  king 
in  1488  :  invaded  England,  and  was  defeated 
and  slain  at  Flodden  Field. 

James  V.  (6.  1512,  d.  1542),  son  and 
successor  of  the  preceding,  married  Mary  of 
Guise  in  1538.  With  the  aid  of  the  clergy, 
headed  by  Cardinal  Beaton,  he  succeeded  in 
curbing  the  nobles,  but,  owing  to  their 
mutinous  conduct,  he  was  unsuccessful  in 
his  war  with  the  English.  After  the  defeat 
of  Solway  Moss  he  died  of  a  broken  heart. 

James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland 
(b.  1566,  d.  1625),  son  of  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  and  Henry,  Lord  Darnley.  was 
crowned  on  the  deposition  of  his  mother  in 


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1567.  During  his  minority  the  government 
was,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Earl  of  Morton,  who  in  1581  was  executed 
through  the  machinations  of  James's  favour- 
ites, Arran  and  Lennox.  A  struggle  ensued 
between  Arran  and  the  Scottish  nobles, 
which  ended  in  the  disgrace  of  the  former 
in  1585.  A  treaty  was  concluded  with 
England  in  1586,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
execution  of  his  mother  (1587),  James 
maintained  friendly  relations  with  Elizabeth 
throughout  her  reign.  On  her  death  in 
1603  he  became  King  of  England.  The 
Hampton  Court  Conference  (1604),  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  reconcile  the  JPuritaiis 
to  Church  views,  was  followed  by  more 
stringent  measures  against  them.  The 
Roman  Catholics  were  also  dissatisfied ; 
hence  the  Gunpowder  Plot  in  1605.  The 
king  soon  fell  under  the  influence  of  un- 
worthy favourites,  of  whom  Robert  Carr, 
Earl  of  Somerset,  and  George  Villiers, 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  were  the  most  con- 
spicuous. The  arrogance  of  the  latter,  as 
weU  as  James's  friendly  relations  with 
Spain,  and  his  refusal  to  assist  his  son-in- 
law,  the  elector-palatine,  the  champion  of 
Protestantism,  caused  general  discontent  in 
England.  War  was  declared  against  Spain 
in  1624,  but,  owing  maialy  to  mismanage- 
ment, nothing  effectual  was  accomplished. 

James  II.  (b.  1633,  d.  1701),  second  sur- 
viving son  of  Charles  I.,  created  Duke  of 
York  in  his  infancy,  was  Lord  High  Admiral 
from  1660  to  1673.  He  became  king  on  the 
death  of  Charles  II.  in  1685,  and  soon  re- 
vealed his  aims  by  levying  customs  and  ex- 
cise duties  without  consent  of  Parliament, 
receiving  a  pension  from  Louis  XIV.,  and 
sending  an  agent  to  Rome.  The  public  dis- 
content encouraged  the  Duke  of  Monmouth, 
illegitimate  son  of  Charles  II.,  to  attempt  an 
invasion,  which  was  crushed  at  Sedgemoor 
(July  5th).  An  attempt  to  evade  the  Test 
Act  by  pardoning  those  who  refused  to  take 
the  oath  was  followed  by  the  Declaration  of 
Indulgence  (1687),  in  which  James  vainly 
sought  to  wia  over  the  Dissenters  by  freeing 
them  from  its  provisions.  Four  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  were  now  consecrated,  and 
a  Papist  was  appointed  president  of  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford ;  but  the  feeling  of 
the  country  was  against  the  king,  and  when, 
in  1688,  Archbishop  Sancroft  and  six  other 
bishops  were  prosecuted  for  objecting  to  the 
Declaration,  their  acquittal  was  hailed  with 
universal  joy.  The  crown  was  now  offered 
to  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  by  a  majority 
of  the  English  nobles.  In  November,  1688, 
he  landed  in  Devonshire,  and  James  soon 
afterwards  fled  to  France.  In  1689  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Ireland  with  a  force  furnished  him 
by  Louia  XIV.,  but  was  defeated  in  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne  (1690),  and  hencefor- 
ward lived  in  retirement  at  St.  Germains. 


Jameson,  Anna  {b.  1794,  d.  1860),  wiiter 
on  art,  bom  in  Dublin,  daughter  of  a  painter 
named  Murphy,  married  a  barrister,  whom 
she  left  on  account  of  his  cruelty.  She 
published  Zircs  of  Early  Italian  Fainters 
(1845),  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders 
(18.50),  Legends  of  the  Madonna  (1852),  etc. 

Jameson,  Robert  {b.  1772,  d.  1854),  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Ediubur«h  in  1804 ;  wrote  Mineralogij  of  the 
SiottUh  Isles  (1800),  JL  System  of  Minei-alogy 
(1804-8),  etc. 

Jamesone,  George  (5.  circa  1588,  d.  1644), 
Scottish  artist,  studied  at  Antwerp  under 
Rubens,  and  painted  portraits,  including 
one  of  Charles  I.,  also  landscapes  and  his- 
torical pieces. 

Jamieson,  John  {b.  1759,  d.  1838),  born  at 
Glasgow,  was  appointed  minister  of  a  church 
in  Edinburgh  iu  1797  ;  wrote  axi  Lti/mological 
Dictionary  of  the  Scottish  Language  (1809), 
and  other  works. 

Jane.     \See  Grey  and  Seymour.] 

Jane  of  Navarre.    {See  D'Albret.] 

Jane  I.,  Queen  of  Naples  (i.  1327,  d. 
1382),  daughter  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Cala- 
bria, succeeded  Robert  the  C^ood  in  1343. 

Jane  II.,  of  Naples  {b.  1370,  d.  1435),  suc- 
ceeded her  brother,  Ladislaus,  in  1414. 

Janet,  Paul  (i.  1823),  French  philosopher, 
author  of  La  Famille  (1855),  Les  Causes 
finales  (1876),  etc. 

Janin,  Jules  Gabriel  (6.  1804,  d.  1874), 
a  French  critic  and  novelist.  His  dramatic 
criticisms,  written  for  the  Journal  des  Lebats, 
have  been  published  under  the  title  Histoire 
de  la  Littcratnre  Lrainatique.  He  also 
wrote  VAne  mort  et  la  Femme  guillotinee 
(1829),  Barnave  (1831),  and  other  novels. 
Correspondence  (1877),  etc. 

Jansen,  or  Jansenius,  Cornelius  {b.  1585, 
d.  1638),  founder  of  the  Jansenist  sect,  bom 
near  Leerdam,  was  appointed  professor  of 
divinity  at  Louvain  in  1617,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Ypres  in  1635.  He  was  a  follower 
of  St.  Augustine,  and  wrote  Augustinus, 
controverting  the  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  necessity  and 
free  will.  It  was  condemned  by  Urban 
VIII. 

Janssen,  Comelis  (b.  1.590,  d.  1665),  Dutch 
portrait  painter,  Hved  in  England  from  1618 
to  1648.     He  was  patronised  by  James  I. 

Japan,  Rulers  of.  Prior  to  1868  there 
were  two  sets  of  rulers — those  de  facto,  who 
were  called  shoguns  or  tycoons,  and  those  de 
jure,  the  mikadoa,  who  were  practically 
prisoners    of    state.       The    names    of    the 


Jar 


(474) 


Jef 


tycoons  from  1787  were  lYi;NOEi  (1787-1838), 
Itktoshi  ,1838-53),  Iyesada  (1853-59),  It^- 
MOCHi  i,18i9-l)(3),  and  Yoshinobu  (1867-68). 
In  186S  a  revolution  took  place,  which  re- 
sulted iu  the  restoration  of  the  mikados. 
MouTZ  HiTO  {b.  1852),  who  then  became 
absolute  ruler,  has  shown  himself  very  open 
to  the  iulluence  of  western  civilisation. 

Jarchi,  Solomon  ben  Isaac,  called  ''  Ras- 
chi"  {J}.  1040  or  1104,  d.  1105  or  1180),  a 
learned  rabbi,  noted  for  his  commentaries 
on  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Talmud.  He 
travelled  much  iu  Europe  and  Asia. 

Jasmin,  Jacques  {b.  1798,  d.  1864),  a 
French  poet,  whose  real  name  was  JBoe, 
spent  his  life  in  his  native  town,  Agen.  as  a 
barber.  He  wrote  Son  Chalibar,  VAbuglo 
de  Castel  Guilli,  Frangonetto,  La  Semano  d'un 
Fil,  and  other  poems  in  the  langue  d'oc. 

Jaucourt,  Louis,  Chevalier  de  (5.  1704,  d. 
1779),  French  encyclopaedist,  studied  at 
Geneva,  Cambridge,  and  Ley  den,  where  he 
published  his  Tie  de  Leibnitz  (1734).  After 
returning  to  Paris  (1736),  he  contributed 
largely  to  Diderot's  Encyclopcedia. 

_  Jay,  John  {b.  1745,  d.  1829),  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  bom  at  New  York, 
was  a  member  of  the  first  American  Congress 
(1774) ;  took  part  in  negotiating  the  treaty 
of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  signed  at  Paris 
in  17S3 ;  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
the  United  States  in  1789  ;  went  to  Great 
Britain  as  envoy- extraordinary  in  1794,  and 
concluded  the  treaty  which  bears  his  name  ; 
became  governor  of  New  York  iu  1795. 

Jay,  William  (b.  17G9,  d.  1853),  English 
Congregational  minister,  was  iu  1791   aj)- 

EoLuted  to  the  Ai'gyle  chapel  at  Bath,  where 
e  remained  sixty-two  years.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  devotional  works  and  an 
Autobiography  (1854). 

Jeaflfreson,  John  Cordy  {b.  1831),  English 
author,  has  published  A  ISooh  about  Doctors 
(1860),  A  Book  about  Lawyers  (1866),  A 
Book  about  the  Clergy  (1870),  The  Real  Lord 
Byron  (1883),  The  Heal  Shelley  (1885),  Lady 
Hamilton  and  Lord  jSfelson  (1888)  ;  also 
several  novels  and  other  works. 

Jeannin,  Pierre  {b.  1540,  d.  1622),  French 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  prevented  a 
massacre  of  Protestants  at  Dijon  in  1572. 
He  was  afterwards  president  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Burgundy  ;  became  a  trusted 
minister  of  Henri  IV.  ;  and  was  controller 
of  the  finances  to  Marie  de'  Medici. 

Jebb,  John  (b.  1775,  d.  1833),  divine, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Limerick  in  1823,  wrote 
an  E^say  on  Sacred  Literature  (1819). 

Jebb,  Richard  Claverhouse  (6.  1841),  bom 
at  Dundee,  senior  classical  tripos  1862,  was 


appointed  public  orator  at  Cambridge  iu 
1869,  and  professor  of  Greek  at  Glasgow  in 
1875  ;  has  edited  the  Attic  Orators  (1376) 
and  Sophocles  (1883),  and  written  a  Life  0/ 
Bentley,  etc.  M.P.  for  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity 1891. 

Jebb,  Samuel  {d.  1772),  nonjuror  and 
classical  scholar,  was  librarian  to  Jeremy 
Colher,  and  afterwards  practised  as  a  phy- 
sician in  Essex.  He  edited  Justin  Martyi''s 
Dialogue  and  Roger  Bacon's  Opus  Majns. 

Jefiferies,  Jolm  Richard  (6.  1848,  d.  1887), 
son  of  a  Wiltshire  farmer,  began  life  by 
writing  for  the  North  TFilts  Herald  (1866)  ; 
in  1877  settled  at  Surbiton,  where  he  wrote 
The  Gamekeeper  at  Home,  JFild  Life  in  a 
Southern  County,  The  Amateur  Poacher,  and 
other  well-known  sketches  of  country  life. 

Jefferson,  Joseph  {b.  1829),  an  American 
actor,  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  impersona- 
tion of  Rip  Van  Winkle ;  published  his 
Memoirs  in  1891. 

Jefferson,  Thomas  (h.  1743,  d.  1826), 
American  statesman,  son  of  a  Virginia 
planter,  practised  as  a  lawyer  till  the  out- 
break of  the  War  of  Independence ;  after 
writing  a  Summary  View  of  the  Rights  oj 
Britisli  Americans,  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  1775,  and  di-ew  up  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  He  now 
became  a  champion  of  advanced  democratic 
principles.  He  was  governor  of  Virginia 
in  1779,  and  minister-plenipotentiary  at 
Paris  from  1785  to  1789  ;  on  his  return  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state  under  Vv'ash- 
iugton ;  became  leader  of  the  Republican 
party,  and  was  vice-president  in  1796.  In 
180U  he  was  elected  president,  and  re-elected 
in  1804. 

Jeffrey,  Francis  Lord  (6.  1773,  d.  1850), 
Scottish  judge  and  literary  critic,  took 
part  in  starting  the  Edinburgh  Review 
(1302),  of  which  he  was  editor  from  1803  to 

1829.  He  was  appointed  Lord  Advocate  in 

1830,  and  represented  Perth  and  afterwards 
Edinburgh  in  Parliament.  In  1834  he 
obtained  a  seat  on  the  Scottish  bench. 

Jeffreys,  George,  Baron  (6.  1648,  d.  1689), 
born  at  Acton  in  Denbighshire,  studied  at 
the  Inner  Temple,  and  became  successively 
Recorder  of  Loudon,  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  (1633),  and  Lord  Chancellor 
(1685).  Already  notorious  for  his  scurrilous 
behaviour  on  the  bench,  he  truckled  to  the 
arbitrary  notions  of  James  II.,  and  branded 
his  name  by  his  cruelty  in  punishing  the 
adherents  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  On 
the  landing  of  William  of  Orange  he  at- 
tempted to  escape  abroad  in  the  disguise  of 
a  sailor,  but  was  arrested  at  Wapping,  and 
taken  before  the  Lords,  who  placed  him  in 
the  Tower,  where  he  died. 


Jeh 


(475) 


Jer 


Jehoaliaz,  son  of  Jehu,  was  King  of  Israel 
from  856  to  839  B.C. 

Jeboaliaz,  or  Shallum  {d.  610  b.c),  King 
of  Judah,  succeeded  his  father,  Josiah,  and 
reigned  three  months. 

Jehoash.     [See  Joash.] 

Jehoiakim,  originally  Eliakim,  was  King 
of  Judah  from  60«  to  597  B.C. 

Jehoiakin,  or  Jeconiah,  was  son  of  the 
preceding,  whom  he  succeeded.  He  reigned 
three  months. 

Jehoram,  or  Joram,  son  of  Ahab,  was 
King  of  Israel  from  896  to  884  B.C.  He  was 
slain  in  battle  by  Jehu. 

Jehoram,  or  Joram  {d.  circa  885  b.c),  son 
of  Jehoshaphat,  became  King  of  Judah  in 
893  or  892  b.c. 

Jehoshaphat  (6.  circa  950,  d.  889  b.c), 
fion  of  Asa,  became  King  of  Judah  in  914, 
and  ruled  with  justice  and  prudence. 

Jehu  {d.  861  b.c),  whilst  an  officer  in 
Jehoram' s  army  was  anointed  kiug  over 
Israel  by  a  young  prophet  sent  by  Elisha. 
After  murdering  Jehoram,  he  obtained  the 
royal  power. 

JekyU,  Sir  Joseph  {b.  1664,  d.  1738),  a 
prominent  member  of  Parliament,  took  part 
in  Sacheverell's  trial,  and  became  Master  of 
the  RoUs  under  George  I. 

Jelf,  WilUam  Edward  (A.  1811,  d.  1875), 
English  scholar,  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  Greek  Grammar. 

JeUachich  von  Buzim,  Joseph,  Baron  (6. 
1801,  d.  1659),  a  general  in  the  Austrian 
service ;  was  appointed  Ban  of  Croatia  in 
1848,  and  defeated  the  Hungarians  at 
Schwechat,  near  Vienna. 

Jenghiz  Khan.     {See  Gengis  Khan.] 

Jenkin,  Fleeming  (6.  1833,  d.  1885),  en- 
gineer and  eloctriciau,  appointed  professor 
of  engineering  in  University  College,  Lon- 
don (1865),  and  Edinburgh  University 
(1868),  wrote  Magnetism  and  Electricity  and 
other  works. 

Jenkins,  Sir  Leoline  (6.  1623,  d.  1685), 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  bom  at  Llan- 
trissant,  Glamorganshire,  educated  at  Jesus 
College,  Oxford  ;  served  as  a  Royalist  in  the 
Civil  War  ;  left  the  country  during  the  pro- 
tectorate ;  was  principal  of  Jesus  College 
(1661-72);  succeeded  Sir  William  Temple 
as  ambassador  at  the  Hague,  and  on  his 
return  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State. 

Jenkinson,  Robert.    [See  Liverpool.] 

Jenner,  Edward  {b.  1749,  d.  1323),  after 


studying  imder  John  Hunter  (1770-2), 
settled  at  his  native  town,  Berkeley,  ia 
Gloucestershire,  as  a  surgeon.  In  1798  he 
pubhshed  a  work  annomicing  his  discovery 
of  the  process  of  vaccination.  He  received 
a  grant  of  £10,000  from  Parliament  in 
1802,  and  one  of  £20,000  in  1806. 

Jenner,  Sir  Wilham  (h.  1815),  physician, 
educated  at  University  College,  London, 
where  he  has  filled  various  chairs.  He  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  1863,  and  attended  bini  in  his  dangerous 
illness  in  1871. 

Jenyns,  Soame  (6.  1704,  d.  1787),  a  writer 
and  politician,  remembered  as  the  author  of 
A  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Origin 
of  Evil  (1757),  and  A  View  of  the  Internal 
Evidence  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1776). 

Jephthah  ((/.  circa  1182  b.c),  Judge  of 
Israel,  vowed  to  sacrifice  the  first  object  he 
met  on  his  return  from  victory  over  the  Am- 
monites. His  daughter  came  to  greet  him 
with  song  and  dance,  but  Jephthah  was 
faithful  to  his  vow. 

Jordan,  William  (J.  1782,  d.  1869),  editor 
of  the  Literary  Gazette  from  1817  to  1850. 

Jeremiah  {d.  circa  580  b.c),  a  prophet  of 
Judah,  author  of  the  book  which  bears  his 
name,  and  of  the  Book  of  Lamentations. 

Jemingham,  Edward  {b.  1727,  d.  1812), 
poet  and  essayist,  wrote  The  Rise  and  Fall 
of  Scandinavian  Poetry,  etc. 

Jeroboam  I.  {d.  954  b.c),  first  King  of 
Israel,  chosen  by  the  twelve  tribes  who 
rebelled  against  Rehoboam. 

Jeroboam  IL  (d.  785  b.c),  son  of  Joash, 
became  King  of  Israel  in  826. 

Jerome,  or  Hieronjonus,  St.  (6.  circa 
346,  d.  420) ,  born  at  Stridon,  in  Dalmatia, 
of  Christian  parents,  studied  at  Rome  under 
Donatus  ;  after  travelling  in  Gaul  and  else- 
where, adopted  a  studious  and  ascetic  life, 
spending  four  years  in  the  desert  of  Chalcis, 
in  Syria ;  was  ordained  presbyter  in  378  ; 
visited  Constantinople,  where  he  became 
the  friend  and  pupil  of  Gregory  Nazianzen ; 
returning  to  Rome,  became  secretary  to 
Pope  Damasus,  but  after  his  death  (384) 
withdrew  to  the  Holy  Land,  accompanied 
by  Paula,  Eustochiuni,  and  other  Roman 
ladies  devoted  to  the  ascetic  life.  For  the 
remainder  of  his  days  he  presided  over  a 
monastery  established  by  I'aula  at  Beth- 
lehem. Here  he  completed  his  translation 
of  the  Bible  from  Hebrew  into  Latin, 
known  as  the  Vulgate.  He  wrote  numerous 
commentaries  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, and  was  engaged  in  controversies 
with  Rufinus,  the  Pelagians,  and  others. 

Jerome  of  Prague  {b.  circa  1378,  d.  1416), 


Jer 


(476) 


Joh 


studied  at  Prague,  Paris,  aud  Oxford,  where 
he  adopted  the  views  of  Wycliffe.  On  his 
returu  to  Bohemia  he  became  an  ardent 
supporter  of  Huss.  He  followed  him  to  the 
Council  of  Constance,  but  was  imprisoned 
and  induced  to  recant.  He  afterwards 
maintained  his  views  boldly  at  the  stake. 

Jerrold,  Douglas  William  (6.  1803,  d. 
1857),  dramatist  and  humorous  writer;  aiter 
serving  as  a  midshipman  for  two  years,  was 
apprenticed  to  a  printer.  He  wrote  many 
plays,  of  which  Black-Eyed  Susan,  written 
about  1823,  is  the  best  Imown.  He  after- 
wards became  a  journalist,  contributing 
chiefly  to  Punch,  and  from  1852  to  1857 
edited  Lloyd's  Weekly  Newspaper. 

Jerrold,  William  Blanchard  (6.  182G,  d. 
1884),  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  editor  of  Lloyd^s  Weekly  News- 
paper. His  most  important  work  is  his  Life 
of  Napoleon  ILL.  (1874-82). 

Jervas,  Charles  (6.  circa  1675,  d.  1739),  a 
portrait-painter,  bom  in  Ireland.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Pope. 

Jervis,  Admiral.     [See  St.  Vincent.] 

Jervois,  Lieutenant- General  Sir  William 
Francis  Drummond,  G.C.M.G.  (6.  1821), 
entered  the  Royal  JEngineers  in  1839  ;  was 

fovemor  of  the  Straits  Settlements  (1875-7), 
outh  Australia  (1878-82),  and  New  Zea- 
land (1882-8). 

Jessel,  Right  Hon.  Sir  George  (6.  1824, 
d.  1883),  entered  Parliament  as  Liberal 
member  for  Dover  in  1868,  became  Solicitor- 
General  in  1871,  and  Master  of  the  Rolls  in 
1873. 

Jessopp,  Rev.  Augustus,  D.D.  (6.  1824), 
head- master  of  Norwich  grammar  school 
from  1859  to  1879 ;  has  published  One  Gene- 
ration of  a  Norfolk  Rouse  (1878),  Arcady 
(1887),  The  Coming  of  the  Friars  (1888),  and 
other  works. 

Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  author  of  the 
apocryphal  Book  of  Ecclesiasticiis,  was 
bom  at  Jerusalem,  and  lived  in  the  3rd  or 
2nd  century  b.o. 

Jevons,  William  Stanley  (*.  1835,  d.  1882), 
was  professor  of  logic  and  mental  and 
moral  science,  and  lecturer  on  political 
economy  at  Owens  College,  Manchester, 
from  1866  to  1876,  when  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  at  University 
College,  London.  He  wrote  The  Principles 
of  Science,  a  Theory  of  Political  Economy,  etc. 

Jewel,  John  {b.  1522,  d.  1571),  English 
prelate,  bom  at  Berrj-uarbor,  in  Devonshire, 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became 
tutor  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  and  did 
much  to  extend  the  refoi-med  doctrines.     In 


1553  he  withdrew  to  the  Continent,  and  lived 
withPeter  Martyr  at  Strasbui-g.  He  returned 
on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1560.  He 
now  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
against  the  papists,  and  in  1562  published 
his  Apoloyia  Ecclcsice  AnglicancB,  afterwards 
translated  into  English. 

Jewsbury,  Geraldine  Endsor  {b.  circa 
1820,  d.  1880),  novelist,  wrote  Zoe  (1845), 
Marian  Withers  (1851),  etc. 

Jezebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  King  of 
Tyre  aud  Sidon,  and  wife  of  Ahab ;  was 
murdered  by  order  of  Jehu. 

Joab,  nephew  of  David,  and  chief  cap- 
tain  of  the  IsraeUtish  host  during  his  reign, 

Joachim,  Georg,  called  "Rhasticus"  {b. 
1514,  d.  1576),  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Wittemberg,  was  the  first  follower  of  Co- 
pernicus, and  published  his  Be  Bevolutionibua 
at  Nuremberg  in  1543. 

Joachim,  Joseph  (6.  1831),  violinist,  bom 
at  Kittsee,  near  Pressburg,  Hungary ;  studied 
under  Bohm  in  Vienna ;  was  patronised 
by  Mendelssohn ;  resided  in  Hanover  from 
1854  to  1866 ;  became  director  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  at  Berlin  in  1882 ; 
Mus.Doc.  Cambridge,  1877. 

Joan  of  Arc,  the  "Maid  of  Orleans" 
(6.  1412,  d.  1431),  bom  at  Domremy,  in 
Lorraine  ;  while  tending  sheep  in  her  native 
village  heard  voices  summoning  her  to 
deliver  France  from  the  English.  She  pre- 
sented herself  before  Charles  VII.,  who 
gave  her  some  troops,  and  with  these  she 
raised  the  siege  of  Orleans  in  May,  1429.  In 
June  Talbot  was  defeated  at  Patay,  and  in 
July  Joan  caused  Charles  to  be  crowned  at 
Rheims.  She  now  declared  that  her  mission 
was  over,  but  was  persuaded  by  Charles  to 
remain.  In  May,  1430,  she  was  taken 
prisoner  while  attempting  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Compiegne,  and,  after  a  trial  conducted 
by  the  Bishop  of  Beauvais,  was  condemned 
as  a  sorceress,  and  burnt  in  the  market- 
place of  Rouen. 

Joash  (d.  838  B.C.),  son  of  Ahaziah, 
became  King  of  Judah  in  878.  He  was 
assassinated. 

JoaiBli,  son  of  Jehoahaz,  reigned  over 
Israel  from  840  to  825. 

John,  called  "  de  Dieu"  {b.  1495,  d.  1550), 
bom  at  Monte-Mor-el-Novo,  in  Portugal; 
after  a  dissipated  life  as  a  soldier,  devoted 
himself  to  the  service  of  the  sick.  He 
founded  the  Order  of  Charity,  and  estab- 
lished a  hospital  at  Grenada. 

John,  Duke  of  Burgundy  (6. 1371,  d.  1419), 
son  of  Philip  the  Bold  and  Margaret  of 
Flanders ;  earned  the  title  of  ''  Sans  Peur  " 


Joh 


(477) 


Joh 


in  the  war  against  Bajazet  (1396-8).  On  his 
return  he  opposed  the  party  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  who  was  assassinated  by  his  com- 
mand in  1407.  He  was  himself  murdered 
by  order  of  the  Dauphin,  whilst  holding  an 
interview  with  him  on  the  bridge  of 
Montereau. 

Jonn,  King  of  England  (b.  1166,  d.  1216), 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.  and 
Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.  Richard  I.  named 
him  his  successor,  disregarding  the  claim 
of  Arthur,  son  of  their  brother  Greoifrey. 
Arthur  was  acknowledged  by  Anjou,  Maine, 
and  Touraine,  and  supported  by  Philip. 
In  1202  he  fell  into  John's  hands,  and 
soon  afterwards  mysteriously  disappeared. 
John  was  now  summoned  before  Philip, 
but  failed  to  appear,  whereupon  his  French 
provinces  were  declared  forfeited,  and  be- 
fore the  end  of  1204  Philip  had  possessed 
himself  of  the  greater  part  of  them.  In 
1205  John  quarrelled  with  the  pope  in 
regard  to  the  appoiutmeut  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury,  John's  nominee 
being  Bishop  Grey  of  Norwich,  while  Inno- 
cent forced  the  monks  to  elect  Stephen 
Langton.  England  was  laid  under  an 
interdict  in  1208,  the  king  excommimicated 
in.  1209,  and  in  1212  Phihp  of  France  was 
invited  to  conquer  the  country  for  himself. 
Hereupon  John,  in  an  interview  vsrith  the 
legate  Pandulph  at  Dover  (1213),  consented 
to  receive  Langton,  and  also  to  hold  England 
as  a  fief  under  the  pope,  pajfing  him  a 
thousand  marks  annually.  This  measure, 
as  well  as  John's  disregard  of  their  privi- 
leges, caused  a  rising  of  the  barons ;  at 
Rmmymede,  in  1215,  they  forced  him  to 
sign  Magna  Charta,  which  became  the 
foundation  of  English  liberties.  The  king, 
however,  proceeded  to  raise  mercenaries, 
and  persuaded  Innocent  to  annul  the 
charter,  whereupon  the  barons  offered  the 
crown  to  Louis  the  Dauphin,  who  landed  at 
Sandwich  (1216),  and  proceeded  to  Loudon. 
Wliilst  marching  against  him  John  died,  it 
is  said,  from  the  effects  of  a  debauch. 

John,  St.,  the  Apostle  (b.  circa  4,  d.  circa 
99),  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  Christ's  dis- 
ciples. During  the  crucifixion  our  Lord 
commended  His  mother  to  his  cai-e,  and  he 
"took  her  to  his  own  home."  John  after- 
wards became  Bishop  of  Epliesus.  Accord- 
ing to  Tertullian,  he  was  plunged  into  a 
caldron  of  boiling  oil  during  the  persecution 
under  Domitian,  but  received  no  injury. 
He  was  subsequently  exiled  to  the  island 
of  Patmos,  where  he  wi-ote  the  Bonk  of 
Revelation.  He  was  also  author  of  the 
Gospel  and  Epistles  which  bear  his  name. 

John  Casimir,  Count  Palatine  {h.  1543, 
d.  1592),  second  son  of  the  Elector  Palatine, 
Frederick  III.,  invaded  France  in  1568  and 
1575  in  support  of  the  Huguenots.    On  the 


death  of  his  father  he  became  the  political 
head  of  the  reformers. 

John  of  Austria,  Don  (6.  1546,  d.  1578), 
illegitimate  sou  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  ; 
distinguished  himself  against  the  Moors  in 
Granada  (1570),  and  was  in  command  of 
the  combined  Italian  and  Spanish  fleets  at 
the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571).  In  1576  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  the  Nether- 
lands. 

John  the  Baptist,  the  forerimner  of  the 
Messiah,  was  the  son  of  Zacharias,  a  priest, 
and  Elizabeth,  his  wife.  He  fulfilled  his 
mission  by  preaching  repentance,  and  bap- 
tising with  water  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jordan.  Our  Lord  there  received  baptism 
at  his  hands.  He  was  beheaded  by  Herod 
to  gratify  his  wife,  Herodias. 

John  of  Denmark  (6.  1455,  d.  1513), 
succeeded  his  father.  Christian  I.,  as  King 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  in  1481. 
He  was  recognised  in  Norway  after  grant- 
ing exorbitant  privileges  to  the  nobles  and 
clergy,  in  1483,  but  did  not  gain  possession 
of  Sweden  till  his  reduction  of  Stockholm  in 
1497. 

John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster  {b. 
1340,  d,  1399),  so  called  from  his  birthplace, 
Ghent,  third  son  of  Edward  III.,  married 
Blanche,  daughter  of  Heury,  Duke  of 
Lancaster ;  took  part  in  the  Black  Prince's 
expedition  against  Heniy  of  Trastamare ; 
after  the  death  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  married 
his  daughter,  Constance,  and  vainly  at- 
tempted to  secure  the  throne  of  Castile. 
In  1373  he  led  a  raiding  expedition  into 
France.  After  the  death  of  Heury  of 
Trastamare  he  invaded  Castile,  but  failed 
to  effect  anything. 

John  of  Luxemburg,  "the  Blind,"  King 
of  Bohemia  {h.  1295,  d.  1346),  son  of  the 
Emperor  Henry  VII.,  obtatued  the  throne 
of  Bohemia  in  1311  by  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Wenceslaus  IV.  He 
was  of  an  adventurous  disposition,  served 
in  the  armies  of  several  European  sovereigns, 
and  was  slain  at  Crecy,  fighting  for  Philip 
of  Valois. 

John  of  Yepez,  called  "St.  John  of  the 
Cross"  {b.  1542,  rf.  1591),  a  Spanish  mystic, 
was  associated  with  St.  Theresa  in  estab- 
Ushing  the  "  barefooted  Carmelites." 

John  I.,  Pope  (d.  526),  elected  523,  died 
in  prison,  where  he  had  been  placed  by 
Theodoric. 

John  XXII.,  Pope   (Jacques  d'Euse)    (6. 

1  circa  1244,  d.  1334),  a  native  of  Cahors,  was 

!  elected  in    1316,   during   the    "Babylonish 

Captivity."     He  was  at  variance  with  the 

Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  whom   he   ex- 

1  coimnunicated  in  1324.    He  was  nominally 


Joii 


(478) 


Joh 


deposed  by  Louis  in  1327,  but  continued  to 
exercise  the  papal  functions  at  Avignon, 

John  XXIII.,  Pope  (Baldassare  Cossa)  (d. 
1419),  an  avaricious  and  licentious  prelate. 
His  claim  was  disputed  by  Gregory  XII. 
and  Benedict  XIII.  He  was  deposed  at  the 
Council  of  Constance  (1415). 

John  L  (Zimisces),  Emperor  of  the  East 
(d.  976),  ascended  tlie  throne  after  poison- 
ing Nicephorus  Phocas  (969).  He  defeated 
the  Russians  and  Bulgarians,  and  extended 
the  boundaries  of  the  empii-e  in  the  East. 
He  died  by  poison. 

John  II.  (Calo- Johannes)  {b.  1088,  d.  1143), 
renowned  for  his  humanity  and  purity  of 
life,  succeeded  his  father,  Alexius  Com- 
nenus,  in  1118.  He  pardoned  his  sister, 
Anna  Comnena,  and  others,  who  had  joined 
in  a  conspiracy  against  him.  He  wrested 
a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Turks, 
and  defeated  the  Servians  and  Hungarians. 

John  III.  (Ducas  Vatazes)  (b.  1193,  d. 
1255),  reigned  at  Nicaea  in  Bithynia  from 
1222  to  1255.  Though  unsuccessful  in  an 
expedition  against  Baldwin  II.,  Emperor 
of  Constaatinople,  he  greatly  extended  his 
territory  at  the  expense  of  the  Latin  do- 
minions. 

John  VI.  (Palseologus)  {b.  1332,  d.  1391), 
succeeded  his  father,  Andronicus  the 
Younger,  in  1341,  but  exercised  no  real 
power  till  the  retirement  of  the  usurper, 
John  Cantacuzene,  in  1355.  His  dominions 
were  invaded  by  the  Turkish  Sultan  Amu- 
rath,  with  whom  he  made  a  disgraceful 
compact. 

Joh»  VIL  (Palffiologus)  (6.  1390,  d.  1448), 
succeeded  his  father,  Manuel,  in  1425.  He 
was  unsuccessful  against  the  Turks.  Hoping 
to  effect  a  union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches,  he  induced  Eugenius  TV.  to  sum- 
mon a  council  at  Ferrara,  which  he  attended 
in  persoiL 

John  L,  of  Aragon  (6.  1350,  d.  1395), 
succeeded  his  father,  Pedro  IV.,  in  1387. 

John  IL,  of  Aragon  (b.  1397,  d.  1479), 
obtained  Navarre  through  his  wife  Blanche 
(1425),  and  in  1458  succeeded  his  brother, 
Alfonso  v.,  as  ruler  over  Aragon,  Sicily, 
and  Sardinia. 

John  I.,  of  Castile  (6.  1358,  d.  1390), 
succeeded  his  father,  Henry  of  Trastamare, 
in  1379. 

John  II.  (b.  1405,  d.  1454)  succeeded  his 
father,  Henry  III.,  in  1406. 

John  II.,  the  "Good,"  King  of  France 
(h.  circa  1315,  d.  1364),  succeeded  his  father, 
Philip  VI.,  in  1350.  He  was  defeated  by 
the  Black  Prince  at  Poitiers   (1356),  and 


remained  a  prisoner  till  the  treaty  of 
Bretiguy  (1360).  Unable  to  raise  his 
ransom,  he  returned  to  England,  and  died 
in  captivity. 

John  I.,  of  Portugal  (*.  1358,  d.  1433), 
founder  of  the  Aviz  dynasty,  illegitimate 
son  of  Pedro  L,  became  king  in  1385.  In 
1387  he  married  Philippa,  daughter  of  John 
of  Gaunt. 

John  II.  {b.  1455,  d.  1495),  became  king 
in  1481.  He  encouraged  maritime  enter- 
prise. 

John  III.  {b.  1502,  d.  1557),  became  king 
in  1521.  During  his  reign  the  Portuguese 
dominions  in  the  East  were  extended.  He 
introduced  the  Inquisition,  and  encouraged 
the  Jesuits. 

John  IV.  (b.  1604,  d.  1656),  son  of  Theo- 
dosio,  Duke  of  Braganza,  was  proclaimed 
king  in  1640,  after  an  insurrection  which 
freed  Portugal  from  the  dominion  of  Spain. 

John  VL  {b.  1769,  d.  1826),  became  regent 
for  his  mother,  Maria,  in  1793;  when 
threatened  with  Juuot's  invasion  (1807), 
retired  to  Brazil,  where  he  reigned  as  em- 
peror ;  returned  to  Europe  in  1821. 

John  III.,  of  Sweden  (b.  1537,  d.  1592), 
second  son  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  deposed  his 
brother  Eric  in  1568.  He  unsuccessfully 
strove  to  re-establish  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion. 

Johnson,  Andrew  (6.  1808,  d.  1875), 
American  statesman,  for  some  years  a  tailor 
at  Greenville,  Tennessee ;  was  returned  to 
Congress  in  the  Democratic  interest  in  1843, 
and  became  governor  of  Tennessee  in  1853. 
He  was  vice-president  under  Lincoln,  on 
whose  death  he  became  president  (1865). 

Johnson,  General  Sir  Edwin,  K.C.B., 
CLE.  (b.  1825),  entered  the  Bengal  Ar- 
tillery in  1842;  has  seen  much  service  in 
India,  especially  during  the  Mutiny,  when 
he  took  part  in  the  engagement  on  the 
Hindun  (1857).  He  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  military  education  in  1884. 

Johnson,  Samuel  {b.  1649,  d.  1703),  divine, 
a  zealous  supporter  of  Protestantism ;  was 
in  favour  of  the  Bill  of  Exclusion,  and  in 
1682  published  Julian  the  Apostate^  opposing 
passive  obedience.  For  his  Humble  a>ia 
Hearty  Address  he  was  placed  in  the  pillory, 
whipped,  and  fined.  He  received  a  pension 
on  the  accession  of  William  III. 

Johnson,  Samuel  (J.  1709,  d.  1784),  man 
of  letters,  son  of  a  bookseller  at  Lichfield, 
educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford  :  in 
1 732  became  a  master  in  a  school  at  Market 
Bosworth,  which  he  quitted  to  enter  the 
employment  of  a  bookseller  at  Birmingham, 


Joh 


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Jon 


for  whom  he  translated  Father  Lobo's 
Voyage  to  Abyssinia  ;  in  1736  married  Mrs. 
Porter,  a  widow  nearly  twice  his  age,  and 
started  a  school,  which  was  unsuccessful ; 
came  to  London  with  David  Garrick,  who 
was  one  of  liis  pupils,  in  1737 ;  published 
London  (1738),  and  obtained  work  on  the 
Gentleman^ s  Magazine,  reporting  the  par- 
liamentary debates  under  a  fictitious  title. 
In  the  following  years  appeared  The  Vanity 
of  Suman  IViJies  (1749),  Irene  (1749),  The 
Rambler  (1750-2),  the  Dictionary  (1755), 
which  had  occupied  him  since  1747,  The 
Idler  (1758-9),  and  Ras^^elas  (1759).  In  1762 
he  received  a  pension  of  £300  annually,  and 
in  1764  founded  the  Literary  Club,  which 
included  Burke,  Goldsmith,  and  Reynolds 
among  its  members.  His  connection  with 
the  Thrales  lasted  from  1765  to  the  death  of 
Mr.  Thrale  in  1784,  when  he  returned  to 
his  house  at  Bolt  Coui-t,  Fleet  Street.  His 
tour  in  Scotland  with  Boswell  in  1773  is 
described  in  the  Journey  to  the  Hebrides 
(1775). 

Jolinstoii,  Alexander  (6.  1813),  Scottish 
painter,  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
Among  his  pictures  are  Lord  and  Lady 
RusseU  in  Friaon  (1845),  Tyndale  Translating 
the  Bible  (1855),  and  Flora  Macdonald  (1869). 

Johnston,  Alexander  Keith  {b.  1804,  d. 
1871),  geographer;  in  1851  exhibited  his 
physical  globe  of  the  earth,  and  in  1866 
completed  his  Fhysical  Atlas,  undertaken  at 
the  suggestion  of  Humboldt. 

Jolinston,  Henry  Hamilton  {b.  1858),  ap- 
pointed consul  for  Portuguese  East  Africa 
in  1888,  has  travelled  in  North,  West,  East, 
and  Central  Africa,  and  published  The  River 
Congo  (1884),  The  Kilimanjaro  Expedition 
(1886),  and  T)ie  History  of  a  Slave  (1889). 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eggleston  (b.  1807), 
American  soldier;  joined  the  Confederate 
army,  and  became  commander  of  the 
Federal  forces  in  South  Carolina  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1865,  but  surrendered  with  his  army 
in  the  following  August. 

Johnstone,  Chevalier  de  {b.  1720),  a 
Jacobite,  aide-de-camp  to  Charles  Edward 
during  the  insurrection  in  1745 ;  wrote 
Memoirs  of  the  Rebellion,  published  in  1820. 

Johnstone,  John  Henry  {b.  1750,  d.  1828), 
a  celebrated  comic  actor  and  vocalist. 

Johore,  Tunkoo  Abubeker  bin  Ibrahim, 
K.C.S.I.,  Maharajah  of  Johore  (usually 
called  the  Tumongong)  (b.  1835),  succeeded 
his  father  in  1861.  He  has  always  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  the  British 
Government,  and  co-operated  with  it  in 
suppressing  piracy.  He  visited  England  in 
1866  and  1885. 

JoinvUle,   Fran(;ois  Ferdinand   Philippe 


d'Orleans,  Prince  de  {h.  1818),  third  son  of 
Louis  Philippe,  served  in  Mexico  (1838), 
Morocco  (1845),  and  the  Franco-German 
War ;  was  deported  to  England,  but  re- 
turned on  the  abrogation  of  the  law  of  exile 
in  1871.  His  works  on  the  French  navy 
are  important. 

JoinviUe,  Jean,  Sire  de  (b.  1224,  d.  1317), 
French  chronicler,  joined  the  sixth  crusade ; 
was  taken  prisoner  with  Louis  IX.  at  Man- 
soorah,  and  returned  with  him  in  1254.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  St.  Louis. 

Jokai,  Maurice  (6.  1825),  Hungarian 
novelist ;  took  part  as  a  joumahst  in  the 
revolution  of  1848 ;  has  written  about  200 
novels,  including  Timar^s  Two  Worlds 
(English  translation,  1888),  etc 

Jomini,  Henri,  Baron  (b.  1779,  d.  1869), 
Swiss  strategist,  born  at  Payeme  ;  fought 
under  Ney,  distinguished  himself  at  Bautzen 
(1813),  but  afterwards  transferred  his  ser- 
vices to  Russia.  He  wrote  Traite  des 
Grandes  Operations  Militaires  (1805),  and 
other  works  on  the  art  of  war. 

Jonah,  a  Hebrew  prophet,  is  believed  to 
have  lived  in  the  9th  century  B.C.,  during 
the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II. 

Jonas,  Justus  {b.  1493,  d.  1555),  German 
reformer,  accompanied  Luther  to  Worms  in 
1521 ;  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Wittemberg,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  religious  discussions  of  the  time.  He 
attended  Luther  on  his  death -bed,  and 
translated  several  of  his  and  Melancthon'e 
works  from  Latin  into  German. 

Jonathan,  the  son  of  Saul,  and  friend 
of  David ;  was  slain,  vpith  his  father,  in  a 
battle  against  the  Philistines  on  Mount 
Gilboa. 

Jones,  Lieutenant-Colonel  Alfred  Stowell, 
V.C,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.E.  (6.  1832),  was 
deputy-assistant-quarter-master-general  at 
the  siege  of  Delhi,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  on  several  occasions  during  the 
Mutiny.  He  has  published  Will  a  Sewage 
Farm  Fay}  (1874),  and  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  Canvey  Island  Scheme 
(1884). 

Jones,  Ebenezer  {p.  1820,  d.  1860),  author 
of  Studies  of  Sensation  and  Event,  a  volume 
of  poems  (1843). 

Jones,  Ernest  Charles  (A.  1819,  d.  1869), 
poet  and  Chartist ;  for  eight  years  edited  the 
Feople's  Faper ;  wrote  The  Revolt  of  Hin- 
dustan (an  epic)  during  his  imprisonment 
in  1848-9  ;  was  also  author  of  The  Wood 
Spirit  (1841),  a  romance,  and  other  works, 

Jones,  nigo  {b.  1573,  d.  1652),  architect, 
bom  in  London ;   after  being  apprenticed 


Jon 


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Jos 


to  a  joiner,  was  seut  to  Italy  by  the  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  who  discovered  his  taleut 
for  drawing.  About  1604  he  became 
architect  to  Christiau  IV.  of  Denmark, 
and  in  1606  accompanied  him  to  England, 
where  he  was  appointed  architect  to  the 
queeu  and  Prince  of  Wales.  His  build- 
ings at  this  period  were  in  a  debased  Eliza- 
bethan style,  but,  after  a  second  visit  to 
Italy  in  1612,  he  introduced  the  Palladiau 
style  into  England.  He  now  became  sur- 
veyor to  the  king,  and,  besides  other 
buildings,  designed  the  palace  of  Whitehall, 
of  which  he  completed  the  banqueting - 
hall. 

Jones,  Owen  {b.  1809,  d.  1874),  architect, 
visited  Granada  in  1834,  and  wrote  Plans, 
Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  the 
Alha)nb)-a  {18i2) ,  The  Grammar  of  Ornament 
(1856),  etc. 

Jones,  Paul,  the  name  assumed  by  John 
Paul  (6.  1747,  d.  1792),  a  naval  adventurer, 
who.  in  1773,  emigrated  to  Virginia.  En- 
tering the  American  naval  service  (1775), 
he  made  bold  descents  on  the  coasts  of 
England  and  Scotland,  and  ia  1779  did 
much  damage  to  the  English  fleet. 

Jones,  Thomas  Wharton  (h.  1808),  Eng- 
lish ophthalmic  surgeon  and  physiologist, 
author  of  The  Wisdom  and  Beneficence  of 
the  Almighty  Displayed  in  the  Sense  of 
Human  Vision,  etc. 

Jones,  William  (J>.  1726,  d.  1800),  a  divine 
of  the  Hutchinsonian  school,  perpetual 
curate  of  Nay  land,  in  Suffolk;  wrote  T/ie 
Catholic  Doctrine  of  the  Trinitij  (llbl),  TJie 
First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy  {lldT), 
and  a  life  of  his  fiiend.  Bishop  Home 
(1795). 

Jones,  Sir  William  [b.  1746,  d.  1794), 
Orientalist,  educated  at  Harrow  and  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford ;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1774,  and  in  1783  became  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  judicature  at  Fort 
William.  Whilst  in  India  he  founded  the 
Asiatic  Society,  and  superintended  the  com- 
piling of  a  digest  of  Hindoo  and  Mahometan 
laws.  In  1768  he  translated  the  Life  of 
Nadir  Shah  from  Persian  into  French  for 
the  King  of  Denmark.  His  Commentaries 
on  Arabic  Poetry,  hegun  in  1766,  were  pub- 
lished in  1774.  Among  his  other  works  are 
Si.  Persian  Grammar  (1771),  and  translations 
of  the  Sanscrit  drama,  Sakoontald  (1789), 
and  of  the  Laws  of  Manu  (1794). 

Jonson,  Benjamin  or  Ben  (6.  circa  1574, 
rf.  1637),  dramatist,  was  educated  at  West- 
minster under  Camden.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  he  studied  at  Cambridge.  After 
following  the  trade  of  a  bricklayer,  he  went 
as  a  volunteer  to  Flanders,  and  on  his 
return  became  an  actor,  also  writing  plays 


in  conjunction  with  others.  His  first  inde- 
pendent work.  Every  Man  in  his  LTumour 
(1/396),  was  followed  by  Evet-y  Man  out  of 
his  Humour  (1599),  Cynthia's  Revels  (1600), 
Sejanus  (1603),  J^olpone  {1605),  The  Alchemist 
(1610),  and  many  others.  Eastward  Ho 
(1605),  a  satire  on  the  Scots,  produced  in 
conjunction  with  Chapman  and  Marston, 
nearly  cost  him  his  nose  and  ears.  He 
wrote  masques  for  the  court  of  James  I., 
and  in  1616  was  appointed  poet-laureate. 

Jordaens,  Jakob  (b.  1593,  d.  1678), 
painter,  studied  under  Van  Oort  and 
llubeus.  His  chief  work  is  Christ  in  the 
Midst  of  the  Doctors. 

Jordan,  Dorothea  (b.  1762,  d.  1816), 
English  actress,  for  twenty  years  the  mis- 
tress, and  virtually  the  wife  of  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  afterwards  William  IV.,  by  whom 
she  was  abandoned,  and  died  iu  great 
distress  at  Paris. 

Jortin,  John  (h.  1698,  d.  1770),  scholar 
and  divine,  educated  at  Cambridge,  became 
Archdeacon  of  London.  Among  his  works 
are  Remarks  upon  Ecclesiastical  History  and 
a  Life  of  Erasmus  (1758). 

Joseph,  Hebrew  patriarch,  son  of  Jacob ; 
was  sold  by  his  brothers  to  some  Ishmaelitish 
merchants,  and  taken  by  them  to  Egypt, 
where  he  afterwards  held  a  high  omcial 
position. 

Joseph  of  Exeter  {d.  circa  1214),  English 
poet ;  went  on  the  third  crusade,  and  wrote 
De  Bella  Trojano  and  Antiochesis. 

Joseph  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany  (6.  1678, 
d.  1711),  son  of  Leopold  I.,  became  King  of 
Hungary  in  1687,  King  of  the  Romans  in 
1690,  and  emperor  in  1705. 

Joseph  II.  (6.  1741,  d.  1790),  son  of 
Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa  ;  was  crowned 
King  of  the  Romans  iu  1764,  succeeded  his 
father  as  Emperor  in  1765,  and  became 
ruler  over  Hungary  and  Bohemia  on  the 
death  of  his  mother  (1780). 

Josephine,  Marie  Joseph  Rose  Tascher  de 
la  Pagerie  (6.  1763,  d.  1814),  a  native  of 
Martinique  ;  in  1779  married  the  Vicomtede 
Beauharnais,  who  was  guillotined.  She 
married  Bonaparte  in  1796,  and  was  di- 
vorced from  him  in  1809. 

Josephus,  Flavins  (5. 37,  d.  circa95),  Jewish 
historian,  went  on  a  mission  to  Rome  in  63 ; 
on  his  return  unwillingly  joined  the  revolt 
against  the  Romans ;  was  appointed  governor 
of  Galilee,  and  valiantly  defended  Jotapata 
against  Vespasian,  but  was  taken  prisoner ; 
was  present  with  the  Roman  army  at  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  returned  with  Titus 
to  Rome,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life.    His  chief  works  are  The  History  of 


Jos 


(481) 


Jug 


the  Jewish  War,  The  A>itiquitiesofthe  Jews, 
and  a  Discourse  on  the  Martyrdcun  of  the 

Maccabees. 

Joshua,  or  Hoshea,  son  of  Xun;  com- 
mander of  the  Israelites  after  the  death  of 
Moses,  led  them  into  the  Holy  Land,  and 
obtained  many  victories  over  the  tribes  of 
Canaan. 

Josiali  {d.  609  b.c.)  succeeded  his  father, 
Amon,  as  Kingof  Judah  in  641.  He  died  in 
a  war  with  Pharaoh  Necho,  King  of  Egypt. 

Joubert,  Barthelemi  Catherine  (6. 1769, «?. 
1799),  French  general,  enlisted  in  1791. 
His  bravery  at  Loano  was  rewarded  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  afterwards 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Tyrol,  and  in 
1798  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in 
Italy.     He  was  slain  at  Novi. 

Joubert,  Petrus  Jacobus  (6.  circa  1831), 
one  of  the  triumvirate  who  organised  a 
Transvaal  revolt  against  the  British  Govern- 
ment in  1880,  held  the  chief  command  in 
the  engagements  at  Laing's  Nek,  Ingogo 
Eiver,  and  Majuba  Hill. 

Jouffroy  d'Abbaus,  Claude,  Marquis  de 
(6.  1751,  d.  1832),  a  French  mechanician, 
one  of  the  ftrst  to  apply  steam  to  navigation. 
He  launched  a  steam-vessel  on  the  Danube 
in  1776. 

Joule,  James  Prescott  (6.  1818,  d.  1889), 
electrician,  pupil  of  Dalton ;  made  dis- 
coveries in  electro-magnetism,  and  in  1849 
established  his  theory  of  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat. 

Jourdan,  Jean  Baptiste,  Comte  (6.  1762, 
d.  1833),  French  marshal;  served  in  the 
wars  of  the  Eepublic,  and  in  1799  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Danube  by  the  Directory.  In  1797  he 
became  president  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  but  was  expelled  in  1799  owing  to 
his  opposition  to  Bonaparte,  by  whom,  how- 
ever, he  was  afterwards  employed.  He 
subsequently  followed  the  fortunes  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  He  owed  his  title  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  but  joined  in  the  revolution  of 
1830. 

Jouvenet,  Jean  {b.  1647, «?.  1717),  a  French 
historioal  painter,  bom  at  Rouen. 

Jouy,  Victor  Joseph  fitienne  de  (6.  1764, 
d.  1846),  French  writer,  author  of  a  collec- 
tion of  essa.ysca.\\edLVIIer>nitedela  Chmtssee 
d'Antin.  fie  also  wrote  librettos  for  operas, 
and  the  tragedies  of  Tippoo  Saib  and  Si/lla. 

Jovellanos,  Don  Caspar  Melchior  de 
(6.  1744,  d.  1811),  Spanish  statesman  and 
author,  wrote  Pelayo  (a  tragedy),  The 
Honourable  Belinqtient  (a  comedy),  and 
several  treatises  on  political  economy. 
BE 


Jovianus  (6.  331,  d.  364),  succeeded 
JuUau  as  Emperor  of  Eome  in  363. 

Jowett,  Benjamin,  M.A.  {b.  1817), 
successively  scholar,  fellow,  and  master  of 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  Regius  prof  essor 
of  Greek  since  1855.  His  works  include 
translations  of  Plato  and  Thucydides.  He 
contributed  a  paper  on  The  Interpretation 
of  Scripture  to  Essaijs  and  Reviews. 

Joyeuse,  Anne  de  (6.  circa  1561,  d. 
1587),  admiral  of  France,  displayed  great 
cruelty  as  commander-in-chief  against  the 
Huguenots.  He  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
Henry  of  Navarre  in  the  battle  of  Coutras. 

Juarez,  Benito  Pablo  (6.  1806,  d.  1872), 
Mexican  statesman,  of  pure  Indian  blood ; 
after  a  war  between  Liberals  and  Clericals, 
became  president  in  1861.  He  resisted  the 
attempt  of  Napoleon  III.  to  set  up  Maxi- 
milian as  emperor  of  Mexico,  and,  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  French  troops,  put  him 
to  death.  He  was  again  elected  president 
in  1867. 

Juba  I.  {d.  B.C.  42),  King  of  Numidia, 
supported  Pompey  against  Caesar,  but  wa3 
defeated  at  Thapsus,  and  committed  suicide. 

Juba  II.  (cZ.  24),  son  of  the  preceding; 
was  taken  by  Caesar  to  Rome,  where  he 
received  a  good  education.  He  fought 
under  Augustus,  who  made  him  King  of 
Mauritania  and  Gaetulia.  Of  his  numerous 
works  fragments  alone  remain. 

Judah,  Hebrew  patriarch,  fourth  son  of 
Jacob,  saved  Joseph's  life  by  persuading 
his  brothers  to  sell  him  to  the  Ishmaelites. 
Joseph  on  his  deathbed  prophesied  that  the 
Messiah  would  be  bom  of  his  family. 

Judah,  Leo  (6.  1482,  d.  1542),  Protestant 
theologian,  a  friend  of  Zwiugli,  translated 
part  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Latin. 

Judah  Hakkadosh  {b.  123,  d.  190),  a 
Jewish  rabbi,  compiled  the  Mishna  or  ori- 
ginal Talmud,  a  collection  of  the  ancient 
customs  of  the  Jews. 

Judas  Maccabseus.     {See  Maccabseus.] 

Judd,  John  W.,  F.R.S.  (6.  1840),  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  geology  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Science  in  1881  ;  has  investigated 
the  secondary  strata  of  the  Scottish  High- 
lauds  and  the  remains  of  the  tertiary  vol- 
canoes of  the  western  islands  of  Scotland. 

Judson,  Adoniram  (&.  1788,  d.  1850),  an 
American  Baptist  missionary ;  laboured 
among  the  Burmese,  and  translated  the 
Bible  into  their  language. 

Jugnirtha  {h.  circa  154  B.C.,  d.  104),  King 
of  Numidia,  son  of  Mastauabal,  was 
brought  up  by  his  uncle,  Micipsa,  and  after 
his  death  shared  the  kingdom  with  his  sons. 
Adherbal  and  Hiempsal,  both  of  whom  he 
afterwards    murdered.    After  a  long  war 


Juk 


(482) 


Jus 


with  the  Romans  he  was  betrayed  into  their 
hands  by  his  ally,  Bocchus,  King  of  Mauri- 
tania, and  died  in  the  Mamertine  prison  at 
Rome. 

Jukes,  Joseph  Beete  {b.  1811,  d.  1869), 
naturalist,  bom  at  Birmingham  ;  took  part 
in  the  survey  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Fly,  of  which 
he  wrote  a  Narrative  (1847).  He  made  dis- 
coveries in  rock  strata  south  of  Conway. 

Julian,  Flavins  Claudius,  "The  Apos- 
tate" (6.  331,  d.  363),  Roman  emperor,  son 
of  Julius  Constantius,  half-brother  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great ;  was  brought  up  in  the 
Christian  faith,  but  his  study  of  Greek 
philosophy  and  literature  at  Nicomedia  and 
Athens  gave  a  different  bent  to  his  mind. 
In  355  he  was  made  Cassar,  and  sent  to 
Gaul,  where  he  was  saluted  as  emperor  by 
his  army  (361).  In  363  he  undertook  an 
expedition  against  the  Persians,  in  which  he 
lost  his  life. 

Julien,  Stanislas  Aignan  (6. 1799,  d.  1873), 
French  Orientalist ;  appointed  professor  of 
Chinese  in  the  College  de  France  in  1832  ; 
translated  the  works  of  Meng-tsze  and 
Laou-tsze,  Voyages  des  Pilerins  Bouddhistes, 
etc. 

Julius  I.,  Pope  {d.  352),  a  native  of 
Rome,  elected  in  337;  supported  Atha«- 
nasius  against  the  Arians. 

Julius  II.,  Pope  (Cardinal  Giuliano  della 
Rovere)  (p.  1441,  d.  1513),  distinguished  as  a 
warrior  and  patron  of  the  arts,  became  pope 
in  1603.  He  endeavoured  to  extend  the 
papal  territory,  and,  after  driving  Caesar 
Borgia  from  the  Romagna,  formed  the 
league  of  Cambrai  with  Maximilian  and 
Louis  XII.  against  Venice  (1508).  After 
the  submission  of  the  republic,  he  turned 
his  arms  against  France  (1510).  In  loll 
the  Holy  Alliance  was  formed,  and  the 
French  army  driven  back  over  the  Alps. 

Julius  IIL,  Pope  (Cardinal  del  Monte) 
(6.  1487,  d.  1555),  succeeded  Paul  III.  La 
1650. 

Jung,  or  Jung-Stilling,  Johann  Hein-  j 
rich  (6.  1740,  d.  1817),  oculist,  farmer,  and  , 
mystic ;  studied  medicine  at  Strasburg 
(1770),  where  he  formed  friendships  with 
Goethe  and  Herder.  He  practised  as  an 
ocuUst  at  Elberfeld,  and  afterwards  at  Mar- 
burg, where  he  was  professor  of  farming. 
His  most  interesting  works  are  Stilling^s 
Jugend  and  the  otners  which  deal  with 
his  own  life.  ! 

Jung,  Sir  Salar,  K.C.S.I.  (6.  1829,  d. 
1883),  from  1853  prime  minister  of  the 
Deccan  ;  restored  order  in  the  government, 
and,  by  securing  tranquillity  in  Hyderabad 
during  the  Mutiny,  avoided  the  proposed 
British  annexation. 


Junge,  or  Jungius,  Joachim  (6.  1587,  d. 
1657),  German  philosopher;  opposed  the 
schoolmen,  and  endeavoured  to  base  phi- 
losophy on  observation  and  experience.  His 
Jsagoge  I'hytoscopica  to  some  extent  formed 
the  groundwork  of  later  botanical  systems. 

Junghuhn,  Franz  Wilhelm  (6.  1809,  d. 
1864),  the  explorer  of  Java,  of  which  he 
wrote  several  descriptions. 

Jungmann,  Josef  Jakob  (6.  1773,  d.  1847), 
Slavonian  philologist,  professor  of  Latin  in. 
the  gymnasium  of  Prague  (1815-34);  wrote 
a  History  of  Bohemian  Literature. 

Junius,  Frauc^ois  (6.  1545,  d.  1602),  French 
Protestant  theologian,  professor  of  divinity 
at  Heidelberg,  and  afterwards  at  Leyden. 
His  works  are  numerous. 

Jiinius,  Francois  {b.  1589,  d.  1677),  phil- 
ologist, sou  of  the  preceding ;  edited  Ulphilas' 
Gothic  Bible,  with  a  Commentary  (1665). 

Junot,  Androche,  Due  d'Abrantes  (h.  1771, 
d.  1813),  French  soldier;  served  with  dis- 
tinction under  Napoleon  in  Italy  and  Egypt; 
was  present  at  Austerlitz ;  in  1807  led  an 
expedition  to  Portugal,  and  captured  Lis- 
bon within  a  month,  but  was  defeated  at 
Vimiera  (1808),  and  forced  to  evacuate  the 
country. 

Jurieu,  Pierre  {b.  1637,  d.  1713),  French 
Protestant  thtiologian,  professor  of  theology 
and  Hebrew  at  Sedan ,  in  1685  withdrew  to 
Rotterdam,  where  he  was  engaged  in  con- 
troversies with  Bayle  and  others.  He  wrote- 
several  works. 

Jussieu.  The  name  of  a  family  of  French 
botanists,  including  ANTOrmE  de  (6.  1686, 
d.  1758)  ;  Beenaed  de  (6.  1699,  d.  nil), 
brother  of  Antoine,  demonstrator  in  the  Jar- 
din  duRoi;  Antoine  Laxteent  de  (6.  1748, 
d.  1836),  who,  in  Genera  Flantarum  (1789)> 
introduced  a  new  system  of  classification ; 
and  Adeien  de  (6.  1797,  d.  1853),  son  of 
Antoine  Laurent. 

Justin,  a  Latin  historian  of  unknown 
date ;  wrote  an  epitome  of  the  History  of 
the  World  by  Trogus  Pompeius. 

Justin,  or  Justlnus,  called  " Martyr"  {b. 
circa  103,  d.  circa  164),  Christian  saint  and 
martyr,  bom  in  Samaria ;  after  attaching 
himself  to  various  schools  of  Greek  philo- 
sophy in  succession,  became  a  Christian 
about  132.  His  chief  works  are  his  Apology 
to  Antoninus  Pius  and  the  Dialoaue  with 
Tryphon  the  Jew.  Owing  to  the  calumnious 
attacks  of  the  Cynic  Crescens,  he  was  taken 
before  the  prcefectus  urbi,  and  beheaded  for 
refusing  to  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  gods. 

Justin,  or  Justinus  I.,  Emperor  of  the 
East  (i.  450,   d.  627),  by  birth  a  Dacian 


Jus 


(483) 


Kar 


peasant,  during  the  reign  of  Leo  I.  enlisted 
in  the  imperial  guards,  of  which  he  became 
commander.  He  was  chosen  emperor  on 
the  death  of  Anastatius  (518). 

Justin,  or  Justinus  II.  (d.  578),  succeeded 
his  uncle,  Justinian  I.,  in  565.  His  reign 
was  marked  by  inroads  of  the  Persians  and 
Longobards.     He  abdicated  in  574. 

Justinian  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East  {b. 
483,  d.  565),  succeeded  his  uncle,  Justin  I., 
in  527.  He  issued  a  famous  code,  forming, 
together  with  his  collections  of  Pandects, 
Institutiones,  and  Novellm,  the  corpus  juris 
civilis.  Under  Justinian  the  boundaries  of 
the  empire  were  much  extended  through 
the  victories  of  Belisarius  and  Narses  over 
the  Persians,  Vandals,  and  Ostrogoths. 


Justinian  IL  (d.lll),  succeeded  his  father, 
Constantine  Pogonatus,  in  685.  He  was 
killed  by  Philippicus  Bardanes,  who  suc- 
ceeded him. 

Juvenal  (Decimus  Junius  Juvenalis)  {b. 
circa  55,  d.  circa  128),  a  Roman  satirical 
poet.  In  consequence  of  his  satire  against 
Paris,  he  was  sent  as  prefect  of  a  cohort 
to  Egypt,  and  died  either  there  or  at  Rome. 

Juxon,  WilHam  (b.  1582,  d.  1663),  English 
prelate  ;  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Hereford 
through  Laud's  influence  in  1633,  held  the 
oifice  of  lord  high  treasurer  from  1635  to 
1641,  and  was  Bishop  of  London.  He  at- 
tended Charles  I.  during  his  trial,  and  was 
present  with  him  at  his  death.  He  was 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  1660  to  1663. 


Kaempfer,  Engelbrecht  (6.  1651,  d.  1716), 
naturalist  and  physician,  bom  in  West- 
phalia; accompanied  the  Swedish  embassy 
to  Persia  in  1683 ;  afterwards  visited  Java, 
Japan,  Arabia,  and  other  coimtries. 

Ealakaua,  David  (6.  circa  1838,  d.  1891), 
King  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

Kaldi,  Georg  (6.  circa  1572,  d.  1634),  Hun- 
garian Jesuit,  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Olmiitz,  and  afterwards  at  Presburg. 

KaUd,  or  Khaled,  "The  Sword  of  Allah " 
{d.  642),  Saracen  general,  at  first  opposed 
Mahomet ;  took  part  in  the  invasion  of 
Persia  (633),  and,  by  his  victory  at  the  Yer- 
muk  and  his  capture  of  Damascus,  brought 
Syria  under  the  authority  of  the  caliph. 

Kalkbrenner,  Christian  (b.  1755,  d.  1806), 
musical  composer,  was  bom  in  Prussia.  He 
settled  in  Paris,  where  he  died. 

Ealnoky,  Count  Gustav  Siegmimd  (b. 
1832),  Austrian  statesman,  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service  in  1852  ;  in  1881  became  mini- 
ster of  foreign  affairs.  In  1886  he  opposed 
the  machinations  of  Russia  in  Bulgaria,  and 
diuiig  1887  and  1888  made  several  speeches 
against  the  war  party  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Kamel,  Malek  el  (d.  1238),  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  succeeded  in  1218.  In  1221  he  re- 
took Damietta  from  the  Crusaders.  He 
afterwards  captured  Jerusalem  and  other 
towns,  but  yielded  them  to  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.  in  1229. 

Eames,  Henry  Home,  Lord  (6.  1696,  d. 
1782),    Scotch    judge    and     miscellaneous 
pf2 


writer ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1724.  In 
1752  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  sessions, 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Kames. 

Eauaris,  Constantine  {b.  1785,  d.  1877), 
Greek  patriot,  distinguishedhimseLfinanaval 
capacity  during  the  war  of  Independence. 

Kane,  Ehsha  Kent  (b.  1820,  d.  1857), 
American  explorer,  entered  the  United 
States  navy  as  assistant -surgeon ;  travelled 
extensively  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Eastern 
Europe  ;  was  surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the 
first  GrinneU  expedition  in  search  of  Frank- 
lin (1850-2),  and  commanded  the  second 
Grinnell  expedition  (1853-5). 

Kant,  Immanuel  (6.  1724,  d.  1804),  Ger- 
man philosopher,  bom  at  Konigsberg ;  was 
educated  at  the  Collegium  Fredericianum 
and  the  imiversity  of  Konigsberg;  became 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  there  in 
1770,  and  was  made  rector  in  1786.  His 
great  work  is  the  Critique  of  Pure  Meason 
(1782),  in  which  all  knowledge  is  based  on 
experience,  with  the  admission  that  experi- 
ence must  inevitably  conform  itself  to  the 
subjective  laws  of  mind.  The  Critique  of 
Practical  Reason,  the  ethical  side  of  the 
system,  appeared  in  1788,  and  the  Critique 
of  Judgment  m.  1790.  Among  Kant's  other 
works  are  i?tf%?o«  Within  the  Limits  of  Pure 
Reason  (17' '2)  and  The  Metaphysic  of  Ethic. 

Karamzin,  Nicholas  Michailovitch  (6. 
1765,  d.  1826),  bom  in  Orenburg,  Russia; 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Russian  Empire  from 
the  earliest  times  to  1612. 

Karatheodori,  Alexander,  Pasha  (h.  circa 


Ear 


(484) 


Kea 


1820),  Turkish  statesman,  of  Greek  descent ; 
representt?d  the  Porte  at  tlie  Congress  at 
Berlin  (IS78),  and  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  1878-9. 

Karr,  Jean  Baptiste  Alphonse  (6.  1808, 
d.  1890),  French  writer,  became  editor  of  the 
Figaro  in  1839.  Among  his  novels  are  Sous 
les  Tdleuh  (1832)  and  Fort  en  Theme  (1853). 

Karslake,  Sir  John  Burgess  (*.  1821,  d. 
1881),  barrister,  became  Solicitor- General 
under  Lord  Derby  in  1866  ;  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1867  ;  was  made  Attorney-General 
by  Disraeli  in  1874,  but  soon  afterwards 
resigned. 

Katona,  Stephen  {b.  1732,  d.  1811),  Hun- 
garian Jesuit,  wrote  a  History  of  Hungary. 

Katterfelto,  Gustavus  (d.  1799),  a  quack 
and  conj  urer,  of  Prussian  origin.  He  died 
in  Yorkshire. 

Ka,iifmaTm,  Angelica  (6.  1741,  d.  1807), 
painter,  bom  at  Chur;  in  1766  came  to 
England.  She  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Eoyal  Academy  in  1768.  In  1783  she 
married  the  Venetian  artist,  Antonio  Zucchi, 
and  henceforward  lived  in  Italy. 

Kaufmann,  Constantino  von  (6.  1818,  d. 
1882),  Russian  general,  was  governor  of  Turk- 
estan from  lSo7  to  1882.  After  annexing 
Bokhara  (1868),  forcing  the  Khan  of  Khiva 
to  become  the  Tzar's  vassal  (1873),  and  de- 
priving the  Khan  of  Khokaud  of  all  his 
dominions  north  of  the  Sir  Darya  (1875),  he 
attempted  to  embroil  England  in  a  war  with 
the  Ameer  of  Afghanistan,  but  was  not  sup- 
ported by  the  authorities  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Kaulbach,  Wilhelm  von  (6.  1805,  d.  1874), 
German  painter,  bom  at  Arolsen,  studied 
at  Diisseldorf  under  Cornelius  ;  went  with 
his  master  to  Munich,  where  he  painted 
The  Battle  of  the  Huns  for  the  King  of 
Bavaria.  He  became  director  of  the  Munich 
Academy  in  1849. 

Eaulbars,  General  Paxil,  Baron  (b.  circa 
1837) ,  Russian  diplomatic  agent  at  Sofia  in 
1886. 

Eaunltz,  Wenceslaus  Anton,  Prince  von 
(6.  1711,  d.  1794),  Austrian  statesman,  was 
present  at  the  Congress  of  Aix-Ia-Chapelle 
(1748) ;  in  1750  went  as  ambassador  to  Paris ; 
after  his  return  (1753),  became  chancellor 
and  prime  minister  of  AusUia. 

Kavanagh,  Julia  (b.  1824,  d.  1877),  wrote 
Nathalie  and  other  novels,  Women  in  France 
during  the  Eighteenth  Century,  etc. 

Kawase,  Viscount  Masataka  (6.  1839), 
Japanese  minister  at  the  court  of  St. 
Jxmes's. 

Kay,  Hon.  Sir  Edward  Ebenezer  (6.  1822), 
became  lord  justice  of  appeal  in  1890. 


Kaye,  Sir  John  William  {b.  1814,  d.  1876), 
historian ;  was  secretary  to  the  political  and 
secret  department  of  thelndia  Office,  1858-74. 
His  chief  works  are  histories  of  The  War  in 
Afghanistan  (1851),  The  Sepoy  War  (1864), 
and  The  Administration  of  the  East  India 
Company  (1853). 

Kay-Shuttleworth,  Sir  John  Phillips, 
Bart.  (b.  1804,  d.  1877),  was  secretary  to 
the  Committee  of  Coimcil  on  Education 
from  1839  to  1849. 

Kay-Shuttleworth,  Sir  Ughtred  James 
(6.  1844),  son  of  the  preceding,  entered 
Parliament  in  1869.  It  was  greatly  owing 
to  his  efforts  that  the  Government  intro- 
duced the  Artisans'  Dwellings  Bill,  passed 
in  1875. 

Kean,  Charles  John  (6.  1811,  d.  1868), 
actor,  bom  at  Waterford,  son  of  Edmund 
Kean,  was  educated  at  Eton;  made  his 
debut  at  Drury  Lane  in  1827,  but  did  not 
establish  his  reputation  tiU  1838,  when  he 
acted  as  Hamlet,  Richard  III.,  and  Sir 
Giles  Overreach.  In  1842  he  married  Miss 
Ellen  Tree,  a  celebrated  actress.  From  1850 
to  1859  he  was  manager  of  the  Princess's 
theatre. 

Kean,  Edmund  {b.  1787,  d.  1833),  actor; 
first  attracted  general  notice  by  his  repre- 
sentation of  Shylock  at  Drury  Lane  in  1814. 
He  was  distinguished  by  energy,  passion, 
and  fire,  as  opposed  to  the  stately  classicism 
of  Kemble's  school. 

Keane,  John,  Baron  Keane  of  Ghuznee 
{b.  1781,  d.  1844),  general;  in  1838-9  carried 
on  a  successful  campaign  in  Afghanistan, 
culminating  in  a  brilliant  victory  at 
Ghuznee. 

Keary,  Annie  {b.  1825,  d.  1879),  wrote 
Castle  Ealy,  and  other  novels. 

Keats,  John  (6.  1795,  d.  1821),  poet,  son 
of  a  livery  stable  proprietor  in  Finsbury ; 
was  educated  at  a  school  at  Enfield,  where 
he  foi-med  a  lifelong  friendship  with  the 
master's  son,  Charles  Cowden  Clarke.  He 
was  apprenticed  to  Mr.  Hammond,  a 
surgeon  at  Edmonton,  whom  he  left  in 
1812,  but  pursued  his  studies  at  Guy's 
Hospital  till  1817.  He  then  determined  to 
follow  the  bent  of  his  genius.  Endymion, 
his  first  long  poem,  appeared  in  ISIS. 
Isabella  or  the  Pot  of  Masil,  Hyperion, 
lamia,  The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  and  the  Ode.% 
were  written  in  the  course  of  the  next  two 
years.  Meanwhile,  an  hereditary  tendency 
to  consumption  had  developed  itself,  and  in 
September,  1820,  he  was  forced  to  undertake 
a  journey  to  Italy.  He  was  accompanied 
by  his  friend,  Joseph  Severn,  who  nursed 
him  tenderly  during  his  last  illness  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  February,  1821. 


Eeb 


(485) 


Eem 


KebDel,  Thomas  Edward  (b.  1828),  journ- 
alist and  political  writer,  has  written  lives 
of  Lord  Beaconsfield  and  Lord  Derby. 

Keble,  John  (b.  1792,  d.  1866),  divine  and 
poet,  born  at  Fairford  in  Gloucestershire, 
was  educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  and  elected  to  an  Oriel  fellowship  in 
1811 ;  became  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford 
in  1831 ;  in  1835  was  appointed  vicar  of 
Hursley,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
Keble  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  "  Ox- 
ford Movement,"  and  WTote  several  of  the 
Tracts.  His  Christian  Year  has  become  a 
classic.  He  also  edited  Hooker's  Ecclesias- 
tical Polity,  and  wrote  Lyra  Innocentium, 
and  a  Zife  of  Bishop  Wilson. 

Keeley,  Robert  (6.  1793,  d.  1869),  come- 
dian and  theatrical  manager. 

Keightley,  Thomas  {b.  1789,  d.  1872), 
wrote  Fairy  Mythology,  and  numerous 
educational  works. 

Keill,  John  (6.  1671,  d.  1721),  Scotch 
mathematician,  became  Savilian  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Oxford  in  1710. 

Keim,  Theodor  (6.  1825,  d.  1878),  German 
theologian,  author  of  Geschichte  Jesu  von 
Nazara,  etc. 

Eeiser,  Reinhard  (6.  1673,  d.  1739),  com- 
poser, bom  at  Leipzig,  wrote  Circe  (1734) ,  etc. 

Keith,  George  Elphinstone,  Viscount  (6. 
1746,  d.  1823),  admiral,  son  of  Charles  Lord 
Elphinstone  ;  led  the  naval  part  of  the  ex- 
pedition which  reduced  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  (1795),  and  commanded  the  fleet  in 
the  Egyptian  campaign  of  1801. 

Keith,  James  Francis  Edward  (6.  1696, 
d.  1758),  field  marshal  in  the  Prussian 
service ;  fought  on  the  Jacobite  side  at 
Sheriffmuir;  made  his  escape  to  France; 
after  serving  in  the  armies  of  Spain  and 
Russia,  entered  that  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war.    Died  at  Hochkirch. 

Keller,  or  Cellarius,  Jacobus  (6.  1568, 
d.  1631),  Jesuit;  rector  of  the  colleges  of 
Ratisbon  and  Munich  successively,  was  con- 
fessor to  Albert  of  Bavaria,  and  was  much 
employed  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian. 

KeUer,  Gottfried  {b.  1819,  d.  1809),  Ger- 
man novelist  aud  poet,  wrote  Der  griine 
Heinrich  (1854),  etc. 

Kellermann,  Francois  Christophe,  Due 
de  Valmy  {h.  1735,  d.  1820),  marshal  of 
France ;  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Moselle  in  1792,  and,  by  his 
victory  over  the  Duke  of  Bruuswick  at 
Valmy,  compelled  the  Prussians  to  retire 
from  France.  In  1795  he  was  made  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  Alps  and  Italy. 


He  afterwards  served  under  Napoleon  and 
the  Bourbons. 

Kellermann,  Fran9oi8  Etienne,  Due  de 
Valmy  {b.  1770,  d.  1835),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, served  under  his  father;  by  his 
charge  at  Marengo  turned  defeat  into 
victory ;  fought  xmder  Jimot  in  Portugal, 
1807-8,  and  negotiated  the  convention  of 
Cintra. 

Kelley,  or  Talbot,  Edward  (6.  1555,  d. 
1595),  alchemist,  born  at  Worcester,  edu- 
cated at  Oxford ;  accompanied  Dr.  Dee  to 
Germany ;  was  imprisoned  by  the  Emperor 
Rodolph ;  in  attempting  to  escape  received 
a  fall,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died. 

KeUgrea,  Johan  Henrik  (6.  1761,  d.  1796), 
a  Swedish  poet. 

Kelly,  Charles  Henry  (*.  1833),  was 
president  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Con- 
ference in  1889. 

KeUy,  Sir  Fitzroy  (*.  1796,  d.  1880),  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1824  ;  entered  Parliament 
in  1843 ;  was  Solicitor- General  under  Peel 
(1845-6)  and  Lord  Derby  (1852),  and 
Attorney- General  1858-9.  In  1866  he  was 
made  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer. 

Kelly  John  {b.  1750,  d.  1809),  philologist, 
bom  at  Douglas,  translated  the  Bible  into 
Manx.  He  wrote  a  Grammar  of  the  Manx 
Language,  and  had  nearly  completed  a 
Triglot  JDictionary  of  the  Celtic  Tongue 
when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

Kelly,  Michael  (*.  1762,  d.  1826),  vocaUst, 
after  performing  ia  Italy  and  Germany, 
appeared  at  Drury  Lane  in  1787.  He  pub- 
lished Reminiscences. 

Kemball,  General  Sir  Arnold  Burrowes 
(?/.  1820),  held  diplomatic  posts  in  Persia 
1842-55,  when  he  became  consul-general  at 
Bagdad ;  distinguished  himself  in  the  Per- 
sian war  (1857) ;  in  1875  was  a  commissioner 
for  determining  the  boundary  between 
Turkey  and  Persia. 

Kembles,  The,  a  celebrated  family  of 
actors.  (1)  John  Philip  (b.  1757,  d.  1823), 
son  of  Roger  Kemble,  manager  of  a  travel- 
ling company,  was  educated  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  priesthood.  His  first  appearance 
in  London  was  in  the  character  of  Hamlet 
at  Drury  Lane  (^1783).  He  was  manager  of 
Drury  Lane  1788-1802,  and  part  proprietor 
of  Covent  Garden  1803-17.  (2)  Sarah 
Kemble  [Siddous].  (3)  Chaeles  {b.  1775, 
d.  1854),  educated  at  the  college  of  Douay, 
appeared  at  Drury  Lane  in  1794  as  Malcolm 
in  Macbeth  ;  in  1803  joined  his  brother  and 
sister  at  Covent  Garden,  of  which  he  was 
manager  for  a  short  time  in  1817 ;  visited 
the  United  States  in  1832  ;  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1840.     (4)  Frances  Anna  [b.  1811), 


Eem 


(  486  ) 


Sen 


daughter  of  Charles,  appeared  as  Juliet  at 
Covent  Garden  in  1829.  Among  her  chief 
parts  were  Portia,  Beatrice,  and  Julia  in 
The  Runchbaek.  In  1833  she  married  a 
Mr.  Butler.  She  has  published  Records  of  a 
Girlhood  (1878),  Records  of  Later  Life  (1882), 
etc.  (5)  Adelaide  (6.  1820)  established 
her  reputation  as  a  singer  in  Italy,  and 
appeared  as  Norma  at  Covent  Gai'deu  in 
1812,  but  retired  from  the  stage  on  her 
marriage  in  tihe  following  year. 

Kemble,  John  Mitchell  (/;.  1807,  d.  1857), 
Anglo-Saxon  scholar,  son  of  Charles  Kemble, 
the  actor ;  was  educated  at  Cambridge ; 
passed  much  of  his  life  in  Germany ;  in  1839 
conunenced  the  publication  of  his  Codex 
Diplomaticus  -^vi  Saxonici,  on  which  to  a 
large  extent  wa;S  based  his  history  of  The 
Saxons  in  England  (1849). 

Kempe,  Alfred  Bray,  F.R.S.  [h.  1849),  has 
written  some  valuable  papers  on  mathe- 
matical subjects. 

Eempe,  John  Edward  (6.  1810),  rural 
dean  of  the  diocese  of  London  ;  has  intro- 
duced into  the  Church  of  England  monthly 
conferences,  in  which  both  laymen  and 
clergy  take  part. 

Kempenfelt,  Richard  {b.  1720,  d.  1782), 
admiral,  son  of  a  Swedish  officer,  who  be- 
came governor  of  Jersey ;  served  against 
the  French  in  the  East  Indies;  in  1781 
intercepted  a  French  fleet  on  its  way  to  the 
West  Indies;  was  drowned  in  the  Roijal 
George. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a  {b.  1379,  d.  1471),  bom 
at  Kempeu,  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  be- 
came a  monk  in  the  priory  of  Mount  St. 
Agnes  near  ZwoU.  As  he  was  employed  as 
a  copyist,  it  has  been  doubted  whether  the 
Be  Imitatione  Christi  was  an  original  work. 
According  to  some  the  real  author  was  John 
Gerson,  chancellor  of  Paris.  The  subject 
is  stiU  a  matter  of  controversy. 

Ken,  Thomas  {b.  1637,  d.  1711),  divine, 
bom  at  Berkhampstead,  educated  at  Win- 
chester and  Oxford ;  became  chaplain  to 
Charles  II.,  who  made  him  Bishop  of  Bath 
and  Wells  in  1684  ;  was  one  of  the  seven 
bishops  confined  in  the  Tower  for  opposing 
James  II.  in  1688,  but  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary, 
and  was  deprived  in  1691. 

Kendal,  Margaret  (b.  1848),  actress,  made 
her  debut  as  Miss  Madge  Robertson  at  the 
Haymarket  in  1865. 

Kennan,  George  [b.  1845),  author,  a  native 
of  Ohio,  United  States,  has  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Siberia. 

Kennedy,  Professor  Alexander  Blackie 
William    {b.    1847),    vice-president    of   the 


Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers ;  he  has 
made  several  important  improvements  in 
engineering. 

Kennedy,  Captain  Alexander  William 
Maxwell  Clerk  (6.  1851),  an  English  tra- 
veller and  naturalist. 

Kennedy,  Benjamin  Hall  (6. 1804,  d.  1889), 
head-master  of  Shrewsbury,  where,  and  at 
Cambridge,  he  was  educated;  was  ap- 
pointed Regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1867. 

Kennedy,  James  {b.  1405,  d.  1466),  became 
Bishop  of  Dunkeld  in  1437  and  of  St. 
Andrew's  in  1440.  He  was  one  of  the 
council  of  regency  during  the  minority  of 
James  III. 

Kennet,  White  (b.  1660,  d.  1728),  a  Whig 
partisan,  became  Bishop  of  Peterborough 
in  1718. 

Kenneth  I.,  King  of  Scotland  {d.  604), 
began  to  reign  in  558. 

Kenneth  II.  {d.  854),  became  king  in  823. 

Kenneth  III.  (d.  994),  son  of  Malcolm, 
ascended  the  throne  in  969.  He  was  assas- 
sinated. 

Kennicott,  Benjamin  {b.  1718,  d.  1783), 
biblical  critic,  bom  at  Totnes ;  went  to  Ox- 
ford in  1744,  and  was  elected  to  a  fellowship 
at  Exeter  College.  He  published  the  first 
part  of  his  Hebrew  Bible  in  1776,  and  the 
second  in  1780. 

Kenrick,  Peter  Richard  {b.  1806),  Roman 
Catholic  Archbishop  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri, 
has  published  The  Holy  House  of  Loretto, 
Anglican  Ordinations,  etc. 

Kent,  H.R.H.  Prince  Edward  Augustus, 
Duke  of  (6.  1767,  d.  1820),  fourth  son  of 
George  III.,  married  in  1818  Victoria  Maria 
Louisa,  youngest  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg.  From  this  marriage  was 
bom  at  Kensington  Palace,  May  24th, 
1819,  Alexandrina  Victoria,  now  Queen  of 
England. 

Kent,  James  {b.  1700,  d.  1776),  composer, 
bom  at  Winchester,  was  organist  of  Win- 
chester cathedral  from  1737  to  his  death. 

Kent,  James,  {b.  1763,  d.  1847),  American 
jurist,  pubUshed  Commentaries  on  American 
Law  (1826-30),  etc. 

Kent,  William  (b.  1685,  d.  1748),  an  Eng- 
lish painter  and  architect,  now  remembered 
only  as  having  introduced  a  more  natural 
style  of  landscape-gardening. 

Kent,  WilHam  Charles  Mark  (b.  1823), 
poet  and  journalist,  has  published  Poems 
(1870),  etc. 

Kenyon,  Lloyd,  Lord  {b.  1773,  d.  1802), 


Eep 


t487) 


Kil 


iudge,  bom  in  Flintshire ;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1761  •  distinguished  himself  by  his 
defence  of  Lord  George  Gordon  (1780)  ;  wa^ 
made  Attorney -General  in  1782,  Master  of 
the  RoUs  in  1784,  and  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  in  1788. 

Kepler,  Johann  (J.  1571,  d.  1630),  astro- 
nomer, born  of  poor  parents  at  Wlirtemberg, 
studied  at  Tubingen  under  Mffisthn;  m 
1593  became  professor  of  astrouomjr  at 
Gratz;  in  1600  visited  Tycho  Brahe  at 
Pra<Tue,  became  his  assistant,  and  on  His 
death  (1601)  was  appointed  mathematician 
to  the  Emperor  Rodolph.  He  was  after- 
wards professor  at  Linz,  aud  tmally  at 
Rostock.  He  died  at  Ratisbon.  Two  of 
Kepler's  laws— that  enunciatmg  the  elhptic 
form  of  the  planetary  orbits,  and  that  ot 
the  "equable  description  of  areas  — ^e 
contained  in  Astronomia  Nova  (1609).  His 
third  law,  that  the  squares  of  the  penodic 
times  of  the  planets  are  as  the  cubes  of  their 
mean  distances,  is  to  be  found  m  the  Mar- 
monice  Mundi  (1619). 

Keppel,  Augustus,  Viscount  [b.  1725,  d 
1786)T  admiral,  son  of  WQUam,  Earl  of 
Albemarle ;  ia  consequence  of  an  indecisive 
action  with  the  French  fleet  off  Ushant 
(1778)  was  tried  by  court-martial,  but  ac- 
quitted. 

Keppel,  Admiral  the  Hon.  Sir  Henry  (*. 
1809),  distinguished  himself  in  the  Chma 
war  (1857). 

K^ratry,  fimile,  Uomte  de  (6. 1832),  during 
the  Mexican  war  was  officer  of  ordnance  to 
Marshal  Bazaiue,  whom  he  afterwards  ac- 
cused in  the  Revue  Contemporame  and  the 
Jievue  Modeme. 

Kergu6len  Tr^marec,  Yves  Joseph  de 
(b.  1745,  d.  1797),  French  naval  officer ;  in 
1771  led  an  exploring  expedition  to  the 
South  Sea,  and  discovered  the  territory 
afterwards  named  Kerguelen  Land  by  Look. 

Kern,  J.  Conrad  (6.  1808),  Swiss  states- 
man •  in  1838  successfully  withstood  the 
French  demand  for  the  extradition  of  Prmce 
Louis  Napoleon. 

Kemer,  Andreas  Justinus  {b.  1786.  d. 
1802),  a  German  poet  of  the  "  Suabian 
School." 

Kerr,  Robert  (b.  1823),  an  architect,  bom 
at  Edinburgh. 


Kersaint,  Gui  Pierre  {b.  1742,  d.  1793), 
French  naval  officer  and  political  writer; 
took  part  in  the  revolution,  and  was  guil- 
lotined. 

Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  Joseph  Marie 
Bruno  Constantin,  Baron  («.  1817),  French 
statesman     and    historian;    has   published 


itude  sur  le    Chroniques  de  Froissart,  Lea 
Huguenots  et  les  Gueux,  etc. 

Kett,  William  id.  1549),  a  tanner  of  Nor- 
folk, headed  a  rismg  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI  The  rebels  were  routed  by  the  Earl  ot 
Warwick,  and  Kett  perished  on  the  gaUows. 

Kettle,  Sir  Rupert  Alfred  {b.  1817),  settled 
the  builders'  strike  in  Wolverhampton  in 
1864  by  means  of  a  board  of  arbitration,  aiid 
afterwards  extended  the  system  to  other 
trades. 

Key,  Thomas  Hewitt  (*.  1799,  d.  1875), 
philologist,  wrote  Language  :  %ts  Origin  and 
Development  (1874). 

Khosnil.  [Chosroes],  "Nashirvan,"  King 
of  Persia,  ascended  the  throne  m  531  ;  in 
540  augao-ed  in  a  war  with  Justiman,  and, 
after  devastating  Syria,  imposed  on  the  em- 
peror a  truce  of  tifty  years,  by  which  the 
latter  became  tributary  to  hun  (ot)2).  in 
570  he  made  war  on  Justinus  11.,  but  was 
defeated  at  Melitene  (576). 

Khosra  II.  [Chosroes],  called  "Purviz" 
(d  628),  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
declared  king  in  590;  invaded  the  Eastern 
Empire  in  602,  subdued  Syna  m  611, 
Palestine  in  614,  aud  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor 
in  616.  In  622  HeracUus  led  an  army 
against  him,  and  between  that  year  and 
628  won  back  all  the  conquered  provmces. 
Khosru  was  murdered  by  his  son,  Shiroueh. 

Kidd,  George  Hugh  {b.  1824),  a  distin- 
guished  surgeon,  founder  and  president  ot 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  Ireland. 

Kiepert,  Heiurich  (*.  1818),  German  geo- 
grapher, has  published  an  Atlas  oj  Greece, 
Biblical  Atlas,  etc. 

KUdare,  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  8th  Earl  of 
(d  1513),  became  lord-deputy  of  Ireland  in 
1478  •  was  concerned  in  the  nsmgs  of  Lam- 
bert Simuel  and  Perkin  Warbeck,  attamted 
in  a  parUament  at  Drogheda,  and  sent  as 
a  prisoner  to  London,  but  pardoned.  He 
afterwards  served  the  king  loyally  m  Ire- 
land. 

KHdare,  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  9th  Earl  of 
(d.  1534),  was  appointed  lord-deputy  of  Ire- 
land in  1515.  He  was  deprived  of  the  office 
in  1520,  but,  in  spite  of  repeated  efforts  to 
incite  the  Irish  against  the  Enghsh,  held  it 
again  1524-7,  and  was  sole  deputy  in  lo.ii. 
iS  consequence  of  the  anarchy  which  fol- 
lowed his  reappointment,  he  was  smnmoued 
to  England,  and  imprisoned  m  the  lower, 
where  he  died. 


Killan,  the  name  of  a  family  of  German 
eneravers,  who  resided  at  Augsburg,  ihe 
most  distinguished  was  Philip  Andbeas  (6. 
1714,  d.  1759),  who  became  court  engraver 
to  Augustus  III.  of  Poland. 


Eil 


(488) 


Kir 


TTillaTi,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  a 
native  of  Ireland,  who  in  the  7th  century 
laboured  as  a  missionary  among  the  Thur- 
iugiaus. 

KilUgrew,  the  name  of  a  family  who 
became  famous  through  their  devotion  to 
the  cause  of  Charles  I.  Thomas  (6.  1611, 
d.  1684)  was  on  such  familiar  terms  with 
Charles  II.  that  he  was  called  "  King 
Charles's  Jester."  His  niece,  Annb  {b. 
1660,  d.  1685),  was  a  skilful  painter,  and 
wrote  elegant  verses. 

Kimberley,  Joseph  Wodehouse,  Earl  (b. 
1826),  grandson  of  the  second  Baron  Wode- 
house; was  Lord -Lieutenant  of  Inland 
1864-6,  Lord  Privy  Sea]  1868-70,  Colonial 
Secretary  1870-4  and  1880-2,  and  Secretary 
for  India  1882-5,  and  again  in  1892. 

KimcM,  the  name  of  a  learned  Jewish 
family,  who  lived  in  Provence  during  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries.  Joseph  Kimchi 
and  his  son,  Moses,  were  celebrated  biblical 
critics  ;  but  the  most  distinguished  member 
of  the  family  was  David  (d.  circa  1240),  who 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament 
and  a  Hebrew  grammar  and  dictionary. 

Kinaston,  or  Kjraaaton,  Sir  Francis  (b. 
circa  1588,  d.  1642),  poet;  wrote  Leoli)ie  and 
Si/danis,  etc. 

King,  Edward  (6,  1829),  educated  at 
Oxford,  was  appointed  principal  of  Guddes- 
don  College  in  1863  ;  became  canon  of  Christ 
Church  and  professor  of  pastoral  theology 
in  1873,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lincoln 
in  1885.  He  is  a  prominent  member  of  the 
High  Church  party. 

King,  Henry  (b.  1591,  d.  1639),  Bishop  of 
Chichester,  wrote  Poems  and  Sermons. 

King,  Peter,  Baron  {b.  1669,  d.  1743), 
statesman  and  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at 
Exeter,  entered  Parliament  in  1701 ;  be- 
came Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in 
1715 ;  was  Lord  Chancellor  1725-33. 

King,  WilHam  {b.  1650,  d.  1729),  Irish 
divine,  became  Bishop  of  Derry  in  1691, 
and  of  Dublin  in  1703.  He  wrote  Be 
Origine  Mali,  etc. 

Kinglake,  Alexander  William  (*.  1811, 
d.  1891),  historian,  bom  at  Taunton,  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge ;  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1837  :  represented  Bridgewater  in  Parlia- 
ment 1857-G8.  His  works  are  Ed  then 
(1844),  and  the  History  of  the  }Far  in  the 
Crimea  (1863-87). 

Kingsborougli,  Edward  Ejng,  Viscount 
(6.  1795,  d.  1837),  son  of  George,  3rd  Earl 
of  Kingston,  wrote  The  Antiquities  of 
Mexico  (1831). 

Kingsley,    Charles    (A.    1819,    d.    1875), 


novelist,  poet,  and  divine,  bom  in  Devon- 
shire, educated  at  Cambridge ;  was  appointed 
rector  of  Eversley,  Hants,  in  1844 ;  was 
Regius  professor  of  modem  history  at  Cam- 
bridge 1859-69;  held  a  canonry  at  Chester 
cathedral  1869-73,  when  he  was  made 
canon  of  Westminster.  In  1848  Kingsley 
published  a  drama.  The  Sainfs  Tragedi/. 
His  first  novel,  Alton  Locke  (1849),  was 
followed  by  Yeast  (1851),  Hypatia  (18531, 
Westward  Ho!  (1855),  Two  Years  Ago 
(1857),  Hereward  the  Wake  (1866).  He  also 
wrote  a  volume  of  Village  Hermons  (1844), 
etc. 

Kingsley,  Henry  (6.  1830,  d.  1876), 
novelist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  wrote 
Ravenshoe  (1861),  etc. 

Kingston,  William  Henry  Giles  {b.  1814, 
d.  1880),  a  popular  writer  of  tales  for  boys. 

Kipling,  Rudyard  (6.  1864),  novelist, 
born  in  Bombay,  has  published  Plain  Taka 
from  the  Hills,  The  Light  that  Failed,  etc. 

Kippis,  Andrew  {b.  1725,  d.  1795),  Dis- 
senting minister,  wi'ote  a  Vindication  of  the 
iJisscnters,  and  other  works,  and  published 
five  volumes  of  a  new  edition  of  the 
Biographia  Britannica. 

Klrby,  John  Joshua  (6.  1716,  d.  1774),  a 
painter,  bom  in  Suffolk.  His  Treatise  on 
Firspective  attracted  the  notice  of  the  Earl 
of  Bute,  through  whose  influence  he  became 
clerk  of  the  works  at  Kew. 

Kirby,  Tobias  {b.  1803),  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  became  rector  of  the  Irish  College 
m  1850 ;  was  made  Bishop  of  Lita  in  1881. 

Kirby,  William  {b.  1759,  d.  1850).  ento- 
mologist, was  rector  of  Barbara,  in  Suffolk, 
1796-13,30.  He  wrote  British  Bees  (1802), 
an  Introduction  to  Entomology  (1815-26), 
etc. 

Kircher,  Athanasius  (fi.  1601,  d.  1680),  a 
Jesuit,  born  near  Fulda,  in  Germany, 
studied  at  Wurzburg  and  Avignon  ;  becanae 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Jesuit  college  at 
Rome.  He  wrote  (Edipus  yEgi/ptiaciis,  on 
the  hieroglyphics,  Musurgia  Universalis,  etc. 

Kirk,  Sir  John  (*.  1832),  accompanied 
Livingstone's  second  expedition  as  natu- 
ralist; was  afterwards  English  consul  at 
Zanzibar.  He  induced  the  Sultan  of  Zan- 
zibar to  sign  a  treaty  for  suppressing  the 
slave  trade. 

Kirkaldy,  Sir  William,  of  Grange  id. 
1573),  Scottish  soldier,  joined  the  Lords  of  the 
Congregation  (1559),  pursued  Both  well  to 
the  coast  of  Norway  (1566),  fought  against 
Mary  at  Langside,  and  was  made  governor 
of  Edinburgh  Castle.  He  was  afterwards 
won  over  to  the  queen's  side,  and,  after  the 


Kir 


(489) 


Xne 


capture  of  the  castle  by  Morton,  was  put  to 
death. 

Eirke,  Colonel  Percy,  commanded  the 
troops  in  the  west  after  Monmouth's  re- 
bellion, and  gained  an  evil  notoriety  by  his 
cruel  treatment  of  his  supporters. 

Kirkpatrick,  Alexander  Francis  (b.  1849), 
was  appointed  Regius  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Cambridge  in  1882. 

Kisfaludy,  Sandor  (b.  1772,  d.  1844), 
Hungarian  poet,  wrote  I£itnft/''s  Love, 
Legends  of  the  Olden  Time  in  Hungary, 
etc. 

"Kisi,  August  {b.  1802,  d.  1865),  a  German 
sculptor.  His  chief  work  is  the  Amazon 
attacked  by  a  Panther,  in  Berlin. 

Kitchin,  George  WUliam  {b.  1827),  be- 
came Dean  of  Winchester  in  1883.  He  has 
pubhshed  a  History  of  France  previous  to 
the  Itevolution  (1873-7). 

Kitto,  John  (6.  1804,  d.  1854),  BibUcal 
scholar,  son  of  a  Plymouth  mason ;  pub- 
lished The  Pictorial  Hmtory  of  Palestine,  a 
Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical  Literature,  etc. 

Klapka,  Georg  (6.  1820,  d.  1892),  Hun- 
garian general,  bom  at  Temeswar,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Hungarian  war  of 
Independence  (1849).  He  held  out  after  his 
feUow-cornmanders  had  laid  down  their 
arms,  and,  when  he  at  last  capitulated,  was 
allowed  to  leave  the  country.  He  has  since 
resided  chiefly  in  Switzerland.  He  has  pub- 
lished My  War  in  Htmgary  (1850),  and  The 
War  in  the  East  from  1853  to  1855  (1855), 

Elaproth,  Heinrich  Julius  von  (A.  1783,  d. 
1835),  traveller  and  OrientaUst,  son  of 
Martin  Heinrich  Klaproth,  pubhshed  Tra- 
vels in  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia,  Asia  Poly- 
glotta,  etc. 

Klaproth,  Martin  Heinrich  (5.  1743,  d. 
1817),  i^rofessor  of  chemistry  at  Berlin; 
made  many  important  discoveries,  including 
those  of  uranium,  mellitic  acid,  and  the 
earth  zirconia.  He  wrote  a  System  of 
Minei-alogy,  etc. 

Kl^ber,  Jean  BaptLste  (*.  1754,  d.  1800), 
distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of  the 
French  revolution,  and  under  the  Directory 
befame  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Sambre  and  Meuse.  He  went  to  Egypt 
with  Napoleon,  and  on  his  departure  re- 
mained behind  as  commander-in-chief.  He 
captured  Cairo,  and  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Murat  Bey,  but  was  assassinated  by 
an  Arab. 

Klein,  Bemhard  {b.  1794,  d.  1832),  German 
composer,  was  musical  director  and  pro- 
fessor of  singing  in  the  university  of  Berlin. 
HIb  chief   works  are   the  oratorios  of  Job, 


Jephthah,  and  David ;  Dido,  an  opera;  and 
Die  Worte  des  Glaubens,  a  cantata. 

_Kleist,  Ewald  Christian  von  {b.  1715,  d. 
1759),  poet,  bom  in  Pomerania,  wrote 
idylls,  a  descriptive  poem  called  Spring,  etc. 
He  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Kunersdorf. 

Kleist,  Heinrich  Wilhehn  von  [b.  1777,  d. 
1811),  poet,  bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
wrote  Robert  Guiscard,  Amphitryon,  Prinz 
Heinrich  von  Hamburg,  Kdthchen  von  Heil- 
bronn,  and  other  dramas. 

Klenze,  Leo  von  {b.  1784,  d.  1864),  Ger- 
man architect,  bom  at  Hildesheim,  studied 
in  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Italy.  In  1815  he  be 
came  architect  to  Maximilian  I.  of  Bavaria. 
His  finest  buildings  are  at  Munich.  They 
are  imitated  from  Greek  models,  though 
much  of  the  detail  is  original. 

Klingenstiema,  Samuel  (A.  1689,  d.  1785), 
educated  at  Upsala ;  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  that  university  (1730-85).  He  made 
important  discoveries  concerning  optics. 

Klopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb  (b.  1724, 
d.  18u3),  German  poet,  bom  at  Quedlinburg, 
educated  in  his  native  town  and  the  univer- 
sity of  Jena  ;  paid  a  visit  to  Switzerland  in 
1750  ;  while  there  was  invited  by  Baron 
BemstorfE  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1771,  when  he  went  to  Ham- 
burgh as  Danish  legate.  Besides  his  famous 
epic.  The  Messiah,  which  occupied  him  from 
1747  to  1773,  he  wrote  a  large  number  of 
odes. 

Klotz,  Christian  Adolph  {b.  1738,  d.  1771), 
German  scholar  and  critic,  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Gottingen,  and  afterwards  at 
Halle  ;  wrote  treatises  on  coins,  ancient 
gems,  and  paintings. 

Kluit,  Adrian  {b.  1735,  d.  1795),  professor 
at  Leyden  :  wrote  a  history  of  the  political 
affairs  of  Holland. 

Kmety,  Georg  {b.  1810,  d.  1865),  during 
the  Hungarian  war  of  Independence  held  a 
command  vmder  Gorgt  y  on  the  Upper 
Danube,  and  afterwards  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  operations  of  the  south.  He 
subsequently  entered  the  Turkish  army, 
and  during  the  Crimean  war  took  part  with 
Sir  F.  Williams  in  the  heroic  defence  of 
Kars.     He  died  in  London. 

Knapp,  Albert  (b.  1798,  d.  1864),  a  German 
writer  of  religious  hymns. 

Knaus,  Ludwig  (b.  1829),  a  German 
painter,  bom  at  Wiesbaden. 

Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey  {b.  circa  1648,  d. 
1723),  portrait-painter,  bom  at  Liibeck ; 
settled  in  England  iu  1074,  and  held  the 
office  of  royal  painter  under  five  successive 
sovereigns.      Among  his    chief  works    are 


Eni 


(  490) 


Eom 


The  KU-Cat  Club,  a  series  of  forty-three  por- 
traits, and  the  Beauties  of  Hampton  Court. 

Knight,  Charles  (6.  1790,  d.  1873),  pub- 
lisher: started  The  Penny  Magazine  {lV>2>2-Ab), 
and  other  works  intended  to  diffuse  a  taste 
for  high-class  literature.  He  wrote  The 
Biography  of  Shakespeare,  edited  Shake- 
speare, etc. 

Knight,  John  Prescott,  R.A,  (6.  1803,  d. 
1S81),  portrait-painter,  was  secretary  to  the 
Eoyal  Academy  from  1848  to  1873. 

Knight,  Richai-d  Payne  (6.  1748,  d.  1824), 
a  writer  on  classical  antiquity.  He  be- 
queathed his  collection  of  antique  bronzes, 
medals,  and  paintings  to  the  British  Mu- 
seimi. 

Knighton,  Henry,  an  historian  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  14th  century ;  wrote  a 
Chronicle,  extending  from  950  to  1390,  also 
an  account  of  the  deposition  of  Richard  II. 

Knighton,  Wilham  {b.  1834),  has  published 
a  History  of  Ceylon,  etc. 

KnoUer,  Martin  von  (6.  1725,  d.  1804),  a 
German  fresco-painter. 

Knolles,  or  Knowles,  Sir  Robert  (6.  circa 
1317,  d.  1407),  a  captain  of  free  companies  ; 
distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of  Edward 
III. 

Knollis,  or  Knowles,  Sir  Francis  (6.  circa 
1530,  d.  1596),  statesman;  withdrew  to  the 
Continent  during  the  reign  of  Mary,  re- 
turned on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  and 
was  appointed  vice-chamberlain  and  after- 
wards treasurer.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
The  Usurpation  of  Fai  al  Bishops,  ete.  j 

Knott,  Edward  {b.  1580,  d.  1656),  a  i 
Jesuit,  bom  in  Northumberland,  whose 
real  name  was  Matthias  Wilson.  He  be- 
came provincial  of  his  order  in  England. 
His  Infidelity  Unmasked  (1652)  was  a  reply 
to  Chillingworth's  Religion  of  Protestants. 

Knowles,  James  (fi.  1831),  architect  and 
man  of  letters;  edited  the  Contemporary 
Review  from  1870  to  1877,  when  he  started 
the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Knowles,  James  Sheridan  (6.  1784,  d. 
1862),  dramatist,  wrote  Virginius  (1820), 
The  Hunchback  (1832),  and  other  dramas.       i 

Knox,  John  (6.  1505,  d.  1572),  bom  at 
Gifford  in  East  Lothian,  educated  at  Had-  | 
dington  grammar  school  and  the  univer-  : 
sities  of  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrew's  ;  was 
ordained  priest  before  1530 ;  embraced  the 
reformed  doctrines  about  1542 ;  in  conse- 
quence of  the  persecution  to  which  he  was 
subjected  took  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrew's  (1547)  ;  was  a  prisoner  in  France 
1547-9;  in  1549  came  to  England,  where  he 


exercised  much  influence  on  the  course  of 
the  Reformation  ;  during  the  reign  of  Mary 
resided  chiefly  in  Switzerland.  In  1559  he 
returned  to  Scotland,  and  so  inflamed  the 
jieople  by  his  sermons  against  the  Romish 
Church  that  riots  took  place  in  Perth,  Stir- 
ling, and  other  towns.  Throughout  the 
religious  struggle  which  ensued  Knox  was 
the  leading  spirit  of  the  extreme  Protestant 
party  and  the  bitter  opponent  of  the  queen. 
Of  his  writings  the  best  known  are  The 
First  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  (1558),  and  a 
History  of  the  Reformation  of  Scotland. 

Knox,  Robert  Bent  (6.  1808),  became 
Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ire- 
land in  1876. 

Knox,  Vicesimus  (b.  1752,  d.  1821),  was 
headmaster  of  Tunbridge  grammar  school 
1778-1811.  He  published  Essays,  Moral  and 
Literary,  a  treatise  on  Liberal  Education,  etc. 

Knutsford,  Henry  Thurstan  Holland, 
Lord  {b.  1825),  son  of  Sir  Henry  Holland ; 
entered  Parliament  in  1874 ;  became 
Colonial  Secretary  in  1887  ;  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1888. 

Kobell,  Ferdinand  (6.  1740,  d.  1799),  a 
German  painter  and  etcher. 

Koch,  Joseph  Anton  (&.  1768,  d.  1839), 
German  painter,  lived  chiefly  at  Rome.  He 
excelled  in  landscape. 

Koch,  Karl  Heinrich  Emmanuel  {b.  1809, 
d.  1879),  German  naturalist  and  scientific 
explorer;  published^  Journey  Across  Russia 
to  the  Isthmus  of  the  Caucasus  (1842-3), 
TFanderings  in  the  East,  describing  ms 
travels  in  Turkey  and  Armenia  (1846-7), 
and  Dendrology  (1875). 

Koch,  Robert,  M.D.  (6.  1843),  bom  in  the 
Harz  Mountains ;  between  1879  and  1883 
succeeded  in  identifying  the  germs  of  cattle 
disease,  of  consumption,  and  of  cholera. 
In  1884  he  established  the  existence  of  a 
bacterium  as  the  cause  of  cholera.  _  In 
1885  he  was  appointed  professor  of  hygiene 
at  Berlin ;  in  1890  brought  out  a  lymph  for 
the  cure  of  consumption. 

Kock,  Charies  Paul  de  {b.  1794,  d.  1871), 
French  novelist,  wrote  Le  Barbier  de  Paris, 
A))dre  le  Savoyard,  etc. 

Kolbe,  or  Kolben,  Peter  (6. 1674,  d.  1726), 
German  traveller :  wrote  a  Description  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1719). 

Kollar,  Jan  {b.  1793,  d.  1852),  Hungarian 
poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  became  pro- 
fessor of  archaeology  in  the  university  of 
Vienna  in  1849.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate 
of  "  Panslavism." 

Komaroff,  General  Alexander  (6.  1830), 
commanded  the  Russian  troops  at  the  time 


Eon 


(491) 


Em 


of  the  difficulties  respecting  the  Afghan 
frontier  (1884).  The  incident  at  Penjdeh, 
when  the  Afghans  were  routed  by  his 
troops,  nearly  occasioned  a  war  between 
England  and  Russia. 

Konig,  Friedrich  (6.  1775,  d.  1833), 
the  inventor  of  the  steam  printing-press, 
was  born  at  Eisleben.  He  came  to  England 
in  1806.  His  invention  was  first  adopted  in 
1811,  when  a  sheet  of  the  Annual  Register 
was  turned  out  in  this  manner. 

Komer,  Karl  Theodor  (6.  1791,  d.  1813), 
German  poet,  bom  in  Dresden.  On  the 
outbreak  of  war  with  Franco  he  entered  the 
Prussian  army,  and  was  slain  in  an  engage- 
ment near  Schwerin.  His  war  songs  were 
published  after  his  death  under  tie  title 
Lexer  und  Schwert. 

Kosciusko,  Tadeusz  (h.  1746,  d.  1817), 
Polish  patriot,  went  to  America  and  be- 
came aide-de-camp  to  Washington  ;  in  1789 
received  the  appointment  of  major-general 
in  the  Polish  army ;  distinguished  himself 
in  the  campaign  of  1792,  especially  at  the 
battle  of  Dubienka  ;  after  the  submission  of 
Stanislaus  retired  to  Leipzig ;  on  the  out- 
break of  the  second  Polish  rising,  in  1794, 
was  chosen  commander-in-chief ;  although 
scantily  supplied  with  troops,  succeeded  in 
expelling  the  Russians  from  Poland,  but 
was  finally  overwhelmed  at  Maceiowice  in 
October.  He  was  imprisoned  in  a  fortress 
near  St.  Petersburg,  but  released  on  the 
accession  of  the  Emperor  Paul.  In  1798  he 
settled  in  France.  He  died  at  Soleure,  in 
Switzerland. 

Kosegarten,  Johann  Gottfried  Ludwig 
(h.  1792,  d.  1862),  German  Orientalist,  pro- 
fessor at  Jena  (1817-24)  and  Greifswald 
(1824-62),  edited  and  translated  the  Kitab- 
el-Aghany  (1840). 

Kossuth,  Lotiis  (b.  1802),  Hungarian 
patriot ;  in  1847  was  returned  to  the  Diet  as 
deputy  for  Pesth ;  became  leader  of  the 
party  of  reform  ;  held  the  office  of  minister 
of  finance  in  the  new  Hungarian  ministry, 
and  after  its  fall  was  made  president  of  the 
Committee  of  National  Defence.  In  April, 
1849,  the  Hungarians  declared  themselves 
independent,  and  Kossuth  earned  on  the 
government  from  Debreczin,  and  after- 
wards from  Szegedin ;  but,  finding  it  impos- 
sible to  act  in  conjunction  with  Gorgey,  he 
resigned  in  August,  1849.  The  ill-success 
of  his  countrymen  in  the  field  compelled 
him  soon  afterwards  to  flee  to  Turkey, 
whence  he  removed  to  England  i.a  1851. 
Of  late  years  he  has  lived  chiefly  in  Italy. 

Kotzebue,  August  Friedrich  Ferdinand  von 
{h.  1761,  d.  1819),  German  man  of  letters; 
iu  1781  was  attached  to  the  Prussian  emV)assy 
at  St.  Petersburg ;   afterwards  entered  the 


Russian  service,  and  in  1817  was  sent  by 
the  Tzar  as  consul-general  to  Prussia.  His 
Russian  sympathies  made  him  unpopular  in 
Germany,  and  led  to  his  assassination.  His 
works  embrace  a  wide  range  of  subjects. 

Krantz,  Albert  {b.  circa  1450,  d.  1517), 
bom  at  Hamburg;  wrote  a  Chronicle  of  the 
Kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Streden,  and  Norway, 
a  History  of  Saxony,  a  History  of  the 
Ancient  Vandals,  etc. 

Krapotkine,  Prince  Peter  (i.  1842),  Rus- 
sian Nihilist ;  m  1871  went  to  Belgium  and 
Switzerland  ;  became  an  Internationalist ; 
after  his  return  to  Russia,  lectured  under 
assumed  names ;  was  imprisoned,  but  es- 
caped to  Switzerland ;  has  since  taken  part 
in  the  agitation  carried  on  throughout 
Europe  against  existing  social  arrange- 
ments. 

Krehl,  Ludolf  {b.  1826),  Arabic  scholar, 
has  edited  Bukhary's  Corpus  of  Mahotnmedan 
Tradition. 

Kremer,  Alfred  von  [h.  1828),  Orientalist ; 
was  consul  at  Cairo  (1859),  Galatz  (1862), 
and  Beyrout  (1870-72),  in  succession.  His 
chief  works  are  The  Leading  Ideas  of  Islam, 
and  a  History  of  Eastern  Civilisation  under 
the  Khalifs. 

Kreutzer,  Conradin  {b.  1782,  d.  1849),  Ger- 
man musician;  resided  at  Vienna  1804-38, 
when  he  became  kapellmeister  at  Cologne. 
He  died  at  Vienna.  JHis  chief  works  are 
Das  Nachtlager  in  Granada,  and  Der  Fersck- 
wender. 

Kreutzer,  Rudolf  {b.  1767,  d.  1831),  a 
violinist  and  musical  composer. 

KrilofiF,  Ivan  Andreevitch  {b.  1768,  d. 
1844),  a  celebrated  Russian  fabulist. 

Kriidener,  Barbara  Juliana,  Baroness 
von  {b.  1766,  d.  1824),  religious  visionary, 
daughter  of  the  Count  von  Wietinghotf, 
governor  of  Riga ;  iu  her  fifteenth  year  was 
married  to  Baron  von  Kriidener:  in  1805 
appeared  iu  Paris,  where  she  proclaimed  the 
approach  of  the  millennium,  predicted  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  and  exercised  considerable 
influence  over  the  Emperor  Alexander  ;  was 
expelled  from  several  European  countries 
in  succession,  and  finally  withdrew  to  the 
Crimea,  where  she  founded  an  institution 
for  the  reformation  of  criminals. 

Kriiger,  S.  J.  Paul  (b.  1825),  Boer  states- 
man ;  formed  with  Joubert  and  Pretorius  a 
provisional  government  (December,  1881), 
and  shortly  afterwards  became  president  of 
the  Transvaal  :  held  this  office  during  the 
war  with  England ;  was  re-elected  in  1883 
and  1888. 

Knimmactier,  Friedrich  Adolf  (6.   1768, 


Krn 


(492 


IiaC 


d.  1845),  German  divine,  -wrote  Farables, 
etc.  His  son,  Feiedeich  Wilhelm  {b. 
1796,  d.  1868),  was  the  author  of  Elijah  the 
Tishbite,  and  other  works. 

Knipp,  Friedrich  (6.  1812,  d.  1887),  a 
German  metal-founder,  the  inventor  of  the 
gigantic  steel  guns  which  bear  his  name. 

Kublai  Klian  (Chi-Tsou)  {d.  1294),  son  of 
Tuly  Khan  and  grandson  of  Jenghis  Khan, 
became  Khagan,  or  Grand  Khan,  of  the 
Moguls  in  1259.  He  expelled  the  Kin 
dynasty  from  Northern  China  in  1260,  and 
completed  his  conquest  of  the  country  by 
the  overthrow  of  the  Song  dynasty  in 
Southern  China  (1279).  His  empire  ex- 
tended from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Straits 
of  Malacca  and  from  Corea  to  Asia  Minor. 

Euenen,  Abraham  (fi.  1828,  d.  1891),  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  and  the  Old  Testament  at 
Leyden  ;  has  written  a.  Historico-Ci'itical  In- 
vestigation into  the  Origin  and  Collection  of 
the  Old  Testament  Books,  part  of  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  Bishop  Colenso. 

Kugler,  Franz  Theodor  (i.  1808,  d.  1858), 


a  German  writer  on  the  fine  arts,  became 
professor  at  Berlin  in  1833.  His  chief  work 
18  a  Manual  of  the  History  of  Fainting. 

Kunckel,  Johann  (b.  1630,  d.  1703),  Ger- 
man chemist,  bom  in  Sleswick,  made  im- 
portant discoveries,  including  that  of  the 
phosphorus  which  bears  his  name.  He  died 
at  Stjckholm. 

Kuster,  LudoU  {b.  1670,  d.  1716),  classical 
scholar,  born  in  Westphalia,  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1699.  He  was  subsequently  pro- 
fessor at  Berlin,  whence  he  removed  to 
Holland.  His  works  include  editions  of 
Suidas,  Aristophanes,  and  lamblichus's  Life 
of  Pythagoras. 

Eutusow,  Michael,  Prince  of  Smolenskoi 
{b.  1745,  d.  1813),  Russian  field-marshal,  led 
the  allied  forces  at  AusterUtz  (1805)  ;  in 
1812  was  given  the  chief  command  against 
Napoleon,  and  gained  a  brilliant  victory  at 
Smolensk. 

Kyrle,  John  {b.  1664,  d.  1724),  a  philan- 
thropist, born  at  Ross  in  Herefordshire,  the 
hero  of  Pope's  Man  of  Boss. 


Laar,  or  Laer,  Pieter  van,  "  Bamboccio  " 
(J.  1613,  d.  circa  1648),  Dutch  artist,  ex- 
celled in  depicting  country  sports  and 
festivals. 

Laban,  son  of  Bethuel,  was  father  of  Leah 
and  Rachel. 

Labiche,  Eugene  Marin  {b.  1815,  d.  1888), 
French  dramatist;  wrote  Embrassons-nous 
(1850),  Le  Voyage  de  Monsieur  Perrichon 
(I860),  etc. 

Lablache,  Louis  {b.  1794,  d.  1858),  actor 
and   singer,  of  French  extraction,  bom  at 

Naples. 

Laborde,  Alexandre  L.  J.,  Comte  de  {b. 
1774,  d.  1842),  accompanied  Lucien  Bona- 
parte to  Spain  in  1800  ;  wrote  Voyage  Pit- 
toresque  et  Historique  en  Espagne,  and  other 
works  ;  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830. 

Laborde,  Jean  Benjamin  de  {b.  1734,  d. 
1794),  French  author  and  musical  composer; 
wrote  an  Essai  sur  la  Musique  Ancienne  et 
Moderne,  and  other  works. 

Labouchere,  Henry  (&.  1831),  was  in  the 
diplomatic  service  from  1854  to  1864  ;  sat  in 
Parliament  for  Windsor  (1865-66),  and 
for   Middlesex    (1867-68) ,    since    lfi80   has 


represented  Northampton.  He  started  Truth 

in  1877. 

La  Bourdonnais,  Bertr^md  Francois  Mah6 
de  {b.  1699,  d.  circa  1753),  officer  in  the 
French  East  India  Company  ;  was  appointed 
governor  of  Bourbon  and  the  Isle  de  France 
in  1734  ;  took  Madras  from  the  English  in 
1746,  but  was  recalled  and  imprisoned  for 
three  years  in  the  Bastille. 

Labrunie,  Gerard  de  Nerval  {b.  1808,  d. 
1845),  au  eccentric  French  man  of  letters ; 
translated  Faust. 

La  Bniyfere,  Jean  de  (b.  1644,  d.  1696), 
French  writer,  bom  near  Dourdan  ;  author 
of  Lcs  Caracteres  de  Theophraste  (1688). 
Through  his  friendship  with  Bossuet  he  be- 
came tutor  to  a  son  of  the  Prince  de  Cond^. 

LacaiUe,  Nicholas  L.  de  {b.  1713,  d.  1762), 
French  mathematician  and  astronomer. 

Lacep^de,  Bernard  de  la  Ville,  Comte 
de  (i.  1756,  d.  1825),  French  naturalist, 
bom  at  Agen  ;  wrote  a  Histoire  des  Cetaces 
(1804),  etc. 

La  Chaise,  or  La  Chaize  d'Aix,  Francois 
de  (6.  1624,  d.  1709),  a  French  Jesuit,  con- 
fessor to  Louis  XIV. 


Xac 


(493) 


Xai 


Lachma.Tin,  Karl  Konrad  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm  (J).  1793,  d.  1851),  German  philologist, 
professor  at  Berliu  in  1827 ;  published  essays 
on  the  Iliad  aud  the  Xiebelungenlied,  etc. 

La  Condamine,  Charles  Marie  de  (6. 1701, 
d.  1774),  French  man  of  science,  went  with 
Bouguer  to  Peru  in  1736 ;  on  his  return, 
published  an  Account  of  a  Journey  in  South 
America  (1745),  and  The  Figure  of  the  Earth 
Deter  mined  (1749). 

Lacordalre,  Jean  Baptiste  Henri  (b.  1802, 
d.  1861),  French  preacher,  educated  at  the 
Dijon  Lycee ;  abandoned  the  bar  for  the 
church  ;  was  ordained  priest,  1827  ;  became 
joint-editor  with  Lamennais  of  the  demo- 
cratic and  Ultramontane  L'Avenir,  but,  on 
its  condemnation  by  the  pope  (1832)  sub- 
mitted to  the  church ;  was  lectui-er  at  Notre 
Dame  1835-6  ;  entered  the  Dominican  order 
in  1839  ;  started  UEre  Nouvelle  in  1848  ;  be- 
came master  of  the  college  at  Soreze  in  1854. 

Lacroix,  Paul  (6.  1806,  d.  1884),  French 
novehst,  historian,  and  art-critic. 

Lactantius,  Lucius  Coelius  Firmianus  {b. 
circa  250,  d.  circa  325),  Latin  Father,  pupil 
of  Amobius ;  probably  bom  in  Africa ;  was 
converted  to  Christianity  about  300  ;  taught 
rhetoric,  and  had  among  his  pupils  Crispus, 
son  of  the  Emperor  Constantine.  His  chief 
work  is  Institutiones  Divince. 

Laelius,  Caius  (b.  circa  235,  d.  circa  165 
B.C.),  Roman  general,  accompanied  Scipio 
African  us  to  Spain  in  210  ;  defeated  Syphax, 
King  of  the  Masssesylians  (203)  ;  was  consul 
in  190. 

Lselius,  Caius,  Sapiens  (d.  circa  185,  d. 
circa  115  B.C.),  son  of  the  preceding,  accom- 
panied Scipio  Africanus  t»  the  siege  of 
Carthage  ;  imbibed  the  doctrines  of  Stoicism 
from  Diogenes  of  Babylon  and  Panagtius ; 
was  consul  in  140  ;  opposed  the  Gracchi. 

Laennec,  Rene  Thfeodore  Hyacinthe  {b. 
1781,  d.  1826),  French  physician;  invented 
the  stethoscope. 

Lafayette,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Roche  Yves 
Gilbert  du  Motier,  Marquis  de  (b.  1757,  d. 
1834),  educated  at  the  college  of  Plessis; 
took  part  in  the  American  war  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  was  entrusted  by  Washington 
with  the  defence  of  Virginia  ;  was  one  of 
the  earliest  leaders  in  the  French  revolution, 
presenting  his  Declaration  of  Jiitj/it.s  to  the 
Coustituent  Assembly,  and  receiving  the 
com.mand  of  the  National  Guard  in  July, 
1789;  retained  tliis  post  till  1791,  but,  by 
opposing  mob  violence,  excited  the  animosity 
of  the  Jacobins,  which  was  increased  by  his 
letter  denouncing  the  clubs  (June,  1792). 
After  vainly  attempting  to  make  his  presence 
felt  in  Paris,  he  fled  over  the  frontier,  but 
was   captured   by  the   Austriaus    (August, 


1792),  and  remained  in  prison  tiU  released 
by  Napoleon  in  1797.  After  holding  office 
under  the  Bourbons,  he  took  part  in  raising 
Louis  PhiUppe  to  the  throne  (1830),  but 
afterwards  opposed  his  government. 

Laffltte,  Jacques  (6.  1767,  d.  1844),  French 
financier  and  politician  ;  was  governor  of  the 
Bank  of  France  in  1814 ;  was  president  of 
the  Assembly  which  offered  the  throne  to 
Louis  PhiUppe,  under  whom  he  became 
minister  of  finance  and  president  of  the 
Council,  but  resigned  in  1831. 

La  Fontaine,  Jean  de  (6.  1621,  d.  1695), 
French  author ;  bom  at  Chateau-Thierry, 
resided  many  years  in  Paris.  Besides  the 
Fables,  published  in  three  parts  (1668, 
1679,  1693),  he  wrote  Contes  et  Nouvelles 
(1665-66-71),  &u^  Les  Amours  de  Fsyche  et  de 
Cupidon  (1669). 

Lagomarsini,  Girolamo  (b.  1698,  d.  1773), 
Jesuit  philologist,  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
college  at  Rome. 

Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis,  Count  [b.  1736, 
d.  1813),  mathematician,  of  French  ex- 
traction, bom  at  Tm-in  ;  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  that  town  at  the  age  of 
nineteen.  In  1766  he  succeeded  Euler  as 
director  of  the  academy  of  Berlin.  Re- 
moving to  Paris  in  1787,  he  remained  there 
during  the  revolution,  and  was  afterwards 
patronised  by  Napoleon. 

Laguerre,  Louis  {b.  1663,  d.  1721),  French 
painter,  came  to  England  in  1683. 

La  Harpe,  Jean  Fran<^ois  de  (6.  1739,  d. 
1803),  French  author  and  critic,  educated  at 
the  College  d'Harcourt,  His  chief  work  is 
his  Cours  de  Litterature,  lectures  deUvered 
at  the  Lycde  in  1 786  and  the  following  years. 
He  took  part  in  the  French  revolution,  but 
during  an  imprisonment  in  the  Bastille  hia 
views  underwent  a  change. 

La  Hire,  Philippe  de  {b.  1640,  d.  1719), 
French  mathematician  and  engineer. 

Lainez,  or  Laynez,  Jago  [b.  1512,  d.  1565), 
born  in  Castile  ;  was  one  of  the  earliest 
disciples  of  Loyola,  and  succeeded  him  as 
general  of  the  Jesuits  in  1558.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Council  of  Trent  and 
the  Colloquy  of  Poissy. 

Laing,  David  (*.  1790,  d.  1878),  Scotch 
antiquarian,  honorary  secretary  to  the  Ban- 
natyne  Club  1823-60 ;  wrote  the  Life  and 
Works  of  John  Knox  (1846-64),  and  edited 
several  Scottish  poets. 

Laing,  Malcolm  (6.  1762,  d.  1818),  bom  in 
Orkney,  wrote  a  Mistory  of  Scotland  (1800). 

Laing,  Samuel  (b.  1810),  nephew  of  the 
preceding ;  has  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
railway  legislation. 


Lai 


(494) 


Lam 


Lairesse,  G«rard(6.  1640,  d.  1711),  Dutch 
historical  painter  and  engraver. 

Lake,  Gerard,  Viscount  (*.  1744,  d.  1808), 
general ;  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mah- 
ratta  war,  defeating  Siudia  at  Alleghur  and 
Delhi,  restoring  Shah  AUuni  to  the  throne 

il803),  routing   Sindia's  northern  army  at 
jaswaree  in  the  same  year,  and  in  1804-5 
suppressing  the  rebellion  of  Holkar. 

Lcilande,  Joseph  Jerome  le  Fran(jais  de 
(b.  1732,  d.  1807),  French  astronomer;  was 
sent  to  Berlin  to  determine  the  parallax  of 
the  moon,  and  became  professor  of  astro- 
nomy in  the  College  de  France.  His  chief 
work  is  Traite  d'Astronomie  (1764). 

Lally,  Thomas  Arthur,  Baron  deTollendal, 
Comte  de  (6.  1702,  d.  1766),  descended  from 
an  Irish  family  ;  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  French  possessions  in  India 
in  1756  ;  captured  Fort  St.  David  (1758),  but 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Sir  E.  Coote  at  Pon- 
dicherry  (1761).  On  his  return  to  France 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille,  and 
finally  executed. 

Lally-Tollendal,  Trophime  Gerard,  Mar- 
quis de  {b.  1751,  d.  1830),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding; was  a  deputy  from  the  noblesse  in  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  where  he  became  a 
prominent  advocate  of  reform.  His  mode- 
rate views  occasioned  his  withdrawal  to 
Switzerland,  and  afterwards  to  England. 
He  returned  in  1800. 

Lamar,  Hon.  Lucius  Quintus  Cincinnatus 
(6.  1825),  American  lawyer  and  pohtician. 

Lamarck,  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine  de 
Monuet  de  (*.  1744,  d.  1829),  French  natural- 
ist, appointed  professor  of  zoology  in  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  1793  ;  wrote 
numerous  works,  the  chief  being  PhUosophie 
Zoologique  (1809),  and  a  Histoire  Naturelle 
des  Animaux  sans  Vertebres  (1815-22). 

Lamartine,  Alphonse  Marie  Louis  du  Prat 
de  {b.  1790,  d.  1869),  French  author  and 
statesman ;  held  diplomatic  posts  in  Italy 
from  1820  to  the  accession  of  Louis  PhUippe ; 
travelled  for  two  years  in  the  East ;  return- 
ing in  1833,  sat  in  the  National  Assembly 
till  the  revolution  of  1848,  when  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  but  retired, 
owing  to  what  he  considered  the  absence  of 
hberal  views  among  his  colleagues.  His 
chief  prose  works  are  Histoire  des  Girondins 
(1847),  Souvenirs  d' Orient  (1835),  Le  Tailleiir 
de  Pierres  de  St. -Point,  and  Histoire  de  la 
Pestauration. 

Lamb,  Lady  Caroline  (6.  1786,  d.  1828), 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Bessborough,  and 
vrife  of  the  Hon.  William  Lamb,  afterwards 
Lord  Melbourne;  wrote  Glenarvon,  and 
other  novels.  She  is  now  chiefly  remembered 
for  her  unhappy  attachment  to  Lord  Byron. 


Lamb,  Charles  (b.  1775,  d.  1834),  essayist 
and  poet,  was  born  in  the  Temple,  where 
his  father  was  clerk  to  a  bencher ;  received 
his  education  at  Christ's  Hospital ;  became  a 
clerk  in  the  South  Sea  House,  and  after- 
wards in  the  India  House,  retiring  on  a 
pension  in  1825.  His  hfe  was  devoted  to 
the  care  of  his  sister,  Mary,  who  always 
remained  subject  to  fits  of  insanity.  Most 
of  the  Pssays  of  Elia  were  published  in  the 
London  Magazine  between  1820  and  1826 ; 
others  appeared  in  the  New  Monthly  and 
the  Englishman'' s  Magazine.  Lamb  also 
wrote  Rosamund  Gray  (1795),  John  Wood- 
ville,  a  di-ama  (1799),  studies  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan dramatists,  and  many  short  lyrics. 
He  died  at  Edmonton. 

Lamb,  Mary  {b.  1762,  d.  1847),  sister  of 
the  preceding,  in  conjimction  with  whom 
she  wrote  Tales  from  Shakespeare. 

LambaUe,  Marie  Therfese  de  Savoie- 
Carignan,  Princesse  de  (6.  1748,  d.  1792), 
was  superintendent  of  the  household  of 
Marie  Antoinette,  and  shared  her  imprison- 
ment in  the  Temple. 

Lambert,  Francois  (&.  1487,  d.  1530), 
French  Protestant  reformer,  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Marburg  in  1527. 

Lambert,  Johann  Heinrich  {b.  1728,  d. 
1777),  philosopher  and  mathematician,  bom 
at  Miilhausen,  in  Alsace. 

Lambert,  John  (^i.  1619,  d.  circa  1694), 
EngUsh  revolutionist;  fought  at  Marston 
Moor  and  Naseby  ;  led  the  van  at  Dunbar ; 
resisted  the  proposal  to  make  Cromwell 
king,  and  was  deprived  of  his  commission ; 
after  the  death  of  Cromwell,  restored  the 
Long  Parhament;  marched  against  Monk, 
by  whom  be  was  defeated ;  was  exiled  to 
Guernsey,  where  he  lived  thirty  years. 

Lambert,  Sir  John,  K.C.B.  {b.  1815), 
secretary  to  the  Local  Government  Board 
from  1871  to  1882,  framed  a  large  num- 
ber of  Government  measures,  including 
the  MetropoUtan  Poor  Act  (1867)  and  the 
Redistribution  of  Seats  Act  (1884).  He 
also  collected  statistics  with  reference  to 
the  Irish  Church  and  Land  Bills,  and  the 
Franchise  Act  (1884)  was  based  on  his 
proposals. 

Lambert  of  Aschaffenburg  {b.  circa  1020, 
d.  circa  1080),  a  Benedictine  monk;  wrote 
Annales,  including  a  chronicle  of  contempo- 
rary events  in  Germany. 

Lambton,  Wniiam  (i.  1748,  d.  1823), 
lieutenant- colonel ;  began  the  great  trigono- 
metrical survey  of  India  in  1802,  and  deter- 
mined an  arc  of  the  meridian  from  lat. 
8°  23'  to  lat.  21°  Q'. 

Lamech,  the  son  of  Methusaleh,  and 
father  of  Noah. 


Laxa 


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Iian 


Lamennais,  Felicite  Eotert  de  (&.  1782, 
d.  1854),  French  philosopher  and  political 
writer ;  after  a  period  of  scepticism  in  youth, 
adopted  ultra-CathoUc  views  ;  was  ordained 
in  1816;  in  1821-3  published  Es&ain  mr 
V  Indifference ;  between  1826  and  1830 
ihanged  his  opinions,  and  came  to  regard 
liberty  rather  than  authority  as  the  main 
factor  in  human  progress;  in  1830  started 
UAwnir,  at  once  radical  and  Ultramontane 
n  its  views ;  after  its  condemnation  by 
Gregory  XVI.  (1832),  severed  his  connection 
vith  the  Chirrch,  and  identified  himself 
vith  the  Democratic  party,  pubhshing 
■i'aroles  d'un  Croyant  in  1834.  Among  his 
ater  works  are  Ze  Pays  et  le  Gouvernement 
(1840),  a  pamphlet  for  which  he  suffered 
\%  year's  imprisonment,  Esquisse  d'une  Philo- 
sophie  (1841-6),  and  a  translation  of  the 
Divine  Comedy. 

Lameth,  Charles  Male  Francjois  de  (b. 
1757,  d.  1832),  and  Alexandre  de  {b.  1760, 
d.  1829),  brothers;  served  together  in  the 
American  war  of  Independence;  were 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  (1789), 
and  exercised  much  influence  after  the  death 
erf  Mirabeau.  In  1792  Charles  fled  abroad, 
but  Alexandre  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Austriaus.  They  returned  together  in  1800. 
'jharles  served  under  Napoleon  1809-14, 

Lami,  Giovanni  {b.  1697,  d.  1770),  Italian 
luthor,  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Florence  ;  wrote  on  history,  theology,  and 
fintiquities. 

Lamorici^re,  Christophe  Leon  Louis 
Guchault  de  {b.  1806,  d.  1865),  French 
peneral,  took  part  in  the  Revolution  of 
(848,  was  banished  in  1851,  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Papal  troops  in  1860,  and 
beaten  at  Castelfidardo. 

Lamotte,  Jeanne  de  Valois,  Comtesse  de 
(6.  1757,  d.  1791),  French  adventuress, 
notorious  for  her  conduct  in  the  affair  of 
the  Diamond  Necklace. 

La  Motte-Fouqu6.     [See  Fouque.] 

Lana,  Francesco  Terzi  (b.  1631,  d.  1687), 
an  Italian  Jesuit;  author  of  Magisterium 
Natures  et  Artis. 

Lancaster,  Sir  James  {d.  1618),  English 
navigator  ;  in  1600  conducted  the  first  trad- 
ing expedition  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  made  a  commercial  treaty  with  tlie 
King  of  Acheen. 

Lancaster,  Joseph  (6.  1771,  d.  1838),  a 
Quaker,  the  founder  of  the  Lancastrian  or 
monitorial  system  of  education. 

Lancisi,  Giovanni  (*.  1654,  d.  1720), 
Italian  physician,  wrote  several  medical 
works. 

Lander,  Richard  {h.  1804,  d.  1834),  and 
John  (6.  1807,  d.  1839),  African  explorers, 


brothers,  were  natives  of  Cornwall.  John 
accompanied  Clapperton's  expedition  in 
1825-7,  assuming  the  command  after  his 
death.  In  1829-31  the  brothers  explored 
the  lower  course  of  the  Niger,  and  published 
their  Journal  in  1832.  Richard  afterwards 
established  a  commercial  settlement  on  the 
Niger,  but  was  killed  in  an  attack  by  the 
natives.     John  died  in  Cornwall. 

Landon,  Letitia  Elizabeth,  "L.  E.  L." 
(6.  1802,  d.  1838),  daughter  of  a  Hereford- 
shire squire ;  wrote  the  Improvisatrice  (1824), 
and  other  poems,  many  of  which  appeared 
in  the  Literary  Gazette;  also  some  prose 
works,  including  Ethel  Churchill  (1836). 
In  1838  she  married  George  Maclean,  gov- 
ernor of  Cape  Coast,  and  died  in  Africa. 

Landor,  "Walter  Savage  (6.  1775,  d.  1864), 
descended  from  a  good  Warwickshire 
family  ;  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  Trinity 
CcUegd,  Oxford,  where  he  won  a  high 
leiJatation  as  a  scholar.  He  next  passed 
tLree  years  of  solitude  in  South  Wales,  and 
there  wrote  Gebir  (1798).  Simonidia  ap- 
peared in  1806,  and  Count  Julian  in  1811. 
In  the  same  year  he  married,  and  his  agri- 
cultural schemes  at  Llanth-ony  Abbey  re- 
sulting in  failure  (1814),  went  abroad  with 
his  wife,  with  whom  he  Uved  very  un- 
happily at  Florence  and  other  places,  and 
at  last  separated  from  her  in  1835.  From 
1837  to  1858  he  resided  at  Bath,  and  from 
1858  till  his  death  at  Florence.  The  first 
series  of  Imaginary  Conversations  was  pub- 
lished in  1824, 

Landseer,  Charies  (b.  1799,  d.  1879), 
second  son  of  John  Landseer,  exhibited 
many  pictures  in  the  Royal  Academy. 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin  Henry  (6.  1802,  d. 

1873),  youngest  son  of  John  Landseer,  born 
in  London,  showed  bis  genius  at  an  early 
age;  was  elected  A.R. A.  in  1825,  and  E.A. 
in  1830;  dechned  the  presidency  in  1865. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  High  Life  and 
Low  Life  (1831),  Bolton  Abbey  in  the  Olden 
Tmxe  (1834),  The  Old  Shepherd's  Chief 
Mourner  (1837),  Dignity  and  Impudence 
(1839),  Night,  Morning,  and  Children  of  the 
Mist  (1853). 

Landseer,  John,  A.R.A.  (b.  1769,  d.  1852), 
an  Enghsh  engraver  and  writer  on  art. 

Landseer,  Thomas  (b.  1795,  d.  1880),  en- 
graver, eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  studied 
under  his  father  ami  Haydon.  He  excelled 
in  engravings  of  animals. 

Lane,  Edward  William  (b.  1801,  d.  1876), 
visited  Egypt  in  1825-8,  1833-5,  and  1842-9, 
and  published  The  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Modern  Egyptians  (1836),  five  volumes 
of  an  Arabic  Lexicon  (1863-74),  and  other 
works. 


Lan 


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Xiau 


Lane-Poole,  Stanley  {b.  18.i4),  grand- 
nephew  of  tJie  preceding,  to  whose  Arabic 
Lexicon  he  has  added  three  volumes. 

Lanfranc  [b.  1005,  d.  1089),  bom  at  Pavia, 
was  elected  prior  of  Bee  in  Normandy  in 
104o,  and  abbot  of  St.  Stephen's,  Caen,  iu 
1062  ;  after  the  Norman  conquest  was  made 
Archbishiip  of  Canterbury  (1070),  and 
brought  the  English  Church  into  closer 
connection  with  the  Eoman  See. 

Lanfrey,  Pierre  (6.  1828,  d.  1877),  French 
historian  ;  wrote  a  Histoire  de  Napoleon  I. 

Lang,  Andrew  (6.  1844),  journalist  and 
poet,  has  published  Custom  and  Myth  (1884), 
and  numerous  other  works. 

Langbaine,  Gerard  {b.  1656,  d.  1692), 
wrote  An  Account  of  the  English  Dramatic 
Foets  (1691). 

Langdale,  Henry  Bickersteth,  Lord  (b. 
1783,  d.  1851),  educated  at  Cambridge;  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1811,  and  became 
Master  of  the  Eolls  in  1836. 

Langdale,  Sir  Marmaduke  {d.  1661), 
Royalist  commander. 

Langevin,  Sir  Hector  Louis  (b.  1826), 
Canadian  politician  ;  appointed  minister  of 
public  works  in  1879. 

Langham,  Simon  de  {b.  1310,  d.  1376), 
became  Chancellor  in  1364,  and  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1366.  In  1368  he  was 
made  a  cardinal.    He  opposed  Wychf . 

Langhome,  John  {b.  1735,  d.  1779),  be- 
sides other  works,  pubhshed  a  translation 
of  Plutarch's  Lives,  produced  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother  William. 

Langland,  William  (b.  ciroa  1332,  d.  circa 
1400),  author  of  The  Vision  of  William  con- 
cerni)ig  Fiers  the  Flowman  ;  is  believed  to 
have  been  born  at  Cleobury  Mortimer,  in 
Shropshire. 

Langlfes,  Louis  {b.  1763,  d.  1824),  French 
Orientalist,  professor  of  Persian  and  Malay 
at  Paris ;  wrote  Les  Instituts  Folitiques  et 
Militaires  de  Tamerlan,  etc. 

Langtoft,  Peter  de,  an  English  monk  of 
the  14th  century  ;  wrote,  in  French  verse,  a 
Chronicle  of  England,  translated  by  Robert 
de  Brunne. 

Langton,  Stephen  {d.  1228),  bom  in  Lin- 
colnshire, studied  at  Paris ;  went  to  Rome 
in  1206,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Inno- 
cent III.;  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1207,  but  excluded  from  England 
by  John  till  1213. 

Languet,  Hubert  {b.  1518,  d.  1581),  born 
at  Viteaux,  in  Burgundy  ;  after  studying  at 
Padua,  went  to  Wittemberg,  where  he  em- 
braced the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation ;  in 


1568  entered  the  service  of  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  and  was  his  envoy  at  Paris  at  the 
time  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
His  chief  work  is  Vindicice  contra  Tyrannos 

(1579). 

Laniere,  Nicholas  (b.  1568,  d.  1646),  an 
ItaUan  painter  and  musician  ;  patronised  by 
Charles  I.  of  England. 

Lanjuinais,  Jean  Denis,  Comtede  (b.  1763, 
d.  1827),  French  lawyer  and  poHtician,  bom 
at  Rouen  ;  sat  in  the  Constituent  Assembly 
and  the  Convention ;  ably  defended  Louis 
XVI.  and  the  Girondists ;  concealed  himself 
during  the  Reign  of  Terror ;  withstood 
Napoleon  ;  mider  the  Bouibons  was  a  lead- 
ing exponent  of  Liberal  views. 

Lankester,    Edwin  Ray,  F.R.S.,  LL.D. 

(6.  I«i47),  zoologist,  educated  at  St. 
Paul's  school,  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford ; 
was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  com- 
parative anatomy  ia  University  College, 
London,  in  1874,  and  re-elected  in  1882.  He 
has  written  Fossil  Fishes  of  the  Old  Fed 
Sandstone,  Degeneration  :  a  Chapter  in  Dar- 
winism, and  other  works,  and  is  chief  editor 
of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopic 
Science. 

Lannes,  Jean,  Due  de  Montebello  {h.  1769, 
d.  1809),  French  marshal,  began  life  as  a  dyer ; 
entered  the  army  in  1792;  distinguished  him- 
self in  Italy  (1796-7)  ;  accompanied  Bona- 
parte to  Egypt ;  commanded  the  advanced 
guard  in  crossing  the  Alps,  gained  the  victory 
of  Montebello,  and  rendered  great  service  at 
Marengo  (1800) ;  was  ambassador  to  Portu- 
gal 1801-4;  fought  at  Austerhtz,  Jena,  and 
Friedland  ;  went  to  Spain  as  commander-in- 
chief  in  1808,  and  reduced  Saragossa  (1809); 
was  mortally  wounded  at  Aspem. 

La  Noue,  FraLQois  de  {h.  1531,  d.  1591), 
Huguenot  general,  "Bras  de  Fer";  con- 
ducted the  defence  of  La  Eochelle  1573-7; 
commanded  the  Flemish  forces  1578-80 ; 
was  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the 
Spaniards  1580-85  ;  took  part  in  the  wars 
of  the  League,  and  was  slain  at  the  siege  of 
Lamballe. 

Lansdowne,  Henry  Charles  Keith  Fitz- 
maurice,  fifth  Marquis  of  {h.  1845),  was 
Governor-General  of  Canada  from'1883  to 
1888,  when  he  succeeded  Lord  Dufferin  as 
Viceroy  of  India. 

Lansdowne,  Henry  Petty  Fitzmaurice, 
third  Marquis  of  (6.  1780,  d.  1863),  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Whig  in  1802  ;  was  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  in  the  "Ministry  of 
All  the  Talents,"  Home  Secretary  under 
Canning  (1826),  and  president  of  the  Council 
under  Grey  (1831-41),  after  which  he  led  the 
opposition  in  the  Upper  House. 

Lanzi,  Luigi  (6.  1732,  d.  1810),  an  Italian 


Lao 


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Las 


archseologist  and  writer  on  art ;  author  of 
Storia  PUtorica  delta  Italia  (1792-1806). 

Lao-Tze,  Chinese  philosopher,  lived  in  the 
middle  of  .the  7th  century  B.C.,  and  is  re- 
garded as  the  patriarch  of  the  religious  sect 
of  the  Taose. 

La  Perouse,  Jean  Francois  de  Galaup, 
Comte  de  (b.  1741,  d.  1788),  French  navi- 
gator ;  in  1782  did  much  damage  to  the 
English  settlement  on  Hudson's  Bay  ;  went 
on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  South  Sea 
in  1785,  and  was  last  heard  of  in  Februai-y, 
1788.  In  1828  it  was  discovered  that  Ms 
ships  had  been  wrecked  on  the  island  of 
Vanikoro. 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis  de  (6. 
17-19,  d.  1827),  French  astronomer  and  mathe- 
matician, of  humble  origin,  bom  at  Beau- 
mont-en-Auge  ;  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
ficole  Militaire,  at  Paris.  His  chief  works 
were  Mecanique  Celeste  (1799-1825)  and 
Exposition  du  Systeme  du  Monde  (1796). 
Napoleon  made  him  minister  of  the  interior. 

Lapo,  Amolfo  di  (6.  1232,  d.  1300),  a  re- 
nowned Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  built 
the  Duomo  of  Florence. 

Lappenberg,  Johann  Martin  (6.  1794,  d. 
1865),  German  historian,  keeper  of  the 
Hamburg  archives ;  wrote  a  History  of 
England  down  to  1 160,  translated  by  Thorpe. 

Larcher,  Pierre  Henri  (6.  1726,  d.  1812), 
French  Hellenist  and  bibliophile,  translated 
Herodotus.  He  carried  on  a  controversy 
with  Voltaire. 

Lardner,  Dionysius  (6.  1793,  d.  1859),  son 
of  a  Dublin  solicitor,  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge ;_  in  1827  became  professor  of  natural 
history  in  the  University  of  London,  and  set 
on  foot  his  Cabinet  Encyclopedia  (1834),  for 
which  he  wrote  most  of  the  scientific  articles. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel  {h.  1684,  d.  1768),  a 
learned  Unitarian  divine  ;  author  of  a  work 
On  the  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History. 

Lar^velli^re  Lepeauz,  Louis  Marie  de 
(6.  1753,  d.  1824),  French  revolutionist;  de- 
fended the  Girondists,  and  was  forced  to 
conceal  himself ;  returned  to  the  Convention 
in  1795,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Directory.  He  invented  the  "Theophilan- 
thropic"  religion. 

La  Rochefoucauld,  Franqois,  Due  de, 
Prince  de  Marsillac(i.  1613,  d.  1680),  French 
courtier  and  man  of  letters ;  joined  the 
Frondeurs,  and  was  wounded  at  the  siege 
of  Paris.  The  celebrated  Sentences  et 
Maxinies  Morales  were  published  in  1665. 

La  Rochefoucauld-Liancourt,  Francois 
A.  F.,  Due  de  (b.  1747.  d.  1827),  French 
politician  and  pliilanthropist ;  was  a  member 


of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  but  left  France 
in  1792.  After  travelling  in  the  United 
States,  he  returned  in  1799. 

La  Rochejaquelein,  Henri  du  Verger, 
Comte  de  (b.  1772,  d.  1794),  bom  at  Chatillon, 
in  Poitou ;  became  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Vendeans  in  October,  1793,  and  gained 
several  victories.  He  was  slain  in  single 
combat  at  Nouaille. 

La  Rochejaquelein,  Louis  du  Verger, 
Marquis  de  {b.  1777,  d.  1815),  brother  of  the 
preceding  ;  headed  a  rising  of  the  Vendeans 
during  the  Hundred  Days,  but  was  slain  at 
Pont-des-Mathis. 

Larrey,  Dominique  Jean,  Baron  (6.  1766, 
d.  1842),  French  military  surgeon ;  soon 
after  enteiing  the  army  (1792)  devised  a 
scheme  of  ambulances  volantes  for  rendering 
immediate  help  to  the  wounded  ;  served  in 
Italy  (1797),  Egypt  (1798),  and  elsewhere; 
left  several  valuable  works. 

La  Salle,  Eobert  Cavelier  de  {b.  1643, 
d.  1687),  French  traveller  ;  traced  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  its  source  in  1682 ;  in  1684  at- 
tempted to  establish  a  fortified  settlement 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  was  murdered 
by  his  companions  in  Texas. 

Lascaris,  Andreas  Johannes,  sumamed 
Rhyndacenus  (b.  circa  1445,  d.  1535),  a  noble 
Greek ;  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople, 
was  employed  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  to 
rescue  Greek  MSS.  from  the  Turks ;  was 
afterwards  in  the  service  of  Louis  XII.  of 
France ;  became  first  principal  of  the  Greek 
coUege  established  at  Rome  by  Leo  X. 

Lascaris,  Constantine  [d.  1493),  a  noble 
Greek ;  after  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople, taught  Greek  at  Rome,  Naples,  and 
elsewhere,  and  did  much  to  promote  the 
revival  of  learning.  His  Greek  Grammar 
was  printed  in  1476. 

Las  Casas,  Bartolome  de  [b.  1474,  d. 
1366),  studied  at  Salamanca ;  went  to  His- 
paniola  in  1502,  and  henceforward  laboui-ed 
as  a  missionary  among  the  Indians  ;  made 
several  voyages  to  Spain  to  remonstrate 
against  the  cruelties  practised  towards  them 
by  the  Spaniards  ;  was  Bishop  of  Chiapa 
from  1544  to  1551  ;  died  in  Madrid.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Indies. 

Las  Cases,  Emmanuel  Dieudonne,  Marquis 
de  (b.  1766,  d.  1842),  one  of  Napoleon's 
officers;  lived  with  him  for  some  time  at 
St.  Helena,  but  was  removed  by  Sir  Hudson 
Lowe.  He  published  Memorial  de  Sainte 
Helene  (\%-l\-'i). 

Lasker,  Edouard  (b.  1829,  d.  1884),  Ger- 
man politician  ;  for  many  years  a  solicitor  in 
Berlin,  was  elected  to  the  Prussian  Diet  in 
1865;  helped  to  constitute  the  older  National 


Las 


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Lan 


Liberal  party,  but  differed  from  Bismarck 
on  the  Kulturkampf  and  other  questions, 
and  led  the  party  of  secession  in  1880. 

Lassalle,  Ferdinand  [b.  1825,  d.  1864), 
Socialist,  son  of  Jewish  parents,  bom  at 
Breslau,  studied  at  the  universities  oX  Bres- 
lau  and  Berlin  ;  was  imprisoned  in  1848  for 
inciting  the  working  classes  to  ai'med  resist- 
ance ;  in  1862  enunciated  his  Arbeiter- 
program,  calling  for  a  revolution,  not  neces- 
sarily violent,  which  would  break  down  the 
monopoly  of  the  propertied  classes,  and 
transfer  to  the  labourers  the  a^l  vantages 
enjoyed  by  the  capitalists;  for  the  next 
year  was  engaged  in  a  contest  with  the 
Liberals  and  the  Political  EconomistSj  op- 
posing Schulze-Delitzsch  with  great  bitter- 
ness ;  in  1863  presided  over  a  delegation  of 
working  men  at  Leipzig,  which  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  a  great  labour  union.  He 
was  killed  in  a  duel  in  Switzerland. 

Lassen,  Christian  (6.  1800,  d.  1876),  Nor- 
wegian Orientalist,  appointed  professor  of 
Inflian  languages  at  Bonn  in  1840 ;  wrote 
Indian  Antiquities  (1844-62),  etc. 

Lasso,  Orlando  di  (Roland  de  Lattre)  (6. 
1520,  d.  1594),  a  famous  composer  of  church 
music,  to  which  he  gave  a  graver  and  more 
simple  character.  He  was  bom  at  Mons, 
and  at  an  early  age  taken  to  Italy  by 
Ferdiannd  Gonzago.  After  spending  some 
time  at  Rome,  he  went  to  Munich,  and 
became  kapellmeister  to  Albert,  Duke  of 
Bavaria. 

Latham,  John  (6.  1740,  d.  1837),  ornith- 
ologist, wrote  a  General  History  of  Birds 
(1821-4),  etc. 

Latham,  Robert  Gordon  (*.  1812,  d. 
1888),  philologist  and  ethnologist;  wrote 
The  JEnglish  Language  (1841),  etc 

Latimer,  Hugh  {b.  circa  1490,  d.  1555), 
EngHsh  reformer,  son  of  a  yeoman  of 
Thurcaston  in  Leicestershire ;  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  entered  the  Church,  and 
became  famous  for  his  eloquence  and  zeal 
as  a  preacher;  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
"Worcester  in  1535,  but  resigned  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Bill  of  Six  Articles  (1539); 
was  imprisoned  for  six  years  in  the  Tower, 
obtaining  his  release  on  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI. ;  in  1553  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  with  Ridley  and  Cranmer;  was 
afterwards  removed  to  Oxford,  where  he 
was  burnt,  together  with  Ridley,  on  Oc- 
tober 16th,  1555. 

Latimer,  William  [d.  1545),  a  reviver  of 
classical  learning  in  England ;  was  tutor  to 
Cardinal  Pole,  and  taught  Greek  to  Erasmus. 

Latouche-Tr^ville,  Louis  R.  M.  de  V.  de 
(6.  1745,  d.  1804),  a  distinguished  French 
ndnural. 


Latour  d'Auvergne,  Theophile  Malo  Cor- 
ret  de  (6.  1743,  d.  1800),  French  soldier; 
joined  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  became 
comniauder  of  a  corps  of  8,000  grenadiers, 
which  gained  the  name  of  "the  infernal 
column."  He  fell  at  Oberhausen.  He 
wrote  on  Celtic  etymology  and  antiquities. 

Latreille,  Pierre  Andre  {b.  1762,  d.  1833), 
French  entomologist ;  wrote  Genera  Crusta- 
ceorum  et  Insectorum  (1806-9),  etc. 

Laud,  William  (J.  1573,  d.  1645),  bom  at 
Reading ;  was  educated  at  Reading  gram- 
mar school  and  St.  John's  College,  Oxford, 
of  which  he  became  president  in  1611 ;  was 
appointed  chaplaiu  to  James  I.  in  1615,  and 
Bishop  of  St.  David's  in  1621 ;  exercised 
great  influence  after  the  accession  of 
Charles  I.  ;  became  Bishop  of  Bath  and 
Wells  in  1626,  and  of  London  in  1628,  and 
in  1633  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Canterbury. 
By  his  endeavours  to  establish  uniformity 
in  the  Church,  to  reform  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline, and  to  introduce  a  more  ornamental 
form  of  ritual,  as  well  as  by  his  support  of 
Strafford's  policy  of  "thorough,"  he  ren- 
dered himself  obnoxious  to  the  Puritans, 
and,  when  the  Long  Parliament  met,  was 
impeached  of  high  treason.  After  three 
years'  imprisonment  he  was  brought  to 
trial,  condemned  to  death  by  bill  of  at- 
tainder, and  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill. 

Lauder,  Sir  Thomas  Dick  (6.  1784,  d. 
1848),  Scottish  miscellaneous  writer ;  was  an 
early  contributor  to  Blackwood's  Magazine. 

Lauderdale,  John  Maitland,  Duke  of  (6. 
1616,  d.  1682),  bom  at  Lethington  in  Scot- 
land, supported  Prince  Charles,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Worcester;  after  the 
Restoration,  administered  the  affairs  of 
Scotland,  and  treated  the  Covenanters  with 
great  cruelty.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Cabal  Ministry  (1670). 

Laudon,  or  Laudobn,  Gideon  Ernst  (*. 
1716,  d.  1790),  an  Austrian  general  in  the 
service  of  Maria  Theresa,  defeated  Frederick 
the  Great  at  Hochkirchen,  Kunersdorf,  and 
Landshut ;  in  the  next  reign  repelled  the 
Turks,  and  took  Belgrade  (1789). 

Laurens,  Henry  {b.  1724,  d.  1792),  Ameri- 
can statesman,  became  president  of  Congress 
in  1777  ;  while  on  his  way  to  the  Hague  as 
ambassador  was  captured  by  the  English, 
and  confined  in  the  Tower,  1780-1 ;  with 
Jay  and  Franklin  simed  the  preliminaries 
to  a  treaty  with  England  (November, 
1782). 

Laurier,  Hon.  Wilfrid  (6.  1841),  Canadian 
statesman  ;  has  led  the  Liberals  since  1887. 

Lauriston,  Alexandre  Jacques  Bernard 
Law,  Marquis  de  (6.  1768,  d.  1828),  entered 
the  French  artillery,  became  aide-de-camp 


LaV 


499  ) 


Law 


to  Napoleon  in  1800,   and  was  instrumental 
in  gaining  the  battle  of  Wagram. 

La  Valette,  Antoine  Marie  Chamans, 
Comte  de  (p.  1769,  d.  1833),  an  aide-de-camp 
of  Napoleon,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Egypt,  Germany,  and  Prussia ;  was  con- 
demned to  death  in  1815,  but  escaped  from 
prison  through  the  devotion  of  his  wife, 
who  changed  clothes  with  him. 

La  Valette,  Jean  Paxisot  de  (6.  1494,  d. 
1568),  became  grand-master  of  the  Knights 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1557 ;  success- 
fully defended  Malta  against  Soliman  II. 
(15(35) ;  bunt  Valetta,  and  thoroughly  forti- 
fied the  island. 

Lavater,  Johann  Gaspar  {b.  1741,  d.  1801), 
minister  of  a  church  at  Zurich ;  was  an 
eloquent  preacher,  and  wrote  several  reli- 
gious works,  but  is  best  known  by  his 
Fhysiognomic  Fragments,  treating  of  the 
connection  between  the  featui-es  and  the 
character.  At  the  capture  of  Zurich  by 
Massena  (1799)  he  was  shot  in  the  street, 
and  died  from  the  effects  of  the  woimd. 

Laveleye,  Emile  Louis  Victor  de  [b.  1822, 
d.  1892),  wi-iter  on  economics,  bom  at  Bruges; 
was  appointed  professor  of  political  economy 
in  the  university  of  Liege  in  1864.  Among 
bis  chief  wor]^  are  La  Question  de  VOr 
(1860),  rimtruction  du  Feuple  (1872),  Le 
Socialisme  Contemporain  (1883),  and  La 
Feninsule  des  Balkans  (1886). 

Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent  (b.  1743,  d. 
1794),  French  chemist;  after  studjing  at 
the  College  Mazarin,  obtained  the  post  of 
farmer-general  (1769),  and  devoted  much 
of  his  time  to  chemical  experiments,  result- 
ing in  a  new  theory  of  chemistry,  the 
"anti-phlogistic"  (1773-5),  on  which  the 
modem  science  is  based.  In  arriving  at  his 
results  he  was  much  indebted  to  Priestley, 
who  made  known  to  him  his  discovery  of 
oxygen.  During  the  revolution  he  was 
accused  of  adulterating  tobacco,  and  guillo- 
tined. 

Law.     {See  Ellenborough.] 

Law,  Edmund  (6.  1703,  d.  1787), 
divine,  educated  at  Cambridge,  became 
Bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1769.  He  wrote 
Reflections  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Christ,  and  other  works,  and  published  an 
edition  of  Locke. 

Law,  John  (of  Lauriston)  (6.  1671,  d.  1729), 
financial  projector,  son  of  an  Edinburgh 
goldsmith,  having  kiUed  a  man  in  a  duel, 
fled  abroad;  in  1715  propoiinded  a  scheme 
for  paying  off  the  national  debt  of  France, 
whichVa^  favoured  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
and  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Company  (1717),  to  which  was  granted 
the  sole  right  of  trading  with  Louisiana, 
o  o  2 


China,  and  other  countries  (1719).  The 
company's  bank  soon  afterwards  became  the 
Royal  Bank  of  France,  and  in  1720  Law  was 
made  comptroUer-general  of  the  finances. 
The  sums  mvested  were  for  some  time  very 
large,  but  the  pubUc  lost  confidence,  and  a 
panic  ensued.  Law  escaped  to  Venice,  where 
he  died  in  poverty. 

Law,  William  (6,  1686,  d.  1761),  mystic 
and  nonjuror,  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  was 
for  some  years  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Gibbon's  father,  and  in  1740  became  chap- 
laiu  to  Miss  Hester  Gibbon  at  King's  Chft'e. 
Besides  the  Serious  Call  (1729),  he  wrote 
several  works  expounding  the  doctrines  of 
Jacob  Boehme. 

Lawes,  Henry  (b.  1600,  d.  1662),  musical 
composer,  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal ; 
set  to  music  the  Comus  of  Milton  and  the 
poems  of  Waller,  Herrick,  and  others.  His 
Ayres  and  Ijialogues  appeared  in  1653. 

Lawrence,  Sir  Hem-y  Montgomery  (6. 
1806,  d.  1857),  entered  the  Bengal  artillery 
in  1822 ;  was  appointed  revenue  officer  in 
the  North- West  Provinces  in  1829,  and 
assistant  to  the  resident  at  Ferozpur  in 
1838;  was  afterwards  British  resident  in 
Nepaul;  took  part  in  the  first  Sikh  war 
(1845);  in  1846  was  appointed  resident  at 
Lahore,  and  president  of  the  Cotmcil  of 
Regency  ;  after  the  annexation  of  the  Pun- 
jaub  became  president  of  the  Board  of 
Administration,  but,  differing  in  his  views 
from  his  brother  John,  resigned,  and  was 
appointed  agent  at  Rajputana ;  when  the 
Mutiny  broke  out,  was  chief  commissioner 
at  Oude,  and,  though  he  was  defeated  by  the 
rebels  at  Chinhut,  did  much  to  save  India 
by  his  efforts  for  the  defence  of  Lucknow. 

Lawrence,  John  Laird  Mair,  Baron  (b. 
1811,  d.  1879),  Governor-General  of  India, 
brother  of  the  preceding;  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company  in  1829 ; 
was  in  1831  appointed  assistant  to  the  chief 
commissioner  of  Delhi,  where  he  becajne 
officiating  magisti-ate  and  collector  in  1834 ; 
was  selected  as  commissioner  for  the  newly- 
annexed  Sikh  territory  in  1846;  after  the 
second  Sikh  war  was  appointed  by  Lord 
Dalhousie  a  member  of  the  board  to  ad- 
minister the  Pimjaub,  and,  on  its  dissolution, 
chief  commissioner.  Here  he  gained  such 
influence  over  the  Sikhs  by  his  good  govern- 
ment and  personal  character  that,  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Mutiny,  they  remained  loyal, 
and  it  was  mainly  owing  to  reinforcements 
of  Punjabis  that  Delhi  fell,  and  India  was 
saved  (September,  1857).  Lord  Lawrence 
was  Viceroy  from  1864  to  1869. 

Lawrence.  Sir  Thomas  (b.  1769,  d.  1830), 
portrait-paiTitor,  son  of  a  Biistol  inn-keeper, 
began  his  artistic  career  at  Bath  in  1782  by 
taking  crayon    portraits.      He    became    a 


Law 


(500) 


Lee 


student  of  the  Koyal  Academy  in  17S7,  asso- 
ciate iu  i7iJl,  fall  member  in  179S  and 
president  iu  1S26. 

Lawrence,  Sir  "William  (6.  1783,  d.  1S67), 
a  pupil  of  Abemethy  ;  was  surgeon  to  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  from  1828  to  1865. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  senior  ser- 
geant-surgeon to  the  Queen.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  a  treatise  on  Hernia  (1807), 
Observations  on  Lithotomy  (1809),  and  lectures 
on  The  Natural  History  of  Man  (1819). 

Lawson,  Cecil  (b.  1851,  d.  1882),  landscape- 
painter,  son  of  "VYUliam  Lawson,  por- 
trait-painter ;  sent  pictures  to  the  Academy 
in  1870  and  the  following  years,  but  re- 
mained obscure  till  A  Minister's  Garden  and 
A  Pastoral  appeared  at  the  Grosvenor 
Gallery  in  1878.  Among  his  later  works  were 
A  Morning  Mist  (1879),  Wharfdale  (1881), 
and  The  Boone  Valley  (1882). 

Lawson,  Sir  Wilfrid,  Bart.  (5.  1829), 
member  for  Carlisle,  temperance  advocate. 

Layamon,  the  author  of  Brut,  a  chronicle 
of  Britain  in  verse  ;  was  a  priest  near  Em- 
ley,  on  the  Severn,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  early  in  the  13th  century. 

Layard,  Sir  Austen  Henry,  G.C.B.  {b. 
1817),  born  at  Paris,  spent  his  youth  chiefly 
in  Italy :  in  1839  journeyed  from  the  Le- 
vant to  the  interior  of  Asia,  and  determined 
to  explore  the  buried  cities  of  Mesopotamia ; 
with  the  assistance  of  Stratford  Canning 
began  his  excavations  at  Birs  Nimrud  in 
1845,  and  there  discovered  the  Assyrian 
monuments,  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  subsequently  entered  on  a  parliamen- 
tary and  diplomatic  career,  and,  as  ambassa- 
dor to  the  Porte  (1877),  brought  about  the 
annexation  of  Cj-prus.  He  published 
Nineveh  and  Babylon  (1849-51),  and  other 
works  describing  his  discoveries. 

Leader,  Benjamin  Willianis,  A.R.A.  (6. 
1831),  landscape  painter. 

Leake,  Sir  John  [b.  1656,  d.  1720),  admiral, 
fought  at  La  Hogue  (1692);  relieved  Gib- 
raltar (1705) ;  reduced  Barcelona  and  Ma- 
jorca (1706) ;  commander-in-chief  in  1707. 

Lear,  Edward  [b.  1813,  d.  1888),  author  of 
the  Book  of  Nonsense,  etc. 

Le  Brun,  Charles  (*.  1619,  <?.1690),  French 
artist,  pupQ  of  N.  Poussin ;  painted  The 
Battles  of  Alexander,  etc. 

Lebrua,  Charles  Francois,  Duke  of 
Piacenza  (h.  1739,  d.  1824),  French  states- 
man ;  sat  in  the  Constituent  Assembly  (1789) 
and  the  CouncU  of  Ancients  (1796)  ;  became 
third  consul  in  1799,  and  chief  treasurer  in 
1804 ;  was  governor-general  of  Holland 
1811-13.     He  ti-anslated  Tasso. 


Le  Brun,  Marie  (b.  1755,  d.  1842),  Freuch 
paiutress  of  portraits ;  travelled  through 
Europe  during  the  Revolution. 

Lecky,  William  Edward  Hartpole  {b. 
1838),  has  written  a  History  of  Rationalism 
in  Europe  (1865),  History  of  European 
Morals p-om  Augustus  to  Charlemagne  {1S69), 
and  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century  (1878-90). 

Le  Clerc,  Jean  (i.  1657,  d.  1736),  Swiss 
divine,  adopted  Ai'miuiau  views ;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  and  Hebrew 
at  Amsterdam  ;  wrote  three  large  Biblio- 
theques,  and  other  works. 

Lecluae,  Charles  de  {b.  1526,  d.  1609),  was 
professor  of  botany  at  Leydeu  1593-1609. 

Lecocq,  Alexandre  Charles  [b.  1832), 
French  musician;  has  composed  La  Fille 
de  Madame  Angot,  etc. 

Leconte,  Joseph  {b.  1823),  an  American 

geologist. 

Leconte  de  Lisle,  Charles  Marie  (b.  1818), 
French  poet,  bom  in  the  island  of  Reunion  ; 
has  published  Poemes  Antiques  (IS5'3) ,  Poemen 
Bat-bares  (1862),  etc. 

Ledochowski,  Mieceslas,  Cardinal  {b. 
1822,  d.  1889),  Primiite  of  Poland;  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen  in 
1866.  He  was  imprisoned  in  the  dungeons 
of  Ostrowo  1874-6,  owing  to  his  resistance 
to  the  Prussian  enactments  affecting  the 
Church. 

Ledru-Rollin,  Alexandre  Auguste  (b.  1807, 
d.  1874),  Freuch  politician  and  lawyer,  was 
returned  to  the  Assembly  in  1841 ;  joined 
the  Extreme  Left ;  on  the  fall  of  Louis 
Philippe  became  muiister  of  the  iaterior  in 
the  provisional  government ;  after  f aiUng 
in  his  candidature  for  the  presidency  and  his 
attempts  to  raise  an  insurrection,  fled  to 
England.  He  was  allowed  to  return  in 
1870. 

Ledyard,  John  {h.  1751,  d.  1788),  American 
traveller,  came  to  England  ia  1771 ;  joined 
Captain  Cook's  third  expedition  ;  in  1786-8 
attempted  to  reach  Behring's  Straits  on  foot, 
but  was  arrested  at  Irkootsh,  and  expelled 
from  Russia ;  returning  to  England,  was 
sent  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  by  the 
African  Association,  but  died  at  Cairo. 

Lee,  Anne  {b.  1736,  d.  1784),  daughter  of 
a  Manchester  blacksmith  ;  went  to  Ajnerica, 
and  there  founded  the  sect  of  Shakers. 

Lee,  Charles  {b.  1730,  d.  1782),^bom  in 
Cheshire  ;  emigrated  to  America  (1773),  and 
during  the  War  of  Independence  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  southern  colo- 
nies. He  was  suspended  by  Washington  for 
disobedience  to  orders  (1778). 


Lee 


(501) 


Lek 


Lee,  Frederick  Eichard  (b.  1798,  d.  1879), 
landscape-painter,  bom  at  Barnstaple ;  be- 
came A.R.A.  in  1834,  and  R.A.  in  1838. 

Lee,  Nathaniel  (*.  circa  1657,  d.  1691  or 
1692),  educated  at  Cambridge ;  after  failing 
as  an  actor,  became  a  dramatist,  and  wrote 
Theodosius,  TheRival  ^«ee/is,andothertrage- 
dies.     He  was  confined  in  Bedlam  1684-8. 

Lee,  Robert  Edward  (*.  1807,  d.  1870), 
American  general,  educated  at  West  Point, 
entered  the  corps  of  engineers;  served  in 
the  Mexican  war ;  was  superintendent  of 
West  Point  1852-5  ;  after  the  outbreak  of 
Civil  war  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
army  of  Northern  Virginia  (May,  1862)  ; 
repelled  McCIellan,  and  roUeved  Richmond  ; 
defeated  the  Northern  army  near  Manassas 
Junction  ;  was  beaten  by  McCIellan  at  An- 
tritam  (September)  ;  gained  the  victories 
of  Fredericksburg  (December),  and  Chan- 
cellorsville  (May,  18G3) ;  waa  defeated  at 
Gettysburg  (July) ;  fought  several  battles 
against  Grant,  and  defended  Petersburg  for 
ten  months ;  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
Confederate  armies  in  February,  1865 ;  sur- 
rendered at  Five  Forks  in  April. 

Lee,  Samuel  (6.  1783,  d.  1852),  began  life 
as  a  carpenter ;  went  to  Cambridge  (1813), 
where  he  became  professor  of  Arabic  (1819), 
and  Hebrew  (1831). 

Lee,  Sophia  (*.  1751,  d.  1824),  an  English 
noveUst  and  dramatist. 

Leech,  John  (*.  1817,  d.  1864),  son  of  a 
coffee-house  keeper,  educated  at  the  Charter- 
house ;  abandoned  the  study  of  medicine  to 
become  an  artist.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
political  cartoons  in  Punch.  Among  his 
other  works  are  illustrations  for  the  In- 
gohlshy  Legends  (1840),  Fortraits  of  Chil- 
dren of  the  Mobility,  and  the  etchings  in 
the  Comic  History  of  England,  Comic  History 
of  Rome,  and  Hood's  Comic  Annual. 

Leeds,  Thomas  Osborne,  Duke  of  (h.  1631, 
d.  1712),  best  known  as  Earl  Danby, 
minister  of  Charles  II.,  and  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  revolution  of  1688. 

Lefebvre,  Francois  Joseph,  Duo  de  Dant- 
zig  {b.  1755,  d.  1820),  French  marshal,  son 
of  a  miller,  became  a  general  of  division  in 
1794 ;  displayed  great  bravery  at  Stockach 
(1799)  ;  assisted  Napoleon  in  overthrowing 
the  Directory ;  captured  Dantzig  in  1807  ; 
distinguished  himself  in  Austria  (1809),  and 
Russia  (1812)  ;  joined  Napoleon  on  his  re- 
turn from  Elba. 

Lefebvre,  Joseph  (i.  1836),  French  painter; 
has  exhibited  Fandora  (1877),  Morning  Gray 
(1887),  Fsyche,  etc. 

Lefevre,  George  John  Shaw  {b.  1832), 
educated  at  Cambridge ;  called  to  the  bar  m 
1856  ;  represented  Reading  1863-85  ;  has  sat 
for  Bradford  since  1886.     He  became  first 


commissioner  of  works  in  1884,  and  post- 
master- general  in  the  same  year. 

Le  F^vre  d'^taples,  Jacques  (*.  1455,  d. 
1537),  French  theologian ;  published  a 
French  version  of  the  Bible  (1530). 

Le  Fort,  Franqois  Jacob  (J.  1656,  d.  1699), 
bom  at  Geneva ;  entered  the  Russian  ser- 
vice, and  was  appointed  grand-admiral  by 
Peter  the  Great  (1693). 

Legare,  Hugh  Swinton  {b.  1797,  d.  1843), 
American  lawyer  ;  became  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  in  1841. 

Legendre,  Adrien  Marie  (b.  1752,  d.  1833), 
French  mathematician,  bom  at  Toulouse, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
iScole  Militaire  at  Paris  about  1776  ;  in  1782 
wrote  a  remarkable  paper  on  the  attraction 
of  spheroids;  was  in  1787  placed  on  a  com- 
mission for  connecting  Paris  and  Green- 
wich geodetically,  and  contributed  to  the 
Academy  papers  on  trigonometrical  opera- 
tions depending  upon  the  figure  of  the  earth, 
which  contained,  among  other  theorems,  that 
known  as  "  Legendre's. "  He  published 
£iiments  de  Geometrie  (1794),  Theorie  des 
Nombres  (1798),  in  which  he  expounds  the 
law  of  quadratic  reciprocity,  Nouvelle  Theorie 
des  Faralleles  (1803),  axid  Nouvelles  Methedes 
pour  la  Determination  des  Orbites  des  Cometes, 
containing  the  first  suggestion  of  the  method 
of  least  squares.  His  most  important  con- 
tribution to  mathematical  science  was  that 
on  eUiptic  functions. 

Legge,  George,  Baron  Dartmouth  (6. 1648, 
d.  1691),  admiral,  fought  against  the  Dutch 
(1671) ;  commanded  an  expedition  against 
Tangiers  (1682):;  was  in  favour  with  James 
II.  ;  failed  to  prevent  the  landing  of  WiUiam 
of  Orange ;  took  part  in  a  Jacobite  conspiracy 
(1690),  and  died  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower. 

Legge,  James  (b.  1815),  worked  as  a 
missionary  in  China  from  1839  to  1873  ;  in 
1875  became  the  first  professor  of  Chinese  at 
Oxford.  He  has  edited  the  four  Shu  and 
the  five  King. 

Legouv6,  Ernest  Wilfrid  (6. 1807),  French 
dramatist;  has  written  Beatrix  (1861),  etc. 

Legros,  Alphonse  (b.  1837),  painter  and 
etcher,  bom,  of  humble  parentage,  at  Dijon ; 
after  exhibiting  at  the  Salon,  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1863,  and  was  in  1876  appointed 
professor  in  the  Slade  school  in  University 
College,  London.  Among  his  best  works 
are  Beath  and  the  Woodman  (an  etching), 
and  Le  Repas  des  Fauvres  (a  picture). 

Lehmann,  Rudolf  {b.  1819),  German 
artist,  was  educated  at  Paris,  Munich,  and 
Rome.  Among  his  best  pictures  are 
Sixtus  V.  Blessing  the  Foniine  Marthes, 
Grazielle,  and  portraits  of  Lord  Houghton 
and  Mrs.  Browning. 


Lei 


(502) 


Lem 


Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm,  Barou  vou 
(b.  loiii,  d.  I7I1J),  philosopher  aud  mathema- 
ticiau,  educated  at  the  university  of  Leipzig ; 
iu  1667  went  to  Frankfort  on  the  invitation 
of  Baron  von  Boiaeburg.  aud  became  coun- 
cillor to  the  Elector  of  Maiaz  ;  during  visits 
to  Paris  in  1672,  and  to  London  in  1673  aud 
1676,  became  acquainted  vrith  the  leading 
scientific  men  of  his  time ;  about  this  time 
discovered  the  differential  calculus,  which 
resembled  Newton's  method  of  fluxions  so 
closely  that  it  occasioned  a  bitter  dispute 
between  the  two ;  in  1676  was  appointed 
councillor  and  librarian  to  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Liineberg,  and  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  at  Hanover.  Among  his 
chief  works  are,  in  philosophy,  the  Ussai  de 
Theodicee  (1710)  and  the  Monadologie  (1714); 
iu  mathematics,  Theovia  Motus  Concreti  and 
Theoria  Motus  Abstracti  (1671) ;  in  natural 
science,  Protagcea,  a  treatise  on  geology. 

Leicester,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  {b. 
1532,  d.  1588),  son  of  John  Dudley, 
Duke  of  Northumberland ;  narrowly  es- 
caped execution  in  1553 ;  rose  rapidly  in 
Elizabeth's  favour,  and  is  suspected  of 
having  murdered  his  wife,  Amy  Robsart 
(1560),  in  the  hope  of  winning  her  hand. 
He  privately  married  Lady  Sheffield  (1573), 
and  Lettice  KnoUys,  Dowager-Countess  of 
Essex  (1578).  In  1585  he  commanded  the 
English  forces  sent  to  the  Netherlands ; 
remaiaed  there  for  a  year  as  governor- 
general  of  the  United  Provinces,  and  re- 
turned in  1587,  but  failed  to  effect  anything. 

Leidy,  Joseph,  M.D.  (b.  1823,  d.  1891), 
was  in  1853  appointed  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania.  He  has 
written  The  Extinct  Mammalian  Fauna  of 
Dakota  and  Nebraska  (1870),  etc. 

Leigh,  Sir  Edward  {b.  1602,  d.  1670), 
biblical  critic;  wrote  Critica  Sacra  (1639). 

Leighton,  Alexander  (Jb.  1568,  d.  1649), 
Scotch  divine  and  physician,  "  a  fiery  Puri- 
tan zealot,"  came  to  London  ia  1613 ;  in 
1623  published  Zion's  Plea,  for  which  he 
was  summoned  before  the  Star  Chamber, 
whipped,  mutilated,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  till  1640. 

Leighton,  Sir  Frederick,  Bart.  (b.  1830), 
bom  at  Scarborough,  studied  at  (Berlin, 
Frankfort,  and  Paris  ;  in  1855  sent  Cimabue^s 
Triumph  to  the  Royal  Academy  from  Rome  ; 
ha3_  since  exhibited  The  Triumph  of  Music 
(1856),  Hercules  Wrestling  with  Death 
(1871),  The  Daphnephoria  (1876),  etc. ; 
A.R.A.,  1864;  R.A.,  1869;  President,  1878. 

Leighton,  Robert  {b.  1611,  d.  1684), 
theological  writer,  son  of  Alexander  Leigh- 
ton ;  was  Presbyterian  minister  at  New- 
battle,  near  Edinburgh,  1641-53  ;  principal 
of  Edinburgh  University,  1653-61  ;  Bishop 
of  Dunblane,  1661-70,  and  Axohbiahop  of 


Glasgow,  1670-3,  after  which  he  lived  in 
retirement  at  Broadhurst,  in  Sussex.  His 
works,  comprising  sermons  and  a  commen- 
tary on  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  Peter,  were 
published  after  his  death. 

Leitner,  Gottlieb  W.  {b.  1840),  Orientalist, 
born  at  Pesth ;  appointed  professor  of 
Arabic  at  King's  College,  London,  in  1861  ; 
founded  the  Oriental  University  Institute 
at  Woking  in  1884.  He  has  carried  on 
excavations  in  India,  and  written  Grmco- 
Buddhistlc  Discoveries,  etc. 

Lejay,  Gui  Michel  (b.  1588,  d.  1674), 
French  OrientaUst ;  published  a  polyglot 
Bible. 

Le  Keux,  John  (6.  1784,  d.  1846),  English 
architectural  engraver ;  illustrated  the  works 
of  Britton,  Pugin,  and  Neale. 

Leland,  Charles  Godfrey  (6.  1824),  has 
published  Hans  Breitmann'' s  Ballads  (1871), 
a  translation  of  Heine,  etc. 

Leland,  John    {b.  circa  1506,  d.   15&2), 

antiquary  and  linguist,  educated  at  St.  Paul's 
school,  studied  at  Cambridge,  Oxford,  and 
Paris ;  became  chaplain,  librarian,  and,  in 
1533,  antiquary  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  com- 
missioned him  to  search  for  antiquities,  and 
examine  the  libraries  of  aU  the  abbeys  and 
colleges  in  the  kingdom.  He  was  prevented 
by  insanity  from  completing  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  materials  he  collected.  Most 
of  his  MSS.  were  afterwards  placed  in  the 
Bodleian  library.  His  Itinerarium  and 
Collectanea  were  edited  by  Heame  (1710-15), 
and  his  Gommentarii  de  Scriptoribus  Britan* 
mm  by  Hall  (1709). 

Leland,  John  {b.  1691,  d.  1766),  minister 
of  a  Dissenting  congregation  in  Dublin ; 
wrote  in  defence  of  Chri.^tiauity. 

Leila,  Vittorio  {b.  1859),  an  Italian 
mountaineer  and  photographer. 

Lely,  Sir  Peter  ("Van  der  Faes)  (6.  1617, 
d.  1680),  portrait-painter ;  came  to  England 
in  1641,  and  succeeded  Vandyke  as  painter 
to  the  king.  His  best-known  portraits  are 
those  of  the  beauties  of  the  court;  of 
Charles  II. 

Lemaire,  Jeanne  Madeline  (*.  1850), 
French  artist,  paints  chiefly  in  oils. 

Lemaltre,  Frederick  {b.  1798,  d.  1876),  a 
French  actor,  celebrated  for  his  realistic 
impersonations. 

Lemoine,  Francois  (*.  1688,  d.  1737),  a 
French  artist,  pupil  of  Galloche,  became 
professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy. 
His  chief  work  is  The  Apotheosis  of  Her- 
cules in  the  palace  of  Versailles. 

Lemon,  Mark  {b.  1809,  d.  1870),  bom  in 


Lem 


(503) 


Leo 


Londou ;  joined  in  starting  Punch  (1841),  of 
which  he  was  sole  editor  1843-70.  He  also 
wrote  many  farces,  melodramas,  novels, 
Bongs,  and  essays. 

Lemonnier,  Pierre  Charles  (b.  1715,  d. 
1799j,  French  astronomer ;  assisted  Mau- 
pertuis  in  measui-iug  an  arc  of  the  meridian 
at  Toruea  in  the  Arctic  regions. 

Lempriere,  John  (,b.  circa  1760,  d.  1824), 
classical  scholar,  whose  Classical  Bictionary 
was  published  in  1792. 

Lenau,  Nicholas  (Nieinbsch  von  Streh- 
lenau)  {b.  1802,  d.  1850),  Hungarian  poet, 
lived  chiefly  at  Vienna  and  Stuttgart; 
excelled  as  a  lyrist ;  also  wrote  Faust  (1836), 
Savonarola  (^1837),  Die  Albigenser  (1842), 
and  other  long  poems. 

Leubacli,  Franz  (Jb.  1836),  German  artist ; 
has  painted  portraits  of  Moltke,  Bismarck, 
Diillinger,  Wagner,  and  others. 

Lenclos,  Anne  or  Ninon  de  {b.  1616,  d. 
1706),  a  celebrated  French  beauty,  who  re- 
tained her  attractions  to  a  great  age. 

Lenfant,  Jacques  (6.  1661,  d.  1728), 
French  Protestant  divine  ;  settled  at  Berlin, 
and  became  chaplaiu  to  Frederick  William 
of  Prussia  (1710).  He  wrote  histories  of  the 
Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle. 

Lenormant,  Fran9oi3  {b.  1837,  d.  1883), 
professor  of  archaeology  at  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  (1874-83) ;  carried  on  excavations 
at  Eleusis  and  elsewhere  ;  wrote  an  Ancient 
History  of  the  East,  etc. 

LenthaU,  William  (i.  1591,  d.  1662),  law- 
yer and  politician  ;  was  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  (1640-53),  and  again  in 
1654  and  1660. 

Lentulus,  P.  Cornelius  Sura  Id.  62  B.C.), 
consul  in  73  B.C.  ;  joined  Catiline's  con- 
spiracy. He  was  arrested,  and  strangled  in 
prison. 

Leo,  Johannes,  "Africanus  "(<?.  circa  1526), 
a  Moor  of  Granada,  travelled  in  Africa  and 
Asia  ;  was  captured  by  pirates,  and  carried 
before  Leo  X. ,  who  induced  him  to  change 
his  religion.  He  wrote,  in  Arabic,  a  Descrip- 
tion of  Africa. 

Leo,  Leonardo  (h.  1694,  d.  1744),  musician, 
bom  at  Naples,  pupil  of  Scarlatti ;  composed 
two  oratorios,  many  sacred  pieces,  and  some 
operas. 

Leo  of  Modena  (Judah  Arieh)  [b.  1571,  d. 
1054),  a  learned  Venetian  rabbi ;  wrote  Is- 
toria  dei  Riti  Hebraici,  etc. 

Leo  III.,  "  the  Isauriau,"  Emperor  of  the 
East  Ul.  741),  succeeded  Anastatius  II.  in 
717.  In  718-19  the  Saracens  besieged  Con- 
stantinople, but  were  at  last  defeated.  By 
condemning  the  use  of  images,  in  opposition 


to   the    pope,    he    started    the    celebrated 
Iconoclast  controversy. 

Leo  VL,  "the  PhUosopher"  {b.  865,  d. 
911),  succeeded  his  father,  Basil,  in  886. 
Duiing  his  reign  the  empire  was  overrun  by 
the  Saracens  and  Bulgarians.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  tactics,  and  completed  the  code 
of  laws  called  Basilica. 

Leo  I.,  "  the  Great,"  Pope  (b.  circa  309, 
d.  461),  succeeded  Sixtus  III.  in  440 ; 
zealously  opposed  the  Mauichaeans  and 
Pelagians,  and  secured  the  condemnation 
of  the  Eutychiau  heresy  at  the  General 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451).  He  induced 
Attila  to  spare  Rome  (452),  but  it  was 
pUlaged  by  Genseric  (455). 

Leo  m.  {d.  816),  on  becondng  Pope  (795) 
acknowledged  Charlemagne  as  protector  of 
the  Church  ;  was  driven  from  Rome  in  799, 
but  restored  by  Charlemagne,  whom  ha 
crowned  Emperor  of  the  West  in  800. 

Leo  IX.  (Bruno),  Pope  (A.  1002,  d.  1054), 
previously  Bishop  of  Toulouse  ;  was  elected 
at  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1048),  and  confirmed 
by  the  Roman  clergy  ;  made  strenuous  en- 
deavours to  eradicate  the  vices  of  the 
clergy,  attacked  the  Normans,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Civitella  (1053),  but 
released  after  ten  months'  imprisonment. 

Leo  X.,  Pope  (Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  Medici) 
{h.  1475,  d.  1521),  son  of  Lorenzo  the  Mag- 
nificent, born  at  Florence ;  was  banished 
with  his  family  in  1497  ;  travelled  in  Ger- 
many and  Flanders,  and  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Erasmus  ;  on  his  return  to  Italy 
became  legate  to  Julius  II.  ;  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Ravenna  (1512) ;  became  pope 
in  1513.  In  his  efforts  to  extend  the  papal 
dominions  he  allied  himself  at  one  time 
with  France,  at  another  with  the  Empire. 
In  1515  he  signed  the  famous  concordat 
with  Francis  I.  His  pontificate  is  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  periods  in  the  history  of 
art  and  literatui'e,  aud  is  also  memorable  as 
the  time  when  the  Reformation  began. 

Leo  XII.  (Annibale  dolla  Genga),  Pope  (6. 
1760,  d.  1829),  a  native  of  Romagua,  suc- 
ceeded Pius  VII.  in  1823. 

LeoXIIL(GioacchiuoPecci),Pope  (6. 1810), 
son  of  Count  Ludo\aco  Pecci,  born  at  Car- 
pineto,  in  the  Papal  States,  educated  at  the 
CoUegio  Romano  and  the  Academy  of  Noble 
Ecclesiastics  ;  adniiuistered  the  districts  of 
Benevento,  Spoleto,  and  Perugia  suc- 
cessively ;  became  Archbishop  of  Damietta 
1843,  aud  Bishop  of  Perugia  1846 ;  was 
nuncio  to  the  King  of  the  Belgians  1843-6 ; 
was  created  a  cardinal  18;)3,  and  in  1S77 
became  chamberlain.  He  was  elected  pope 
as  representative  of  the  Moderates  in  1878. 
Among  his  most  important  encyclicals  are 


Leo 


(  504  ) 


Ler 


those  conceminfj  the  Irish  Nationalist  move- 
ment (1888),  and  the  Labour  question  (1891). 

Leon,  Juau  Ponce  de  (b.  1460,  d.  1521), 
Spanish  adventurer,  accompanied  Columbus 
in  1493  ;  received  a  command  in  Hayti ;  con- 
quered Porto  Eico ;  discovered  Florida  in 
1512  ;  -was  vroundedin  an  expedition  against 
the  Caribs,  and  died  in  Cuba. 

Leonidas,  King  of  Sparta,  defended  the 
pass  of  Thermopylae  against  Xerxes,  King 
of  Persia,  but,  owing  to  the  treachery  of  a 
Greek  named  Ephialtes,  was  surprised  in 
the  rear,  and  slain,  with  his  whole  army 
(480  B.C.). 

Leopardi,  Giacomo,  Count  {b.  1798,  d. 
1837),  Italian  philologist  and  poet,  born  at 
Recanati,  in  the  March  of  Ancona  ;  after  a 
visit  to  Rome  (1820),  where  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  Niebuhr,  rambled  about 
Italy,  settling  at  Naples  in  1832.  He  wrote 
Canzoni,  and  lyrics,  such  as  La  Genestra ; 
also  Operette  Morali  (dialogues),  many 
learned  essays,  including  one  On  the  Popular 
Errors  of  the  Ancients,  and  translations  of 
several  classical  authors.  He  suffered  much 
from  ill-health. 

Leopold  L,  Duke  of  Austria  (6.  1157,  d. 
1194),  after  taking  part  in  the  third  Crusade, 
seized  Richard  I.  when  on  his  way  home, 
and  sold  him  to  the  Emperor  Henry  VI. 

Leopold  XL,  Duke  of  Austria  (b.  1292,  d. 
1326),  was  son  of  the  Emperor  Albert  I.  He 
was  defeated  by  the  Swiss  at  Morgarten 
(1315). 

Leopold  XXL ,  Duke  of  Austria  {b.  \Z5\,  d. 
1380),  son  of  Albert  II.,  ruled  over  Suabia, 
Carinthia,  and  Tyrol.  He  was  slain  at 
Sempach. 

Leopold  I.,  Emperor  {b.  1640,  d.  1705), 
son  of  Ferdinand  III.,  became  King  of 
Hungary  in  1655,  and  of  Bohemia  in 
1657 ;  was  elected  emperor  in  1658.  The 
Turkish  invasion  was  brought  to  a  close  by 
the  victory  of  Montecuculi,  at  St.  Gothard 
(1664).  A  war  with  France,  begun  in  1674, 
was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen 
(1678).  Owing  to  the  emperor's  cruel 
government,  the  Hungarians  rose  in  revolt 
under  Tekeli,  and  were  aided  by  the  Turks, 
who  besieged  Vienna,  but  were  driven  back 
by  John  Sobiesld,  and  finally  defeated  by 
Prince  Eugene  near  Zeuta  (1697).  Mean- 
while Leopold  was  engaged  in  a  war  with 
France,  which  was  ended  by  the  peace  of 
Ryswick  ( 1697).  His  attempts  to  secure  the 
throne  of  Spain  for  his  son  Charles  led  to 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

Leopold  n.,  Emperor  (5. 1747,  d.  1792),  son 
of  Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa ;  in  1765  be- 
came Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  where  he  in- 
troduced many  reforms  in  church  and  state ; 
in  1790  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Austria, 


and  was  elected  emperor ;  suppressed  a  re- 
volt in  the  Netherlands ;  restored  tranquillity 
in  Hungary,  and  concluded  a  peace  with 
the  Turks ;  signed  the  treaty  of  Pilnitz  with 
Prussia  in  support  of  Louis  XVI.  (1791), 
but  died  soon  afterwards. 

Leopold  I.,  King  of  the  Belgians  (b.  1790, 
d.  1865),  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg,  elected  king 
by  the  National  Congress  in  1831 ;  after  a 
struggle  with  the  Dutch,  concluded  by  the 
Convention  of  1833,  applied  himself  to  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  the  country. 
A  commercial  treaty  with  England  was 
signed  iu  1851,  and  one  with  France  in  1861. 

Leopold  IX.  {b,  1835),  son  of  the  preceding, 
married  the  Archduchess  Maria  of  Austria 
in  1853,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1865. 
His  reign  has  been  marked  by  the  quarrels 
of  the  Liberals  and  Roman  Catholics.  He 
is  the  leading  spirit  of  the  International 
African  Association, 

Leopold  I.,  of  Tuscany.    [See  Leopold  n., 

Emperor.] 

Leopold  XL,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  (b. 

1797,  d.  1870),  abdicated  in  1859. 

Lepidus,  Marcus  ^milius  {d.  13  B.C.), 
attached  himself  to  Caesar,  with  whom  he 
was  consul  in  46  B.C. ;  after  his  assassination, 
joined  Antonius  and  Octavianus,  the  three 
forming  the  first  triumvirate ;  in  36  was 
worsted  in  a  struggle  with  Octavianus,  and 
banished  to  Circeii. 

Lepsius,  Karl  Richard  (6.  1810,  d.  1884), 
Egyptologist,  bom  at  Naumburg,  studied 
philology  under  Bopp  at  Berlin  ;  edited  the 
Egyptian  Book  of*  the  Bead  (1842)  ;  in  the 
same  year  was  appointed  professor  of 
Egyptology  at  Berlin,  and  led  a  scientific 
expedition  to  Egypt,  resulting  in  the  Monu- 
ments of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  (1849-60) ; 
published  his  Egyptian  Chronology  in  1849  ; 
m  1866  revisited  Egypt. 

Ler  do  de  Tejada,  Sebastian  (b.  1825), 
Mexican  politician ;  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  1863-7,  chief  justice  1867-72,  and 
president  1872-6. 

Lerma,  Francisco  de  Rojas  y  Sandoval, 
Duke  of  (d.  1625),  was  mmister  of  Philip 
III.  of  Spain  from  1598  to  1618,  when  he  was 
displaced  by  his  son,  the  Duke  of  Uzeda. 

Lermontofif,  Mikhail  Yurevitch  (b.  1814, 
d.  1841),  Russian  poet,  wrote  The  Novice, 
The  Demon,  The  iSong  of  the  Czar,  Ivan 
Vdsilievitch,  etc. 

Leroux,  Pierre  {b.  1798,  d.  1871),  French 
Socialist,  son  of  a  Paris  artisan  ;  in  1831  be- 
came a  follower  of  St.  Simon,  but  differed 
from  Enfantin,  and  in  1840  published  De 
V Hmnanite,  formulating  the  creed  of  the 
Humanitarian  schooL 


LeS 


(605) 


Lev 


Le  Sage,  Alain  Bene  (b.  1668,  d.  1747), 
French  novelist  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Sar- 
zeau,  in  Brittany,  educated  in  the  Jesuit 
college  atVannes;  went  to  Paris  in  1692, 
learnt  Spanish,  and  translated  or  imitated 
several  Spanish  dramas;  in  1707  produced 
Ze  Diable  Boiteux,  and  soon  afterwards  a 
comedy  called  Turcaret.  Gil  Bias  was  pub- 
lished in  three  parts  (1715-24-35). 

Leslie,  Alexander,  Earl  of  Leven  (b.  1590, 
d.  1661),  after  serving  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  became  commander-iu-chief  of 
the  Covenanters  (1639),  and  defeated  the 
royal  forces  at  Newbum  (1640).  He  com- 
manded the  Scots  in  the  Parhamentary  army 
at  Marston  Moor. 

Leslie,  Charles  {b.  1650,  d.  1722),  Irish 
nonjuror;  carried  on  controversies  against 
Boman  Catholicism,  and  wrote  A  Short  and 
Easy  Method  with  the  Deists  (1694)  ;  went 
with  the  Pretender  to  Italy  in  1715 ;  died 
in  Ireland. 

Leslie,  Charles  Robert  (b.  1794,  d.  1859), 
artist,  bom  in  London  of  American  parents, 
brought  up  in  America ;  returned  to  London 
in  1811,  was  elected  A.B.A.  in  1821,  and 
R.A.  in  1826.  Most  of  his  works  illustrate 
incidents  from  Shakespeare,  Molifere,  Cer- 
vantes, and  other  humorists. 

Leslie,  George  Dunlop  (6,  1835),  son  of 
the  preceding,  became  A.B.A.  in  1868,  and 
R.A,  in  1876. 

Leslie,  John  (6.  1526,  d.  1596),  Scotch 
Roman  Catholic  priest;  became  Bishop  of 
Ross  in  1565  ;  defended  Queen  Mary's  cause 
at  York  in  1568  ;  was  implicated  in  Norfolk's 
plot,  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  1571-3; 
became  Bishop  of  Coutances  in  1593 ;  died 
in  a  monastery  near  Brussels. 

Leslie,  Sir  John  (6.  1766,  d.  1832),  mathe- 
matician,  bom  at  Largo,  in  Fifeshire ;  was 
educated  at  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh, 
where  he  was  professor  of  mathematics 
(1805-19),  and  natural  philosophy  (1819-32). 
His  chief  work  is  an  Inquiry  into  the  Nature 
and  Propagation  of  Heat  (1804).  In  1810  he 
invented  a  process  of  artificial  congelation. 
By  means  of  the  differential  thermometer, 
which  he  claims  to  have  invented,  he  carried 
out  original  investigations  in  photometry, 
hydroscopy,  and  the  temperature  of  space. 

Leslie,  Thomas  Edward  Cliffe  (6.  1827,  d. 
1882),  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ; 
became  professor  of  political  economy  and 
jurisprudence  at  Belfast  in  1853.  His  chief 
works  are  The  Land  System  (1870),  and 
Essar/s  in  Folitical  and  Moral  Philosophy 
(1879).  He  api>lied  the  historical  method  to 
economic  questions. 

Lespinasse,  Claire  Francois  (J>.  circa  1731, 
d.    1776),    held   a    famous    salon,    where 


D'Alembert  was  a  constant  attendant.    Her 
Lettres  were  published  in  1809. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand,  Vicomte  de  {b.  1805), 
after  holding  various  consular  posts,  went 
to  Madrid  as  ambassador  in  1848.  While  in 
Egypt.  iQ  1854,  he  proposed  the  scheme  of 
the  Suez  Canal  to  Said  Pasha,  aud,  a  com- 
pany having  been  formed,  the  canal  was 
begim  in  1859,  and  completed  in  1S69.  He 
was  also  author  of  the  Panama  Canal  scheme. 

^Lessing',  Gotthold  Ephraim  {b.  1729,  d. 
1781),  bom  at  Kamenz,  in  Lusatia,  educated 
at  the  Meissen  Fiirstenschule  and  the  univer- 
sity of  Leipzig ;  between  1749  and  1760 
lived  chiefly  at  Berhn,  where  Mendelssohn 
and  Nicolai  were  his  hterary  associates ;  was 
secretary  to  General  Taueutzieu,  governor  of 
Silesia,  1760-5  ;  in  1770  became  librarian  to 
the  Duke  of  Bnmswick  at  Wolfenbiittel. 
By  publishing  Reimarus's  Wolfihhiittel 
Fragments  (1774),  of  which  he  was  supposed 
to  be  the  author,  he  incurred  the  hostihty  of 
the  church.  His  chief  works  are  Laokoon 
(1760),  a  treatise  on  art,  and  the  following 
dramas :  Miss  Sarah  Sampson,  a  tragedy 
fl755),  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  a  comedy 
(1767),  Emilia  Galotti,  a  tragedy  (1772), 
and  Nathan  der  Weise  (1779). 

L'Estrange,  Sir  Roger  (b.  1616,  d.  1704), 
fought  for  Charles  L ;  was  licenser  of  the 
press  imder  Charles  II.,  and  set  up  two 
newspapers,  the  London  Gazette  (1663-5), 
and  the  Observator  (1679-87).  He  wrote 
several  poUtical  tracts. 

Le  Sueur,  Jean  Francois  (b.  1760,  d.  1837), 
musical  composer,  born  near  Abbeville; 
was  appointed  chapel-master  of  Notre  Dame 
in  1786.  He  composed  Telemaque,  La  Cth 
verne,  Les  Bardes,  and  other  operas. 

Lethington.     [See  Maitland,] 

Leucippus,  Greek  philosopher,  disciple  of 
Zeuo  and  teacher  of  Democntus ;  originated 
the  atomic  theory. 

Leusden,  Johann  {b.  1624,  d.  1699),  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Utrecht  1649-99. 

Leutze,  Emanuel  (b.  1816,  d.  1868),  a 
German  historical  painter. 

Leuwenhoek,  Antoni  (*.  1632,  d.  1723), 
Dutch  naturalist;  said  to  have  discovered 
the  spermatozoa. 

Levaillant,  Francois  {b.  1753,  d.  1824), 
French  traveller,  explored  South  Africa 
(1781-84). 

Lever,  Charles  {b.  1806,  d.  1872),  novelist, 
born  in  Dublin ;  practised  as  a  doctor  in 
Ireland  1832-9,  and  at  Brussels  1830-42; 
was  appointed  consul  at  Spezzia  in  1858,  and 
at  Trieste  in  1867.  Among  his  works  ar« 
Marry  Lorrequer  (1837),  Charles  O'Mallef 
(1841),  Con  Cregan,  A  Lay^a  Ride,  etc. 


Lev 


(606) 


Lie 


Leveridge,  Richard  (6.  1670,  d.  1758),  a 
popular  English  siuger. 

Leverrier,  Urbain  Jean  Joseph  (b.  1811, 
d.  1877).  French  astronomer,  bom  at  St.  L6 
in  Normandy,  studied  at  the  ficole  Poly- 
technique  in  Paris ;  in  1846  discovered  the 
planet  Neptune ;  after  his  appointment  to 
the  directorship  of  the  Paris  observatory, 
(1854),  revised  the  theories  of  planetary 
motion,  and  fonned  more  accurate  tables. 
He  founded  the  Association  Scientiflque. 

Levi,  Hebrew  patriarch,  son  of  Jacob  and 

Leah,  died  in  Egypt. 

Levi,  Leone,  Professor  (*.  1821,  d.  1888), 
economic  writer,  born  at  Ancona,  settled  in 
England  in  1844,  Among  his  works  are 
Intei-national  Commercial  Law,  and  a  His- 
tory of  British  Commerce  (1763-1878). 

Lewald,  Fanny  (b.  1811,  d.  1889),  German 
novelist,  has  published  Die  Erloserin  (1873), 
Voter  und  Sohn  (1881),  etc. 

Lewes,  George  Henry  (b.  1817,  d.  1878), 
miscellaneous  writer  ;  published  a  Misto7-y  of 
Philosophy  (1845-6),  Life  of  Robespierre 
(1849),  Life  of  Goethe  (1855),  Problems  of 
Life  and  Mind  (\d,14:-9),  etc. 

Lewis,  Sir  George  Comewall  (b.  1806,  d. 
1863),  educated  at  Oxford,  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1831 ;  entered  Parliament  in  1847 ; 
was  appointed  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
in  1855,  Home  Secretary  in  1859,  and  secre- 
tary for  war  in  1861.  He  wrote  The  Use 
and  Abuse  of  some  Political  Terms  (1832), 
The  Tnjiuence  of  Authority  in  Matters  of 
Opinion  (1850),  and  other  works. 

Lewis,  John  Frederick,  E.A.  {b.  1805, 
d.  1876),  artist,  excelled  in  representations 
of  Eastern  Hf  e  and  scenery. 

Lewis,  Matthew  Gregory  (6. 1775,  d.  1818), 
wrote  The  Monk  (1795),  The  Bravo  of  Venice 
(1804),  and  other  blood-curdling  novels; 
also  several  plays. 

Lewis,  Thomas  Hayter  {b.  1818),  pro- 
fessor of  architecture  at  University  College 
1865-81 ,  wrote  the  articles  on  Ancient  and 
Modern  Architecture  in  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica. 

Lewis,  William  James  {b.  1847),  educated 
at  Oxford  ;  became  professor  of  mineralogy 
at  Cambridge  in  1881. 

Ley,  James,  Earl  of  Marlborough  {b.  1552, 
d.  1628),  lawyer;  was  made  chief -justice  of 
the  King's  Bench  in  1621,  and  lord-treasmer 
in  1625. 

Leydea,  John  (5.  1775,  d.  1811),  Scottish 
poet  and  Orientalist ;  contributed  to  Scott's 
Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border.  He 
aiterwau'da  became  a  judge  at  Calcutta. 


Leyden,  Lukas  van  (Lukas  Jacobs)  (b. 
1494,  (/.  1533),  a  celebrated  painter  and 
engraver  of  the  Flemish  school. 

L'Hdpital,  Guillaimie  de,  Marquis  de 
Saint-Mesme  {b.  1661,  d.  1704),  French 
mathematician ;  wrote  Analyse  aes  Infini- 
ment-Petits  (1696). 

L'Hdpital,  Michel  de  {b.  1504,  d.  1573), 
French  statesman,  went  as  ambassador  to 
the  Council  of  Trent ;  became  chancellor  of 
France  in  1560;  prevented  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Inquisition  in  France;  caused 
the  States- General  to  be  assembled  (1560), 
and  secured  the  passing  of  an  edict  granting 
freedom  of  worship  to  the  Protestants.  His 
pacific  policy  being  distasteful  to  the  Guises, 
civil  war  broke  out  in  1562,  and  in  1568  he 
was  deprived  of  his  office. 

Lhuyd,  Edward  {b.  1670,  d.  1709),  Welsh 
antiquary,  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Mu- 
seum ;  wrote  Archceologia  Britannica,  etc. 

Libanius  (Jb.  circa  314,  d.  circa  390),  Greek 
rhetorician,  friend  of  the  Emperor  Julian ; 
taught  at  Constantinople,  Athens,  and  An- 
tioch.  Saints  Basil  and  Chrysostom  were 
among  his  pupils. 

Liberius,  Bishop  of  Eome  {d.  366),  suc- 
ceeded Julius  I.  in  352;  supported  Athan- 
asius,  and  was  banished  by  Coustantine  in 
356 ;  retracted  in  358,  and  was  allowed  to 
return. 

Libri-Carucci,  GugUelmo  Brutus  Iciliua 
Timoleon,  Count  {b.  1803,  d.  1869),  Italian 
mathematician,  settled  in  London  in  1848. 

Lichtenberg,  Georg  Christoph  {b.  1742, 
d.  1799),  Gei-man  humorist,  professor  of 
experimental  philosophy  at  GiJttingen ; 
wrote  The  Physiognomy  of  Tails  in  ridicule 
of  Lavater,  etc. 

Liddell,  Henry  George  (b.  1811),  Dean 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (1855-91),  joint 
author  of  Liddell  and  Scoffs  Greek  Lexicon. 

Liddon,  Henry  Parry,  D.D.  {b.  1829,  d. 
1890),  a  prominent  member  of  the  Liberal 
High  Church  Party,  educated  at  Oxford, 
delivered  his  Bampton  lectures  On  the  Di- 
vinity of  Jesus  Christ  va  1866;  was  appointed 
canon  residentiary  of  St.  Paul's  in  1870. 

Lie,  Jonas  (b.  1833),  a  Norwegian  novel- 
ist ;  wrote  The  Man  with  the  Second  Sight 
(1870),  The  Pilot  and  His  Wife  (1874),  etc. 

Lieber,  Franz  (6.  1800,  d.  1872),  bom  in 
Berlin ;  after  suffering  imprisonment  for  his 
political  opinions,  went  to  America  (1827), 
and  became  professor  of  history  in  Columbia 
College,  South  Carolina.  He  edited  the 
Encyclopedia  Americana  (1829-33),  and  has 
written  Political  Ethics  (1838),  etc. 


Lie 


(507) 


Lin 


Liebig,  Justus,  Baxon  von  {b.  1803,  d. 
1873),  chemist,  bom  at  Darmstadt,  studied 
at  Bonn  and  Erlangeu ;  went  to  Paris,  and 
attracted  the  attention  of  Humboldt  by  a 
papei'  on  fulminic  acid  ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor at  Giessen  (1824),  where  his  labora- 
tory became  celebrated,  and  afterwards  at 
Munich  (1852).  Among  his  chief  works  are 
Organic  Chemistry  in  its  Application  to 
Agriculture  (1840),  and  Annalender  Chimie, 
edited  in  conjunction  with  Wohler. 

Liebkaecht,  Wilhelm  (6.  1826),  German 
Socialist,  spent  thirteen  years  in  England, 
and  joined  the  International  (1864)  ;  became 
editor  of  the  Bemokratisches  Wochenblatt  in 
1867 ;  was  imprisoned  from  1872  to  1875, 
when  he  took  his  seat  in  the  Eeichstag. 

Llghtfoot.  John  {b.  1602,  d.  1675),  Hebrew 
scholar,  at  tirst  a  clergyman  of  the  Chui'ch 
of  England ;  became  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  of  Divines,  and  represented  the 
Presbj'terians  at  the  Savoy  Conference. 

Lightfoot,  Joseph  Barber,  D.D.  {b.  1828, 
d.  li>6'S),  became  Lady  Margaret  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1875  ;  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Durham  in  1879.  He 
published  valuable  commentaries  on  St. 
Paul's  epistles  and  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  etc, 

Ligne,  Charles  Joseph,  Prince  de  (b.  1735, 
d.  1814),  general  in  the  Austrian  service, 
bom  at  Brussels;  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war;  went  to  Russia  as 
ambassador  in  1782,  and  served  in  the  army 
of  Catherine  II.  against  the  Turks.  His 
Melanges  give  a  lively  picture  of  contempo- 
rary events. 

Ligonier,  John,  Earl  {b.  1678,  d.  1770), 
field-marshal,  distinguished  himself  in  Marl- 
borough's campaigns  ;  served  in  Flanders, 
1746-7,  displaying  great  gallantry  at  the 
battle  of  Laffeldt;  became  commander-in- 
chief  in  1757. 

Liguorl,  St.  Alfonso  Maria  de  (6.  1696,  d. 
1787),  founded  the  Congregation  of  the 
Most  Holy  Redeemer,  for  promoting  the 
religious  education  of  the  poor  (1732);  was 
Bishop  of  St.  Agatha  dei  Goti  1762-75; 
died  in  the  convent  of  his  order  at  Nocera 
dei  PaganL     He  wrote  Veritd  delta  Fede,  etc. 

Li  Hung  Chang  {b.  1823),  the  prime 
minister  of  China. 

LUbume,  John  (*.  1618,  d.  1657),  was 
imprisoned  by  the  Star  Chamber  for  circu- 
lating seditious  libels  (1636-40)  ;  served  in 
the  Parliamentary  army ;  during  the  Com- 
monwealth was  frequently  imprisoned  for 
attacks  on  Cromwell's  government. 

LUlo,  George  (*.  1693,  d.  1739),  English 
dramatist ;  wrote  George  Barnwell,  Fatal 
Curiosity,  and  Arden  of  Feversham. 


Lilly,  or  Lyly,  John  {b.  circa  1553,  d. 
circa  1606),  vrrote  several  dramas,  and  about 
1580  pubHshed  EiipJiues  .•  the  Anatomy  of 
Wit,  the  flowery  language  of  which  was 
much  admired  by  Elizabeth's  courtiers, 
and  gave  rise  to  the  style  of  speaking  and 
writing  called  "Euphuism." 

Lilly,  William  (*.  1602,  d.  1681),  astro- 
loger ;  was  consulted  by  both  parties  during 
the  Civil  war.  His  Merlinus  Anglicus  was 
published  annually  from  1644  to  1681. 

Lily,  William  (i.  1466,  d.  1523),  educated 
at  Magdalen  College,  Oxon.  ;  after  travel- 
ling in  the  East,  opened  a  school  in  London, 
in  which  he  taught  Greek.  He  was  the 
first  master  of  St.  Paul's  school.  His  Latin 
Grammar  was  pubUshed  in  1513. 

Limborch,  Philip  van  {b.  1633,  d.  1712), 
Dutch  Arminian  divine,  pastor  at  Gouda 
and  Amsterdam ;  wrote  Theologia  Christiana 
(1686),  etc. 

Linacre,  Thomas  {b.  circa  1460,  d.  1524), 
founder  and  first  president  of  the  College  of 
Physicians ;  after  completing  his  course  at 
Oxford,  studied  at  several  Italian  uni- 
versities ;  returning  to  England,  lectured 
on  Greek  and  medicine  at  Oxford  ;  became 
tutor  and  phj-sician  to  Prince  Arthur  ;  took 
orders  about  1509,  and  received  various 
preferments.  He  wrote  De  Emendata 
Structura  Latini  Sermonis,  and  other  works. 

Lincoln,  Abraham  {b.  1809,  d.  1865),  Ameri- 
can statesman,  bom  in  Kentucky,  spent  his 
childhood  in  Indiana ;  settled  in  Illinois  in 
1830  ;  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  War  (1832),; 
studied  law,  and  sat  in  the  Legislature 
(1834-41)  ;  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1846, 
and  became  conspicuous  as  an  opponent  of 
slavery.  While  canvassing  the  state  for  a 
seat  in  the  Senate  (1858),  he  won  much 
popularity  among  the  Republicans.  His 
election  to   the   presidency   in   November, 

1860,  was  followed  by  the  secession  of  the 
southern  states,  and  Civil  war  broke  out  in 

1861.  In  September,  1862,  Lincoln  issued  a 
proclamation  of  emancipation,  which  took 
eflfect  on  January  1,  1863.  He  was  re- 
elected in  1864.  The  success  of  Grant's 
operations  brought  the  war  to  a  close  in 
1865,  and  Lincoln  was  engaged  in  schemes 
of  re-organisation,  when  he  was  shot  at  the 
theatre  by  an  actor  named  Booth. 

Lincoln,  Robert  Todd  {b.  1843),  son  of 
the  preceding ;  was  appointed  American 
minister  to  England  in  1889. 

Lind,  Jenny  (*.  1820,  d.  1889),  bom  at 
Stockholm,  studied  in  Paris  under  Garcia 
(1841)  ;  visited  Berlin  in  1844,  Vienna  in 
1846,  London  in  1847,  and  the  United  States 
in  1850-2 ;  married  Herr  Otto  Goldschmid 
in  1852,  and  withdrew  from  the  stage,  but 
continued  to  sing  in  oratorios  and  concerts. 


Ziiu 


(508) 


Lis 


Linde,  Samuel  Bogumil  (-''.  1771,  d.  1S17), 
of  Swedish  descent,  boru  at  Thorn,  published 
a  FoUsh  Dictionari/.     He  died  at  Warsaw. 

Lindpaintner,  Peter  Joseph  {b.  1791,  d. 
1858),  a  German  musical  composer. 

Lindsay,  Sir  David  {b.  circa  1490,  d.  1555), 
Scotch  poet,  was  sent  on  several  embassies 
bj'  James  V. ,  after  whose  death  he  supported 
the  cause  of  the  reformers.  He  wrote 
17(6  Drone,  The  Complaynt,  A  Satyre  of 
the  Three  Etitatis,  etc. 

Lindsay,  David,  F.E.G.S.  {b.  1856),  born 
in  South  Australia,  conducted  the  Arnheims 
exploring  expedition  in  1883 ;  in  1885-6 
led  a  private  expedition  across  Australia 
from  south  to  north. 

Lindsey,  Theophilus  _  (*.  1723,  d.  1808), 
Euglish  clergyman,  resigned  his  living  at 
Catterick  in  Yorkshire  (1773),  and  became  a 
Unitarian  minister  in  London  (1774-93). 
He  wrote  an  Apology,  explaining  the  change 
in  his  views. 

Lingard,  John  (b.  1771,  d.  1851),  his- 
torian, descended  from  a  Roman  Catholic 
family  in  Lincolnshire,  studied  at  Douay ; 
on  the  estabUshment  of  Crook  Hall,  Dur- 
ham (1794),  became  its  vice-president,  and 
subsequently  professor  of  natural  and  moral 
philosophy ;  removed  with  the  community 
to  Ushaw  (1808),  and  in  1811  withdrew  to 
Hornby.  His  works  are  Antiquities  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church  (1806)  and  a  History  of 
England  (1819-30). 

Lingen,  Ralph  Robert  Wheeler,  Baron  {b. 
1819),  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  a 
fellow  of  Balliol ;  called  to  the  bar  1847  ; 
and  in  1849  became  secretary  to  the  Educa- 
tional Department ;  became  permanent  sec- 
retarj'-  to  the  Treasm-y  in  1870  ;  Alderman  to 
the  London  County  Council,  1889. 

Linley,  Thomas  {b.  circa  1725,  d.  1795), 
musical  composer,  became  proprietor  of 
Drury  Lane  theatre  in  conjunction  with  his 
son-in-law,  R.  B.  Sheridan  (1776).  He  wrote 
the  accompaniment  to  the  airs  in  the 
Beggar's  Opera,  and  composed  several 
ballads. 

Linnaeus  (Von  Linne),  Carl  [b.  1707,  d. 
1778 1,  bom  at  Rashult,  studied  at  the 
universities  of  Lund  and  Upsal,  where, 
about  1730,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  new 
method  of  classifying  plants  ;  in  1732  was 
sent  on  a  scientific  expedition  to  Lapland, 
the  results  of  which  he  published  in  his 
Flora  Lapponica  (1737) ;  from  1735  to  1738 
superintended  the  garden  of  Georg  Cliffort, 
near  Haarlem,  and  there  wrote  works  ex- 
plaining his  system ;  after  visiting  Eng- 
land, became  professor  of  medicine  at  Upsal 
(1741-8).  His  Philosophia  Jjotanica  (1751) 
gives  a  complete  account  of  his  system. 


Linnell,  Jo'm  (*.  1792,  d.  1882),  artist, 
studied  at  the  Academ}-^  under  West  and 
Varley ;  painted  portraits  of  Blake,  Mul- 
ready.  Peel,  Carlyie,  and  other  famous 
men ;  in  1846  returned  to  landscape,  and, 
after  his  removal  to  Red  Hill  (1852),  usually 
chose  his  subjects  from  the  country  sur- 
rounding his  home. 

Linton,  Eliza  Lynn  (J.  1822),  has  written 
many  novels  and  social  articles. 

Linton,  Sir  James  Drumgole  (b.  1840), 
artist,  was  successively  elected  member 
(IS67),  vice-president  (1883),  and  president 
(1884)  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  Painters  in 
Water-Colours,  and  has  done  much  towards 
raising  it  to  its  present  position.  He  excels 
in  depicting  scenes  of  chivalry  and  rcmance. 

Linton,  William  James  {b.  1S12\  en- 
graver and  writer ;  has  published  a  History 
of  Wood-Engraving  and  other  works. 

Lippi,  Fra  FiUppo  (b.  1412,  d.  1469), 
Florentine  painter,  educatedat  themonastery 
del  Carmine,  studied  under  Masaccio.  Ro- 
mantic stories  are  told  of  his  life,  for  which 
there  appears  to  be  little  foundation.  Among 
his  masterpieces  are  the  frescoes  in  the 
cathedrals  of  Spoleto  and  Prato,  and  a 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  now  at  Florence. 

Lippi,  Filippino  {b.  1460,  d.  1504),  a 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding. 

Lippi,  Lorenzo  (5.  1606,  d.  1664),  Italian 
painter  and  poet;  wrote  Fl  MalmantUe 
liacquistato. 

Lippincott,  Sarah  Jane  (Jb.  1823),  an 
American  authoress. 

Lipsius,  Justus  (b.  1547,  d,  1606),  a  learned 
critic,  professor  of  history  at  Leyden,  and 
afterwards  at  Louvain. 

Lisle,  Lady  Alicia  {d.  1685),  widow  of 
John,  Viscount  Lisle ;  was  condemned  to 
death  by  Jeffreys  on  the  charges  of  having 
sheltered  some  of  Monmouth's  adherents 
after  Sedgemoor,  and  executed  at  Winchester. 

Lisle,  Sir  George  {d.  1648),  Royalist 
officer,  distinguished  himself  at  Newbury; 
bravely  defended  Colchester,  "but  at  last  sur- 
rendered, and  was  shot. 

Lisle,  Joseph  Rouget  de  {b.  1760,  d. 
1836),  a  French  revolutionist;  author  and 
composer  of  the  Marseillaise. 

Lista  y  Aragon,  Alberto  (6.  1775,  d. 
1848),  Spanish  poet  and  mathematician; 
became  editor  of  the  Censor  in  1820.  and  of 
the  Gaceta  de  Madrid  in  1833,  and  advocated 
Liberal  principles.  He  was  afterwards  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Madrid. 

Liston,  John  {b.  1776,  d.  1846),  actor, 
appeared  at  the  Haymarket  in  1805,  and 


Lis 


(509) 


Lob 


from    that   time   was   recognised    as    the 
greatest  low  comedian  of  the  day. 

Listen,  Robert  {b.  1794,  d.  1848),  an  emi- 
nent Scotch  surgeon,  practised  in  London. 

Liszt,  Abbe  Franz  (6.  1811,  d.  1886), 
pianist  and  composer,  bom  at  Raiding,  near 
Oldenburg,  played  in  public  at  the  age  of 
nine;  studied  at  Vienna  imder  Czeruy  and 
iSalieri,  1821-3  ;  lived  several  years  in  Paris; 
afterwards  worked  as  a  teacher;  between 
1839  and  1849  visited  the  principal  European 
towns.  His  symphonies  were  written  be- 
tween 1849  and  1859,  while  he  was  director 
of  the  Court  Theatre  at  Weimar.  In  1859 
he  went  to  Rome,  entered  a  convent  (1865), 
and  henceforward  wrote  chietiy  church 
music;  to  this  period  belong  the  oratorios 
Si.  Elizabeth  (1865)  and  Christus  (1870-5). 
He  returned  to  Hungary  in  1871- 

Littre,  MaximOien  Paul  Emile  {b.  1801,  d. 
1881),  French  philologist,  author  of  a  Bic- 
tionnairede  la  Langue Fraii^aise  (1863-1878). 

Liutprand,  Bishop  of  Cremona  {d.  circa 
972),  was  sent  on  embassies  to  Constanti- 
nople by  Berengarius  (946),  and  Otho  I. 
(968) ;  sat  in  the  council  at  Rome,  which 
deposed  John  XII.  He  wrote  Antapodosis 
(a  history  extending  from  886  to  948),  De 
Legatione  Constantinopolitana,  etc. 

Liverpool,  Robert  Banks  JenMnson, 
second  Earl  of  {b.  1770,  d.  1828),  statesman, 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Tory  in  1791 ; 
became  Foreign  Secretary  under  Addington 
in  1801,  and  concluded  the  treaty  of  Amiens 
(1802) ;  was  Home  Secretary  under  Pitt 
(1804-6)  and  the  Duke  of  Portland  (1807-8), 
and  Secretary  for  War  and  the  Colonies 
imder  Perceval  (1809-12) ;  formed  an  admin- 
istration in  1812,  and  remained  at  the  head 
of  the  Government  till  his  death. 

Liversidge,  Prof.  Archibald,  president  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales  in 
1883-4. 

Livingston,  Edward  {b.  1764,  d.  1836), 
American  lawyer  and  statesman,  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1794  ;  followed  his  profession 
at  New  Orleans  (1804-23) ;  represented  that 
town  in  Congress  (1823-9) ;  entered  the 
Senate  (1829) ;  became  secretary  of  state 
(1831)  ;  was  minister  to  France  (1833-5). 
He  wrote  a  celebrated  System  of  Fenal  Law 
(1833). 

Livingstone,  David  {b.  1813,  d.  1873), 
bom  at  Blantyre  in  Lanarkshire,  worked 
during  childhood  and  youth  in  a  cotton- 
mill  ;  was  sent  to  South  Africa  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society  in  1840 :  resided 
for  several  years  at  various  stations  near  the 
Limpopo,  discovering  Lake  Ngami  in  1849, 
and  penetrating  to  the  Makololo  country  in 
1851  :  in  1853-4  crossed  Africa  from  the 
Zambesi  to  the  Congo,  and  in  1354-6  made 


his  way  from  Loando  to  Quilimane,  follow- 
ing the  course  of  the  Zambesi,  and  discover- 
ing the  Victoria  Falls ;  came  to  England  in 
1856,  and  published  Missimiary  Travels 
(1857) ;  returned  to  Africa  as  consul  at  Quili- 
mane in  1858  ;  explored  the  country  north 
of  the  Zambesi  (1858-64),  discovering  Lakes 
Shirwa  and  Nyassa,  and  in  1865  pubUshed 
his  Narrative  of  the  journey ;  xmdertook  his 
thiid  expedition  in  1866,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  endeavouring  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  Nile  flowed  from  the 
water-system  west  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 
In  November,  1871,  he  was  found  by  Stanley 
at  Ujiji.  He  died  of  dysentery  at  the 
village  of  Ilala. 

Livius,  Titus  (i,  59  -B.o.,  d.  17  a.d.),  bom 
at  Patavium,  lived  chiefly  at  Rome,  where 
he  was  patronised  by  Augustus.  He  wrote 
a  History  of  Rome  from  its  foundation  to 
9  B.C.,  in  142  books,  of  which  35  remain, 

Llewelyn  ap  Grufjrdd  (i.  1224,  d.  1282), 
the  last  of  the  native  princes  of  Wales ; 
aided  Simon  de  Moutfort  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.  ;  on  refusing  to  do  homage  to 
Edward  I.,  was  attacked  by  that  king,  and 
driven  to  the  fastnesses  of  Snowdon ;  again 
took  up  arms  in  1282,  and  was  slain  in 
battle. 

Llorente,  Juan  Antonio  (b.  1756,  d.  1823), 
Spanish  ecclesiastic ;  wrote  a  Critical  History 
of  the  Inquisition  (1817). 

Lloyd,  Charles  (d.  1839),  poet,  bom  in 
Birmingham,  friend  of  Coleridge,  Southey, 
and  Lamb ;  wTote  Nugae  Ganorce  (1819),  etc. 

Lloyd,  Edward  (6.  1845),  an  English  tenor 
vocalist. 

Lobau,  Comte  de  (Georges  Mouton)  (6. 
1770,  d.  1838),  French  general ;  served  in 
Napoleon's  campaigns,  earning  his  title  by 
his  defence  of  the  island  of  Lobau  on  the 
Danube ;  was  taken  prisoner  at  Waterloo ; 
took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  suc- 
ceeded Lafayette  as  commander  of  the 
National  Guard. 

Lobeira,  Vasco  de  {d.  1403),  Portuguese 
author  ;  wrote  Amadis  de  Gaul,  a  famous 
romance  of  chivalry.  The  Portuguese 
original  has  been  lost,  the  earliest  edition 
now  extant  being  a  Spani.ih  translation  of 
1519. 

Lobel,  Mathieu  (h.  1538,  d.  1616),  bom 
at  Lille  ;  settled  in  England,  and  became 
physician  to  James  I.  His  Stirpii/m  Adver- 
saria was  the  first  attempt  to  classify  plants 
according  to  their  natural  orders.  The  Lo- 
belia was  named  after  him. 

Lobo.  Joronimo  {b.  1593,  d.  1678),  Portu- 
guese Jesuit  missionary  ;  originally  sent  to 
India  (1622)  :  after  labouring  for  nine  years 
in   Abyssii'ia,    was    expelled    (1634),    and 


Loc 


(610) 


Lorn 


retmiied  to  Goa.  He  died  in  Lisbon.  His 
Ifustori/  of  Etktopta  was  translated  by  Dr. 
Johnson. 

Loch,  Sir  Henry  Brougham,  G.C.M.G., 
chief  commissioner  of  the  Cape. 

Lock,  Matthew  {b.  1635,  d.  1677),  musi- 
cian, born  at  Exeter;  composed  music  for 
The  Tempest  and  Macbeth. 

Locke,  John  {b.  1632,  d.  1704),  EngUsh 
philosopher,  born  at  Wrington,  in  Somerset- 
shire, educated  at  Westminster,  studied  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford :  in  1666  became  ac- 
quainted with  Lord  Ashley,  afterwards  Earl 
of  Shaftesbui-y  ;  resided  much  in  his  house, 
and,  when  he  became  Lord  Chancellor  (1672), 
was  appointed  secretary  for  the  presentation 
of  benefices  ;  in  1673  was  made  secretary  to 
the  Board  of  Trade  ;  from  1675  to  1679  lived 
in  France  on  account  of  his  health ;  in  1683 
followed  Shaftesbury  to  Holland,  where  he 
remained  till  the  Revolution,  after  which  he 
became  commissioner  of  appeals,  and  ia 
1695  commissioner  of  trade  and  plantations. 
From  1691  to  his  death  he  lived  with  Sir 
Francis  Masham,  at  Gates,  in  Essex.  His 
most  important  works  are  an  Essay  Con- 
cerning Human  Understanding  (1690),  a 
Treatise  on  Education  (1693),  three  Letters 
on  Toleration  (1690-2),  a  Treatise  on  Civil 
Government,  and  a  Vindication  of  the  Reason- 
ableness of  Christianity  (1695). 

Locke,  Joseph  {b.  1805,  d.  1860),  civil  en- 
gineer, bom  near  Sheffield ;  assisted  George 
Stephenson  in  constructing  the  Manchester 
and  Liverpool  Railway  (1826-30) ;  after- 
wards completed  the  Grand  Junction  Rail- 
way (1837),  and  constructed  several  other 
lines  in  England  and  abroad. 

Locker-Lampson,  Frederick  (b.  1821),  has 
published  Lotidon  Lyrics  and  other  vers  de 
sociite,  and  edited  Lyra  Elegantiarum. 

Lockliaxt,  John  Gibson  {b.  1794,  d.  1854), 
educated  at  Glasgow  and  Oxford;  joined 
the  staff  of  Blackwood  in  1817 ;  became 
acquainted  with  Sir  "Walter  Scott  (1818), 
whose  daughter  he  married  (1820) ;  edited 
the  Quarterly  Review  1826-53 ;  died  at 
Abbotsford.  He  wrote  a  Life  of  Burns, 
Life  of  Scott,  and  other  works,  and  translated 
Spanish  Ballads. 

Lockhart,  Sir  William  {b.  1621,  d.  1675), 
went  to  Paris  as  ambassador  in  1655,  and 
negotiated  the  alHance  against  the  Dutch ; 
commanded  the  English  contingent  in  the 
war  that  ensued,  and  became  governor  of 
Dunkirk  (1658)  ;  was  again  ambassador  at 
Paris  under  Charles  11. 

Lockhart,  William  Ewart,  R.S.A.  (*. 
1846),  has  exhibited  The  Jubilee  Celebration 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  etc. 

Lockroy,   Edouard    i^tienne    Simon    {b. 


183S),  French  journalist  and  politician, 
first  entered  the  National  Assembly  in 
1871;  in  1872  became  editor  of  the  Feuple 
Souverain,  and  afterwards  contributed  to 
the  Rappel;  became  minister  of  commerce 
and  industry  iu  1886,  and  of  public  in- 
struction ia  1888. 

Lockyer,  Joseph  Norman,  F.R.S.  {b.  1836), 
directed  the  eclipse  expedition  to  Sicily 
(1870)  and  to  India  (1871).  He  has  written 
Studies  in  Spectrum  Analysis  (1872),  etc. 

Lodge,  Edmund  (b.  1756,  d.  1839),  Claren- 
cieux  kiug-at-arms  ;  wrote  Portraits  ofJllus- 
trious  Fersonagt's  of  Great  Britain,  etc. 

Lodge,  Oliver  Joseph,  F.R.S.  (b.  1851), 
professor  of  physics  at  University'  CoUege, 
Liverpool ;  has  written  Modern  Views  of 
Electricity  (18^9),  and  contributed  to  the 
Philosophical  Magazine. 

Lodge.  Thomas  {b.  circa  1555,  d.  1625), 
an  English  poet  and  miscellaneous  wiiter. 
Among  his  dramas  are  The  Wounds  of  Civil 
War  (1694),  &nd.  A  Looking-glass  for  London 
(1692),  written  ia  conjunction  with  Robert 
Greene.  From  his  Rosalgnde  (1590),  Shake- 
speare derived  the  plot  of  As  You  Like  Jt. 

Loewe,  Louis  {b.  1809),  bom  in  Silesia; 
traveUed  in  the  East  (1836-8)  to  study  the 
Coptic,  Circassian,  and  other  languages,  and 
accompanied  Sir  Moses  Montefiore  on  many 
of  his  expeditions.  He  has  published  A. 
Circassian  Dictionary  (1854),  etc. 

Loftus,  Lord  Augustus,  G.C.B.  {b.  1817), 
son  of  the  second  Marqms  of  Ely ;  was  am- 
bassador at  Vienna  (1858-60),  Berlin  (1860- 
2),  Munich  (1862-5),  Berlin  again  (1865-8), 
to  the  North  German  Bund  (1868-71),  at 
St.  Petersburg  (1871-9);  and  governor  of 
New  South  Wales  (1879-85). 

Logan,  John  {b.  1748,  d.  1788),  a  Scottish 
divine  and  poet.  The  Cuckoo  and  other 
lyrics  formerly  attributed  to  him  are  now 
believed  to  have  been  written  by  his  friend, 
Michael  Bruce,  who  died  in  1767.  They 
were  published  by  Logan  as  his  own  (1781). 

Loison,  Charles  (*.  1827),  known  as  Pere 
Hyacinthe,  French  preacher,  founder  of  the 
Christian  Catholic  Church  of  Switzerland. 

Lolli,  Antonio  (b.  1728,  d.  1802),  an  Italian 
violinist,  bom  at  Bergamo. 

Lombardi,  a  family  of  Venetian  architects 
and  sculptors  of  the  16th  century,  famous 
for  their  decorative  work  of  the  kind  caUed 
cinquecento.  Pieteo  Lombaedo,  son  of  a 
Lombard  mason,  executed  the  monument  of 
Dante  at  Ravenna  (1482).  His  son,  Ttn/Lio, 
excelled  in  ornamental  sculpture.  Sante  {d. 
1560),  son  of  Gnnjo,  and  grandson  of 
Pietro,  was  for  many  years  employed  on  the 
Scuola  di  San  Eoco.     Many  of  the  Venetian 


Loin 


(611) 


Lot 


palaces  and    churches  were   built   by  the 
Lombardi. 

Lombroso,  Cesare  {b.  1836),  Italian  man 
of  scieuce,  professor  of  medical  juris- 
prudence in  the  university  of  Turin ;  has 
published  The  Man  of  Gemus  (1888),  etc. 

Lomenie  de  Brienne,  Etienne  Charles  de, 
Cardinal  (1727,  d.  1794),  Fi-ench  statesman; 
became  archbishop  of  Toulouse  in  1763,  and 
of  Sens  in  1788  ;  succeeded  Calonne  (1787)  as 
controller  of  the  hnances  and  chief  minister. 
His  schemes  for  raising  money  involved  him 
in  a  struggle  with  the  parliament  of  Paris, 
which  ended  in  his  resignation  (1789). 

Lomi,  Orazio,  called  Gentileschi(Zi.  1563,  d. 
1646) ,  Itahan  painter  who  settled  in  London. 

Lomonosov,  Michael  (6.  1711,  d.  1765), 
Russian  poet  and  historian,  sou  of  a  fisher- 
man, born  near  Archangel ;  made  his  way 
to  Moscow,  and  studied  there  and  at  St. 
Petersburg,  where  he  became  professor  of 
chemistry  in  1746.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Jiussia,  and  many  odes  and  lyrics. 

Long,  Edwin,  R.A.  (6.  1839,  d.  1891), 
painter  of  oriental  antiquity.  Among  his 
■woiks  weie  An  jEgi/ptian  Feast  (1877),  and 
Esther  and  Vashti  (1879). 

Long,  George  [b.  1800,  d.  1879),  classical 
Bcholar,  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  wrote  The 
Decline  of  the  Roman  Republic  (1864-9),  etc. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth  {b.  1807, 
d.  1882),  American  poet,  bom  at  Portland, 
in  Maine,  educated  at  Bowdoin  College; 
after  travelling  in  Europe,  became  professor 
of  modem  languages  at  Bowdoin  in  1829, 
and  held  the  same  post  at  Harvard  1835-54. 
He  revisited  Europe  in  1835-6,  and  again  in 
1842  and  1868-9.  His  chief  volumes  of 
poetry  are  Voices  of  the  Night  (1839),  The 
Spanish  Student  (1843),  Evangeline  (1847), 
The  Golden  Legend  (1851),  The  Song  of 
Hiawatha  (1855),  The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish  (1858),  and  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn 
(1863).  He  also  wrote  Hyperion  and  other 
prose  works,  and  translated  the  Divine 
Comedy. 

Longhi,  Giuseppe  (b.  1766,  d.  1831),  an 
Italian  engraver,  professor  in  the  academy 
of  Milan. 

Longinus,  Dionysius  Cassius  (b.  circa  213, 
d.  273),  Platonic  philosopher  and  rhetori- 
cian, probably  bom  at  Athens ;  opened  a 
school  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Athens, 
and  while  there  wrote  his  treatise  On  the 
Sublime.  He  afterwards  went  to  Palmyra 
to  Queen  Zenobia,  whose  counsellor  he  be- 
came. When  Aurelian  took  Palmyra,  he 
was  charged  with  having  incited  Zenobia 
against  the  Romans,  and  put  to  death. 

Longley,    Charles    Thomas   {b.   1794,  d. 


1868),  became   Archbishop   of  Canterbury 
in  1862. 

Longomontanus,  Christian  (6.  1562,  d. 
1647),  Danish  astronomer;  assisted  Tycho 
Brahe,  and  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Copenhagen  1604-45. 

Longperier,  Adrien  de  (*.  1816,  d.  1882), 
French  archaeologist. 

Longstreet,  James  (b.  1821),  American 
general,  served  in  the  Confederate  army 
during  the  Civil  war. 

Lonnrott,  Elias  {b.  1802,  d.  1884),  Finnish 
antiquary,    discovered    and    published    the 

Finnish  ej)ic  Kalevala  (1835-49). 

Lopes,  or  Lopez,  Femao  (b.  circa  1380, 
d.  circa  1449),  a  Poriuguese  chronicler. 

Lopes,  Sir  Henry  Charles  (b.  1828),  became 
lord  justice  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  1885. 

Lorenzetti,  or  Di  Lorenzo,  Pietro  and 
Ambrogio,  brothers,  painters  of  the  Siennese 
school,  hved  early  m  the  14th  centviry. 
The  allegorical  frescoes  in  the  palace  of 
Siena  were  painted  by  Ambrogio. 

Loria,  Ruggero  {d.  1305),  admiral  in  the 
service  of  Pedro  III.  of  Aragon ;  gained 
many  victories  over  the  French. 

Lome,  John  George  Douglas  Sutherland 
Campbell,  Marquis  of  {b.  1845),  eldest  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  was  Liberal  member 
for  Argyleshire  1868-78;  married  the 
Princess  Louise,  fourth  daughter  of  Queen 
Victoria,  in  1871 ;  was  Governor-General  of 
Canada  1878-83. 

Lorraine,  Claude  Gelee  of  (fi.  1600,  d. 
1682),  French  landscape  painter;  settled  in 
Rome,  and  acquired  gieat  celebrity. 

Lorris,  Guillavmie  de  {d.  circa  1250),  the 
author  of  the  Roman  de  la  Rose,  a  poem  on 
the  art  of  love. 

Lot,  Hebrew  patriarch,  son  of  Haran, 
and  nephew  of  Abraham ;  lived  in  Sodom, 
but  was  warned  by  angels  of  its  coming 
destruction,  and  fled  to  the  mountains. 

Loth,  Otto  (l).  1844,  d.  1881),  a  German 
Orientalist,  professor  at  Leipzig. 

Lothar,  Kinp  of  the  West  Franks  {b.  941, 
d.  986),  succeeded  his  father,  Louis  d'Outre- 
mer,  in  954.  He  endeavoured  to  extend  his 
dominions,  but  was  unsuccessful  both  in 
Normandy  and  Lorraine.  He  was  much 
thwarted  in  his  projects  by  the  Duke  of  the 
French,  Hugh  Capet. 

Lothar  I.,  Emperor  of  the  West  {b.  circa 
795,  d.  855),  succeeded  his  father,  Louis  le 
Debonnaire,  in  840;  was  defeated  by  his 


Lot 


(512) 


laOU 


brothers  Louis  aud  Charles  at  Foutenet 
(841),  aud  compelled,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Verduu  (S13),  to  agree  to  a  divisiou  of  the 
einiiire,  taking  as  his  share  Italy  aud  a 
loug,  uarrow  tract  of  laud,  esteuding  from, 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  North  Sea,  and 
includiug  wliat  are  now  Holland  and  Pro- 
vence. 

Lothar  {d.  869),  son  of  the  preceding; 
became  on  his  father's  death  ruler  over  the 
district  betwe'^n  Germany  and  Gaul,  which 
thus  received  t.ie  name  of  "Lotharingia," 
preserved  in  "Lorraine." 

Lotliar  n.,  "the  Saxon,"  Emperor  of 
the  West  (b.  1075,  d.  1137),  became  Duke  of 
Saxony  in  1106,  and  was  elected  emperor  in 
1125.  His  rivals,  Conrad  of  Franconia  and 
Frederick  of  Suabia,  took  up  arms,  and  the 
former  was  crowned  by  his  supporters  at 
Milan.  Lothar  is  supposed  to  have  done 
homage  at  his  coronation  to  Innocent  II., 
whom  he  afterwards  assisted  agaiust  the 
anti-pope  Anacletus  and  Roger,  King  of 
Sicily. 

Lotti,  Antonio  {b.  1665,  d.  1740),  Venetian 
musician,  pupil  of  Legrenzi ;  composed 
operas  and  sacred  pieces. 

Lotto,  Lorenzo  {b.  circa  1485,  d.  1554^,  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  lived  chiefly 
at  Bergamo. 

Lotze,  Rudolf  Hermann  (b.  1817,  d.  1881), 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen 
1845-80 ;  wrote  a  Si/stem  of  Philosophy 
(1874),  etc. 

Loudon,  John  Claudius  (b.  1783,  d.  1843), 
landscape  gardener  and  horticulturist ;  pub- 
lished The  Eyicyclopccdia  of  Gardening  (1822), 
etc.  His  wife,  Jane  {b.  1800,  d.  1858),  wrote 
The  Ladies'  Flower  Garden  (1841). 

Louis  (Ludwig)  "  the  Child  "  {b.  893,  d. 
912),  son  of  the  Emperor  Amulph,  became 
King  of  the  East  Franks  in  900.  He  was 
the  last  descendant  of  Charlemagne  who 
ruled  in  Germany. 

Louis  (Ludwig)  "  the  German,"  King  of 
the  East  Franks  {b.  806,  d.  876),  son  of  Louis 
le  Debonnaire,  ruled  over  the  district  lying 
between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe. 

Louis  L  (Ludwig),  the  Pious,  Emperor  of 
the  West  {b.  778,  d.  840),  succeeded  his 
fatlier,  Charlemagne,  in  814.  He  soon 
afterwards  named  his  sons  Lothaire,  Pepin, 
and  Louis  kings  over  Italy,  Aquitaine,  and 
Bavaria  respectively.  They  frequently  re- 
belled against  him,  and  he  was  twice  de- 
posed. 

Louis  n.  (Ludwig),  Emperor  {b.  circa  822, 
d.^  875),  succeeded  his  father.  Lothaire,  in 
855.    He  ruled  over  Italy  alone. 


Louis  III.  (Ludwig),  "the  Blind,"  Em- 
peror (b.  circa  880,  d.  circa  923),  son  of 
Boson,  King  of  Burgundy,  and  Ermengarde, 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  Louis  II. ;  was 
chosen  ruler  over  Italy  on  the  deposition  of 
Berengar  (900),  who  in  dOb  captured  him, 
and  deprived  him  of  his  sight. 

Louis  IV.  (Ludwig),  Emperor  {b.  1286,  d. 
1347),  succeeded  his  father,  Louis,  as  Duke  of 
Bavaria  in  1294.  In  1314  a  double  election 
to  the  empire  took  place,  some  of  the  princes 
declaring  for  Louis  and  others  for  Frederick 
of  Austria.  A  war  ensued,  in  which  Louis 
was  victorious  (1322).  John  XXII.  having 
attempted  to  depose  Louis,  a  contest  arose 
between  the  pope  and  the  emperor,  which 
was  continued  by  Benedict  XII.  and 
Clement  VI. 

Louis  I.  (Ludwig),  King  of  the  West 
Franks.     [See  Louis  I.,  Emperor.] 

Louis  II.  (Ludwig,  ths  Stammerer,  King 
of  the  West  Franks  (/<.  84u,  d.  879),  succeeded 
his  father,  Charles  the  Bald,  in  877. 

Louis  IIL  (Ludwig)  (*.  circa  863,  d.  882), 
son  of  the  preceding ;  shared  the  kingdom 
with  his  younger  brother,  Carloman  (879-81). 

Louis  IV.  (Ludwig)  (b.  921,  d.  954),  called 
"d'Outremer,"  from  having  been  brought 
up  at  the  court  of  his  uncle,  j^Jthelstan  of 
England ;  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  the 
Simple,  in  936.  He  was  constantly  at 
variance  with  Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  the 
French.  He  unsuccessfully  attacked  the 
Normans,  who  kept  him  a  prisoner  944-5. 

Louis  V.  (Ludwig),  "le  Faineant"  (b. 
966,  d.  987),  the  last  of  the  Carolingian 
kings,  succeeded  his  father,  Lothar,  in  986. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Hugh  Capet. 

Louis  VI.,  "le  Gros,"  King  of  France 
{b.  1078,  d.  1137),  succeeded  his  father, 
Philip  I.,  in  1108.  He  carried  on  a  war 
with  Henry  I.  of  England.  He  granted 
charters  to  the  towns,  in  order  to  gain  their 
support  against  the  nobles. 

Louis  VIL  [b.  1120,  d.  1180)  succeeded  his 
father,  Louis  \1.,  in  1137.  He  took  part  in 
the  second  Crusade,  1147-9.  In  1152  he 
divorced  his  wife,  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine, 
who  thereupon  married  Henry,  Count  of 
Anjou,  afterwards  King  of  England.  He 
afterwards  aided  Henry's  sons  in  their  fre- 
quent revolts  against  their  father. 

Louis  VIIL  {b.  1187,  d.  1226),  son  of 
Philip  Augustus ;  was  in  1216  offered  the 
crown  of  England  by  the  discontented 
barons,  but,  after  John's  death,  was  deserted 
by  most  of  his  supporters,  and,  on  the  defeat 
of  his  army  at  Lincoln  (1217),  returned  to 
France.    He  succeeded  his  father  in  1223. 


Lou 


(513) 


Loa 


He  died  whilst  engaged  in  the  "crusade" 
against  the  Albigenses. 

Louis  IX.  (6,  1215,  d.  1270)  succeeded  his 
father,  Louis  VIII.,  in  1226,  under  the 
regency  of  his  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile. 
In  1229  the  Albigensian  crusade  was  brought 
to  a  close,  and  the  county  of  Toulouse  was 
incorporated  with  the  French  kingdom. 
Henry  III.  of  England  made  some  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  recover  his  lost  provinces, 
and  in  1259  yielded  them  to  Louis.  In  1218 
Louis  embarked  on  a  crusade,  wasted  much 
time  in  Egypt  (1248-50),  where  he  was 
taJseu  prisoner,  and  returned  from  Palestine 
in  1254  without  having  effected  anything. 
He  undertook  another  crusade  in  1270,  but 
died  whilst  besieging  Tunis.  He  was 
canonised  in  1297. 

Louis  X.,  "le  Hutin"  {b.  1289,  d.  1316), 
succeeded  his  father,  Philip  the  Fair,  in 
1314. 

Louis  XI.  {h.  1423,  d.  1483)  succeeded  his 
father,  Charles  VII.,  in  1461.  His  crafty 
policy  enabled  him  to  establish  his  su- 
premacy over  his  powerful  vassals.  His 
most  powerful  adversary  was  Charles,  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  who  in  1468  kept  him  three 
days  a  prisoner  in  the  castle  of  Peronne. 
In  1481  Provence  was  annexed  to  France. 

Louis  XIL  (h.  1462,  d.  1515),  son  of 
Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  succeeded  Charles 
VIII.  in  1498.  He  laid  claim  to  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  and  the  duchy  of  Milan.  In 
1499  he  invaded  Italy,  and  gained  posses- 
sion of  Milan.  With  the  assistance  of  Fer- 
dinand of  Aragon  he  conquered  Naples  in 
1500,  but,  having  quarrelled  with  his  ally, 
was  expelled  in  1503.  In  1508  he  united 
with  Ferdinand,  Pope  Julius  II.,  and  the 
emperor,  in  the  League  of  Cambrai  against 
the  Venetians.  In  1511  Ferdinand  joined 
Julius  in  the  Holy  League  against  the 
French,  who  were  finally  driven  out  of 
Italy  by  means  of  the  Swiss  in  1513.  In 
the  same  year  Henry  VIII.  invaded  France, 
and  was  successful  at  Guiuegate.  In  1499 
Louis  married  Anne,  Duchess  of  Brittany, 
widow  of  Charles  VIII.  By  his  good  gov- 
ernment he  earned  the  title  of  ' '  Father  of 
his  People." 

Louis  Xin.  {b.  1601,  d.  1643)  succeeded 
his  father,  Henri  IV.,  in  1610.  Under  the 
government  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  the  royal 
power  greatly  increased.  The  Huguenots 
lost  their  privileges,  and  La  Rochelle  was 
reduced  in  1628 ;  yet  Richelieu  openly  aided 
the  Protestant  powers  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war. 

Louis  XIV.  (A.  1638.  rf.  1715),  succeeded 
hia  father,  Louis  XIII..  in  1643.  His 
mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  was  nominally 
regent,  but  the  government  was  carried  on 

H   B 


by  Cardinal  Ma^aiin.  France  was  then 
engaged  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  in  which 
Turenne  and  Conde  gained  many  successes. 
Peace  was  made  in  Germany  by  the  Treaty 
of  Westphalia  (1648),  but  the  war  with 
Spain  continued  till  1659,  when  Louis 
married  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Philip 
IV.  The  unpopularity  of  Mazariu's  govern- 
ment occasioned  the  rising  of  the  Frondeurs 
(1648-53).  After  his  death  (1661)  Louis 
conducted  the  government  himself,  follow- 
ing in  financial  matters  the  advice  of  his 
minister,  Colbert.  In  1665  he  invaded  the 
Netherlands,  in  violation  of  his  agreement 
with  Spain.  In  consequence  of  his  attack 
on  Holland  (1672)  an  alliance  against  him 
was  formed  between  Spain,  the  emperor, 
and  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  a  war 
ensued,  which  was  terminated  by  the  Treaty 
of  Nimeguen  (1678).  The  Edict  of  Nantes 
was  revoked  in  1685.  Another  war,  under- 
taken to  check  the  growing  power  of  France, 
was  concluded  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick 
(1697).  In  1700  began  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  between  the  rival 
claimants,  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  Louis' 
grandson,  and  the  Archduke  Charles  of 
Austria,  who  was  supported  by  England  and 
the  emperor. 

Louis  XV.,  "le  Bien-Aime"  {I.  1710,  d. 
1774),  succeeded  his  great-grandfather, 
Louis  XIV.,  in  1715,  under  the  regency  of 
Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  nephew  of  Louis 
XIV.  Fleury  became  chief  minister  in  1725. 
The  king's  attempt  to  enforce  the  claim  of 
his  father-in-law,  Stanislas,  to  the  throne  of 
Poland  led  to  a  war  with  the  emperor 
(1733-8).  France  was  next  engaged  in  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  Louis  sup- 
porting the  claim  of  Charles,  Elector  of 
Bavaria  (1741-8).  During  the  Seven  Years' 
war  (1756-63)  France  was  deprived  by 
England  of  most  of  her  colonial  possessions. 

Louis  XVI.  (6.  1754,  d.  1793)  succeeded 
his  father,  Louis  XV.,  in  1774.  In  1770  he 
had  married  Marie  Antoinette,  daughter  of 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  The  finances 
were  in  complete  disorder,  and  Louis  was 
not  fortunate  in  his  choice  of  ministers. 
Turgot  and  Necker  were  in  turn  dismissed, 
and  succeeded  by  the  incapable  Calonne 
(1783-7)  and  Lomenie  de  Brienne  (1787-8). 
Necker  was  recalled,  and  advised  the  sum- 
moning of  the  States-General  (May,  1789), 
who  were  reconstituted  as  the  National 
Assembly.  The  dismissal  of  Necke'r  was 
followed  by  the  taking  of  the  Bastille 
(July  14).  In  October  a  mob  of  armed 
women  from  Paris  made  an  attack  on  the 
palace  of  Versailles,  after  which  the  king 
and  queen  were  forcibly  removed  to  Paris. 
In  February,  1790,  a  new  constitution  was 
issued,  which  the  king  found  himself  forced 
to  accept.     In  June,  1791,  Louis  attempted 


Lou 


(614) 


IiOW 


to  escape  from  France,  but  was  arrested  at 
Vareuues  and  taken  back  to  Paris.  During 
the  attack  on  the  Tuileries  (August,  1792) 
Louis  fled  to  the  Assembly,  by  whose  order 
he  was  imprisoned,  with  his  family,  in  the 
Temple.  The  Convention  met  in  September  ; 
Louis  was  brought  to  trial,  and  ably 
defended  by  Malesherbes,  but  condemned 
to  death,  and  executed  on  January  21, 
1793. 

Louis  XVII.  {b.  1785,  d.  1795),  son  of 
Louis  XVI. ;  was  regarded  as  king  by  the 
Royalists  after  the  execution  of  his  father. 
He  died  ia  confinement. 

Louis  XVIII.  (Comte  de  Provence)  (b. 
1755,  d.  1824),  younger  brother  of  Louis 
XVI.^  was  in  favour  of  summoning  the 
States  -  General,  and  gained  popularity 
through  his  liberal  views ;  left  France  in 
1791 ;  after  visiting  several  European  courts, 
resided  in  England  (1807-14)  ;  ascended  the 
throne  of  France  in  April,  1814,  and  granted 
a  constitutional  charter;  was  expelled  by 
Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba,  but  re- 
gained the  throne  in  July,  1815.  The 
ministries  of  the  Due  de  Richelieu  (1815-18) 
and  Decazes  (1818-20)  were  liberal  in  their 
tendency,  but  in  1820  the  ultra- Royalists 
gained  the  upper  hand,  and  De  Villele 
became  chief  minister.  In  1823  France 
aided  Ferdinand  VII.  to  regain  the  throne 
of  Spain. 

Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French  (i. 
1773,  d.  1850),  son  of  Philippe  (EgaUt^), 
Duke  of  Orleans,  was  during  his  father's 
lifetime  known  as  the  Due  de  Chartres. 
He  favoured  the  principles  of  the  revolu- 
tion, and  fought  against  the  allies,  but  after 
Neerwinden  (1793)  fled  with  Dumouriez  to 
the  Austrian  army.  During  the  following 
years  he  led  a  wandering  life,  and  in  1800 
came  to  England,  where  he  remained  till 
1808.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons 
he  settled  in  Paris.  After  the  "  July " 
revolution  in  1830  he  was  proclaimed  king. 
The  people  were  bitterly  disappointed  in 
their  "Citizen  King."  His  government 
became  every  year  more  arbitrary,  and  at 
last  the  general  discontent  culminated  ia 
a  revolution  (February,  1848),  which  forced 
the  king  to  seek  refuge  in  England. 

Louis  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  reigned  from 
1342  to  1382.    He  also  ruled  over  Poland. 

Louis  II.,  of  Hungary  {d.  1526),  was  slain 
at  the  battle  of  Mohacs. 

Louisa  Augusta  Wilhelmina  Amelia, 
Queen  of  Prussia  {b.  1776,  d.  1810),  daughter 
of  Charles,  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 
in  1793  married  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia, 
afterwards  Frederick  William  III. 

Louisa  of  Savoy  {b.  1476,  d.  1532), 
daughter  of  Phihp,  Duke  of  Savoy ;  was  the 


wife  of  Charles  d'OrMans,  Comte  d'Angou- 
leme,  and  mother  of  Francis  I.  of  France, 
She  was  regent  for  her  son  dxiring  his  inva- 
sion of  the  Milanese,  and  again  when  he  had 
been  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia  in  1525. 

Louvois,  Franc^ois  Michel  Le  Tellier,  Mar- 
quis de  (A.  1641,  d.  1691),  became  minister  of 
war  to  Louis  XIV.  ia  1666.  His  influence 
rivalled  that  of  Colbert.  It  was  by  his 
advice  that  the  Edict  of  Nantes  was  re- 
voked (1685)  and  the  Palatinate  ravaged 
(1689). 

Lovat,  Simon  Eraser,  Lord  (b.  circa  1667, 
d.  1747),  fought  against  the  Pretender  in 
1715,  and  took  Inverness,  but  joined  in  the 
rising  of  1745,  and  was  executed  two  years 
afterwards. 

Lovelace,  Richard  {b.  1618,  d.  1658),  poet ; 
fought  for  Charles  I.,  and  was  imprisoned 
by  the  Parliament  in  1648.  He  died  in 
poverty. 

Lover,  Samuel  (b.  1797,  d.  1868),  bom  in 
Dublin;  abandoned  miniature-painting  for 
literature,  and  wrote  Handy  Andy  (1842), 
etc. 

Lowder,  Charles  Fuge  (fi.  1820,  d.  1880), 
was  vicar  of  St.  Peter's,  London  Docks 
(1866-80). 

Lowe,  Major-General  Sir  Drury  {b.  1830), 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Egyptian  war 
(1882),  taking  Cairo  and  capturing  Arabi 

Lowe,  Edward  Joseph,  F.R.S.  {b.  1825),. 
an  English  meteorologist  and  botanist. 

Lowe,  Sir  Hudson  (*.  1769,  d.  1844), 
general ;  was  governor  of  St.  Helena  during 
Napoleon's  captivity.     He  died  in  poverty. 

Lowe,  Robert,  Viscount  Sherbrooke  (b. 
1811,  d.  1892),  was  educated  at  Winchester 
and  Oxford  :  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1842  ; 
went  to  Australia,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  New  South  Wales  (1843-50) ; 
returned  in  1851 ;  was  elected  member  for 
Kidderminster  (1852)  ;  was  vice-president 
of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education 
(1859-64);  led  the  "  Adullamites  "  in  1866; 
became  member  for  the  University  of  London 
in  1868 ;  was  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
under  Mr.  Gladstone  (1868-73),  and  Home 
Secretary  (1873-4).  In  1880  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage. 

Lowell,  James  Russell  {b.  1819,  d.  1891), 
American  writer,  bomjat  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, educated  at  Harvard,  was  called  to 
the  bar,  but  never  practised;  succeeded 
Longfellow  as  professor  of  modern  languages 
at  Harvard  (1855) ;  was  minister  to  Spain 
(1877-80),  and  to  England  (1880-5).  Among 
his  principal  works  in  verse  are  The  Vision 
of  Sir  Launfal,  The  Biglow  Papers,  and 
A  Fable  for  Critics,  all  published  in    1848, 


Low 


(515) 


Lud 


He  also  published  Among  my  Books  and  My 
Study  Windows,  etc. 

Lowth,  Robert  (J).  1710,  d.  1787),  became 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  1741  ;  was 
afterwards  appointed  Bishop  of  Oxford 
ri766)  and  London  (1777).  He  wrote  JJe 
Sacra  Foesi  SebrcBorum  (1753),  etc. 

Lowth,  William  (*.  1661,  <;.  1732),  father 
of  the  precediag ;  wrote  a  Commentary  on  the 
Four  Greater  Frophets. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  de  (Don  Inigo  Lopez  de 
Recalde)  (*.  1491,  d.  1566),  founder  of  the 
order  of  Jesuits,  was  the  son  of  a  Spanish 
nobleman.  He  entered  the  army,  but  was 
disabled  for  Uf e  by  a  wound  received  at  the 
siege  of  Pampeluna,  and  devoted  himself 
to  reUgious  aims ;  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem  (1523-4) ;  while  a  student  at 
Paris  (1528)  became  acquainted  with  Xavier 
and  other  enthusiasts,  in  conjunction  with 
whom  he  founded  a  society  for  converting 
the  heathen,  instructing  the  young,  and 
restoring  the  power  of  the  Roman  Church 
(1534).  After  its  organisation  it  was  recog- 
nised by  Paul  III.  (1540),  and  Loyola  was 
chosen  general,  with  absolute  power. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John  (*.  1834),  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1870 ;  in  1871 
passed  the  Bank  Holidays  Act ;  has  repre- 
sented London  University  since  1880.  He 
has  pubUshed  Fre-Historic  Times  (1865), 
Antu,  Bees  and  Wasps  (1882),  The  Fleasures 
of  Life  (1887),  etc. 

Lubienetski,  Stanislas  (6.  1623,  d.  1675), 
Polish  Socinian  minister;  wrote  Theatrum 
Cometicum,  and  a  History  of  the  Folish 
Beformation. 

LucanuB,  Marcus  Annaeus  {b.  39,  d.  65), 
Roman  poet,  nephew  of  Seneca,  bom  at 
Corduba,  educated  at  Rome ;  was  made 
quaestor  and  augur  by  Nero,  but  incurred 
bis  enmity  by  defeating  him  in  a  literary 
competition ;  conspired  against  him,  and 
was  put  to  death.  His  Fharsalia,  describing 
the  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  is  an 
epic  in  ten  books. 

Lucaris,  Cyril  (b.  1572,  d.  circa  1638), 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople;  openly  declared 
himself  in  favour  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Re- 
formation, with  which  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted during  a  visit  to  Germany.  He  was 
several  times  banished,  and  at  last  strangled. 

Lucas,  John  Sejmiour,  A.R.A.  {b.  1849), 
an  English  historical  painter. 

Lucas,  Paul  (6.  1664,  d.  1737),  French 
traveller  :  journeyed  through Egypt,Turkey, 
and  Eastern  Asia,  and  pubUshed  works  de- 
Bcribing  his  travels. 

Lucca,  Pauline     (Mme.    Wallhofen)    (6. 


1842),  a  celebrated  singer,  of  Jewish  birth, 
bom  at  Vienna. 

Lucianus  {b.  circa  125),  a  humorous  Greek 
writer,  bom  at  Samosata  ;  after  practising 
as  an  advocate,  probably  at  Antioch,  travelled 
through  Greece,  Italy,  and  Gaul,  where  he 
acquired  much  wealth  through  his  rhetorical 
displays.  At  the  age  of  forty  he  retumed 
to  his  own  land,  and  there  wrote  his  principal 
works,  ridiculing  the  religion  and  philosophy 
of  the  time.  They  are  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  dialogues. 

Luciliu3  {d.  102  B.C.),  the  first  Roman 
satiric  poet,  bom  at  Suessa  Aunmca ;  ac- 
companied Scipio  Africanus  to  the  siege 
of  Numantia.  Fragments  of  his  satires  re- 
main. 

Lucius  L,  Bishop  of  Rome  {d.  253),  suc- 
ceeded Cornelius  ia  252. 

Lucius  IL,  Pope  {d.  1145),  succeeded 
Celestine  II.  in  1144 

Lucius  m..  Pope  {d.  1185),  succeeded 
Alexander  III.  in  1181. 

Lucretius,  Titus  Cams,  Roman  poet  of 
the  first  century  B.C. ;  wrote  JDe  Rerum 
Natura,  in  hexameter  verse,  expounding 
the  Epicurean  system  of  philosophy.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  driven  mad  by  a  love 
philtre,  admiaistered  by  his  wife,  and  to 
have  committed  suicide. 

Lucullus,  Lucius  Licinius  (6.  eirea  110,  d, 
circa  58  B.C.),  Roman  general;  served  as 
quaestor  under  Sulla  against  Mithridates 
(88-84)  ;  was  consul  in  74  ;  went  as  proconsul 
to  Cilicia,  and  prosecuted  the  war  against 
Mithridates  (74-66),  expelling  him  from 
Pontus,  and  defeating  Tigranes,  King  of 
Armenia,  with  whom  he  had  taken  refuge. 
After  his  return  to  Rome  he  became  noted 
for  his  luxurious  mode  of  life. 

Ludlow,  Edmund  (*.  1620,  d.  1693),  served 
in  the  Parliamentary  army ;  entered  Par- 
liament in  1645  ;  took  part  in  the  trial  and 
condemnation  of  Charles  I.  ;  commanded  in 
Ireland  after  the  death  of  Ireton  (16.51),  but 
resisted  Cromwell's  usurpation,  and  was  re- 
called (1653) ;  joined  ia  restoring  the  Long 
Parliament;  in  1660  fied  to  Vevey,  in 
Switzerland,  where  he  died. 

Ludolf,  Hiob  {b.  1624,  d.  1704),  German 
Orientalist ;  wrote  a  History  of  Abyssinia,  an 
Ethiopie  grammar,  etc 

Ludwig  L,  King  of  Bavaria  {b.  1786,  d. 
1868),  ascended  the  throne  in  1825.  In  con- 
sequence  of  his  reactionary  policy  he  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  1848.  He  took  great 
interest  in  art  and  literature. 

Ludwig  II.,  of  Bavaria  (A.  1845,  d.  1886), 
ascended  the  throne  in  1864.     He  rendered 


Lud 


(516) 


Lyc 


armed  assistutice  iu  the  Franco-German  war, 
and  was  chosen  to  urge  upon  the  King  of 
Prussia  the  acceptance  of  the  imperial 
throne.  He  was  highly  imaginative,  and 
took  great  deUght  in  music.  In  1886  he 
was  deposed  on  the  ground  of  insanity,  and 
soon  afterwards  drowned  himself. 

Ludwig  IV.,  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt {b.  1837,  d.  1892),  lu  1862  married  the 
Princess  Alice,  second  daughter  of  C^ueen 
Victoria. 

LuliU,orLovlno,Bemardino  {d.  afterlbZQ), 
Italian  painter,  was  a  follower  of  Leonardo 
da  Vinci.  Many  of  his  best  pictures  are  at 
Milan. 

Luitpold,  Prince  Charles  Joseph  WilUam 
Louis  {b.  1821),  regent  of  Bavaria. 

Luke,  St.,  the  Evangelist,  accompanied 
St.  Paul  on  his  missionary  journeys  (50-66). 

Lukin,  Lionel  {b.  1742,  d.  1834),  the  in- 
ventor of  the  life-boat. 

LuUi,  or  Lully,  Jean  Baptiste  {b.  1633, 
d.  1687),  musical  composer,  bom  at  Florence; 
went  to  Paris  as  a  child,  became  musician 
to  the  court,  and  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Music.     He  composed  many  operas. 

Lully,  or  Lulle,  Eaymond,  "  the  Enlight- 
ened Doctor"  {b.  1234,  d.  1315),  bom  at 
Palma,  in  Majorca;  travelled  in  Africa,  at- 
tempting  to  convert  the  Moors ;  was  im- 
prisoned at  Tunis,  but  released  by  some 
Genoese  merchants  ;  died  on  his  homeward 
journey.  His  logical  method  was  much  in 
vogue  during  the  following  centuries. 

Lumsden,  Lieutenant-General  Sir  Peter 
(b.  1829),  was  in  1884  appointed  commis- 
sioner for  settling  the  north  -  western 
boundary  of  Afghanistan. 

Luna,  Alvarez  de  {b.  circa  1388,  d.  1453), 
a  Spanish  statesman,  minister  of  John  II.  of 
Castile.  He  was  twice  banished,  and  at  last 
beheaded. 

Lupus  SejTvatus,  abbot  of  Ferriferes,  a 
FreT'ch  writer  of  the  9th  century.  His 
letters  throw  much  light  on  contemporary 
history. 

LusMngton,  Stephen  {b.  1782,  d,  1873), 
judge  of  the  Consistory  Court  (1828-38),  and 
of  the  Court  of  Admiralty  (1838-67) ;  was 
an  earnest  opponent  of  slavery. 

Lusignan,  Gujr  de  {d.  1195),  King  of 
Jerusalem,  married  Sybilla,  daughter  of 
Amalric  I.  On  the  death  of  Baldwin  V. 
(1186)  Sybilla  and  Guy  were  crovraed  to- 
gether. He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Hittin 
(1187),  but  released  in  the  following  year. 
During  the  third  Crusade  he  had  to  yield 
the  throne  to  Conrad  of  Montferrat,  re- 
ceiving C^-prua  instead. 


Luther,  Martin  {b.  1483,  d.  1546),  son  of 
a  miner,  born  at  Eisleben,  educated  at 
Eisenach  and  the  university  of  Erfurt; 
entered  an  Augustinian  monastery  (1505)  ; 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Witten- 
berg (1508) ;  in  1510  visited  Kome,  where  he 
was  deeply  impressed  with  the  corruption  of 
the  church ;  on  his  return  began  freely  to 
express  his  views  on  the  vital  points  of  re- 
ligion, and  when  the  Dominican  Totzel  re- 
ceived a  commission  to  sell  indulgences, 
published  his  95  propositions  condemning 
the  practice  (1517)  ;  in  1518  held  a  contro- 
versy with  Eck,  and  was  summoned  before 
the  legate  Cajetan  at  Augsburg  ;  pubhcly 
burnt  the  bull  issued  against  him  by  Leo  X. 
(1520)  ;  upheld  his  views  before  the  Diet  of 
the  Empire  assembled  at  Worms  (1521)  ;  was 
sheltered  for  ten  months  in  the  castle  of 
Wartburg  by  Frederick,  Duke  of  Saxony ; 
in  1522  returned  to  Wittenberg.  In  1524  he 
renounced  his  monastic  vows,  and  in  1525 
married  Catherine  von  Bora.  In  1530  the 
"Protestant"  faith  was  formulated  iu  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  drawn  up  by  Mel- 
anchthon.  Luther's  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  was  published  in  1524,  and  that 
of  the  whole  Bible  about  ten  years  later. 

Lutti,  Benedetto  (b.  1666,  d.  1724),  painter, 
bom  at  Florence;  became  president  of  tha 
Academy  of  St.  Luke,  at  Rome. 

Luttrell,  Narcissus  {d.  circa  1732),  a  po- 
litical writer,  whose  Journal  furnishes  many 
details  concerning  the  period  which  followed 
the  Revolution. 

Luxembourg,  Francois  Henri  de  Mont- 
morend,  Due  de  {b.  1628,  d.  1695),  French 
marshal ;  served  under  Cond^  in  the  Spanish 
array  (1653-9)  ;  commanded  during  the  in- 
vasion of  Holland  (1672)  ;  distinguished  him- 
self under  Conde  at  Senef  (1674)  ;  became 
commander-in-chief  in  1690,  and  gained  the 
victories  of  Fleurus  (1690),  SteenMrk  (1692), 
and  Neerwinden  (1693). 

Luynes,  Charles  d'Albret,  Due  de  (*.  1578, 
d.  1621),  a  favourite  of  Louis  XIII.  of 
France. 

Lyall,  Sir  Alfred  Comyns  (fi.  1835),  has 
held  the  posts  of  home  secretary  in  India 
(1873-8),  foreign  secretary  (1878-82),  and 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  North-West 
Provinces.  He  has  published  Asiatic  Studies 
(1882). 

Lyall,  Edna  (Ada  Ellen  Bayly),  novelist, 
has  published  Donovan  (1882),  etc. 

Lycurgus  {b.  circa  820  B.C.),  the  Spartan 
lawgiver,  according  to  tradition  was  the 
son  of  Eunomus,  King  of  Sparta ;  acted  as 
guardian  for  his  nephew,  Polydectes ;  jour- 
neyed abroad  to  study  the  laws  of  other 
countries,  and  on  his  return  issued  his  code, 


Lyd 


(517) 


lyt 


which  sought  to  suhordinate  private  interests 
to  those  of  the  commonwealth, 

Lydgate,  John  {b.  circa  1370,  d.  circa 
1440),  poet ;  in  1389  entered  the  Benedictine 
ahbey  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  He  wrote  T/ie 
Storie  of  Thebes,  The  Falls  of  Princes,  The 
Troy  Booke,  London  Lickpenny,  and  other 
poems. 

Lye,  Edward  {b.  1704,  d.  1767),  phUolo- 
gist,  born  at  Totnes,  published  an  Anglo- 
iSaxon  and  Gothic  Dictionary  (1772). 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles  (b.  1797,  d.  1875),  geolo- 
gist, bom  in  Forfarshire,  educated  at  Oxford ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  iu  182-3,  but  abandoned 
the  legal  profession  in  1827  ;  after  travelling 
on  the  Continent,  and  contributing  papers 
to  the  Transactions  of  the  Geological  Society, 
published  Principles  of  Geoloyy  (1830-3), 
which  substituted  the  Huttonian  doctrines 
for  the  old  "catastrophic"  theory,  thus 
raising  geology  to  the  rank  of  a  branch  of 
inductive  science.  He  became  president  of 
the  Geological  Society  in  1836,  and  again  iu 
1850.  He  visited  America  in  1841  and  1845, 
and  published  narratives  of  both  expeditious, 
written  in  a  popular  style.  In  1863  appeared 
TJie  Antiquity  of  Man,  in  which  he  gave  his 
assent  to  the  Darwinian  theory. 

LyndJbiurst,  John  Singleton  Copley,  Baron 
(i.  1772,  d.  1863),  English  statesman,  born 
at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  son  of  the  painter 
Copley,  came  to  England  in  1775  ;  studied 
at  Cambridge ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1804  ; 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Tory  in  1818  ;  be- 
came SoUcitor- General  in  1819,  Attorney- 
General  iu  1824,  and  Master  of  the  Rolls  in 
1826;  was  Lord  Chancellor  under  Canning, 
Goderich,  and  Wellington  (1827-30),  Chief 
Baron  of  the  Exchequer  and  leader  of  the 
Opposition  (1830-4),  and  Chancellor  again 
under  Peel  in  1834  and  1841-6. 

Lynedoch,  Thomas  Graham,  Baron  {b. 
1748,  (/.  1843),  general,  bom  in  Perthshire  ; 
served  under  Sir  John  Moore  in  the  Penin- 
sular war  (1808-9)  ;  won  the  victory  of 
Barossa  (1811),  commanded  the  left  wiug 
at  Vittoria  (1813),  took  St.  Sebastian,  and, 
after  crossing  the  Bidassoa,  led  the  British 
army  into  Fi-ench  territory. 

Lyon,  Nathaniel  (*.  1819,  d.  1861),  Ameri- 
can geueral ;  servod  in  the  Northern  army 
during  the  Civil  war. 

Lyons,  Edmund,  Lord  {b.  1790,  d.  1858), 
admiral  and  diplomatist,  entered  the  navy 
in  1801 ;  distinguished  himself  by  his  dariug 
capture  of  Marrack,  iu  Java  (1811) ;  com- 
manded a  vessel  during  the  blockade  of 
Navarino  (1828)  ■.  was  ambassador  at  Athens 
1835-49  ;  in  1853  was  appointed  second  in 
command  of  the  Mediterranean  squadron; 


planned  the  operations  against  the  Russians 
m  the  Sea  of  Azov  ;  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  fleet  ia  1855. 

Lyons,  Richard  Bickerton  Pennell  Lyons, 
Viscouut  [b.  1817,  d.  1887),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  was  appointed  envoy-extraordiuary 
to  the  United  States  in  1858  ;  in  1865  became 
ambassador  at  Constantinople,  and  in  1867 
at  Paris,  where  he  remained  diuing  the 
Franco-German  war. 

Lyra,  Nicholas  de  {d.  1340),  theologian,  of 
Jewish  descent,  bom  at  Lyre,  in  Normandy ; 
after  his  conversion  to  Christiauity,  became 
a  monk ;  wrote  Postillte  Perpetuce,  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Bible. 

Lysander  [d.  395  e.g.).  Spartan  admiral 
and  geueral,  defeated  the  Athenian  fleet  at 
Notium  (407  B.C.) ;  acquired  great  influence 
over  the  Persians  ;  virtually  ended  the 
Peloponnesiau  war  by  his  victory  at  ^gos 
Potami  (405) ;  in  404  captured  Athens, 
where  he  set  up  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He  lost 
much  of  his  power  after  the  accession  of  the 
Spartan  king,  Agesilaus  (397). 

Lysias  {b.  453,  d.  378  B.C.),  Athenian 
orator ;  went  with  a  party  of  colonists  to 
Thurii,  iu  southern  Italy  (443) ;  was  expelled 
by  the  Spartan  faction  (411),  and  returned 
to  Athens  ;  escaped  to  Megara  during  _  the 
government  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  aided 
Thrasybulus  in  driving  them  out ;  passed 
the  rest  of  his  hf  e  at  Athens. 

Lysimachus  (d.  281  b.c),  Macedonian 
geueral,  ou  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great 
(323)  became  ruler  over  Thrace ;  after  de- 
feating Antigouus  at  Ipsus  (301),  obtained  a 
large  part  of  Asia  Minor  ;  in  286  seized  the 
throne  of  Macedon.  He  was  slain  in  battle 
with  Seleucus. 

Lysippus,  a  Greek  sculptor  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  4th  century  B.C. ;  executed  many 
statues  in  bronze,  which  have  all  perished. 

Lysons,  Daniel  {d.  1834),  rector  of  Rod- 
marton,  in  Gloucestershire ;  wrote  The 
Environs  of  London  and  Magna  Britannia 
(1806-22). 

Lysons,  Samuel  {b.  1763,  d.  1819),  brother 
of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Rodmarton ;  be- 
came keeper  of  the  records  iu  the  Tower  of 
London. 

Lsrte,  Henry  Churchill  Maxwell,  C.B., 
P.S.A.  (b.  1848),  denuty-kecper  of  the 
records;  has  published  a  History  of  Eton 
College  (1875),  etc. 

Lyttleton,  or  Littleton,  Edward,  Lord  (*. 
1589.  '/.  liU5),  became  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas  iu  1640,  and  Lord  Keeper  in 
1641.     He  served  in  the  Royalist  army. 

Lyttleton,  or  Littleton,  Thomas  {b.  circa 
14'iU,  d.  1481),  judge,  born  in  Devoushire ; 


Lyt 


(518) 


Mac 


was  a  student  of  the  Inner  Temple ;  became 
king's  sergeant  in  Hoo,  and  judge  of  Com- 
mon Pleas  in  1462.  His  Treatise  on  Tenures, 
in  Noi-man  French,  is  considered  the  founda- 
tion of  the  English  law  of  property.  There 
is  a  celebrated  commentary  on  it  by  Sir 
Edward  Coke, 

Lyttleton,  George,  Lord  {b.  1709,  d.  1773), 
entered  Parliament  in  1730  ;  was  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  1756-7.  He  wrote  Obser- 
vations on  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  Dia- 
logues of  the  Dead,  a  History  of  Henry  II., 
and  Poems. 

lyttleton,  George  William,  Lord  (b.  1817, 
d.  1876),  classical  scholar,  educated  at  Eton 
and  Cambridge ;  published  Translations, 
Ephemera  (1865-72),  etc.  He  was  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies  in  1846. 

Lytton,  Edward  George  Earle  Lytton 
Bulwer-Lytton,  Baron  (b.  1803,  d.  1873),  was 
the  son  of  General  Earle  Bulwer,  of  Heydon 
Hall,  Norfolk.  Among  his  novels,  which 
vary  greatly  in  subject  and  treatment,  are 
Feiham  (1828),  The  Last  Days  of  Fompeii 


(1834),  Rienzi  (1835),  Ernest  Maltravers 
{IS37),  Alice  (ism),  Z(mom(lSil),  The  Last  of 
the  Barofis  {I8i3),  Harold  {I8i8),  The  Caxtons 
(1849) ,  My  iVow^  (1853),  etc.  In  1838  he  pro- 
duced two  dramas — Richelieu  and  The  Lady 
of  Lyons.  In  1866  appeared  The  Lost  Tales 
of  Miletus.  He  sat  in  Parhament  as  a 
Liberal  1831-41 ;  was  elected  as  a  Conser- 
vative in  1852,  and  was  Colonial  Secretary 
under  Lord  Derby  in  1858.  In  1866  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage. 

Lytton,  Edward  Robert  Bulwer-Lytton, 
Earl  of  (*.  1831,  d.  1891),  son  of  the 
preceding  ;  after  holding  various  diplomatic 
posts,  became  minister  at  Lisbon  in  1874; 
was  viceroy  of  India  1876-89,  and  Ambas- 
sador at  Pai-is  (1887).  He  published  several 
volumes  of  poetry  xmder  the  pseudonym  of 
"  Owen  Meredith ;  "  also  The  liing  ofAmasis 
(1863). 

Lyveden,  Robert  Vernon  Smith,  Baron 
(b.  1800,  d.  1873),  entered  Parliament  as  a 
Whig  in  1821.  He  was  president  of  the 
Board  of  Control  1855-8. 


M 


Maas,  Joseph  (*.  1847,  d.  1886),  English 
tenor,  bom  at  Dartford ;  made  his  first 
appearance  in  London  in  1871,  his  last 
important  eugagement  having  been  at  the 
Birmingham  Festival  1885. 

Mably,  Gabriel  Bonnot  de  (b.  1709,  d. 
1785),  French  writer,  brother  of  Condillac. 
His  chief  works  were  Le  Droit  Public  de 
VEurope,  Parallele  des  Romams  et,  des 
Franfais,  and  Sur  les  Constitutions  des  Etats- 
Urns  de  r Amerique. 

Mabuse,  Jan  van  (Gossaert)  {b.  circa  1470, 
d.  1532),  Flemish  painter,  called  from  the 
place  of  his  birth ;  patronised  by  Charles  V. 
and  Henry  VII.,  a  portrait  of  whose  children 
he  executed,  the  chief  of  his  other  works 
having  been  The  Descent  from  the  Cross 
fwhich  has  perished),  Adam  and  Eve,  and 
The  Beheading  of  St.  John. 

Macadam,  John  Loudon  (*.  1756,  d.  1836), 
Scottish  magistrate  ;  invented  the  system  of 
road-making  called  by  his  name,  publishing 
in  1819  A  Practical  Essay  on  the  Repair  and 
Preservation  of  Roads  ;  received  two  grants 
from  Parliament,  but  declined  knighthood, 
which  was  conferred  on  his  son. 

Macalister,  Alexander,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 
(b.    1844),    scientific  writer;    is  author   of 


Introduction  to  Animal  Morphology  (1876), 
and  Morphology  of  Vertebrate  Animals; 
appointed  professor  of  zoology  at  Dublin 
in  1869,  and  of  anatomy  1872;  made  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Cambridge  in  1883. 

MacAUster,  Donald,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.  {b. 

1854),  scientific  writer;  after  nimierous 
scholastic  successes  was  at  Cambridge 
senior  wrangler  and  first  Smith's  prize- 
man 1877 ;  became  fellow  of  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge  (1877) ;  Gulstonian 
lecturer  and  Croonian  professor  (1888),  and 
Thomson  lecturer  at  Aberdeen  (1889).  His 
chief  works  are  The  Nature  of  Fever  (1887), 

The  Law 


Antipyretics   (1888), 
Geometric  Mean. 


and 


of  the 


McArdell,  James  (i.  1710,  d.  1765),  Irish 
mezzotint  engraver;  also  executed  prints 
after  Rembrandt  and  other  masters. 

McArthnr,  John  (J.  1766,  d.  1834),  Aus- 
tralian settler,  founder  of  the  wool  trade ; 
also  introduced  the  cultivation  of  the  vine. 

Macartney,  George,  Earl  {b.  1737,  d. 
1806),  Irish  diplomatist:  when  ambassador 
in  Russia  made  a  treaty  which  was  dis- 
avowed (1765) ;  as  governor  of  Madras 
organised  the  capture  of  Negapatam  from 
the  Dutch,  but  opposed  the  policy  of  Warr^i 


Mac 


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McC 


Hastings ;    was  afterwards  ambassador  in 
China,  and  finally  governor  of  the  Cape. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington,  Lord  {b. 
1800,  d.  1859),  British  historian  and  states- 
man ;  graduated  at  Cambridge,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1826,  and  entered  Parliament 
for  Calne  in  1830  as  a  Whig.  He  was  Secre- 
tary at  War  (1839-41),  and  Paymaster- 
General  (1846-8),  and,  having  represented 
Edinburgh  for  many  years,  was  created  a 
peer  in  1857.  His  chief  works  were  His  tort/ 
of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James 
II.,  Critical  Essays,  most  of  which  were 
written  for  the  Edinburgh  Review,  and  Lays 
of  Ancient  Rome.  Many  of  his  speeches 
were  also  published, 

MacaiUay,  Zachary,  F.R.S.  (J.  1768,  d. 
1838),  philanthropist,  father  of  the  his- 
torian ;  co-operated  with  Wilberforce  in 
the  abolition  of  slavery. 

Macbetli  {d.  1057)  usurped  the  throne  of 
Scotland  in  1040,  having  defeated  and  slain 
Duncan,  but  was  himself  afterwards  killed 
by  Malcolm,  son  of  the  late  king. 

Maccabseus,  Judas  {d.  160  b.c),  Jewish 
priest ;  carried  on  the  struggle  begun  by  his 
father,  Mattathias,  who  had  driven  the 
Syrian  idolaters  from  Judaea ;  entered  Jeru- 
salem in  163,  after  defeating  Lysias,  and 
allied  himself  with  the  Romans,  but  waa 
defeated  and  slain  in  160. 

Maccabaeus,  Jonathan  {d.  144  B.C.), 
brother  of  the  last-named,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded ;  supported  Alexander  Balus  against 
Demetrius  Soter  as  claimant  for  the  Syrian 
throne;  was  treacherously  slain  by  Try- 
phon. 

Maccabaeus,  Simon  (d.  135  b.c),  brother 
and  successor  of  Jonathan ;  made  an  alUance 
with  the  Romans,  and,  with  his  sons,  de- 
feated the  army  of  Autiochus  VII.  in  137, 
but  was  murdered  two  years  afterwards  by 
his  son-in-law,  Ptolemy. 

MacCarthy,  Sir  Charles  {d.  1824),  British 
soldier;  became  governor  of  Sierra  Leone 
in  1822,  and  in  the  course  of  operations 
against  the  Ashantis,  having  been  deserted 
by  his  native  troops,  was  defeated,  captured, 
and  executed  in  January,  1824. 

McCarthy,  Denis  Florence  {b.  1820,  d. 
1882),  Irish  poet  and  song- writer ;  author  of 
Ballads,  Poems,  and  Lyrics,  and  of  verse- 
translations  of  Calderon  and  other  foreign 
poets. 

McCarthy,  Justin  [b.  1830),  politician  and 
writer,  bom  at  Cork ;  was  for  some  years  a 
ioumalist,  and  entered  Parliament  as  a 
Home  Ruler  for  Longford  county  in  1879. 
He  contested  Derry  unsuccessfully  in  1885, 
but  obtained  the  seat  on  petition  after  the 


next  election.  On  the  deposition  of  Mr. 
Pamell  he  became  chairman  of  the  Nation- 
alist party.  Besides  his  History  of  Our 
Own  Times,  and  History  of  the  Four  Geoi-ges, 
his  works  include  several  novels,  A  Fair 
Saxon,  Bear  Lady  Disdain,  etc. 

Macchiavelli,  Niccolo  di  Bernardo  dei 
(b.  1469,  d.  1527),  Florentine  writer  and 
statesman,  son  of  a  jurist  of  good  family ; 
as  secretary  of  state  at  Florence  from  1498 
to  1512,  went  on  several  important  missions, 
but  was  deprived  and  exiled  in  the  latter 
year  by  the  MedicL  His  chief  works  were 
//  Principe,  Istorie  Florentine,  Arte  delta 
Guerra,  some  comedies  and  poems,  and 
Discorsi  sulle  Deche  di  Tito  Livio.  In  1521 
he  again  took  part  in  affairs  for  a  short 
time,  but  died  in  poverty  a  few  years  later. 

Macchietti,  Girolamo,  "Del  Crocefissajo" 
{b.  1535),  Florentine  painter  ;  worked  under 
Vasari  at  Palazzo  Vecchio,  and  travelled 
much  in  Italy  and  Spain.  His  best  pictures 
were  Martirio  di  San  Lorenzo,  and  the 
Medea. 

McClellan,  George  Brinton  {b.  1826,  d. 
1885),  American  general ;  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Mexican  war,  and  drew  up  a  re- 
port on  the  organisation  of  European  armies 
after  a  visit  to  the  Crimea ;  during  the  Civil 
war  commanded  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
but  after  indecisive  engagements,  was  super- 
seded in  1862  (November).  In  1865,  as  a 
Democrat,  he  was  the  unsuccessful  opponent 
of  Lincoln  for  the  presidency.  In  1877  he 
was  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey. 

Macclesfield,  Thomas  Parker,  Earl  of 
(b.  1666,  d.  1732),  English  lawyer ;  took  part 
in  the  prosecution  of  Sacheverell,  and  in 
1710  became  chief  justice  of  the  Queen's 
Bench.  In  1716  he  was  made  baron,  in 
1721  an  earl,  and  was  Lord  Chancellor  from 
1718  to  1725,  when  he  was  found  guilty  of 
seJUng  offices  and  fined. 

McClintOCk  Sir  Francis  Leopold,  D.C.L., 
F.R.S.  {b.  1819),  Arctic  explorer,  bom  at 
Dundalk,  entered  the  navy  in  1831.  After 
some  foreign  service,  he  accompanied  the 
expeditions  in  search  of  Franklin  com- 
manded by  Sir  James  Ross  and  Captain 
Austin,  and  while  with  the  latter  made  a 
sledge  journey  of  760  miles.  Next  year 
(1852)  he  commanded  the  Intrepid  in  Sir  E. 
Belcher's  expedition,  and  rescued  McClure. 
In  1857  he  commanded  Lady  Franklin's 
expedition,  and  returned  in  two  years  with 
the  news  of  the  discovery  of  her  husband's 
death,  and  pubUshed  an  accoimt  of  the 
voyage.  In  1884  he  attained  the  rank  of 
admiral,  and  received  a  pension  in  1887. 

McClure,  Sir  Robert  John  le  Mesurier  (6. 
1807,  d.  1873),  Arctic  explorer;  went  with 
13ack'3  expedition  in  1836,  and  accompanied 


McC 


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Mac 


Ross  in  1848.  In  1850,  ■when  iu  command 
of  the  Investigator,  he  discovered  the  North- 
West  Passap;e,  but  was  ice-bound  for  three 
years.  Having  been  rescued  by  McClintock, 
he  returned,  was  knighted,  and  received  a 
reward  of  £5,000  for  his  discovery. 

McCormac,  Sir  William  (//.  1836),  surgeon, 
graduated  at  Queen's  University,  Belfast ; 
served  in  the  Franco-German  war  as 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  Anglo-American 
ambulance,  and  in  1876  in  Servia.  He  was 
knighted  for  his  services  in  1881  as  secretary- 
general  of  the  International  Medical  Con- 
gress, and  received  also  many  foreign 
decorations.  His  chief  works  are  Work 
under  the  Red  Cross,  Antiseptic  Surgery, 
and  Surgical  Operations. 

McCormick,  Cyrus  Hall  (b.  1809,  d.  1884), 
Anvsrican,  inventor  of  the  reaping-machine, 
which  he  patented  in  1834,  and  afterwards 
improved,  receiving  medals  at  the  London 
Exhibitions  of  1851  and  1862,  and  the  Legion 
of  Honour  in  1867.  He  built  large  works 
at  Chicago,  and  founded  a  seminary  there. 

McCormick,  Robert  {b.  1800),  Arctic  ex- 
plorer and  surgeon ;  entered  the  navy  in 
1823,  accompanied  Sir  Edward  Parry  in  the 
Hecla,  and  went  to  the  Antarctic  regions  in 
1836  in  the  Terror.  From  1839  to  1843  he 
was  with  the  Erebus  at  the  South  Pole. 
After  his  return  he  was  sent  in  the  North 
Star  in  1852  in  search  of  Franklin,  and  in 
1857  he  laid  before  the  Admiralty  the  plan 
carried  out  by  McClintock. 

McCosh,  James  [b.  1811),  American  philo- 
sophical writer,  bom  in  Scotland,  where  he 
took  part  in  the  founding  of  the  Free 
Church  in  1843.  After  holding  a  professor- 
ship at  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  he  went  in 
1868  to  America,  and  was  president  of  the 
college  at  Princetown  till  1887. 

McCoy,  Frederick,  F.R.S.,  D.Sc.  (b.  1823), 
British  paleontologist ;  made  investigation 
for  the  geological  map  of  Ireland,  publish- 
ing results  iu  1844  and  1846.  He  was  also 
employed  in  the  Imperial  Geological  Survey 
of  Ireland,  after  which  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor in  Queen's  College,  Belfast.  With 
Sedgwick  he  brought  out  British  Paheozoic 
Hocks  and  Fossils,  and  then  became  professor 
of  natural  science  at  Melbourne.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  first  Commission  on  the 
Gold  Fields  of  Victoria,  and  member  of 
several  other  royal  commissions. 

McCrie,  Thomas  {h.  1772,  d.  1835),  Scotch 
minister,  author  of  Life  of  John  Knox  (1813), 
Life  of  Andrew  Melville,  and  History  of  the 
Meformation  in  Italij. 

Mcculloch,  Horatio,  R.S.A.  (A.  1806,  d. 
1867),  Scottish  landscape-painter,  whose 
chief  picture  was  called  Mist  Rising  off  the 
Mountains 


McCulloch,  John  (6.  1773,  d.  1835), 
geologist ;  author  of  Geological  Classification 
of  Rocks,  System  of  Geology,  etc. ;  received 
£7,000  for  his  services  in  the  survey  of 
Scotland. 

McCuUoch,  John  Ramsay  (6.  1789,  d. 
1864),  political  economist,  professor  at  the 
London  University  1828-32,  and  after- 
wards controller  of  the  Stationery  Office ; 
wrote  Principles  of  Political  Economy  (1825), 
Statistical  Account  of  the  British  Empire 
(1837),  and  other  works. 

McCunn,  Hamish  (b.  1868),  musical  com- 
poser, studied  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Music,  and  produced  in  1886  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  his  Zand  of  the  Mountain  and  the 
Flood,  which  was  followed  by  Bonnie  Kil- 
meny.  The  Ship  o'  the  Fiend,  The  Dowie 
Dens  of  Yarrotv,  etc. 

Macdonald,  Etienne  Jacques  Joseph  Alex- 
andre, Marshal  (6.  1766,  d.  1840),  French 
soldier  of  Scottish  descent ;  commanded  the 
army  of  the  Rhine  in  1796,  and  distinguished 
himself  against  Suvaroff  in  Italy.  In  1800, 
while  in  command  in  Switzerland,  he  gained 
renown  by  his  passage  of  the  Spliigen.  Soon 
afterwards  he  lost  the  favour  of  Napoleon, 
but  in  1809  was  made  marshal  for  his  ser- 
vices at  Wagram,  and  next  year  Due  de 
Tarente.  He  interceded  for  Napoleon  with 
the  allies,  but  accepted  the  restoration,  and 
remained  faithful  to  the  Bourbons. 

Macdonald,  Flora  (*.  1722,  d.  1790), 
Scotch  lady,  who  aided  Charles  Edward 
Stewart  to  escape  in  1746. 

Macdonald,  George  {b.  1824),  poet  and 
novelist,  born  in  Aberdeenshire ;  after  being 
an  Independent  minister  for  a  short  time,  he 
retired  and  came  to  London,  where  he  wrote 
Within  and  Without :  a  Dramatic  Poem, 
David  Elginbrod  (1862),  Annals  of  a  Quiet 
Neighbourhood,  The  Disciple,  and  other 
Poems,  Unspoken  Sermons,  and  other  works. 
In  1877  he  received  a  Civil  List  pension  of 
£100.  His  son,  Greville  {b.  1856),  has 
become  known  as  a  specialist  in  nasal 
diseases. 

Macdonald,  Sir  John  Alexander  (b.  1815, 
d.  1891),  distinguished  Canadian  states- 
man, bom  in  Glasgow,  was  called  to  the 
Canadian  bar  in  1836,  and  became  receiver- 
general  of  Canada  (1847),  commissioner  of 
crown  lands  (1847-8),  attorney  -  general 
(1854-62  and  1861-7),  prime  minister  in 
1858,  government  leader  in  the  Assembly 
(1864-7),  and  minister  of  miUtia  affairs 
(18G2-65-67).  He  was  chairman  of  the 
London  Colonial  Conference  of  1866-7,  and 
was  head  of  the  new  Dominion  Government, 
as  minister  of  justice  and  attorney-general, 
from  1867  to  1873,  when  he  resigned  on  the 
Pacific  Railway  charges.     From  1878  till  hi» 


Mac 


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McI 


death  he  was  again  prime  minister,  being  at 
first  minister  of  the  interior,  and  afterwards 
president  of  the  council.  In  1871  he  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  on  the  Alabama 
claims,  and  was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council 
in  1879.  He  visited  England  ia  1880  and 
1884,  on  the  latter  occasion  taking  an  active 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  Imperial 
Federation  League. 

Macdonald,  John  Blake,  U.S.A.  {b.  1829), 
Scotch  painter,  bom  and  educated  in 
Morayshire,  came  to  Edinburgh  in  1852,  and 
studied  under  Lauder.  In  1862  he  painted 
Prince  Charlie  Leavi)tg  Scotland,  and  among 
his  other  works  are  King  James  and  the 
Witches,  The  Massacre  of  Glencoe  (in  the 
National  Gallery,  London),  and  several  pic- 
tures illustrative  of  Scott. 

Macdonald,  John  Denis,    M.D.,  F.R.S. 

(b.  1826),  scientific  writer,  bom  at  Cork, 
entered  the  navy  iu  1 849,  and  went  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery  in  the  South  Pacific 
with  Captain  Deuham  in  1852.  He  then  went 
in  the  Icarus  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he 
rendered  invaluable  services  in  connection 
with  the  yellow  fever  epidemic ;  and  in  1880 
was  appointed  inspector-general  of  hospitals. 
His  chief  works  are  Sound  and  Colour  (deal- 
ing with  the  undulatory  theory).  Guide  to 
the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Drink- 
ing Water,  and  Outlines  of  Naval  Hygiene 
(1881). 

Macdonald,  John  Hay  Athole  {b. 
1836),  Scotch  judge;  became  advocate  in 
1859,  and  Queen's  Counsel  in  1880,  and  was 
Solicitor-General  for  Scotland  from  1876  to 
1880,  and  Lord  Advocate  1885-6  and  1886-8, 
when  he  became  lord  justice  clerk.  He  sat 
in  Parliament  for  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews 
Universities  (1885-8),  and  became  Privy 
Councillor  in  1885.  As  an  electrician  he  was 
elected  F.R.S.E.  in  1886,  and  F.R.S.  in 
1888,  and  also  published  a  Treatise  on  the 
Criminal  Laic  and  a  book  on  Tactics. 

McDougall,  William  (*.  1822),  Cana- 
dian statesman, was  elected  to  Parliament  as 
a  reformer  in  1858 ;  became  member  of 
the  Executive  Council  in  1862,  and  pro- 
vincial secretary  in  the  coalition  ministry 
formed  to  carry  out  federation.  In  1866  he 
was  minister  of  marine,  and  in  the  first 
Dominion  Ministry  was  for  two  years 
minister  of  public  works.  In  1873  he  was 
commissioner  to  confer  on  fisheries  and 
emigration,  but  when  subsequently  offered 
public  office  he  declined. 

McDowell,  Irvin  {b.  1818,  d.  1885),  Ameri- 
can general ;  commanded  the  Fedeiulists  at 
the  defeat  of  Bull's  Run,  and  afterwards 
served  under  Pope  and  McClellan. 

McDowell,  Patrick  (*.  1799,  d.  1870), 
Bculptor,  bom  at  Belfast ;  came  to  England 


at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  made  a  name  by 
his  Girl  Reading.  He  was  elected  R.A.  in 
1846,  and  among  other  works  executed  the 
statues  of  Pitt  and  Chatham  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  the  group  Europa  in  the 
Albert  Memorial. 

Macedonius  I.  (d.  circa  360),  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople ;  forcibly  appointed  by  Con- 
stantius,  became  a  great  persecutor,  and  was 
deposed  in  360.  He  founded  the  sect  called 
after  him. 

Macer,  Clodius  {d.  68),  Roman  governor 
of  Africa ;  usurped  the  purple  on  the  death 
of  Nero,  but  was  put  to  death  by  Galba. 

Macfarren,  Sir  George  Alexander  ib.  1813, 
d.  1887),  composer,  educated  at  the  Academy 
of  Music,  at  which  he  became  a  professor  of 
harmony  iu  1834.  He  produced  Chevij  Chase 
(1836),  Bon  Quixote,  Charles  II.,  operas; 
May  Bay  (1856),  Robin  Hood  (1861),  can- 
tatas; Joseph,  an  oratorio  (1877),  and  many 
symphonies,  concertos,  and  songs.  In  1875 
he  was  named  principal  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  and  he  succeeded  Stem- 
dale  Bennett  as  profes.sor  of  music  at  Cam- 
bridge.    He  was  blind  in  his  latter  years. 

McGhee,  Thomas  D.  (A.  1825,  d.  1868), 
Canadian  statesman,  bom  in  Ireland ;  emi- 
grated and  settled  at  Boston  in  1842,  but 
soon  returned  to  Ireland,  where  he  took  part 
in  the  Young  Ireland  movement,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  had  to  leave  the  country 
for  Ajnerica  in  1848.  He  went  to  Canada 
about  1856,  and,  having  changed  his  views, 
was  elected  to  the  Canadian  Parliament,  and 
was  from  1864  to  1867  president  of  the 
Executive  Council,  when  he  drafted  the 
plan  of  federation,  which  was  adopted.  He 
was  assassinated  by  the  Fenians  at  Ottawa. 

McGregor,  John  (6.  1797,  d.  1857),  Scotch 
political  economist ;  author  of  The  Progress 
of  America,  a  History  of  the  British  Empire 
(1852),  etc. ;  was  elected  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Glasgow  in  1847,  but  was  ruined 
by  the  failiire  of  the  British  Bank,  estab- 
lished by  him  in  1849. 

MacGregor,  John  (Jb.  1825),  philanthropist 
and  canoeist ;  wrote  A  Thousand  Miles  in 
the  Rob  Roy  Canoe  (1866),  etc. 

McHale,  John,  D.D.  (J>.  1791,  d.  1881), 
Catholic  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  author  of 
translations  of  the  Bible  and  the  Iliad  into 
Irish ;  was  for  some  years  professor  at 
MajTiooth. 

Machault,  Jean  Baptiste  (i.  1701,  d. 
1794),  French  financier,  appointed  con- 
troller-general in  1745.  His  plans  not  being 
adopted,  he  became  minister  of  marine  in 
1754,  but  retired  three  years  later,  and  died 
in  prison  during  the  revolution. 

Mcnwraith,  Sir  Thomas,  K.C.M.G.    {Jb. 


Mac 


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Mac 


1835},  Australian  statesman,  bom  at  Ayr, 
Scotland,  and  educated  at  Glasgow ;  emi- 
grated to  Victoria  in.  18.54,  and  became  a 
ci\il  engineer ;  became  minister  of  works  in 
Queensland  in  1873,  and  was  premier  from 
1879  to  1883,  and  again  from  1888  to  1890, 
when  he  became  treasurer. 

Machin,  or  Machyn,  John  (d.  1751), 
British  astronomer,  professor  at  Gresham 
College ;  author  of  the  Laws  of  the  Moon's 
Motion,  and  a  computation  of  the  ratio  of 
the  circumference  of  a  circle  to  its  diameter. 

Macias  el  Enamorado  (15th  century), 
Spanish  poet,  whose  name  weis  made  cele- 
brated by  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon  as  a 
type  of  pure  but  unhappy  love. 

Macintosh,  Charles,  F.R.S.  {b.  1766,  d. 
1843),  Scotch  chemist,  and  inventor  of  the 
waterproof  cloak ;  was  bom  in  Glasgow,  but 
transferred  his  business  to  Manchester. 

Mcintosh,  "William,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E.  {b. 
1838),  ichthyologist  and  physician,  bom  and 
educated  at  St.  Andrews,  where  he  became 
professor  of  natural  history  in  1882.  His 
chief  works  are  Obsei'vations  and  Experiments 
on  the  Shore  Crab,  The  Annelida  of  H.M.S. 
"  Challenger"  (1885),  and  On  the  Develop- 
ment and  Life-ilistories  of  the  British  Food 
Fishes,  with  B.  E.  Prince  (1889). 

Mack,  Karl,  Baron  {b.  1752,  d.  1822), 
Austrian  general,  who  rose  from  the  ranks ; 
was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Mac- 
donald  in  Italy  (1797),  and  was  in  command 
at  the  capitulation  of  Uim  in  1805. 

Mackay,  Charles,  LL.D.  {b.  1814,  d.  1889), 
Scottish  journalist  and  poet ;  author  of  Poems 
and  Extraordinary  Popular  Delusions,  popu- 
lar songs,  such  as  Cheer,  Boys,  Cheer,  etc. 

McKendrick,  John  Gray,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E. 
(J).  1841),  physiologist  and  surgeon,  bom 
and  educated  at  Aberdeen  (M.D.,  1864),  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Institute  of  Medi- 
cine in  Glasgow  in  1876,  and  was  subse- 
quently Fullerian  professor  of  physiology 
at  the  Royal  Institution  and  Thomson  lec- 
turer at  the  Free  Church  college,  Aberdeen ; 
his  chief  work,  besides  monographs  on 
various  medical  subjects,  is  a  Text-book  of 
Physiology  (1837). 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Alexander  {b.  1755,  d. 
1820),  explorer;  discovered  the  river  which 
bears  his  name  in  1789. 

Mackenzie,  Alexander  {b.  1822),  Cana- 
dian statesman,  bom  in  Perthshire ; 
early  emigrated  to  Canada,  where  he  be- 
came a  contractor  and  journalist.  After 
sitting  in  the  Canadian  Parliament  for  six 
years,  he  was  elected  to  the  Dominion  Legis- 
lature, and  was  also  provincial  secretary 
and  treasurer  in  Ontario  till  1872.    From 


1873  till  1878  he  was  premier  and  minister 
of  public  works  for  the  Dominion. 

Mackenzie,  Alexander  Campbell  (b.  1847), 
composer,  bom  in  Edinburgh,  and  educated 
in  Germany ;  became  principal  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  in  1888.  His  chief 
works  are  Colomba  (1884)  and  The  Trouba- 
dour, operas  ;  the  Story  of  Sayid  and  The 
Dream  of  Jubal,  cantatas  ;  and  The  Rose  of 
Sharon  (1884),  an  oratorio. 

Mackenzie,  Charles  Frederick  (b.  1825,  d. 
1862),  British  colonial  bishop  ;  after  having 
been  for  some  years  with  Colenso  in  Natal, 
organised  and  became  head  of  the  Zambesi 
mission,  but  died  of  fever  within  six  months 
of  his  consecration. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  George  (*.  1636,  d.  1691), 
Scotch  lawyer  ;  as  lord  advocate  prosecuted 
the  Covenanters,  founded  the  Advocate's 
Library,  Edinburgh,  and  became  the  friend 
of  Dryden.  His  chief  work  was  Institutions 
of  the  Laws  of  Scotland. 

Mackenzie,  Henry  (*.  1745,  d.  1831), 
Scotch  writer  and  comptroller  of  taxes, 
his  chief  works  being  The  Man  of  Feeling 
(1771),  The  Man  of  the  World,  and  Julia  de 
Roubigne. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Morell  (*.  1837,  d.  1892), 
physician ;  bom  at  Leytonstone,  and  edu- 
cated in  London,  Paris,  and  Vienna ;  obtained 
the  Jacksonian  prize  in  1863  for  his  Essay  on 
Diseases  of  the  Larynx,  to  which  subject  he 
continued  to  devote  his  studies,  producing  a 
treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Nose, 
besides  several  smaller  works.  He  was 
knighted  in  1887  for  his  services  to  the 
Emperor  Frederick  in  his  last  illness,  of 
which  he  wrote  an  accoimt,  which  gave 
great  umbrage  to  his  profession,  and  obliged 
him  to  resign  his  membership  of  the  College 
of  Physicians. 

Mackey,  John  {d.  1726),  English  political 
agent ;  followed  James  II.  to  France,  and 
supplied  the  English  Government  with  in- 
formation of  the  descent  on  Scotland  medi- 
tated by  the  Old  Pretender ;  wrote  Pictures 
of  the  Court  of  St.  Germain. 

Mackinnon,  Daniel  (b.  1791,  d.  1832),  Eng- 
lish soldier  ;  entered  the  Coldstream  Guards 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  served  with 
great  distinction,  particularly  in  the  defence 
of  Hougomont  on  the  field  of  Waterloo. 

Mackintosh,  Sir  James  {b.  1765,  d.  1832), 
Wliig  politician  and  writer,  friend  of  Can- 
ning and  Romilly  ;  first  became  known  by 
his  Vindicice  Gallicce  (a  reply  to  Burke's 
Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution),  and 
gained  a  considerable  practice  at  the  bar. 
After  seven  years  in  India,  he  entered  ParUa- 
ment  in  1812,  became  privy  councillor  in 
1827,  and  commissioner  for  Indian  affairs  in 


Mac 


(  623  ) 


Mac 


1830.  His  chief  works  were  an  incomplete 
History  of  the  Revolution  of  1688,  and  Dis- 
course on  the  Law  of  Nature  and  Nations. 

Macklin,  Charles  {b.  1690,  d.  1797),  Irish 
dramatist  and  actor  ;  author  of  The  Man  of 
thf.  World  and  Love  d.  la  Mode. 

Maclagan,  William  Dalrymple  {b.  1826), 
Eughsh  divine,  bom  and  educated  at 
Edinburgh;  served  'in  the  army,  and  on 
his  retirement  in  1852  went  to  Cambridge. 
He  took  orders  in  1856,  was  named  Bishop 
of  Lichfield  in  1878,  and  succeeded  Dr. 
Magee  as  Archbishop  of  York  in  1891.  He 
edited  (with  Dr.  A.  Weir)  a  series  of  essays 
called  The  Church  and  the  Age  (1870). 

Maclaren,  Charles  {b.  1782,  d.  1866), 
Scotch  journalist  and  wi-iter;  established 
and  edited  for  thirty  years  The  Scotsman, 
and  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Topography  of 
Troy. 

Maclaurin,  Colin  (*.  1698,  d.  1746),  Scotch 
mathematician,  professor  at  Aberdeen  and 
Edinburgh,  and  author  of  Geometria  Or- 
ganica,  a  System  of  Fluxions. 

Maclaurin,  John,  Lord  Dreghom  [b. 
1734,  d.  1796),  Scotch  judge,  son  of  last- 
named,  lord  of  sessions  (1787-96),  author 
of  Con. siderat ions  on  Literary  Property  (1767), 
and  Bemarkahle  Cases  Before  the  Supreme 
Courts  of  Scotland. 

Maclean.     \_See  Landon.] 

McLennan,  John  Fergus  (b.  1827,  d.  1881), 
British  anthropologist ;  author  of  Primitive 
Marriage,  Studies  in  Ancient  History  and 
LJs.sai/n  on  Totemism.  He  was  the  chief 
oppoaent  of  Sir  Henry  Maine's  views  on 
the  origin  of  the  family. 

Macleod,  Norman  {b.  1812,  d.  1872), 
Scotch  i)reacher  and  writer,  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  Queen  in  1854,  and  enjoyed 
her  friendship.  In  1869  he  was  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly.  Most  of  his 
writings  appeared  in  Good  Words,  which  he 
edited. 

Maclise,  Daniel,  R.A.  (b.  1806,  d.  1870), 
painter,  bom  at  Cork  ;  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  first  exhibited  in  1829.  The 
picture  All  Hallow  Eve  made  his  name, 
and  he  was  elected  A. R.A.  two  years  later. 
In  1840  he  produced  The  Banquet  Scene  in 
Macbeth,  which  was  followed  by  The  Play 
Scene  in  Hamlet  (1842),  Moses  and  the  Spec- 
tacles, and  the  frescoes  The  Meeting  of 
Wellington  and  Blilcher  and  'The  Death 
of  Nelson,  painted  for  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Dickens. 

MacMahon,  Marie  Edme  Patrice  Maurice 
de  {b.  1808),  French  soldier  and  statesman  of 


Irish  descent ;  served  in  the  Algerian  war  of 
1830,  took  part  in  the  expedition  to  Antwerp 
in  1832,  and  in  1855  succeeded  to  Canrobert's 
command  in  the  Crimea.  For  his  services 
in  Italy  in  1857  he  was  made  Due  de 
Magenta  and  marshal  of  France,  and  be- 
came governor-general  of  Algeria  in  1864. 
On  the  outbreak  of  war  with  Prussia  he 
was  given  the  command  of  the  first  army 
corps.  He  shared  in  the  disaster  at  Woerth, 
and  was  in  chief  command  at  Sedan  (Septem- 
ber 1st),  where  he  was  severely  wounded  and 
made  prisoner.  On  his  return  to  France  in 
March,  1871,  he  conducted  the  siege  of  Paris 
against  the  Communists,  and  reorganised  the 
army.  lu  1873  he  was  named  president  of 
the  repubUc  for  seven  years.  In  1877  he 
began  to  entertain  monarchical  designs,  but 
was  defeated  in  the  elections,  and  two  years 
later  retired  rather  than  submit  to  the  law 
against  monarchical  officers. 

MacmiUan,  Daniel  (b.  1813,  d.  1857), 
publisher,  son  of  a  farmer  in  the  Isle  of 
Arran  ;  after  being  in  the  bookselling  trade 
at  Glasgow,  Cambridge,  and  London,  he  set 
up  with  his  brother,  Alexander,  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1843,  but  was  compelled  by  Ul- 
health  to  retire  in  1856.  In  1873  the  pub- 
hshing  business,  now  under  the  guidance 
of  Alexander  (6.  1818),  was  transferred  to 
London. 

McMurdo,  General  Sir  William,  K.C.B. 
(b.  circa  1819),  British  soldier  ;  entered  the 
army  in  1837,  and  immediately  went  to 
India,  where  he  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self, especially  at  Meeauee.  He  organised 
the  land  transport  corps  in  the  Crimea,  and 
afterwards  rendered  great  services  in  con- 
nection with  the  Volimteer  movement,  being 
inspector-general  of  volunteers  for  five 
years. 

Macmurrough,  Dermot  (12th  century), 
King  of  Leinster ;  sought  the  help  of  the 
English  against  Roderick  O'Connor,  which 
circumstance  contributed  to  the  conquest  of 
Ireland. 

Macnab,  Sir  Allan  Napier  (A.  1798,  d. 
1862),  Canadian  statesman;  when  speaker 
of  the  Assembly  of  Upper  Canada  his 
energy  mainly  contributed  to  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  rebellion  of  1837-8,  after  which 
he  was  knighted.  He  became  premier  of 
Upper  Canada  in  1854,  and  was  made  a 
baronet  in  1858. 

Macnaghten,  Sir  William  (*.  1793,  d. 
1841),  Eiifilish  civil  servant  in  India;  was 
made  baronet  for  his  conduct  as  envoy  to 
Shah  Sujah  in  1839,  but  was  treacherously 
shot  by  Akbar  Khan  in  December,  1841, 
when  conferring  about  the  evacuation  of 
Cabul. 

Macnally,  Leonard  {b.  1750,  d.  1820), 
Irish  lawyer  and  dramatist ;  was  in  the  pay 


Mac 


(524) 


Mad 


of  the  Government  while  acting  as  advocate 
for  the  United  Irishmen.  His  chief  plays 
were  Jiobin  Hood  and  Jtetahatton. 

Macnaughten,  Right  Hon.  Lord  {fi.  1830), 
British  judge ;  called  to  the  bar  in  1857, 
became  Queen's  Counsel  in  1880,  and  repre- 
sented Antrim  as  a  Conservative  from  1880 
to  1887,  when  he  was  named  lord  of  appeal. 

Macnee,  Sir  Daniel  (*.  1806,  d.  1882), 
Scotch  portrait-painter,  his  subjects  being 
many  contemporary  public  men ;  was  elected 
member  of  the  Scottish  Academy  in  1829, 
and  president  in  1876,  in  which  year  he  was 
knighted. 

M'NeiU,  Right  Hon.  Sir  John  (J.  1795,  d. 
1883),  diplomatist .  published  in  1854  Pro- 
gress and  Position  of  Russia  in  the  East 
as  the  result  of  his  observations  while 
envoy  in  Persia,  and  afterwards  presided 
over  the  committee  of  inquiry  into  the 
management  of  the  commissariat  during 
the  Crimean  war. 

Macpherson,  James  {b.  1738,  d.  1796), 
Scottish  poet ;  published  in!  1760  Fragments 
of  Ancient  Poetry,  translated  from  Gaehc, 
and,  having  been  assisted  by  subscription, 
travelled  in  Scotland,  and  produced  two 
years  later  Fingal  and  Temora,  which  pro- 
fessed to  betranslationsfrompoems  by  Ossian, 
a  Highland  prince.  He  was  afterwards 
secretary  to  the  governor  of  Florida,  sat  in 
Parliament  for  some  years,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Macpherson,  Sir  John  {b.  1767,  d.  1821), 
British  soldier ;  held  several  offices  under 
the  Nabob  of  Arcot,  and  was  afterwards  a 
chief  agent  in  the  overthrow  of  Hyder  Ali. 
He  was  also  for  a  short  time  Governor- 
General  (1785-6). 

Macready,  William  Charles  {b.  1793,  d. 
1873),  actor,  bom  in  London,  and  educated 
at  Rugby  ;  made  his  first  appearance  at 
Birmingham  in  1810,  and  was  engaged  at 
Covent  Garden  in  1816.  He  played  Richard 
HI.  in  1819,  and  removed  to  Drury  Lane 
in  1822,  and  after  a  tour  in  the  United 
States,  appeared  as  Macbeth  in  1827.  He 
subsequently  visited  Paris,  and  held  the 
management  of  Covent  Garden  and  Drury 
Lane.  In  1849  he  nearly  lost  his  life  in  a 
riot  promoted  by  the  friends  of  Forrest  at 
the  Astor  Opera  House,  New  York ;  and  he 
made  his  last  appearance  at  Drury  Lane  in 

Macrinus  {b.  164,  d.  218),  Roman  Em- 
peror, succeeded  on  the  murder  of  Cara- 
oalla  in  217,  but  was  killed  in  a  civil  war 
which  soon  followed  his  attempts  to  restore 
discipline  among  the  praetorians. 

Macrorie,  William  K.,  D.D.  {b.  1831), 
colonial  bishop,  educated  at  Winchester  and 


Oxford  :  after  having  been  rector  of  Wap- 
ping  and  vicar  of  Accrington,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Maritzburg  in  1869,  the  appoint- 
ment being  the  occasion  of  a  protest  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  an  encroachment  on  the 
diocese  of  Natal,  held  by  Colenso. 

I  MacWliirter,  John  {b.  1839),  artist,  bom 
■  near  Edinburgh  ;  was  elected  associate  of  the 
Scottish  Academy  in  1863,  and  A.R.  A.  in 
1879.  His  pictures  are  chiefly  landscapes, 
and  among  them  may  be  named  The  Three 
Witches,  The  Lord  oj  the  Glen,  A  Highland 
Harvest,  and  Edinburgh  from  Salisbury  Crag. 

McWiUiam,  James,  F.R.S.,  C.B.  (d.  1862), 
naval  surgeon  ;  was  chief  medical  officer  of 
the  Niger  expedition  (1841),  and  wrote  a  re- 
port on  yellow  fever  in  1846,  which  was 
printed  by  order  of  Parliament.  He  became 
medical  inspector  of  customs  in  1847. 

Madan,  Martin  {b.  1726,  d.  1790),  clergy- 
man, chaplain  at  the  Lock  Hospital ;  wrote 
J%e/yjoAiAom,  advocating  polygamy  (1780-1). 

Madden,  Sir  Frederick  (*.  1801,  d.  1873), 
archaeologist,  keeper  of  manuscripts  at  the 
British  Museum  ;  edited  Hnvelock  the  Bane, 
Layamon's  Brut,  and  (with  J.  Forshall) 
WycUffe's  Bible. 

Madden,  Richard  Robert  (J.  1798, «?.  1886), 
Irish  surgeon ;  wrote  books  descriptive  of 
his  travels  in  the  East,  Life  and  Times  of  the 
United  Irishmen,  and  other  works. 

Madden,  Samuel  [b.  1687,  d.  1765),  Irish 
writer  ;  author  of  Reflections  and  Resolutions 
Proper  for  the  Gentlemen  of  Ireland,  which 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  Dublin  Royal 
Society,  Memoirs  of  the  Twentieth  Century, 
and  other  works. 

Mademo,  Carlo  (A.  1556,  d.  1629),  Italian 
architect,  completed  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome, 
and  built  several  other  churches  and  palaces. 

Madison,  James  {b.  1751,  d.  1836),  fourth 
president  of  the  United  States  :  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  first  Vii'ginia  Couveatiou  in  1776, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution 
and  the  affairs  of  the  state.  He  reported  all 
the  debates  of  the  Convention  of  1787,  wrote 
in  the  Federalist,  was  secretary  of  state 
under  the  presidency  of  Jefferson,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1809. 

Madoc  (12th  century),  Welsh  chieftain; 
said  to  have  discovered  America  before  Co- 
lumbus, the  narrative  of  his  voyage  being 
comprised  in  Hakluyt's  collection. 

Madox,  Thomas  {fl.  circa  1735),  English 
antiquarian  ;  a.uthor  oi  History  and  AntK^ui- 
ties  of  the  Exchequer  to  the  Reign  of  lung 
John,  &u6.Formnlare Anglicanum,  a  selection 
of  charters. 

Madvig,  Jean  Nicholai  {b.  1804,  d.  1886), 


Mseo 


(525) 


Mag 


Danish  philologist  and  statesman ;  suc- 
cessively minister  of  worship  and  public  in- 
struction, and  professor  of  Latin  at  Copen- 
hagen ;  was  author  of  a  Latin  grammar,  and 
edited  several  classics. 

Maecenas,  Caius  Cilnius  {d.  8  B.C.),  Roman 
statesman  and  patron  of  men  of  letters ; 
carried  on  the  government  at  Eome  in  the 
absence  of  Augustus,  and  entertained  Horace 
and  Virgil. 

Maedler,  Johann  Heinrich  {b.  1794,  d. 
1874),  German  astronomer,  director  of  the 
Dorpat  observatory  ;  published  (with  Beer) 
Mappe  Selmographlca,  and  was  author  of  a 
hypothesis  that  there  is  a  central  body,  round 
which  the  polar  system  revolves  in  millions 
of  years.  He  published  Livestigatioji.s  on 
the  System  of  the  Fixed  Stars,  ^and  other 
works. 

Maelzel,Leonard  (6. 1776,  d.  1855),  German 
mechanician,  among  his  inventions  having 
been  automatic  orchestras,  trumpeters,  and 
chess-players;  and  the  metronome,  an  in- 
strument for  marking  time  in  playing  music. 

Maffei,  Francisco  Scipione,  Marchese  di  {b. 
1675,  d.  1755),  Italian  poet  and  archaeologist ; 
author  of  Merope,  a  tragedy  (1714),  Le 
Ceremonie  (1728),  Verona  lUmtrata,  and 
other  works. 

Maffei,  Giovanni  (6.  1536,  d.  1603),  Italian 
Jesuit ;  author  of  Vita  Ignatii  Loyolce,  His- 
toric Indices,  etc. 

Magalhaens,  or  Magellan,  Fernando  de 
(d.  1521),  Portuguese  navigator  ;  when  on  a 
voyage  round  the  world  discovered  the 
.straits  called  after  him,  in  1520,  and  was 
killed  in  a  conflict  with  the  Indians  a  few 
months  after. 

Magee,  "William  Connor  {b.  1821,  d.  1891), 
English  divine,  bom  at  Cork,  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  while  incumbent 
of  the  Octagon  chapel,  Bath,  made  a  name 
by  his  address  on  T/ie  Voluntary  System  and 
the  Established  Church.  In  1864  he  was 
named  Dean  of  Cork.  Four  years  after  he 
became  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  where  he 
continued  till  January,  1891,  when  he  was 
named  Archbishop  of  York. 

Magendie,  Franqois  {h.  1783,  d.  1855), 
French  physiologist ;  wrote  Le<;ons  sur  les 
Fhenomenes  de  la  Vie,  and  other  works. 

Maggl,  Girolamo  {d.  1572),  Italian  en- 
gineer ;iud  writer,  bom  in  Tuscany  ;  haying 
become  known  by  a  treatise  on  fortification, 
was  employed  by  the  Venetians  apainst  the 
Turks  in  Cyprus,  but  on  the  fall  of  Fama- 
gosta  was  sent  as  a  slave  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  strangled.  During  his  im- 
prisonment he  wrote,  without  books,  treatises, 
Le  Tintinnabulis  and  Be  Equuleo  (the  rack). 


Maginn,  William  {b.  1793,  d.  1842),  Irish 
man  of  letters ;  contributed  to  Fraser  and 
Blackwood.  His  Homeric  Ballads  were  pub- 
lished in  1849,  and  Miscellanies  in  1885. 

MagliabeccM,  Antonio  {b.  1633,  d.  1714), 
Italian  bibUographer,  of  immense  learning 
and  eccentric  habits,  Ubrarian  to  Cosmo  III. 
of  Tuscany ;  left  a  large  Ubrary  at  his  death, 
now  belonging  to  the  city  of  Florence. 

Magnentius  {d.  353),  a  German,  Emperor 
of  the  West ;  usurped  the  purple  after  the 
murder  of  Constans  in  350,  but  was  defeated 
at  Mursa  in  the  following  year  by  Con- 
stantine.  Emperor  of  the  East,  and  died  by 
his  own  hand  in  GauL 

Magnol,  Pierre  (b.  1638,  d.  1720),  French 
botanist,  physician  to  Louis  XIV.,  and 
author  of  several  works.  Linnaeus  called  the 
Magnolia  after  him. 

Magnus,  Johannes  {b.  1488,  d.  1544), 
Swedish  historian  ;  made  Archbishop  of  Up- 
sala  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  but  deposed  for  his 
opposition  to  the  reformation  and  seculari- 
sation of  church  property ;  went  to  Rome, 
and  wrote  Historia  Gothorum  Suevorumque. 
His  brother,  Olaus  {d.  1568),  who  accom- 
panied him  to  Home,  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  wrote  Be  Gentibus 
Septentrionalibus. 

Magnus  I.,  King  of  Norway  (4.  1018,  d. 
1047),  went  to  Russia  with  his  father,  St. 
Olav ;  succeeded  Knut  in  1042  as  King  of 
Norway  and  Denmark,  but  sold  half  of  the 
former  to  Harald,  brother  of  Olav. 

Magnus  II.  {b.  1035,  d.  1069),  succeeded 
Harald  III.,  and  shared  his  throne  with  his 
brotlier,  Olav  III. 

Magnus  HI.  {b.  1060,  d.  1105),  called 
"Bastod,"  or  "The  Barelegged,"  from  his 
Scotch  costume  ;  was  killed  in  an  attack 
upon  Dublin. 

Magnus  IV.  [d.  1139),  caUed  "  The  Blind," 
because  his  eyes  were  put  out  by  Harald, 
who  dethroned  him,  and  shut  him  up  at 
Drontheim.  He  was  afterwards  restored, 
but  was  killed  in  a  naval  battle  a  few  years 
after. 

Magnus  V.  {d.  1143)  reigned  fifteen 
months. 

Magnus  VI.  (*.  1157,  <^.  1184)  succeeded 
in  1132,  but  was  dethroned  by  Svewer,  and 
fied  to  Denmark,  where  he  was  drowned. 

Magnus  VII.  (6.  1238,  d.  1280),  "The 
Reformer,"  succeeded  Haco  V.  in  1262; 
carried  on  war  with  the  Scots  and  Danes, 
and  introduced  reforms. 

Magnus  I.,  Kins  of  Sweden  (6.  1240,  d. 
1298),  dethroned  \Valdemar  in  1276  ;  called 


Mag 


(526) 


Mah 


himself  "Kiug  of  the  Swedes  and  Goths," 
and  put  down  a  rebellion  of  the  nobles. 

Magmus  IL,  King  of  Sweden  {b.  1316,  rf. 
1364),  grandson  of  last-named,  succeeded 
Berger  in  1321,  having  been  elected  King  of 
Norway  ia  1319;  gave  Norway  to  Haco  in 
1344,  and  was  deprived  of  Sweden  by  him 
in  1361,  but  afterwards  reigned  with  him, 
till  they  were  both  dethroned  in  1363  ;  died 
by  a  shipwreck  next  year. 

Magnussen,  Ame  {b.  1663,  d.  1730),  Ice- 
landic writer,  professor  at  Copenhagen; 
published  Kristni-Saga  (1771),  and  Orkneu- 
inga-Saga  (1780). 

Magnussen,  Finn  (A.  1781,  d.  1848),  Ice- 
landic writer  ;  translated  Lilien  and  Edda. 

Mago  {d.  203  B.C.),  Carthagitiian  general, 
brother  of  Hannibal,  with  whom  he  went 
to  Italy  in  218 ;  carried  on  the  war  in  Spain, 
but  was  defeated  by  Scipio  in  206 ;  landed 
in  Italy,  and  captured  Genoa  in  205,  but 
was  defeated  and  mortally  wounded  in  203. 

Magrath,  John  R,  D.D.  {b.  1839),  Eng- 
lish scholar,  born  in  Guernsey,  and  educated 
at  Oxford,  where  he  was  fellow  of  Queen's 
College  from  1860  to  1878,  when  he  was 
elected  provost.  His  chief  work  is  Selections 
from  Aristotle's  Organon  (2nd  edition,  1877). 

Maguire,  John  Francis  {b.  1815,  d.  1872), 
Irish  politician  ;  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar 
in  1843,  but  afterwards  became  a  joumahst. 
He  represented  Dungarvan  from  1853  to 
1865,  and  Cork  from  that  date  till  his  death, 
and  was  prominent  as  a  defender  of  Catholic 
interests  and  a  supporter  of  land  reform, 
being  also  one  of  the  earliest  Home  Eulers. 
He  was  author  of  Rome  and  its  Rulers,  a 
Life  of  Father  Mathew,  and  other  works. 

Mahafly,  John  P.,  D.D.  {b.  1839),  Irish 
scholar,  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  gamed  a  fellowship  in  1864,  and 
became  professor  of  ancient  history  in 
1871 ;  author  of  numerous  works,  the  chief 
of  which  are  Prolegomena  to  Ancient  History, 
Kanfs  Critical  Philosophy  for  English 
Readers,  Greek  Social  Life  from  Homer  to 
Menander,  and  History  of  Classical  Greek 
Literature. 

Mahdajee  Sindia  (d.  1794),  Mahratta 
chief;  subdued  Delhi,  and  having  formed 
a  fine  army,  officered  by  Frenchmen,  carried 
on  war  against  the  British,  but  was  defeated, 
and  became  neutral  after  the  Treaty  of 
Salbye.  ^ 

Mahdana  Punt  (d.  1686),  Brahmin  prime 
nunister  of  Abou  Hussein,  last  of  the  Gol- 
conda  dynasty;  opposed  Auruagzebe,  but 
was  assassinated  by  Mogul  partisans. 

Mahmoodof  Qhuzni  {d.  1030),  Mahometan 


prince,  whose  dominions  at  his  death  ex- 
tended from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Sea 
of  Aral,  and  from  Kurdistan  to  the  Sutlej  ; 
invaded  India,  and  founded  Mahometan 
power  there ;  carried  away  the  gates  of 
Somuath,  which  were  brought  back  to  India 
by  the  Britrsh. 

Mahmood  Shah  (b.  1445,  d.  1514),  King 
of  Gujerat,  succeeded  Kootub  Shah  in  1459, 
and  reigned  fifty- five  years,  during  which 
he  ruled  well,  and  carried  on  successful  war 
with  Rajpootana  and  the  Portuguese. 

Mahmoud  L,  Sultan  of  Turkey  {b.  1696, 
d.  1754),  lost  several  provinces  in  wars  with 
the  Persians,  and  was  obliged  to  give  up 
the  Crimea  to  Russia, 

Mahmoud  II.  (6.  1785,  d.  1839),  succeeded 
Mustapha  IV.,  whose  relations  he  put  to 
death ;  was  obliged  to  cede  Bessarabia  to 
Russia,  and  to  acknowledge  the  independ- 
ence of  Greece,  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  the 
Slav  provinces ;  introduced  European  ideas 
into  the  government,  and  put  down  the 
Janissaries ;  gave  up  to  Russia  the  passage 
of  the  Dardanelles,  in  return  for  their  help 
against  Mahomet  Ali,  who  had  made  Egypt 
independent. 

Mahomet  [Muhamad]  {d.  632),  was  in 
his  youth  employed  as  a  camel-driver  be- 
tween Mecca  and  Damascus  by  his  uncle, 
who  had  adopted  him,  but  at  the  age  of 
twenty- eight  married  Kadichah,  a  rich 
widow.  He  now  led  a  life  of  meditation, 
during  which  the  Koran  was  drawn  up. 
When  at  the  age  of  forty  he  claimed  to  be  a 
prophet,  he  was  opposed  by  his  family,  and 
in  622  left  Mecca  for  Medina  (the  Hegira)." 
Here  his  followers  increased,  and  were 
incited  by  him  against  the  Arabian  Jews. 
Mecca  was  stormed,  and  in  time  all  Arabia 
and  Syria  conquered,  but  the  prophet  died 
soon  after  at  Medina,  perhaps  from  poisoned 
food. 

Mahomet  Ali  {d.  1795),  Nabob  of  the 
Carnatic ;  was  helped  in  his  struggle  against 
Chunda  Sahib  hy  the  British,  while  the 
French  sided  with  his  rival,  whom  he 
ultimately  captured  and  executed.  In  his 
later  years  his  kingdom  was  administered 
by  the  Madras  government. 

Mahomet  Toghluk,  Emperor  of  Delhi 
(d.  1351),  succeeded  Gheias-ood-deen  in  1325  ; 
ruled  well  at  first,  but  afterwards  became  a 
tjrraut,  the  most  cruel  of  his  acts  being  the 
enforced  migration  of  the  people  of  Delhi 
to  Doulutabad;  died  of  fever  at  Scinde 
while  on  the  way  to  repress  a  rebellion. 

Mahomet  I.  {b.  1374,  d.  1421),  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  son  of  Bajazet ;  was  the  first  who 
had  a  naval  force,  with  which  he  attacked 
the  fleets  of  Venice. 


Mall 


(527) 


Mai 


Mahomet  IL  (i.  1430,  d.  1481),  son  of 
Amurath  II. ,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1451. 
He  took  Constantinople  two  years  later,  and 
afterwards  conquered  Greece ;  was  repulsed 
at  Rhodes  in  1480,  but  took  Tarentum. 

Mahomet  in.  (6.  1566,  d.  1603),  son  of 
Amurath  III.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1595, 
after  killing  aU  his  brothers.  He  defeated 
the  Christian  army  near  the  Theiss  in  1596, 
but  failed  before  Buda  three  years  later. 

Mahomet  IV,  (b.  1642,  d.  1691),  son  of 
Ibrahim,  who  was  deposed  and  strangled  in 
1648.  His  mother  was  regent  for  some 
years,  during  which  Candia  was  taken  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Kiuprili.  The  sultan 
formed  an  alliance  in  1681  with  the  Hun- 
garian Tekeli,  but  was  defeated  at  the 
E,aab  and  before  Vienna  in  1613,  and  sub- 
.sequently  lost  Buda  and  Pesth,  the  final 
disaster  being  the  battle  of  Mohacz  (1687). 
The  Morea  also  had  been  taken  by  Venice, 
and  Mahomet  was  deposed  in  1687. 

Mahomet  V.,  VL     \_See  Mahmoud  I.,  IL] 

Mahon.     [^See  Stanhope.] 

Mahony,  Francis  [b.  1805,  d.  1866),  Irish 
journalist  and  writer  imder  the  name  of 
"  Father  Prout." 

Mai,  Angelo,  Cardinal  (*.  1782,  d.  1854), 
Italian  scholar;  discovered  many  paUmp- 
sests,  notably  that  of  Cicero's  Be  Republicd 
at  Milan,  and  left  a  fine  library  to  the 
Vatican. 

Mailath,  Janos  Nepomuk  (b.  1786,  d. 
1855),  Hungarian  poet  and  historian  ;  author 
of  Poems  (1824)  and  History  of  the  Magyars. 

MaiUard,  Olivier  (15th  century),  French 
cordelier,  and  vigorous  preacher  under 
Louis  XI.  and  Charles  VIII.,  the  former  of 
whom  he  reproved  unpunished.  His  sermons 
were  printed  in  1730. 

Maillebois,  Jean  Desmarets,  Marquis  de 
{b.  1682,  d.  1762),  French  marshal ;  served 
imder  Villars  in  the  Spanish  Succession 
war;  drove  the  Imperialists  from  Italy  in 
1733-4,  conquered  Corsica  in  1739;  defeated 
the  King  of  Savoy  in  1745,  but  was  obliged 
to  evacuate  Italy  next  year,  after  a  defeat 
at  Piacenza. 

Maimbourg,  Louis  (A.  1610,  d.  1686), 
French  Jesuit ;  author  of  Traite  ITisiorique 
de  VEglise  de  Rome,  in  support  of  the 
liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church,  for  which 
he  was  expelled  from  the  order  by  command 
of  Innocent  XL,  but  granted  a  pension 
by  the  king ;  also  wrote  histories  of 
Arianism,  Lutheranism,  etc. 

Maimon,  Solomon  (b.  1753,  d.  1800), 
Pohsh  philosopher  of  Jewish  extrartion, 
opposed  the  views  of  Kant,  and  published 


Sketch  of  a  Transcendental  Philosophy,  and 
Progress  of  Philosophy  since  Leibnitz. 

Maimonides,  Moses  (6.  1135,  d.  1204  ?), 
Spanish  Jew,  philosophical  and  medical 
writer,  bom  at  Cordova ;  studied  under 
Averroes,  on  account  of  whose  persecution 
he  had  to  fly  to  Egypt,  where  he  died; 
arranged  the  Talmud,  edited  the  Mishna, 
and  wrote  Guide  to  the  Perplexed  {More 
Novcelum),  a  work  in  Arabic  on  critical 
theology. 

Maine,  Sir  Henry  James  Sumner,  F.E.S., 
D.C.L.  [b.  1822,  d.  1888),  EngUsh  jurist,  edu- 
cated  at  Cambridge,  where  in  1847  he  became 
Regius  professor  of  civil  law.  After  being 
reader  at  the  Temple,  he  was  law  member 
of  the  Council  of  India  for  seven  years,  and 
in  1870  became  Coi-pus  professor  at  Oxford. 
His  chief  works  were  Ancient  Law  (1861), 
Village  Communities  (1871),  and  Early  His- 
tory of  Lnstitutions  (1875).  etc.  In  1871  he 
became  member  of  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  India's  Council,  and  in  1877  Master  of 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge. 

Maine,  Louis,  Due  de  {b.  1670,  d.  1736), 
son  of  Louis  XIV.  by  Madame  de  Montes- 
pan ;  was  legitimated  in  1673,  married  to  the 
granddaughter  of  the  Due  de  Conde  in 
1692,  and  was  appointed  regent  under 
the  will  of  Louis  XIV.,  which  will  was, 
however,  set  aside  by  the  Due  d' Orleans. 

Maintenon,  Francoise  d'Aubign^,  Mar- 
quise d'  (b.  1635,  a.  1719),  mistress,  and 
afterwards  wife,  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  on  the 
death  of  Scarron  (her  husband)  was  made 
governess  of  Madame  de  Montespan's 
children,  with  the  mother  of  whom  she 
quarrelled,  and  succeeded  in  reconciling 
Louis  to  the  queen;  was  secretly  married 
to  the  king  in  1684. 

Maistre,  Joseph  Marie,  Comte  de  (b.  1754, 
d.  1821),  French  philosopher;  wrote  Con- 
siderations sur  la  France  while  in  Switzer- 
land, having  left  France  at  the  revolution  ; 
also  wrote  Essai  sur  le  Principe  Generateur 
des  Constitutions;  was  for  fourteen  years 
Sardinian  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg, 
and  in  his  Soirees  de  St.  Petersbourg  gave 
an  account  of  his  residence  there. 

Maistre,  Xavier  de  {b.  1763,  d.  1852), 
French  novelist,  brother  of  the  last-named, 
with  whom  he  lived  at  St.  Petersburg, 
afterwards  serving  with  the  Russian  army 
in  the  Caucasus;  his  chief  works  were 
Voyage  autour  de  ma  Chainbre  (1794),  La 
Jeune  Siberienne,  and  Le  Lepreux  d^Aoste. 

Maitland.     [See  Lauderdale.] 

Maitland,  Sir  Frederick  L.  (*.  1779,  d. 
1839),  British  admiral,  was  present  at  Lord 
Howe's  victory    (June    1,    1794) ;    he  was 


Mai 


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Mai 


captured  by  the  Frencli  while  serving 
under  Lord  St.  Vincent  in  1799,  but  soou 
exchanged  ;  after  various  other  services, 
received  Napoleon  on  the  Bellerophon, 
obtaining  his  unconditional  surrender. 

Maitland,  John,  Lord  of  Thirlestaue  (6. 
1537,  d.  15»5),  Scottish  statesman  and  Latin 
poet,  brother  of  Maitland  of  Lethington  ; 
was  early  attached  to  the  service  of  Mary 
Stuart,  and  was  Secretary  of  State  and 
Lord  Chancellor  to  James  VI.,  with  whom 
he  went  to  Norway  in  1589. 

Maitland,  William,  of  Lethington  {d. 
1573),  Scottish  statesman,  elder  son  of  Sir  E. 
Maitland,  the  poet;  was  appointed  in  1558 
secretary  of  state  to  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots ; 
joined  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation 
against  her,  and  opposed  the  Darnley 
marriage  ;  after  some  time  carrying  on  a 
double  policy,  he  once  more  joined  her,  and 
was  tried  as  one  of  Darnley's  murderers, 
but  was  acquitted,  and  again  became  her 
secretary  ;  poisoned  himself  when  captured 
in  Edinburgh  with  the  remnant  of  the 
Marians. 

Majano,  Benedetto  da  (6.  1424,  d.  1498), 
Tuscan  sculptor  and  architect,  specimens  of 
whose  work  are  the  marble  pulpit  of  Santa 
Croce,  Florence,  the  bust  of  Giotto,  Santa 
Triuita,  and  the  Strozzi  palace. 

Major,  or  Mair,  John  (b.  1469,  d.  1547), 
Scotch  writer;  as  professor  at  St.  An- 
drews had  Knox  among  his  pupils,  and 
also  George  Buchanan.  His  chief  work  was 
De  Ristorid  Gentis  Scotorum. 

Major,  Richard  Henry  (i.  1818,  d.  1891), 
historical  writer ;  was  appointed  keeper  of 
maps  and  charts  in  the  British  Museum  in 
1867,  having  previously  been  many  years  in 
charge  of  them ;  edited  many  works  for  the 
Hakluyt  Society,  the  chief  of  which  was 
Select  Letters  of  Christopher  Columbus.  He 
also  edited  India  in  the  Fifteenth  Century, 
Early  Voyages  to  Terra  Australis,  and 
wrote  a  Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator 
(1868),  for  which  he  was  decorated  by  the 
King  of  Portugal,  receiving  similar  honoura 
from  the  King  of  Italy. 

Majorianus  {d.  461),  Emperor  of  the 
West ;  helped  Ricimer  to  depose  Avitus, 
and  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
troops;  assumed  the  purple  in  457,  and 
made  wise  laws,  but  was  compelled  by 
Ricimer  to  abdicate  in  461. 

Makart,  Hans  (6.  1840,  d.  1884),  German 
paiuter,  native  of  Salzburg ;  having  ac- 
quired a  reputation  by  his  Trilogy  of  Modern 
^morettes,  and  Plague  in  Florence,  was 
invited  to  Vienna,  where  a  studio  was  built 
for  him  at  the  public  expense.  He  after- 
wards painted  Katharma  Cornaro  at  Venice, 


The  Entrance  of  Charles  V.  into  Antwerp, 
and  Diana^s  Chase. 

Makrizi,  Ahmed  al,  "  Taki-ed-Din  "  (b. 
1360,  d.  1442),  Arabian  writer,  whose  works 
were  a  Description  of  Egypt,  and  an  Account 
of  iSaladm. 

Malabar!,  Behramji  Merwanji  ifi.  1853), 
Indian  poet  and  social  reformer,  son  of  a 
Parsee  clerk,  on  whose  death  he  was  adopted 
by  a  maternal  relative ;  as  editor  of  the 
chief  native  journal  and  otherwise,  wrote 
against  infant  marriages  and  enforced 
wddowhood,  in  which  cause  he  visited 
England  in  1870.  His  chief  poems  are 
Viti  Ninod,  Wilson  Virah,  and  The  Indian 
Muse  in  an  English  Garb. 

Malachi,  Jewish  prophet,  flourished  about 
400  B.C. 

Malachy,  St.  {b.  1094,  d.  1148),  Irish 
prelate.  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Bishop 
of  Coimor;  visited  St.  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  and  died  in  his  arms. 

Malagrida,  Gabriel  (6.  1689,  d.  1761), 
Italian  Jesuit,  sent  to  Portugal  by  his 
order;  obtained  great  influence  as  a  con- 
fessor ;  was  condemned  for  complicity  in 
the  plot  of  Due  d'Averio  against  the  king, 
and  burnt  alive  for  heresy  in  1761,  the 
Jesuits  having  just  previously  been  ex- 
pelled by  Pombal. 

Malan,  Solomon  Csesar  (6.  1812),  English 
Orientalist,  son  of  Caesar  Malan,  chief  of  the 
"Momiers";  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
took  orders  while  in  India ;  besides  his 
translation  from  eleven  languages  of  St. 
John,  and  criticisms  on  the  Revised  Version, 
with  his  Original  Notes  on  the  Book  of 
Proverbs,  he  has  executed  water-colour 
sketches  and  composed  chants. 

Malaspina,  an  ancient  Italian  family,  the 
most  noted  members  of  which  were  :^ 
Alberto  (r2th  century),  its  founder;  Coe- 
EADO,  mentioned  by  Dante  as  a  follower  of 
Frederic  II.  of  Sicily ;  Feanceschino  (14th 
century),  in  whose  house  some  cantos  of  the 
Inferno  were  composed ;  and  Alessandeo 
{d.  1809),  who  led  the  scientific  expedition 
of  1789-94  to  North  America  and  the 
Pacific. 

Malaspina,  Ricordano  {d.  1281),  Floren- 
tine historian  ;  wrote  a  chronicle,  continued 
by  his  son  Giachetto  to  1286,  its  title  being 
Historta  Antica  delta  Edificatione  di  Fio- 
renza. 

Malatesta,  an  Italian  family,  who  gained 
their  name  from  their  hostility  to  the 
Church.  The  leading  members  of  it  were : — 
GiANCiOTTO,  who  married  Francesca  da 
Rimini,  and  Sigismondo  Panbolfo,  Lord 
of  Rimini  (1429-68),  who  served  Venice  by 


Mai 


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Mai 


land  and  sea,  introduced  many  improve- 
ments in  the  art  of  war,  was  also  a  great 
patron  and  builder,  and  gave  the  town  of 
Cesena  the  collection  called  Bibliotheca 
Malatestiana. 

Malcolm,  Sir  John  (b.  1769,  d.  1833), 
British  soldier  and  diplomatist;  negotiated 
treaties  with  Persia  (18U0),  Sindia,  and 
Holkar,  and  again  in  1810  thwarted  French 
influence  in  Persia.  After  a  short  time  in 
England  he  served  against  the  Mahrattas 
and  Pindharris;  conducted  the  annexation 
of  the  Peishwa's  douunions,  and  was  gov- 
ernor of  Bombay  from  1827  to  1831.  _He 
wrote  a  History  of  Fersia,  and  a  Life  of 
Lord  Clive. 

Malcolm  I.,  King  of  Scotland  {d.  953), 
succeeded  Coustantiue  III.  in  938 ;  made  a 
treaty  with  Edmund,  King  of  England.  He 
was  assassinated  in  a  rebellion. 

Malcolm  II.  (6.  953,  d.  1033),  succeeded 
Kenneth  IV.  on  his  defeat  in  battle  (1003), 
and  reigned  about  thirty  years,  being  en- 
gaged in  continual  wars  with  the  Danes. 

Malcolm  III.  {d.  1093),  succeeded  Macbeth 
in  1057,  after  a  period  of  exile  in  England, 
in  a  war  against  which  country  he  was 
afterwards  slain  at  Alnwick. 

Malcolm  IV.  {d.  1165),  ascended  the  throne 
in  1153;  exchanged  his  English  territories 
for  the  earldom  of  Huntingdon,  and  founded 
several  monasteries. 

Malcom  Klian(6. 1832),  Persian  statesman ; 
was  at  an  early  age  sent  to  Paris,  where  he 
studied  European  institutions,  and  on  his 
return  became  councillor  to  the  Shah,  by 
whom,  in  1854,  he  was  sent  to  conclude 
treaties  with  the  Emopean  states  and 
America.  His  efforts  to  introduce  reforms 
in  Persia  were  not  at  first  successful,  and 
from  1865  to  1872  he  lived  at  Constantinople, 
after  which  he  was  recalled  and  given  a 
high  position.  He  accompanied  the  Shah 
to  Europe  next  year,  and  remained  in 
Europe  as  Persian  envoy  at  the  chief 
capitals,  being  present  at  Berlin  in  1878. 
He  resigned  the  London  embassy  in  1890. 

Maldachini,  Olimpia  {h.  1594,  d.  1656), 
Italian  lady,  favourite  of  Pope  Innocent  X., 
whose  election  she  secured  and  obtained 
supreme  influence  in  the  Vatican ;  but  was 
deprived  of  her  wealth  and  compelled  to 
retire  by  his  successor,  Alexander  VII.,  al- 
though she  had  a  hand  in  his  election 
also. 

Malebranche,  Nicolas  de  (*.  1638,  d.  1715), 
French  philosopher,  follower  of  Descartes. 
His  chief  work,  whose  teaching  was  opposed 
by  Bossuet  among  others,  were  Recherche  de 
la  Virite  (1674-5),  Les  Vraies  et  Fausses 
Idees,  and  Traite  de  Morale. 
I  I 


Malesherbes,  Chi-etien  Lamoignon  de  [b. 
1721,  d.  1794),  magistrate  and  statesman; 
was  appointed  president  of  the  Cours  des 
Aides  in  1750,  and  held  office  till  1771,  when 
the  Parlements  were  suppressed ;  was  re- 
called on  the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.,  before 
whom  he  laid  a  memorial  ou  the  state  of  the 
kingdom,  and  became  minister  of  the  house- 
hold, but  resigned  in  1776,  being  unable  to 
carry  out  his  reforms  ;  was  recalled  in  1787, 
but  soon  retired,  defended  Louis  XVI.  on 
his  trial,  and  was  guillotined  in  1794. 

Malet,  Sir  Edward  Baldwin  (*.  1836),  Eng- 
lisli  diplomatist ;  entered  the  service  in  1853, 
became  secretary  of  legation  at  Pekin  1871, 
was  charge  d'affaires  at  Athens  1873-5,  and 
plenipotentiary  at  Constantinople  1878, 
consul-general  in  Egj'pt  1879-83,  when  he 
became  minister  at  Brussels,  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  Berlin  in  1884.  He  was  also 
plenipotentiary  at  the  Congo  and  Samoa 
conferences,  and  was  sworn  of  the  Privy 
Council  in  1885. 

Malibran  de  Beust,  Maria  Felicita  (*. 
1808,  d.  1836),  Freuch  singer,  daughter  of 
Manuel  Garcia;  made  her  debut  in  the 
Italian  opera  in  1825,  and  soon  afterwards 
married  her  first  husband,  from  whom  she 
was  divorced  in  1836,  her  second  being  De 
Beriot,  the  violinist.  She  met  with  much 
success  in  Semiramis  and  other  operas, 
making  tours  in  England,  the  Continent, 
and  the  United  States.  She  died  from  the 
consequence  of  a  fall  while  riding. 

Mallns,  Sir  Eichard  {b.  1805,  d.  1882), 
English  judge;  called  to  the  bar  in  1830, 
distinguished  himself  in  Festing  v.  Allen 
(1843),  became  Queen's  Counsel  in  1849,  and 
sat  in  Parliament  as  a  Conservative  for  Wal- 
Ungford  from  1852  to  1865,  being  named 
vice-chancellor  in  the  following  year. 
He  retired  in  1881,  and  was  made  privy 
councillor. 

Mallemans,  Claude  (b.  1653,  d.  1723), 
French  physicist,  invented  a  machine  for 
making  dials.  His  brother,  Jean  {d.  1740), 
wrote  Histoire  de  VEyiise,  etc. 

Mallet,  David  {d.  1765),  Scotch  poet; 
came  to  London  and  changed  his  name 
from  Malloch,  was  patronised  by  Pojje,  and 
in  his  later  years  wrote  for  the  government 
against  Byng.  His  chief  poems  were  Wd- 
Ham  and  Margaret  (1724),  and  The  Excursion. 

Mallet,  Sir  Louis,  C.B.  (A.  1823,  d. 
1800),  secretary  to  the  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  1848-57  ;  served  on 
the  tariff  commissions  to  Paris  (1860)  and 
to  Vienna  in  1865.  In  1872  he  was  placed 
on  the  Indian  Council.  In  1874  he  became 
Permanent  Under-Secretary  of  State  for' 
India,  retiring  in  1883,  when  he  was  made 
a  Privy  Councillor. 


Mai 


(630) 


Mam 


[See  William  of  Malmes- 


MaHet,  Paiil  Heuri  {b.  1730,  d.  1807), 
S\viss  liistoriau,  professor  at  Copenhagen 
and  Geneva.  His  chief  works  were  histories 
of  Denmark,  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  the 
House  of  Brunswick. 

Mallet  du  Pan,  Jacques  (5.  1749,  d.  1800), 
Swiss  publicist,  patronised  in  his  early  years 
by  Voltaire,  and  became  professor  at  Cassel 
in  1772;  while  at  Geneva  wrote  Annales 
Folitiqtces  and  Memoires  Historiques  ;  after- 
wards went  to  Paris,  and  reported  for  the 
Mercure  de  Franee  the  debates  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  and  those  which  followed 
it ;  was  in  1792  sent  by  Louis  XVI.  to  nego- 
tiate with  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  soon 
after  retired  to  Switzerland ,  whence  he  was 
driven  by  Bonaparte  in  1798.  He  then 
came  to  England,  and  established,  vnth 
great  success,  the  Mercure  Britanniqiie. 

Mallock,  WiUiam  Hurrell  {b.  1849),  Eng- 
lish writer ;  was  educated  at  Balliol,  and 
gained  the  Newdigate  in  1871 ;  has  written 
The  New  Republic,  Is  Life  Worth  Living  ? 
etc. 

Malmesbury. 

bury.] 

Malmesbury,  James  Harris,  first  Earl  of 
(b.  1746,  d.  1820),  diplomatist,  son  of  the 
author  of  Hermes;  made  a  reputation  by  his 
conduct  of  the  Falkland  Island  negotiations 
in  1770,  after  which  he  was  ambassador  at 
Berlin  (1770-5),  St.  Petersburg  (177o-So), 
and  the  Hague  (1783-8),  when  he  negotiated 
the  Triple  Alliance.  On  his  return  he  was 
made  baron,  and  voted  with  Fox,  but 
joined  Pitt  in  1794.  He  was  emi^loyed  to 
bring  home  the  Princess  Caroline,  and  his 
last  service  was  an  attempt  to  bring  about 
peace  with  the  Directory  in  1797.  He  was 
made  an  earl  in  1800,  when  he  retired  from 
public  life. 

Malmesbury,  James,  third  Earl  (6.  1807, 
d.  1889),  statesman,  grandson  of  last-named, 
succeeded  to  the  title  in  1841  on  the  death 
of  his  brother,  and  travelled  much  on  the 
Continent,  till  in  1852  he  became  Foreign 
Secretary  in  Lord  Derby's  first  Ministry, 
which  post  he  held  under  the  same  chief 
when  he  resumed  office  in  1858.  In  1866 
he  was  Lord  Privy  Seal,  and  again  from 
1874  to  1876  under  Disraeli,  after  which  he 
took  little  further  part  in  affairs.  He  pub- 
lished his  grandfather's  diaries  and  cor- 
respondence, and  in  1884  Memoirs  of  an 
Ex-Minister,  an  account  of  his  own  life 
extending  from  1832  to  1873. 

Malombra,  Pietro  (*.  1556,  d.  1618), 
Venetian  painter,  pupil  of  Salviati.  His 
best  pictures  represent  the  Miracles  of  St. 
Francis  de  Paula  in  the  church  dedicated  to 
that  saint  at  Venice,  but  he  also  executed 
architectural  views  of  the  city. 

Malone,  Edmund  (i.  1741,  d.  1812),  Irish 


critic,  son  of  an  Irish  judge;  was  bom  at 
Dublin,  but  removed  to  London,  where  he 
became  the  friend  of  Burke  and  Dr.  John- 
son, and  devoted  himself  to  literature,  his 
chief  works  having  been  his  Historical  Ac- 
count of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English 
Stage  and  his  edition  of  Shakespeare  (1790). 

Malouet,  Pierre,  Baron  {b.  1740,  d.  1814), 
French  statesman  and  publicist;  became 
commissary-general  of  the  navy  in  1776, 
and  was  sent  to  investigate  plans  for  the 
colonisation  of  Guiana ;  advocated  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  English  constitution  in  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  and  had  to  retire  to 
England.  On  his  return  to  France  he  was 
employed  by  Napoleon  till  1812,  and  during 
the  government  of  the  Hundred  Days  was 
minister  of  marine. 

Malpighl,  Marcello  {b.  1628,  d.  mi), 
Italian  anatomist  and  chief  physician  to 
Pope  Innocent  XI. ;  lectured  in  Bologna, 
Pisa,  and  other  places,  and  wrote  works  on 
the  anatomy  of  plants,  the  physiology  of 
the  silkworm,  and  medical  subjects.  His 
name  was  given  to  the  Malpighian  genus. 

Maltby,  Edward  {b.  1770,  d.  1859),  Bishop 
of  Cliichester  (1831-6),  and  Durham  (1836- 
56) ;  was  a  great  benefactor  to  Durham 
University,  to  which  he  left  his  library. 

Maltebrun,  Conrad  {b.  1775,  d.  1826), 
French  writer  of  Danish  birth ;  compelled  to 
leave  his  country  on  account  of  his  liberal 
opinions,  first  went  to  Sweden,  but,  having 
settled  in  Paris,  contributed  to  the  Journal 
des  Bebats  and  wrote  Geographic  MitM- 
matique,  Physique,  Politique,  Precis  de  Geo- 
graphic Universelle,  and  other  works. 

Malthus,  Thomas  Robert,  F.R.S.  (b.  1766, 
d.  1834),  English  political  economist,  some 
time  fellow  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge; 
published  in  1798  his  Fssag  on  Population, 
afterwards  took  orders,  and  held  from  1804 
the  professorship  of  history  and  political 
economy  in  the  East  India  Company's  col- 
lege, Haileybury. 

Malus,  Etienne  Louis  (b.  1775,  d.  1812), 
French  physicist;  went  to  Egypt  with 
Napoleon  in  1798 ;  discovered  ia  1809  the 
polarisation  of  light  by  reflection,  and  in- 
vented a  repeating  goniometer  in  1807. 

Malvasia,  Carlo,  Marchese  di  (6.  1616, 
d.  1693),  Italian  antiquary,  bom  at  Bologna, 
where  he  was  professor  of  jurisprudence; 
wrote  Vite  de  Pittore  Bolognesi, 

Mamlani  della  Rovere.Terenzio,  Conte  [h. 
1800,  d.  1885),  Italian  politician  and  writer ; 
headed  the  rising  of  1 831  at  Rome,  and  had  to 
take  refuge  in  France,  where  he  wrote  Nuove 
Poesie,  and  other  works.  He  became  mini- 
ster of  the  interior  to  Pius  IX.  on  his  return 
to  Italy,  but  afterwards  vrithdi-ew  to  Pied- 
mont, where  he  held  office,  and  supported 


Mam 


(631) 


Man 


CavouT.     In  1860  he  was  made  by  Victor 
Emmanuel  minister  of  education. 

Maminsea,  Julia  {d.  235),  Eoman  Empress, 
mother  of  Alexander  Severus,  with  whom 
she  was  murdered  by  the  soldiers. 

Mamoim,  Abdul  Abdallah  III.  al  (b.  786, 
d.  S34),  Abasside  Khahf,  son  of  Haroun- 
al-Rashcid ;  obtained  power  by  the  defeat 
of  his  brother  Amin ;  headed  the  sect  of  the 
MotasaUs,  founded  observatories  at  Bagdad 
and  Damascus,  and  was  apatron  of  the  learned. 

Man,  Comille  van  (6.  1621,  d.  1706), 
Dutch  painter ;  studied  at  Venice  the  works 
of  Titian,  and  on  his  return  to  Delft  became 
a  fine  portrait-painter,  his  best  work  being 
a  portrait  of  the  medical  faculty  of  Delft, 
now  in  the  Hall  of  Physicians  there. 

Manasseh,  King  of  Judah,  flourished 
about  698-643  B.C. 

Manasseh  ben  Israel,  Joseph  {b.  1604, 
d.  1659),  Portuguese  rabbi ;  fled  from  the 
Inquisition  to  Holland,  and  became  chief 
of  the  Amsterdam  synagogue ;  wrote  £1 
Conciliada  Vindicim  Judceorum,  and  an  ad- 
dress to  Cromwell  praying  for  the  recall  of 
the  Jews. 

Manby,  George  William  (6. 1765,  d.  1854), 
English  sailor,  invented  the  "life  preserver  ' 
for  saving  life  at  sea,  and  also  an  apparatus 
for  extinguishing  fires  on  board  ship  ;  when 
fiftj'-six  made  a  voyage  to  Greenland.  He 
received  £1,000  from  Parliament. 

Manchester,  Edward  Montagu,  Earl  of 
{b.  1602,  d.  1671),  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Puritans,  taking  part  in  the  battles  of  Edge- 
hill,  Marston  Moor,  and  Newbury.  He 
opposed  the  trial  of  the  king.  At  the 
Restoration  was  made  Lord  Chamberlain. 

Mancinl,  Hortensia  (b.  1646,  d.  1699), 
Italian  lady,  niece  of  Mazarin,  who  refused 
her  hand  to  Charles  II.  of  England  ;  was 
unhappy  with  her  husband,  and,  after  a 
series  of  adventures,  settled  in  London  on  a 
pension,  and  died  there. 

Mancini,  Maria  (6.  1640,  d.  1715),  sister 
of  preceding  ;  having  been  sent  away  from 
Louis  XIV.,  who  was  in  love  with  her, 
was  imhappy  with  the  Constable  of  Naples, 
whom  she  married,  and  fled  from  him  with 
Hortensia,  but  was  refused  an  audience  by 
the  French  king. 

Mancini,  Olimpia  (6.  1640,  d.  1708), 
another  sister,  married  the  Comte  de  Sois- 
sons,  and  became  the  mother  of  Prince 
Eugfene;  intrigued  much  at  the  French 
court,  and  was  compelled  to  retire  from  it ; 
was  afterwards  suspected  of  poisoning  the 
Spanish  queen,  Mane  Louise. 

Manco  Capac  IL  (d.  exrea  1665),  the  last 
I  i2 


of  the  Incas  of  Peru  (the  first  of  whom  bore 
the  same  name,  and  lived  in  the  11th 
centxiry) ;  gave  himself  up  to  the  Spaniards, 
but  escaped,  and  organised  a  massacre  of 
them  in  1535 ;  carried  on  a  guerilla  war  for 
many  years  in  the  Andes,  but  was  at  last 
assassinated. 

Mandeville,  Bernard  de  (*.  1670,  d.  1733), 
English  writer,  bom  at  Dort,  whose  chief 
works  were  The  Fable  of  the  Bees  (1723),  and 
Free  Thoughts  on  Beligion. 

Mandeville,  Jehan  de,  probably  Jehan  de 
Boirrgoigne,  a  French  physician,  the  author 
of  a  notorious  book  of  travels,  chiefly  com- 
piled from  Friar  Odoric,  Carpiui,  etc., 
which  is  fuU  of  extravagances  and  absur- 
dities. The  first  English  version  was  pub- 
lished in  1499  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde. 

Manes,  or  Mani  {d.  circa  274),  Persian 
writer,  painter,  and  physician;  attempted 
to  combme  Christianity  with  the  Magian 
philosophy,  and  foimded  the  sect  of  the 
Manichseans ;  was  put  to  death  by  Bahram, 
King  of  Persia. 

Manetbo  (/.  circa  300  B.C.),  l^h-priest 
of  Heliopolis;  wrote  in  Greek  &  History  of 
Egypt,  of  which  fragments  remain. 

Manetti,  Rutilio  {b.  1571,  d.  1637),  Italian 
painter  of  the  school  of  Caravaggio,  his  best 
work  being  a  riposto  of  the  Holy  Family  in 
S.  Pietro  di  Castel  Vecchio  at  Florence, 
There  is  a  picture  at  Sienna,  his  birthplace, 
by  another  artist  of  his  name,  probably  re- 
lated to  him. 

Manfredi,  Eustachio  (J.  1674,  d.  1739), 
astronomer,  bom  at  Bologna;  obtained  a 
degree  in  law  at  eighteen,  and,  after  study- 
ing under  Guglielmini,  was  made  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Bologna,  where  he  was 
also  astronomer  to  the  institute.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  and  the 
Academie  des  Sciences,  and  his  chief  works 
were  Ephemerides  (1715-50),  Be  Transitu 
Mercurii,  and  Foems.  His  brother,  Gab- 
EiELE  {d.  1761),  was  almost  as  eminent, 
becoming  chancellor  of  Bologna,  and  receiv- 
ing a  letter  from  Leibnitz  m  praise  of  his 
work  De  Constructione  Equationum  JJiffer- 
entialium  pritni  Gradus. 

Manfredo,  or  Manfred  (6.  1233,  d.  1266), 
Italian  adventurer,  natural  son  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.  ;  recovered  Naples 
from  Pope  Innocent  IV. ,  and  became  King 
of  Sicily  in  1258,  soon  after  which,  having 
been  excommunicated,  he  allied  himself 
with  the  Turks,  and  was  defeated  and  slain 
at  Benevento  by  his  rival,  Charles  of  Anjou, 
who  had  been  given  the  crown  of  Naples 
and  Sicily  by  the  pope. 

Mangou  (*.  1207,  d.  1259),  Khan  of  the 
Moguls,    fourth   son    of    Genghis   Khan; 


Man 


(532 


Man 


succeeded  to  power  in  1251,  after  a  great 
slaughter  of  the  royal  family.  He  subdued 
Thibet,  took  Baghdad  from  the  khalifs,  and 
was  killed  in  battle  with  the  Chinese. 

Manin,  Daniele  (b.  1804,  d.  1857),  Vene- 
tian advocate ;  was  arrested  by  the  Austrian 
government  in  1848  for  favouring  the  in- 
dependence of  Venice  and  Lombardy,  but 
freed  by  the  people,  and  made  president  of 
the  republic,  opposed  union  with  Sardinia  ; 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  defence  of  Venice, 
after  whose  fall  he  left  Italy. 

Maninl,  Lodovico  (6.  1726,  d.  circa  1803), 
the  last  Doge  of  Venice,  being  elected  in 
1789 ;  having  received  the  Comte  d'Artois 
and  others  of  the  emigres,  and  refused 
alliance  with  the  French  repubUc,  was  de- 
throned, and  a  republic  having  been  set  up, 
Venice  was  ceded  to  Austria. 

Manley,  Mary  ((i.  1724),  English  dramatic 
and  political  writer;  having  been  deserted 
by  her  husband,  led  an  immoral  life ;  wrote 
Memoirs  of  the  New  Atlantis,  a  romance,  for 
which  the  printer  and  publisher  were  prose- 
cuted; also  plays,  Lucius  (dedicated  to 
Steele),  Boyal  Mischief,  etc.,  and  The  Vindi- 
cation of  the  JDuke  of  Marlborough,  an  able 
pamphlet.  She  wrote  for  Steele's  Examiner, 
and  conducted  it  for  some  time. 

Manlius  Capitolinus  (d.  384  b.c),  Roman 
hero ;  saved  the  Capitol  from  the  Goths,  but 
was  afterwards  put  to  death  on  a  charge  of 
treason. 

Manlius  Torquatus  (/.  350  B.C.),  killed 
a  Gaul  in  single  combat,  and  took  his  collar 
(torques) ;  was  named  dictator  359  B.C. ; 
put  to  death  his  son  for  disobeying  hia 
orders,  though  he  had  been  victorious. 

Manners,  Lord  John.  [See  Butland, 
Duke  of.] 

Manners -Sutton,  Charles  {b.  1789,  d. 
1845),  politician,  son  of  the  Archbishop; 
was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
from  1817  to  1834,  and  was  created  Viscount 
Canterbury  in  the  following  year 

Mannl,  Domenico  (*.  1690,  d.  1788), 
ItaUau  antiquary,  bom  at  Florence ;  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  della  Crusca.  His  chief 
works  were  Series  of  Florentine  Senators,  a 
Historical  Treatise  on  Spectacles,  and  Historic 
cal  Illustrations  of  the  "  Beeameron  "  of  Boc- 
caccio. 

Manning,  Henry  Edward,  Cardinal  (6. 
1808,  d.  1892),  English  Roman  Catholic  pre- 
late, educated  at  HaiTow  and  Balliol ;  was 
some  time  fellow  of  Merton  ;  subsequently 
took  orders,  and  became  Archdeacon  of  Chi- 
chester in  1840.  In  1851,  however,  he  seceded 
to  the  Roman  Church,  publishing  Grounds 
of  Faith  next  year.     In  1865  he  succeeded 


Wiseman  as  Archbishop  of  Westminster, 
and  ten  years  later  was  made  cardinal.  Ha 
approved  the  Infallibility  dogma  of  the  Vati 
can  Council  of  1869,  and  carried  on  a  con- 
troversy with  Mr.  Gladstone  on  the  subject. 
He  sat  on  several  commissions,  and  took  a 
leading  part  in  bringing  to  a  conclusion  the 
Dock  strike  of  1889. 

Manny,  Sir  Walter  (d.  1372),  English 
soldier,  but  a  native  of  Hainault,  coming  to 
England  with  the  queen  of  Edward  III. ; 
was  greatly  distinguished  in  the  French 
wars,  his  chief  exploits  being  the  victory  of 
Cadsaut  (1337)  over  the  Flemings,  his  two 
defences  of  Hennebon,  and  the  reduction  of 
Gascony.  He  was  one  of  the  first  knights 
of  the  Garter,  and  founded  a  Carthusieui 
convent,  which  was  the  original  of  the 
Charterhouse. 

Mansart,  Jules  Hardouin  (*.  1645,  d. 
1708),  French  architect,  nephew  of  Franqois 
Mansart,  who  invented  "  Mansarde  "  roofs ; 
was  the  favourite  of  Louis  XIV.,  for  whom 
he  designed  the  palace  of  Versailles,  the 
chstteaux  of  Marly,  Trianon,  and  Clugny, 
the  Place  Vend6me,  and  many  other  build- 
ings. 

Mansel,  Henry  Longueville  (5.  1820,  d. 
1871),  English  philosopher  and  theologian, 
one  of  the  strongest  opponents  of  the  Broad 
Church  school;  was  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors'  and  Oxford,  where  he  was  succes- 
sively Waynflete  professor  of  moral  philo- 
sophy and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
and  m  1858  delivered  the  Bampton  lectures 
on  The  Limits  of  Religious  Thought.  He  had 
previously  pubushed  an  edition  of  Aldrich's 
Logic,  and  several  works  on  metaphysics. 
His  appointment  to  the  deanery  of  St.  Paul's 
in  1869  was  strongly  opposed. 

Mansfeld,  Ernst,  Graf  von  (i.  1685,  d. 
1626),  German  soldier  of  fortune,  natural 
son  of  Count  Peter  Mansfeld,  a  distinguished 
servant  of  Charles  V.,  who  made  him 
governor  of  the  Low  Countries  in  1592; 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war  on  the  Protestant  side,  serving  first  the 
Elector  Palatine,  and  afterwards  the  Dutch ; 
after  his  defeat  by  Wallenstein,  in  1625, 
he  resigned  his  command,  and  set  out  for 
Italy. 

Mansfield,  Charles  Blachford  (J.  1819,  d. 
1855).  English  chemist,  author  of  Benzole: 
its  Nature  and  Utility,  and  Researches  on 
Coal-tar;  died  from  the  effects  of  bums 
received  when  experimenting. 

Mansfield,  William  Murray,  Earl  of  (*. 
1704,  d.  1793),  British  lawyer  and  states- 
'  man,  called  for  his  eloquence  "  silver-tongued 
Murray,"  was  a  son  of  Lord  Stormont; 
became  Solicitor-General  in  1743.  Although 
he   had   been    accused  of   Jacobitism,    ha 


Man 


(533  ) 


Mt 


became  Attorney- General  in  1754,  and  Lord 
Chief  Justice  in  1756,  when  he  received  a 
peerage.  A  strong  Tory,  he  was  attacked 
by  Junius,  and  was  unpopular  for  his  opinion 
on  the  law  of  libel.  His  library  was  burnt 
during  the  Gordon  riots. 

Manso,  or  Manzo,  Giovanni,  Marchese  di 
Villa  {d.  1645),  Italian  patron  of  learning, 
founded  at  Naples  the  Academy  degli 
Oziosi;  entertained  Milton  when  in  Italy, 
and  was  the  friend  of  Marino  and  Tasso, 
who  dedicated  a  dialogue  to  him. 

Mansur,  Abdallah  II.  al  {d.  1775),  second 
Abasside  Khahf,  succeeded  his  brother  in 
754;  founded  Baghdad,  patronised  the 
learned,  and  left  a  large  treasure  to  his  son. 

Mantegna,  Andrea,  "  II  Cavaliere "  {b. 
1431,  d.  Io06),  Itiilian  painter,  probably  a 
native  of  Padua:  was  adopted  by  Squar- 
cione,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Bellini. 
He  was  one  of  the  earUest  masters  of 
the  art  of  engraving,  and  his  best  pictures 
are  the  nine  called  T/ie  Triumph  of  Jiilius 
Ccesnr,  which  were  painted  for  the  Marquis 
of  Mantua  and  purchased  by  Charles  I. ,  and 
are  now  at  Hampton  Court — several  others 
being  at  the  Louvre.  His  son,  Francesco, 
finished  several  of  his  works. 

ManteU,  Gideon  Algomon  {b.  1790,  d.  1852), 
English  geologist,  practised  as  a  surgeon  at 
Brighton  and  in  London,  and  wrote  Urganic 
Remains  of  a  Former  World,  and  other 
similar  works,  for  which  he  received  a  pen- 
sion in  18-51 .  His  geological  collection  was 
bought  by  the  British  Museum. 

Manteuffel,  Edwin  HansKarl,Freiherrvon 
{h.  1809,  d.  1885),  Prussian  general;  entered 
the  Prussian  service  in  1827,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1857  chief  of  the  military  cabinet. 
He  served  in  the  Danish  campaign  of  1864, 
was  named  governor  of  Schleswig  in  the 
following  year,  and  in  1866  drove  the 
Austrians  from  the  province,  after  which  he 
defeated  the  Hanoverians  and  the  South 
German  alliance.  In  the  war  of  1870  he 
won  the  battle  of  Amiens  when  in  command 
of  the  first  army,  and  as  commander  of  the 
second  drove  Bourbald  into  Switzerland. 
After  being  head  of  the  army  of  occupation 
in  France,  he  was  named  field-marshal, 
and  in  1879  was  appointed  governor  of 
Elsass-Lothringen. 

Manteuffel,  Otto,  Freiherr  von  (6.  1805, 
d.  1882),  Prussian  statesman,  cousin  of  the 
last  named,  with  whom  he  was  brought  up  ; 
was  named  minister  of  the  interior  in  1847, 
representing  the  Conservative  party.  By  his 
conduct  at  Olmiitz  he  succeeded  in  averting 
war  with  Austria  for  sixteen  years,  but 
quitted  office  in  1858. 

Manu,  Hindoo  legislator,  whose  Code  of 


Lmcs    (Smirti)    was    translated    from    the 
Sanscrit  by  Sir  W.  Jones  in  1794. 

Manuel,  Francisco  (b.  1734,  d.  1819), 
Portuguese  poet ;  fled  from  the  Inquisition 
to  Paris,  where  he  lived  till  his  death :  wrote 
odes  to  Albuquerque  and  Washington  and 
some  satiric  verses,  and  also  translated  into 
Portuguese  many  of  the  French  classics 
and  some  German  authors. 

Manuel,  Don  Juan  (d.  1347),  Castilian 
writer,  grandson  of  King  Fernando,  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Salado,  and  wrote 
£1  Conde  de  Lucanor  and  other  works,  which 
are  probably  the  earliest  specimens  of 
Castilian  prose, 

Manuel,  Pierre  Louis  (b.  1751,  d.  1793), 
French  revolutionist;  was  elected  in  1796 
procureur  de  la  Commune,  and  organised  the 
insurrection  of  June  20,  1792 ;  supported 
in  the  Convention  the  abolition  of  royalty, 
but  voted  against  the  death-sentence,  after 
which  he  resigned  his  seat,  but  was  guillo- 
tined for  his  conduct.  On  the  taking  of 
the  Bastille  he  obtained  possession  of  the 
letters  of  Mirabeau  and  Sophie  Euffey,  of 
which,  against  the  wishes  of  the  family,  he 
pubUshed  a  garbled  edition. 

Manuel  Comnenus  [d.  1180),  Emperor  of 
the  East,  succeeded  John  II.  in  1143  ;  is  be- 
lieved to  have  betrayed  the  Crusaders  in 
1147,  and  was  engaged  in  continual  wars 
with  the  Sultan  of  Icouium,  Raymond  of 
Antioch,  Roger  II.  of  Sicily  (from  whom  he 
took  Corfu),  and  with  the  Hungarians, 
Servians,  and  Turks. 

Manuel  Palseologus  (d.  1425),  Emperor 
of  the  East,  reigned  with  his  father,  John 
VI.,  and  alone  after  his  death  in  1391,  at 
which  time,  being  a  hostage  at  the  court 
of  Bajazet,  he  escaped ;  was  engaged  in 
continual  war  with  the  Turks,  visiting 
Venice,  France,  and  England  to  obtain  help 
against  them ;  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
son,  and  retired  into  a  monastery. 

Manuzio,  or  Manutius,  Aklo  (b.  1449,  d. 
1515),  Italian  scholar  and  printer,  bringing 
out  editions  of  the  classics  as  early  as  1490, 
founded  the  Academia  d'Aldo  in  1500. 

Manuzio,  Paolo  (h.  1511,  d.  1574),  carried 
on  his  father's  office,  but  was  invited  to 
Rome  by  Pius  IV.  to  print  the  Fathers.  He 
also,  like  his  son,  Aldo  the  Younger,  gave 
much  attention  to  Cicero. 

Manzoni,  Alessandro,  Conte  (6.  1785,  d. 
1873),  Italian  writer,  grandson  of  Beccaria; 
after  living  some  years  at  Paris  with  his 
mother,  married  and  went  to  Milan,  but, 
having  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  property, 
was  obliged  to  leave  that  city.  He  survived 
both  his  wives  and  seven  children^  and 
during   his  last    forty  years  lived  a  very 


Man 


(634) 


Mar 


retired  life.  His  chief  works  were  Hymns 
in  Celebration  of  Church  Festivals  (1815-22)  ; 
II  Oinque  Maffffio  (1823),  an  ode  on  the  death 
of  Napoleon  I. ;  II  Conte  di  Carmagnola  and 
AdeJehi,  dramas:  I  Promessi  Sposi  (1827), 
a  romance.  lu  1860  he  was  made  senator 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Manzuoli,  Maso,  "  Maso  di  S.  Friano" 
(d.  lo36,  d.  1575),  painter,  bom  at  Florence, 
his  best  pictures  being  The  Visitation  of  the 
Virgin  to  Elizabeth,  now  in  the  Vatican 
gallery,  and  a  representation  of  the  resur- 
rection in  the  church  of  San  Trinita. 

Map,  or  Mapes,  Walter  (12th  century), 
English  satirical  poet,  chaplain  to  Henry 
II.  and  John ;  author  of  satires  in  Latin,  a 
translation  of  the  romance  of  Saint  Graal, 
etc.  His  Poems  were  edited  by  Wright  in 
1841. 

Mar,  John  Erskine,  Earl  of  (d.  1732), 
Scottish  politician,  called  "  Bobbing  John  " 
from  his  trimming  proclivities,  supported 
the  Scotch  union,  and  was  made  Secretary 
of  State  in  1710 ;  afterwards  took  part  in 
the  Fifteen,  encountering  Argyle  at  Sheriff- 
muir;  followed  James  Edward  to  France, 
where  he  became  one  of  his  advisers. 

Mara,  Gertrude  Elizabeth  (h.  1749,  d. 
1833),  German  singer  (nee  Schm'ahling),  be- 
gan her  career  as  a  vioUnist ;  made  her 
debut  as  a  singer  at  Leipzig  in  1771,  and 
married  soon  after;  sang  before  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  visited  England  and  all  parts 
of  the  Continent, 

Maraldi,  Giacomo  {b.  1665,  d.  1729), 
Italian  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher, 
bom  at  Perinaldo  in  Nice  ;  went  to  Paris  in 
1687  on  the  invitation  of  Cassini,  his  uncle, 
became  member  of  the  Academie  des 
Sciences,  and  assisted  him  ;  was  afterwards 
consulted  by  Clement  XI.  as  to  the  reform 
of  the  calendar,  and  returned  to  France,  but 
died  before  finishing  his  Catalogue  of  the 
Stars. 

Marana,  Giovanni  Paolo  (6.  1642,  d.  1693), 
ItaUan  writer,  whose  chief  work  was 
L'Espion  du  Grand  Seigneur  dans  les  Cours 
des  Princes  Chretiens  {The  Turkish  Spy); 
wrote  also  an  account  of  the  Delia  Torre 
conspiracy  to  betray  Savona  to  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  (1669),  for  implication  in  which  he 
had  been  imprisoned. 

Marat,  Jean  Paul  (6.  1743,  d.  1793), 
French  revolutionist,  whose  early  life  is 
obscure ;  lived  some  time  in  England,  prac- 
tised in  France  as  a  doctor,  and  ,pul3lished 
in  1779  Becouvertes  sur  le  Feu,  PElectricite, 
etc.  About  the  time  of  the  revolution  he 
took  up  journalism,  and  published  L^Ami 
du  Peuple,  an  incendiary  print;  advocated  the 
massacre  of  the  aristocrats  some  time  before 


September,  1792  ;  when  elected  to  the  Con- 
v«ntion  became  a  chief  of  the  Montague, 
denounced  the  Girondins,  and  attempted 
to  arrest  them  by  mob-violence,  for  which 
he  was  prosecuted  but  acquitted ;  was  mur- 
dered by  Charlotte  Corday  in  July. 

Maratti,  or  Maratta,  Carlo  (6.  1625,  d. 
1713),  Italian  painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
favourite  pupil  of  Sacchi ;  painted  many 
Madonnas,  Constantine  Bestroying  the  Idols 
(in  St.  John  Lateran),  Baphne  (for  Louis 
XIV.),  TheBeath  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  The 
Visitation,  and  many  other  works,  founded 
on  long  study  of  the  old  masters,  and  re- 
stored Raffaelle's  Vatican  frescoes,  and 
those  of  Caracci  at  the  Famese  Palace. 

Marbeck,  John  {d.  circa  1585),  English 
musician,  organist  at  the  Chapel  Royal, 
Windsor,  probably  composed  the  first  cathe- 
dral service.  He  favoured  the  Reformation, 
and  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  for  heresy, 
but  was  the  only  one  of  the  accused  who 
was  pardoned.  His  service  was  called  The 
Book  of  Common  Praier  Noted{\bbQi).  He  also 
drew  up  the  first  English  concordance. 

Marca,  Pierre  de  {b.  1594,  d.  1662),  French 
prelate,  employed  by  Richelieu  to  answer 
Optatus  Gallus,  which  he  did  in  his  Be 
Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Imperii.  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  Beam,  was  minister  of 
state  imder  Mazarin  in  1658,  and  had  been 
named  Archbishop  of  Paris  just  before  his 
death. 

Marceau,  Francois  Senorin  Desgraviers  (b. 
1769,  d.  1796),  French  republican  general, 
served  under  Lafayette  in  1792,  commandedin 
La  Vendee,  captured  Mons,  and  was  killed  at 
AltenMrchen  in  battle  with  the  Austrians. 

Marcel,  Etienne  {d.  1358),  French  popular 
leader,  prevot  des  marrhands  at  Paris,  at- 
tempted to  revive  the  Etats  Generaux  after 
the  battle  of  Poitiers,  when  he  headed  the 
people  against  the  Dauphin  and  combined 
with  the  Jacquerie  ;  was  killed  while  open- 
ing the  gates  of  Paris  to  the  King  of 
Navarre. 

Marcellinus.     {See  Ammianus.] 

MarceUis,  Otho  {h.  1613,  d.  1673),  Dutch 
painter,  a  native  of  Amsterdam ;  passed 
many  years  in  Italy,  and  chose  reptiles,  in- 
sects, etc.,  as  his  chief  subjects. 

Marcello,  Benedetto  (6.  1686,  d.  1739), 
Italian  musician,  bom  at  Venice,  studied 
under  Gasparini  and  Lotti,  and  composed 
Estro  Poetico-Armonico  (1724-6),  of  which 
the  poetry  was  by  Giustiniani.  He  also  wrote 
Teatro  alia  Moda,  a  satire  on  the  musicians 
of  the  time,  and  other  works,  and  held 
several  ofiices  in  the  Venetian  state. 

Marcellus,  Marcus  Claudius  {d.  208  B.C.), 


Mar 


(  535  ) 


Mar 


Roman  general,  obtained  the  spolia  opima 
in  224  B.C.  from  Viridomarus,  a  king  of  the 
Transalpine  Gauls  ;  in  the  second  Punic  war 
checked  Hannibal,  after  Cannae,  at  Nola ; 
captured  Syracuse  in  214,  but  was  killed  two 
years  after  in  a  skirmish  with  Hannibal 
near  Venusium.  He  was  thrice  consul. 
The  Marcellus  celebrated  by  Virgil  (^?ieid, 
vi.  883)  was  a  descendant  of  the  above,  and 
Bon  of  Ootavia,  the  sister  of  Augustus. 

Marcellus  I.  {d.  310),  Pope  of  Rome,  suc- 
ceeded Marcelliuus  in  308,  but  was  banished 
by  Maximus  two  years  after. 

Marcellus  II.  (d.  1555),  succeeded  Julius 
III.,  but,  djdng  suddenly,  was  only  pope  a 
few  weeks ;  had  been  president  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  and  secretary  to  Paul  III., 
aaid  was  an  advocate  of  reform  in  the 
church. 

March,  Francis  Andrew  (J.  1825),  Ameri- 
can philologist,  bom  at  Milbury,  Massa- 
chusetts; was  made  professor  of  Eughsh 
language  and  comparative  philology  at 
Lafayette  college,  Pennsylvania  in  1857 ; 
became  president  of  the  American  Philo- 
logical Association  in  1873,  and  took  the 
direction  in  America  of  Dr.  Murray's  Neio 
English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Principles  in 
1879.  His  chief  works  are  Method  of  Philo- 
logical Study  of  the  English  Language  (1865), 
Comparative  Grammar  of  Anglo  -  Saxon 
(1870),  and  Introduction  to  Anglo-Saxon, 

March,  Earl  of,    {See  Mortimer.] 

Marchesi,  Pompeo  (b.  1790,  d.  1858), 
Italian  sculptor,  pupU  of  Canova.  His  best 
works  are  statues  of  Goethe  at  Frankfort 
and  Charles  Emmanuel  III.  at  Novara,  and 
a  marble  group  in  Milan  cathedral. 

Marchetti,  Marco,  "  Marco  da  Faenza  " 
{d.  1588),  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school, 
whose  studies  of  the  grotesque  are  particu- 
larly excellent. 

Marchi,  Francesco  de  {d.  circa  1600),  en- 

fineer,  bom  at  Boloj^ua,  served  Alessandro 
e  Medici,  Paul  III.,  and  Margaret  of 
Parma  ;  designed  the  fortifications  of  Ant- 
werp and  Piacenza,  and  wrote  Bella 
A.rchitectura  Militaire,  now  very  rare. 

Marcianus  {d.  457),  Emperor  of  the  East, 
a  native  of  Illyria^  married  Pulcheria, 
daughter  of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  and 
was  crowned  in  450 ;  helped  Valentiuian 
m.  against  Attila. 

Marco  Polo.     [See  Polo.] 

Marcus  Aurelius.     [See  Aurelius.] 

Mardonius  {d.  479  B.C.),  Persian  general ; 
conspired  against  Smerdis  in  521,  com- 
manded for  Xerxes  in  Greece  after  Salamis, 
but  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Plataea. 


Maret,  Hugues,  Due  de  Bassano  (i.  1763, 
d.  1839),  French  statesman,  published  in 
1789  a  Bulletin  of  the  National  Assembly  ; 
was  after  the  revolution  employed  diplo- 
matically, and  in  1804  was  made  secretary 
of  state  by  Napoleon,  foreign  minister  in 
1811,  and  war  minister  in  1813.  After  a 
period  of  exile,  he  returned  to  France  in 
1820,  and  after  the  revolution  of  1830  be- 
came pair  de  France  and  minister  of  the 
interior. 

Margaret,  Saint  (i.  circa  1047,  d.  1093), 
Scotch  queen,  wife  of  Malcolm  III.  and  sister 
of  Edgar  Atheliug,  with  whom  she  fled  to 
Scotland  after  the  battle  of  Hastings. 

Margaret  Plantagenet  {d.  1503),  sister  of 
Edward  IV.  of  England ;  married  Charles 
the  Bold,  and  supported  the  Yorkist  pre- 
tenders in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Margaret  Tudor  (*.  1489,  d.  1541), 
daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  married  James 
IV.  of  Scotland  in  1503,  and  afterwards 
Archibald  Douglas,  Earl  of  Angus — Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  and  Lord  Damley  beiug 
descended  from  the  respective  marriages. 

Margaret  of  Anjou  {b.  1429,  d.  1482), 
Queen  of  England,  daughter  of  R^n^  of 
Anjou,  titular  King  of  Naples,  married 
Henry  VI.  in  1445  ;  supported  Suffolk 
against  Gloucester  aud  afterwards  Somerset 
against  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  whom,  after 
some  reverses,  she  defeated  at  Wakefield 
(1460),  where  he  was  killed,  but  lost  the 
battle  of  Towton  next  year,  and  fled  to  Scot- 
land ;  was  defeated  at  Hexham  in  1464,  and 
escaped  to  Flanders ;  was  finally  crushed 
by  Edward  at  Tewkesbury,  and  passed  the 
rest  of  her  hfe  in  France. 

Margaret  of  Austria  (6.  1480,  d.  1530), 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  and 
Mary  of  Burgundy,  married  first  John  of 
Castile,  and  secondly  Philibert  of  Savoy ; 
was  made  governor  of  the  Low  Countries  in 
1507,  and  negotiated  both  the  League  of 
Cambrai  (1508)  and  the  "  Paix  des  Dames  " 
(1529). 

Margaret  of  Denmark  (*.  1353,  d.  1412), 
succeeded  her  father  Waldemar  III.,  be- 
came queen  also  of  Norway  on  the  death  of 
her  husband,  Haco  VIII. ,  but  was  soon  ex- 
pelled ;  recovered  Norway  in  1387,  and, 
having  defeated  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  in 
1389,  united  the  three  Scandinavian  king- 
doms by  the  union  of  Colmar  in  1397. 

Margaret  of  France  (*.  1553,  d.  1615), 
first  wife  of  Henri  IV.  and  daughter  of 
Henri  II. ;  married  just  before  the  day  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  when  she  had  a  narrow 
escape :  separated  from  Henry  of  Navarre 
when  he  came  to  the  French  throne,  and 
was  divorced  in  1599. 


Mar 


(636) 


Mar 


Margaret  of  Parma  {d.  1586),  natural 
daughter  of  Charles  V.  and  husband  of 
Ottavio  Famese,  Duke  of  Parma;  was 
appointed  regent  of  the  Netherlands  in  1559, 
but  retired  in  1568.  Alexander  Famese  was 
her  son. 

Margaret  of  Provence  {b.  1221,  d.  1295), 
daughter  of  Eapnoud  III.  of  Provence, 
and  wife  of  Louis  IX.,  whom  she  accom- 
panied on  crusade. 

Margaret  of  Scotland  (*.  1424,  d.  1445), 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  Scotland,  and  wife 
of  Louis  XI.,  with  whom  she  lived  un- 
happily. 

Margaret  of  Valois  (b.  1492,  d.  1549), 
sister  of  Francis  I.  and  grandmother  of 
Henri  IV.  ;  married  first  the  Due  d'Alen(^on, 
and  secondly  Henri  d'Albret,  titular  King 
of  Navarre;  supported^  the  reformation, 
and  wrote  Miroir  de  Plme  Pecheresse,  and 
Contes  et  NouveUes  (the  Heptameron). 

Margaritone  d'Arezzo  {b.  1236),  Italian 
painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  contempo- 
rary with  Cimabue  and  Giotto ;  is  thought 
to  have  been  instructed  by  Greek  painters. 
Some  of  his  paintings,  notably  a  Madonna 
at  the  church  of  San  Francesco,  are  to  be 
seen  at  Arezzo,  where  also  the  monument 
to  Gregory  XIII,  is  his  work. 

Marggraf,  Andreas  {b.  1709,  d.  1782), 
Geraian  chemist,  born  at  Berlin;  studied 
metallurgy  under  Henckel,  and  practised 
assaying  under  the  direction  of  Susmith ; 
discovered  phosphoric  acid,  alimaina,  and 
magnesia,  and  described  many  processes  in 
his  works. 

Margolionth,  David  Samuel  {b.  1858), 
English  Orientalist,  educated  at  Winchester 
and  NewCollege,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became 
fellow  and  librariau,  after  carrying  off  most 
of  the  university  prizes  for  classics  and 
oriental  languages ;  was  elected  Laudian 
professor  of  Arabic  in  1889.  His  chief 
works  are  AnaUcta  Orientalia  ad  Poeticam 
Ar-istoteUam,  The  Commmtary  of  Jephel  ibn 
AH  on  Daniel,  and  An  Essay  on  the  Place  of 
Ecclesiasticus  in  Semitic  Literature. 

Maria  Adelaide  {b.  1822,  d.  1855),  wife 
of  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  mother  of  Hum- 
bert, King  of  Italy. 

Maria  Christina,  Queen  of  Spain  (b.  1806, 
d  1878),  wife  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  married 
again  Don  Fernando  Mufioz.  In  1840  she 
was  compelled  to  retire  to  France,  but  re- 
turned in  1843.  In  1854  she  was  again  ex- 
pelled, and  finally  in  1868. 

Maria  Christina,  Queen-regent  of  Spain 
(b.  1858),  daughter  of  Archduke  Charles  of 
Austria,  and  second  wife  of  Alfonso  XII. ; 
became  regent  for  his  son  in  1885,  when  her 
husband  died. 

Maria   Lesczinska    {b.    1703,   d.    1768), 


daughter  of  Stanislas,  King  of  Poland,  and 
afterwards  Duke  of  Lorraine;  married 
Louis  XV.,  but  was  very  soon  neglected. 

Maria  Theresa  (6.  1717,  d.  1780),  Queen 
of  Hunganr,  and  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI. ;  married  Francis  of  Lorraine 
in  1735,  and  was  supported  by  England 
against  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  claimed 
the  empire,  and  was  supported  by  France ; 
carried  on  the  Seven  Years'  war,  with  the 
help  of  France,  against  Prussia,  who  had 
obtained  part  of  Silesia  ;  took  part,  against 
her  will,  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland. 

Maria  Theresa  of  Spain  (A.  1638,  d.  1683), 
Infanta  of  Spain,  and  wife  of  Louis  XIV. 

Maria  of  Austria  {b.  1501,  d.  1558),  sister 
of  Charles  V.,  and  wife  of  Louis  II.  of 
Hungary  ;  was  governor  of  the  Netherlands 
from  1531  to  1555. 

Maria  L,  Queen  of  Portugal  {b.  1734,  d. 
1816),  married  Pedro,  her  uncle,  and  suc- 
ceeded her  father,  Jose  I.,  in  1777,  when 
she  inmiediately  dismissed  Pombal.  Her 
health  gave  way,  and  from  1792  her  son 
reigned  in  her  name. 

Maria  II.  {b.  1819,  d.  1853),  daughter  of 
Pedro  IV. ;  became  queen  on  the  abdication 
of  her  father  in  1826,  and  married  first  the 
Duke  of  Leuchtenberg,  and  then  Ferdinand 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

Mariamne  {d.  28  b.c),  Jewish  prmcess, 
wife  of  Herod  the  Great,  by  whose  orders 
she  was  poisoned.  He  afterwards  bitterly 
bewailed  the  result  of  his  suspicions. 

Mariana,  Juan  de  {b.  1536,  d.  1624^, 
Spanish  historian,  had  Bellarmine  for  his 
pupil  at  Rome ;  wrote  Historia  de  Mebus 
HispanicE  in  thirty  books,  and  translated  it 
into  Spanish,  and  also  De  Rege  et  Regis 
Institutione. 

Marianus  Scotus  (b.  1028,5?.  1086),  Scotch 
monk ;  passed  most  of  his  life  at  Cologne, 
Fulda,  and  other  places  in  Germany ;  wrote 
a  chronicle  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  1083. 

Marie  Am^lie  (b.  1782,  d.  1866),  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
and  wife  of  Louis  Philippe,  Due  d'Orl^ans, 
whom  she  married  in  1809. 

Marie  Antoinette  (*.  1755,  d.  1793),  Queen 
of  France,  daughter  of  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa;  married  Louis  XVI.  when  dauphin, 
becoming  queen  four  years  later ;  was  much 
calumniated,  and  became  unpopular  with 
the  court  and  people  as  a  foreigner;  fled 
with  the  king  to  Varennos  in  June,  1791, 
and  a  year  after  was  imprisoned  with  him, 
being  finally  tried  and  guillotined  in  Oc- 
tober, 1793. 

Marie  Loiiise  {b.  1791,  d.  1849),  daughter 
of  Francis  I. ,  Emperor  of  Austria ;  becam* 


Mar 


(537) 


Mar 


the  second  wife  of  Xapoleon  in  1810,  and 
mother  of  the  King  of  Rome  (Napoleon  II.) 
next  year;  was  made  regent  in  1813,  but 
left  France  in  1814,  obtaining  the  Duchy  of 
Parma;  married  Count  Neipperg  after 
Napoleon's  death. 

Maxie  de'  Medici  (J.  1573,  d.  1642),  Queen 
of  France,  daughter  of  Francis  of  Tuscany ; 
married  Henri  IV.  in  1600,  and  became 
mother  of  Louis  XIII.,  during  whose 
minority  she  was  regent,  but  was  over- 
thrown by  Richelieu  after  a  long  contest, 
and  left  France  ia  1630. 

Marignano,  Gian  Giacomo  Medichino, 
Marchese  di  {b.  1497,  d.  155.5),  Italian 
soldier  of  fortune,  bom  at  Milan;  with 
Pozzino  assassinated,  for  Francesco  Sforza, 
Ettore  Visconti,  a  political  rival.  When 
Sforza  attempted  to  kill  him  he  left  Milaji, 
and,  after  a  time,  took  service  with  Charles 
v.,  for  whom  he  commanded  in  Flanders 
and  Italy,  his  greatest  exploit  being  the 
capture  of  Siena. 

Marigny,  Franqois  Augier  de  (d.  1762), 
French  writer,  his  chief  works  being  Sis- 
toire  du  Douzihne  Siecle,  and  Hiatoire  dei 
Arabes. 

Marillac,  Louis  de  {b.  1572,  d.  1632), 
French  soldier,  served  under  Henri  FV., 
and  became  marechal  de  France  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  but,  having  conspired 
with  his  brother  against  Richelieu,  was 
tried  and  beheaded  on  charges  of  peculation 
and  extortion. 

Marinas,  Enrico  de  las  {b.  1620,  d.  1680), 
Spanish  painter,  so  called  from  his  subjects, 
which  were  nautical ;  died  at  Rome. 

Marineo,  Lucio  (Jl.  1500),  Spanish  his- 
torian, bom  in  Sicify ;  became  chaplain  at 
the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and 
wrote  De  Aragonice  Regibus,  De  Rebus 
Hispanic  Memorabilibus,  etc. 

Marinl,  Benedetto  (/.  1600),  painter, 
native  of  Urbino,  combined  the  Lombard 
and  Venetian  schools.  His  best  picture  is 
that  of  The  Loaves  and  Ftskes,  in  the  refec- 
tory of  the  Conventuali,  Piacenza. 

Marinl,  Giambattista  {b.  1569,  d.  1625), 
Italian  poet,  bom  at  Naples ;  having  been 
expelled  from  his  father's  house,  went  first 
to  Rome,  and  afterwards  to  France,  where 
he  was  protected  and  pensioned  by  Marie  de' 
Medici,  and  wrote  L  Adone,  his  chief  work. 
His  style  became  proverbial  for  ita  extrava- 
gance. 

Marino  FaUero.     [See  Faliero.] 

Marinoni,  Giovanni  di  {b.  1676,  d.  1755), 
astronomer,  patronised  by  the  Emperor 
Leopold  and  his  successors,  and  ennobled; 


invented  the  planimetric  balance,  and  wrote 
De  Spec'ulA  Domesticd,  and  other  works.  All 
his  servants  were  astronomers. 

Mario,  Giuseppe,  Marchese  di  Caudia 
{b.  1808,  d.  1883),  operatic  tenor;  entered 
the  Sardinian  army  in  1830,  but  soon  re- 
signed his  commission  and  went  to  Paris, 
where  ia  1838  he  made  his  debut  iu  Robert 
le  Diable,  subsequently  visiting  England 
and  the  chief  Continental  cities,  and  making 
his  greatest  successes  in  Ugonotti  and  La 
Favorita  ;  married  Giulia  Grisi,  and  left  the 
stage  in  1867- 

Maxiotte,  Edme  {d.  1684),  French 
natural  philosopher,  prior  of  St.  Martin- 
sous-Beaune.  near  Dijon,  and  one  of 
the  earhest  members  of  the  Academic  des 
Sciences ;  discovered  the  law  of  elastic 
fluids,  which  was  called  by  his  name,  and 
the  punctum  caelum,  and  wrote  many 
works. 

Marius,  Caius  {b.  157  B.C.,  d.  86  B.C.), 
Roman  general ;  served  under  Scipio  in 
Spain,  conquered  Jugurtha,  and  brought 
him  in  triumph  to  Rome  (104B.C.) :  defeated 
the  Teutones  and  Cimbri  (102-101) ;  carried 
on  war  with  Syha,  by  whom  he  was  de- 
feated, and  compelled  to  fly  to  Carthage 
(87) ;  returned  to  Rome  next  year,  and 
proscribed  his  enemies,  and  died  of  fever, 
after  having  become  consul  for  the  seventh 
time.     He  married  Julia,  aunt  of  Caesar. 

Marivaux,  Pierre  Carlet  de  Chamblain  de 
(i.  1688,6^.  1763),  French  dramatist  and  novel- 
ist; competed  successfully  against  Voltaire 
in  1742  for  entrance  to  the  Academy.  His 
chief  works  were  Le  Jeit  d''A)nour,  Le 
Paysan  Parvenu,  Marianne,  and  travesties 
of  Homer  and  Telemaqiie. 

Maxkham,  Clements  Robert,  C.B.,F.R.S. 
{b.  1830),  English  geographer  and  writer ; 
entered  the  navy  in  1844,  but  left  it  seven 
years  later  for  the  India  Office;  joined  the 
Arctic  expedition  of  1850,  and  explored 
Peru  in  1852-4 ;  was  geographer  to  the 
Abyssuiian  expedition,  and  wrote  several 
works,  the  chief  of  which  are  Franklin''s 
Footsteps,  Travels  in  Peru  and  Lndia,  History 
of  the  Abijssinian  Expedition,  a-udi.  The  War 
between  Chili  and  Peru,  1S79-81. 

Markham,  Gervase  {d.  circa  1655),  poet 
and  linguist ;  served  as  captain  in  the 
Royalist  army,  and  wrote  Herod  and  Anti- 
pater  (1622),  The  Poem  of  Poems  :  or,  Sion's 
Muse,  as  well  as  pieces  on  England's  Par- 
nassus, and  some  prose  works  on  husbandry 
and  horsemanship. 

Marks,  Henry  Stacy  (A.  1829),  English 
painter,  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  of 
which  he  became  an  associate  in  1871,  and 
fuU    member   in    1878 ;    exhibited    at   the 


Mar 


(53S) 


Mar 


Academy  Toothache  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(1856),  b't.  Francis  Freaching  to  the  Birds 
(1870),  Old  Friends,  and  Science  in  Measure- 
ment (1879),  A  Treatise  on  Parrots  (18S5), 
Xt'irs  in  the  ]'tllage  (1889),  etc.,  and  held  an 
exhibition  of  Birds  in  1889. 

Maxlborough,  John  Churchill,  first  Duke 
of  ('''.  1650,  d.  17-2),  soldier  and  diplomatist ; 
obtained  a  commission  through  the  influence 
of  his  sister  with  the  Duke  of  York,  and 
first  served  under  Turenne  ;  deserted  James 
II.  at  the  Revolution,  but,  though  created 
earl  and  commauder-ln-chief  by  William 
III.,  intrigued  with  his  former  master; 
after  a  period  of  disgrace,  went  to  the 
Hague  to  organise  the  Grand  Alliance ;  was 
appointed  captain  general  and  duke  under 
Anne,  and  won  the  victories  of  Blenheim 
(170i),  RamUUes  (1706),  Oudenarde  (1708), 
and  Malplaquet  (1709),  but  was  recalled  in 
1710,  and  dismissed  on  a  charge  of  pecu- 
lation. He  was  restored  by  George  I.  in 
1714,  but  never  fully  trusted. 

Marlt)orough,  Sarah  Jennings,  Duchess 
of  (J).  1660,  d.  1744),  married  Churchill  in 
1678 :  induced  Anne  to  desert  her  father, 
and  became  all-powerful  at  her  accession ; 
but  was  supplanted  by  Abigail  Hill  in  1710, 
and  compelled  to  give  up  her  offices ;  she 
left  a  portion  of  her  f ortirne  to  the  elder  Pitt. 

Marlowe,  Christopher  {b.  1564,  d.  1593), 
English  dramatist  and  poet,  bom  at  Canter- 
bury, and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  wrote 
Tamburlaine,  Faustus,  and  Edward  II.  ;  also 
(with  Chapman) ]the  poem  Sei-o  and  Leander. 
He  was  k£led  in  a  tavern  brawl  at  Deptf ord. 

Marmion,  Shackerley  (b.  1602,  d.  1639), 
EngUsh  dramatist;  squandered  his  fortune 
and  entered  the  army;  wrote  The  Anti- 
quart/,  and  other  plays,  and  Cupid  and 
Psyche,  an  epic  poem. 

Marmont,  Auguste  Frederic  Louis  Viesse 
de.  Due  de  Raguse  {b.  1774,  d.  1852), 
Marechal  de  France;  after  distinguishing 
himself  at  Lodi  and  Marengo,  was  made 
governor  of  lUyria  by  Napoleon  in  1809; 
was  defeated  in  1812  at  Salamanca  by 
Wellington  ;  after  being  with  Napoleon  till 
1814,  he  deserted  him  on  his  abdication, 
and,  remaining  faithful  to  the  Bourbons, 
was  ambassador  to  Russia  (1826-8),  but 
left  France  after  the  fall  of  Chares  X. 

_Mannontel,  Jean  Franqois  {b.  1723,  d. 
1799),  French  writer,  bom  of  humble 
parents  in  the  Limousin  ;  taught  philosophy 
at  Toulouse,  where  he  wrote  an  ode  which 
was  praised  by  Voltaire ;  helped  in  the 
compilation  of  the  Encychpedie ;  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Bastille  for  a  satire  in  the 
Mercure  de  France,  which  he  edited,  and 
was  appointed  historiographer  of  France  in 
1771.    His  chief  works  were  Contes  Moraux, 


Belisaire,  Les  Incas,  and  Elements  de  Litte- 
rature. 

Marmora,  Alfonso,  Marchese  della  (i. 
1804,  d.  1878),  Italian  general  and  states- 
man ;  served  in  the  Sardinian  army  in  the 
war  of  1848-9,  and,  having  put  down  the 
revolt  of  the  Mazzinists  at  Genoa,  became 
lieutenant-general,  and,  as  minister  of  war 
and  marine,  reorganised  the  army  of  Italy. 
He  commanded  the  Sardinian  detachment 
in  the  Crimea,  and  on  his  return  became 
Cavour's  war  minister.  During  the  years 
1864-6  he  was  twice  prime  minister,  and 
concluded  an  alliance  with  Prussia.  He 
was  defeated  at  Custozza  in  1866,  but  was 
made  commander  of  Rome  when  the  Italians 
entered  it.  He  retired  in  1871,  and  soon 
after  published  Tin  Poco  Piii  di  Luce  Suffli 
Eventi  Politici  deW  anno  1866,  and  /  Segreti 
di  Stato  nel  Governo  Vostituzionale. 

Mamiz.     [See  St.  Aldegonde.] 

Maro.     [See  Virgil.] 

Maro,  Johannes  (d.  700),  Syrian  patriarch, 
founder  of  the  Maronites. 

Maroclietti,  Carlo,  Baron  (4.  1805,  d. 
1868),  Italian  sculptor;  was  naturalised  in 
France  in  1841,  but  after  the  revolution  of 
1848  came  to  England,  where  his  statue  of 
Richard  I.  was  seen  at  the  Exhibition  of 
1851.  Besides  his  equestrian  statue  of 
Emmanuel  PhiUbert  of  Savoy  at  Paris,  he 
executed  the  Crimean  Memorial,  and  the 
statue  of  Lord  Clyde  in  England,  and  was 
elected  R.A.  in  1866. 

Maxoncelll,  Pietro  (*.  1795,  d.  1846), 
Italian  poet;  companion  of  Silvio  Pellico 
when  in  prison  in  the  Spielberg,  after  his 
release  from  which  he  lived  first  in  Paris, 
and  then  at  New  York,  where  he  died. 
Besides  several  songs,  written  and  set  by 
himself,  he  was  author  of  Addizioni  alle  Mie 
Prigione  di  Silvio  Pellico. 

Marot,  Clement  {b.  1496  ?,  d.  1544),  French 
poet,  patronised  by  Francis  I.  and  Mar- 
guerite de  Valois,  whose  page  he  had  been ; 
was  imprisoned  for  supposed  heretical 
opinions,  and  eventually  went  to  Geneva. 
He  invented  the  French  rondeau,  and  intro- 
duced the  madrigal,  his  chief  works  being 
L' Adolescence  CUmentine,  Cantiques  de  la 
Paix,  and  Psaumes  de  David. 

Marozia,  or  Mariuccia  (10th  century), 
Roman  lady,  exercised  great  influence  in 
Italy ;  married  first  Alberic,  Marquis  of 
Camerino,  secondly  Guide,  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
and  lastly  Hugh  of  Provence,  King  of  Italy ; 
made  her  son  pope  as  John  XI.,  and  also  set 
up  and  deposed  several  others ;  was  finally 
shut  up  in  a  monastery  by  her  eldest  son, 
who  killed  her  last  husband. 

Marpurg,   Friedrich  (4.   1718,  d.  1795), 


Mar 


(  539) 


Mar 


German  writer  on  music,  bom  at  Seehausen, 
in  Brandenburg ;  was  for  some  time  di- 
rector of  lotteries  at  Berlin,  and  wrote  A 
Manual  of  Harmony  and  Composition,  a 
History  q/  the  Organ,  and  other  works. 

Marriott,  Right  Hon.  Sir  "William  Thacke- 
ray (Jj.  1834),  English  poUtician,  bom  near 
Manchester,  and  educated  at  Cambridge ; 
he  took  orders,  but  gave  up  the  clerical  for 
the  legal  profession,  berag  called  in  1864, 
and  became  Queen's  Counsel  in  1877.  He 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1880,  but 
in  1884  resigned  on  the  Cloture  question,  and 
was  re-elected  as  a  Conservative,  and  was 
Judge  Advocate-General  iu  the  first  and 
second  Ministries  of  Lord  Salisbury. 

Marryatt,  Frederick  (jb.  1792,  d.  1848), 
English  novelist  and  saUor ;  entered  the  navy 
in  1806,  served  imder  Lord  Cochrane,  and 
in  the  Burmese  war,  and  drew  up  a  code  of 
signals  for  the  merchant  service ;  wrote 
Peter  Simple,  Midshipman  Easy,  Jacob 
Faithful,  and  several  similar  works. 

Marryatt,  Florence,  English  novelist, 
daughter  of  the  preceding,  married  first  to 
Mr.  Eoss  Church,  and  secondly  to  Mr.  Lean; 
•wrote  many  novels.  Love's  Conflict,  Tom 
Tiddler''s  Ground,  Gentleman  and  Courtier, 
etc.,  and  also  appeared  on  the  stage  as  opera 
singer  and  actress.  She  edited  the  Life  and 
Letters  of  her  father  in  1872. 

Mars,  Anne  Fran9oise  Monvel  (fi.  Yll^, 
d.  1847),  French  actress,  daughter  of  Mon- 
vel, an  actor;  first  appeared  ia  1792,  and 
became  societaire  of  the  Comedie  Fran^aise 
in  1799  ;  played  with  great  force  in  L'Abbe 
de  VEpee  and  in  Moliere,  Marivaux,  and 
Scribe ;  took  the  chief  part  in  Hernani  and 
Dumas's  Madame  de  Belleisle,  and  made  her 
last  appearance  in  1841. 

Marschner,  Heinrich  (fi.  1796,  d.  1861), 
German  musician,  made  joint  kapellmeister 
of  the  Dresden  opera  by  the  influence  of 
Weber,  whose  follower  he  was,  his  chief 
compositions  being  Ber  Vampyr,  produced 
at  Leipzig  in  1828,  and  Hans  Heiling  at 
Hanover  in  1831. 

Marsden,  Alexander  (b.  1832),  English 
sm-geon,  son  of  Dr.  W.  Marsden,  entered 
the  army  in  1854,  and  served  in  the 
Scutari  hospital,  after  which  he  wjis  at- 
tached to  the  ambulance  corps  before  Se- 
bastopol,  and  on  his  return  was  appointed 
surgeon  to  the  Royal  Free  and  Cancer  Hos- 
pitals. His  works  deal  with  the  treatment 
of  cancer  and  tumours  {A  New  and  Suc- 
cessful Mode  of  Treating  Certain  Forms  of 
Cancer,  etc.). 

Marsden,   William    (*.    1754,    d.    1836), 
British  OrientaHst  and  surgeon ;   lived  in 


Simiatra  for  eight  years,  and  published  a 
history  of  it,  as  also  a  Dictionary  of  the 
Malayan  Language  (1812),  Numismata  Ori- 
entalia  Illustrata,  and  other  works  ;  left  his 
library  to  King's  College,  London, 

Marsn,  James  (6.  1789,  d.  1846),  English 
chemist ;  discovered  a  test  for  detecting  the 
presence  of  arsenic. 

Marsh,  Narcissus  {b.  1638,  d.  1713),  Irish 
scholar,  provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dubhn, 
and  successively  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and 
other  Irish  sees ;  established  and  endowed 
the  hbrary  at  Dublin  called  after  him. 

Marsli,  Othuiel Charles  (*.  1831),  American 
naturalist;  after  graduating  at  Yale,  studied 
at  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and  Breslau,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  palaeontology  at 
his  old  college  in  1866.  He  led  many  ex- 
ploring expeditions  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, the  result  of  which  was  the  discovery 
of  many  extinct  species  of  vertebrates, 
monographs  on  which  he  contributed  to 
the  American  Journal  of  Science. 

Marshal,  Andrew  (b.  1742,  d.  1813),  Scotch 
anatomist  and  physician,  a  member  of  the 
Speculative  Society  ;  studied  theology  at 
Edinburgh,  and  took  up  medicine  from 
curiosity;  travelled  with  Lord  Balgonie, 
and  afterwards  taught  anatomy  at  London. 
His  work,  The  Morbid  Anatomy  of  the  Brain, 
was  published  after  his  death 

Marshall,  Alfred  {b.  1842),  English 
political  economist,  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors'  and  Cambridge,  where  he  was 
second  wrangler  and  fellow  of  St.  John's, 
subsequently  becoming  principal  of  Univer- 
sity College,  Bristol.  After  going  abroad 
for  his  health,  he  became  fellow  of  Balliol  ia 
1884,  and  was  elected  professor  of  political 
economy  at  Cambridge  ia  the  same  year. 
He  wrote  with  his  wife  (Miss  Paley),  The 
Economics  of  Industry  ia  1879,  and  after- 
wards The  Principles  of  Economics. 

Marshall,  Arthur  Mihies,  M.D.  (i.  1852), 
EngUsh  naturalist,  graduated  as  senior  ia 
the  natural  science  tripos  of  1874,  entered 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  in  1877,  and  two 
years  later  was  named  professor  of  zoology  at 
Owens  College.  He  graduated  at  London 
as  weU  as  at  Cambridge,  and  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1885.  His  chief  work  is  The  Frog, 
and  he  published,  with  Mr.  Hurst,  Practical 
Zoology. 

Marshall,  George  William  (i.  1839),  genea- 
logist, educated  at  Eadley  and  Cambridge ; 
compiled  The  Genealogists  Guide  (1879),  and 
edited  several  works  for  the  Harleian 
Society,  and  A  Handbook  to  the  Ancient 
Courts  of  Probate.  He  became  rouge  croix 
pursuivant  in  1887. 

Marshall,    Herbert    Menzies    {b.    1841). 


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Mar 


English  painter;  educated  at  Westminster 
and  St.  Jolni's  College,  Cambridge  ;  obtained 
the  Royal  Academy  travelling  studentship  in 
architecture,  but  his  eyesight  having  become 
injured,  turned  to  water-colour  painting.  He 
became  associate  of  the  Water-Coloui-  Society 
in  1879,  and  full  member  in  1882,  and  held 
exhibitions  in  1886  and  1890  in  London. 

Marshall,  "William  Calder  {b.  1813), 
sculptor,  bom  in  Edinburgh  ;  studied 
in  London  under  Chantrey,  and  settled 
there  about  1839,  having  already  begun  to 
exhibit.  He  was  elected  associate  of  the 
Scottish  Academy  in  1842,  A.R.A.  in  1844, 
and  R.A.  in  1852.  Good  specimens  of  his 
art  are  The  Broken  Pitcher  (1842),  Rebecca, 
and  The  Dancing  Girl  Reposing,  besides 
statues  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  the 
Wellington  monument,  and  the  agriculture 
group  in  the  Hyde  Park  memorial. 

Marslunan,  Joshua  {b.  1745,  d.  1837), 
English  Orientalist,  went  as  Baptist  minister 
to  India  in  1799,  and  translated  the  Scrip- 
tures into  Bengali,  Sanscrit,  and  Chinese, 
besides  writing  Clavis  Sinica,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  Confucius.  His  son,  J.  C.  Marsh- 
man  {d.  1877),  wrote  a  History  of  British 
India. 

Marsigll,  Luigi  (b.  1658,  d.  1730),  Italian 
writer,  bom  at  Bologna ;  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Turks  and  sent  to  Bosnia,  but  at- 
tained the  rank  of  marshal  in  the  imperial 
army  after  his  ransom.  After  his  dismissal 
for  his  part  in  the  surrender  of  Breisach  he 
retired  to  his  birthplace,  where  be  founded 
the  Institute,  and  wrote Banubins  Pannonico- 
Mysicas,  and  other  works.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  on  the  intro- 
duction of  Newton. 

Marsilio  of  Padua,  "Menandrino"  (d. 
1328),  Italian  publicist ;  asserted  the  demo- 
cratic principle  in  his  Befcnsor  Pacis. 

Marston,  John  {b.  circa  1575,  d.  1634),  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  wrote  several  plays  [Sopho- 
nisba,  etc.),  and  some  satires;  was  imprisoned 
for  Easticard  Ho  !  with  Chapman  and  Ben 
Jonson,  and  afterwards  quarrelled  with  the 
latter,  who  replied  to  his  attack  with  The 
Poetaster,  in  which  he  was  satirised  as 
Demetrius. 

Marston,  John  Westland  {b.  1820,  d.  1890), 
English  dramatist ;  came  to  London  in  1834, 
and  was  articled  to  a  solicitor,  but  soon 
began  to  write  for  the  stage,  his  chief  plays 
being  The  Patrician's  Baiightcr  (1841), 
Strathmore(\%'iQ),  romantic  dramas ;  Borough 
Pcliitcs,  a  comedy ;  Madame  de  Meranie 
(1856),  The  Favourite  of  Fortune,  Life  for 
Life  (1868),  etc.,  besides  some  lyrics  and 
Our  Recent  Actors  (1888). 

Marston,  Philip  Bourke  {b.  1850,  d.  1887), 


EngUsh  poet,  son  of  the  preceding,  friend  of 
Swinburne  and  Rossetti,  became  totally 
blind  from  cataract;  wrote  Song  Tide  (1870), 
All  in  All  (1875),  and  Wind  Voices  (1883), 
and  some  stories. 

Maxsy,  Balthasar  (A.  1624,  d.  1681),  French 
sculptor,  native  of  Cambrai ;  with  his 
brother,  Gaspar  (who  was  admitted  to  the 
Academy  of  Painting  in  1673,  and  died  the 
next  year),  cast  in  bronze  the  group  of 
Tritons  and  other  pieces  of  work  at  Ver- 
sailles ;  while  Balthasar  alone  executed  Mars 
and  Enceladus  in  the  Versailles  park,  and  the 
bas-relief  of  the  Porte  St.  Martin  and  Boreas 
and  Orithyia  in  the  Tuileries  gardens. 

Martel.     \_See  Charles  Martel.] 

Marteli^re,  Pierre  de  la  (d.  1631),  French 
advocate,  called  "  Princeps  Patronorum  et 
Patronus  Principum ;  "  practised  at  the  Paris 
bar  during  the  reigns  of  Henri  IV.  and 
Louis  XIII.,  and  was  particularly  celebrated 
for  his  defence  of  the  University  of  Paris 
against  the  Jesuits  in  1611. 

Martelli,  Pietro  {b.  1665,  d.  1727),  Italian 

poet ;    author    of    tragedies  {Ifigenia   in 

Tauridc,  etc.),  written  in  a  metre  after- 
wards called  by  his  name. 

Martens,  Dietrich  (d.  1534),  Flemish 
printer,  born  at  Alost,  probably  introduced 
printing  into  the  Netherlands ;  was  the 
friend  of  Erasmus  and  other  learned  men. 

Martens,  Georg  Friedrich  von  [b.  1756, 
d.  1821),  German  diplomatist,  professor  of 
law  at  Gottingen,  and  afterwards  secretary 
to  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814)  ;  published 
Precis  du  Droit  dcs  Gens  de  V Europe,  Re- 
cueil  des  Princvpaux  Traites  de  Paix,  and 
other  standard  works  on  international  law. 

Martha,  Soeur  {d.  1824),  Frenchwoman, 
whose  real  name  was  Anne  Biget ;  after 
having  served  as  a  portress  in  a  convent, 
devoted  the  rest  of  her  life  to  the  care  of 
wounded  soldiers.  She  was  richly  rewarded 
by  the  allied  sovereigns  for  her  services 
during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  died  at 
Besanijon. 

Martial,  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis  (i. 
circa  41,  d.  104?),  Roman  poet,  bom  in 
Spain,  to  which  he  returned  after  the  death 
of  his  patron,  the  Emperor  Domitian :  wrote 
fourteen  books  of  Epigrammata,  and  was 
the  friend  of  Juvenal,  QuintiUan,  and  the 
younger  Pliny. 

Martignac,  Jean  Baptiste  Gaye,  Vicomte 
de  {h.  1776,  d.  1832),  French  statesman; 
sujiported  the  Bourbon  cause  during  the 
Hundred  Days,  and  after  the  restoration 
entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  of  which 
he  became  vice-president,  being  also  coun- 
sellor of  state;   became  a  chief  adviser  of 


Mar 


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Mar 


Charles  X.,  but  was  dismissed  in  favour 
of  Polignac,  whom  he  eloquently  defended 
when  put  on  trial  in  1830. 

Martin,  Bon  Louis  Henri  (b.  1810,  d. 
1883),  French  historian,  son  of  a  magistrate 
of  St.  Quenttn ;  published  several  novels 
before  turuiag  to  history  ;  wrote  a  Histoire 
de  France  iu  fifteen  voliinies  ;  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1872,  and  after- 
wards became  senator ;  was  member  both  of 
the  Academie  Franqaise  and  the  Academie 
des  Sciences,  and  received  a  public  funeral. 

Maxtin.  Claude  {b.  1732,  d.  1800),  French 
servant  of  the  East  India  Company,  whom 
he  joined  after  having  deserted  Lally  ;  made 
a  large  fortune  iu  the  service  of  the  Nabob 
of  Oude,  and  left  benefactions  to  Calcutta 
and  Lucknow,  as  well  as  to  Lyons. 

Martin,  John  (A.  1789,  d.  1854),  English 
painter,  educated  by  the  father  of  Musso, 
the  enamel-painter,  with  whom  he  came  to 
London  in  1806;  exhibited  both  in  the 
Academy  and  at  the  British  Institution, 
though  he  always  opposed  the  former.  His 
chief  pictures  were  Belshazzar^s  Feast  (1821), 
T}ie  Fall  of  Nineveh  (1828),  and  The  Judg- 
ment (unfinished,  1854).  His  brother, 
Jonathan  {d.  1838),  tried  to  set  fire  to  York 
Minster  in  1829. 

Martin,  John  (b.  1812,  d.  1875),  Irish 
politician ;  became  a  member  of  the  Young 
Ireland  party,  and  married  a  sister  of  John 
Mitchell ;  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation for  issuing  the  Irish  Felon  in  1848, 
but  released  in  1S54;  was  again  prosecuted 
in  1867  for  his  conduct  at  the  funeral 
of  Allen  and  Larkin,  but  acquitted,  and, 
having  entered  Parliament  in  1871,  became 
one  of  the  early  Home  Rulers,  and  honorary 
secretary  to  the  League. 

Martin,  John  Biddulph,  Mrs. ,  better  known 
as  Mrs.  Woodhull,  her  first  married  name, 
political  and  social  reformer,  was  bom  in 
Ohio,  her  father  being  Mr.  Reuben  Claflin. 
With  her  sister,  now  Lady  Cook,  she  took 
up  the  cause  of  the  political  equality  of 
women,  and  in  1872  was  nominated  for  the 
presidency  of  the  United  States.  She 
afterwards  agitated  the  social  question 
throughout  the  States  and  iti  England, 
and  published  The  Basis  of  Physical  Life, 
Constitutional  Equality,  and  many  similar 
works.  After  the  death  of  Dr.  Woodhull, 
she  married  Mr.  J.  B.  Martin,  the  banker. 

Martin,  Raymond  (13th  century),  Spanish 
Dominican  missionary  to  the  Jews  and 
Mahometans ;  was  a  great  oriental  scholar, 
and  author  of  Pugio  Fidei  Christiani. 

Martin,  St.  {d.  circa  397),  bom  in  Pan- 
nonia;  after  having  been  a  soldier,  he 
was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  in  374 


I  became  Bishop  of  Tours.     He  is  known  as 

;  the  Apostle  of  Gaul,  which  in  great  part 

j  he  evangeUsed.    The  legend  of  the  cloak  is 

[  well  known. 
I 

j  Martin,    St.    (6th    century),    Hungarian 

!  prelate  ;  preached  in  Spain,  and  presided  at 

I  the  thii-d  Council  of  Brega. 

j  Martin,  Sir  Samuel  {b.  1801,  d.  1883), 
judge,  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin;  practised  on  the  northern  circuit, 
his  name  becoming  known  in  connection 
vrith  the  Bloomsbury  case  in  1839 ;  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  1843,  and  was  Liberal 
member  for  Pontefract  from  1847  till  1850, 
when  he  was  named  Baron  of  the  Exchequer. 

j  He  was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council  in  1874, 

]  when  he  retired  from  the  bench. 

I  Martin,  Sarah  (b.  1791,  d.  1843),  prison 
philanthropist,  bom  near  Great  Yarmouth ; 
supported    herself    by    dress-making,    and 

i  visited  prisons,  where  she  read  to  the 
inmates;  founded  a  fimd  to  supply  them 
with  work  on  their  discharge,  and  organised 
a  workhouse  school  She  died  and  was 
buried  at  Caistor. 

Martin,  Sir  Theodore  {b.  1816),  British 
writer,  bom  and  educated  at  Edinburgh, 
where  he  practised  as  a  soUcitor  for  some 
years,  but  came  to  London  in  1846 ;  pub- 
lished, with  Professor  Aytoim,  the  Bon 
Gaultier  Ballads,  and  soon  after  transla- 
tions of  Goethe,  of  Hertz's  King  Rene's 
Daughter,  and  other  Danish  works ;  of 
Horace,  Catullus,  Dante's  Vita  Nuova, 
Goethe's  Faust,  and  Heine's  poems.  He 
also  wrote  a  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort,  for 
which  he  was  Imighted,  and  of  Lord  Lynd- 
hurst,  his  last  works  having  been  further 
translations  from  the  German,  chiefly  ballads 
(1889).  He  married  in  1851  Miss  Helen 
Faucit. 

Martin,  Thomas  Ignace  {d.  1834),  French 
visionary  ;  founded  a  sect  called  by  his 
name,  asserted  that  the  son  of  Louis  XVI. 
was  still  alive,  and  published  a  Relation 
(1817-32). 

Martin  I.,  Pope  of  Rome  {d.  655),  suc- 
ceeded Theodore  I.  in  649,  but  was  carried 
to  Constantinople  by  order  of  Constantius 
in  653,  on  account  of  his  condemnation  of 
the  Monothelites,  whom  the  emperor 
favoured,  and  died  in  exile. 

Martin  II.  {d.  884) ,  called  also  Marinus  I. ; 
succeeded  John  VIII.  in  882.  He  condemned 
Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (q.v.). 

Martin  III.,  or  Marinus  II.  {d.  946),  suc- 
ceeded Stephen  VIII.  in  942,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  benevolence  to  the  poor 
and  as  a  builder  of  churches. 

Martin  TV.  (d.    1285)    [Simon  de  Bri«], 


Max 


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Max 


elected  in  1281 ;  supported  Charles  of  Anjou 
against  Peter  III.  of  Aragon,  whom  he 
escommuuicated,  as  he  did  also  the  Emperor 
Michael  Palaeologus. 

Martin  V.  {d.  1431)  [Ottone  Colomia], 
elected  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (1417), 
when  John  XXIII.  was  deposed,  the  "Great 
Schism"  being  thus  brought  to  an  end;  pro- 
moted crusades  against  the  Hussites,  but 
did  much  to  restore  the  city  of  Rome. 

Maxtineaii,  Harriet  (i.  1802,  d.  1876),  Eng- 
lish writer  of  Huguenot  descent,  daughter 
of  a  Norwich  surgeon ;  visited  the  United 
States  in  18S4,  and  the  East  in  1846,  pub- 
lishing descriptive  works  on  her  return ; 
wrote  Detrbruok,  The  Sour  and  the  Man 
(1840),  and  other  novels,  and  many  tales 
for  children,  and  was  also  author  of  a 
condensation  of  Comte  (1853),  and  History 
of  England  iJuring  the  Thirty  I'ears^  Peace 
(1851).  She  twice  refused,  from  conscien- 
tious motives,  a  pension  offered  her  by  the 
Government. 

Martineau,  James  {b.  1805),  theologian, 
brother  of  the  last-named,  educated  at 
Norwich  and  Manchester  New  College, 
York ;  after  being  minister  at  Little  Port- 
land Street  Unitarian  Chapel  for  more  than 
twelve  years,  became  principal  of  Man- 
chester New  College,  London,  in  1869.  His 
chief  works  are  Essays,  Philosophical  and 
Theological  (1868),  The  Relation  Between 
Ethics  and  Religion  (1881),  Types  of  Ethical 
Theory  (1885),  A  Study  of  Religion  (1888), 
and  The  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion  (1890). 
He  has  received  honorary  degrees  from 
Harvard,  Leyden,  and  Oxford  (D.C.L.). 

Martinez  Campos,  Arsenio  {b.  1834), 
general  and  statesman,  served  in  Morocco, 
Cuba,  and  against  the  Carlists ;  particularly 
distinguished  himself  at  Zurugay  (June, 
1874) ;  conspired  against  the  republic  (for 
opposition  to  which  he  had  before  been 
imprisoned)  in  favour  of  Alfonso  XII., 
whom  he  placed  on  the  throne.  He  finally 
crushed  Don  Carlos  in  March,  1876,  and, 
having  been  made  captain-general,  was 
sent  against  the  Cuban  rebels.  On  his 
return,  in  1879,  he  became  minister  of  war 
and  president  of  the  Council,  but  resigned 
the  same  year.  In  1881  he  formed  a  coali- 
tion with  Sagasta,  and  retained  office  till 
the  autumn  of  1883. 

Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  Francisco  {b.  1789, 
d.  1862),  Spanish  statesman  and  author; 
was  transported  to  Africa  for  his  Liberahsra 
under  Ferdinand  VII.,  but  in  1822  became 
president  of  the  Council  of  State  and  foreign 
minister;  pubHshed  the  Statuto  Real,  or 
definition  of  the  constitution,  in  1834,  but 
resigned  next  year ;  took  office  again  under 
Narvaez  in  1843,  and  was  again  foreign 
Becretary    in    1857,    and    president  of   the 


Cortes  in  the  following  year;  wrote  La 
Viuda  de  Padilla,  a  drama,  some  lyrics,  and 
El  Espiritu  del  Siglo. 

Martini,  Giovanni  (*.  1706,  d.  1784), 
Italian  Franciscan,  "  Padre  Martini  ;  " 
founded  a  school  of  music  at  Bologna,  and 
wrote  Storia  delta  Musica,  for  which  Fred- 
erick the  Great  sent  him  his  portrait  and  a 
snuff-box. 

Martini,  Giuseppe  San  {d.  1750),  Milanese 
musician ;  first  brought  the  hautboy  into 
favour  by  his  playing ;  came  to  England  in 
1723. 

Martinus  GaUus  (13th  century),  Polish 

historian ;  author  of  Chronica  Polonorwn. 

Martinus  Polonus  {d.  1278),  Polish  Do- 
minican, Archbishop  of  Gnesen  ;  wrote 
Chronicon  Martinarum,  a  history  of  popes 
and  emperors  to  the  year  1277. 

Martinuzzi,  Giorgio  {d.  1551),  Croatian 
statesman,  Bishop  of  Grosswardein ;  as 
guardian  of  John  Sigismund,  governed 
Hungary  for  him,  but,  having  quarrelled 
with  the  queen-mother,  intrigued  with 
Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  was  assassin- 
ated. 

Mart  OS,  Ivan  Petrovich  {d.  1835),  Russian 
sculptor,  the  best  specimens  of  whose  works 
are  Potemkiu's  monument  at  Cherson,  that 
of  Alexander  I.  at  Taganrog,  the  statue  of 
Richelieu  at  Odessa,  and  the  bronze  group 
of  patriots  at  Moscow. 

Martyn,  Henry  (*.  1781,  d.  1812),  English 
Orientalist,  son  of  a  Cornish  miner;  took 
honours  at  Cambridge,  and,  having  obtained 
a  chaplaincy  in  India,  went  there  in  1803. 
His  Hindustani  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  Memoirs  were  published  after  his 
death. 

Martyn,  John  (*.  1699,  d.  1768),  EngUsh 
botanist,  friend  of  Dillennius  and  Miller, 
with  whom  he  founded  the  Society  of  the 
Rainbow ;  held  a  professorship  at  Cam- 
bridge for  some  years,  and  wrote  Historia 
Plantarum  Rariorum,  leaving  a  library  and 
valuable  collection  to  the  university. 

Martyn,  Thomas  {b.  1735,  d.  1825),  his 
son,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  botanical  chair 
in  1761 ;  took  orders,  and  held  several  bene- 
fices ;  wrote  Plantce  Cantabrigienses,  Flora 
Rustica,  The  Antiquities  of  Herculaneum 
(with  J.  Lettice),  and  several  books  of 
travel. 

Martyr.     [See  Justin  and  Peter.] 

Marum,  Martin  van  (6.  1750,  d.  1837), 
Dutch  physicist ;  made  a  powerful  electrical 
machine  in  1785,  and  wrote  Dissertatio  de 

Moiu  Fluidorum  in  Plantis. 


Mar 


(543) 


Mas 


MaxveU,  Andrew  (J.  1621,  d.  1678),  Eng- 
lish politician  and  poet,  bom  at  Hull,  which 
he  afterwards  represented  in  Parliament; 
was  secretary  to  Milton  in  1657,  wrote 
letters  to  his  constituents  (who  paid  him  for 
his  services)  from  1665  to  1674,  and  many 
controversial  tracts  of  great  wit,  besides 
poems. 

Marvin,  Charles  {b.  1854,  d.  1891),  traveller 
and  writer ;  having  spent  his  youth  in  Eussia, 
entered  the  English  Civil  Service  in  1875, 
which  he  quitted  in  1878  on  the  disclosure 
of  the  Anglo-Russian  agreement.  He  after- 
wards travelled  iu  the  Caucasus,  and  wrote 
several  works  on  the  Central  Asian  question 
{The  Russians  at  the  Gate  of  Herat,  etc.), 
and  Our  Public  Offices. 

Maxx,  Karl  {b.  1818,  d.  1883),  German 
Socialist,  bom  at  Treves,  where  his  father 
was  a  lawyer;  educated  at  Bonn  and 
Berlin ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  Liberal 
movement  of  1840,  and,  after  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Jthenish  Gazette  (edited  by  him), 
he  went  to  Paris,  but  had  to  leave  it  for 
Brussels  on  the  demand  of  the  Prussian 
government.  Here,  with  Engels,  he  drew 
up  the  Communist  Manifesto,  which  was 
circulated  throughout  Europe  in  1848. 
Having  been  expelled  from  Belgium,  he 
was  invited  to  Paris,  but  soon  went  to 
Cologne,  where  he  attempted  to  revive  the 
Rhenish  Gazette.  He  now  settled  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  was  engaged  in  literary 
work,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  Inter- 
national Working  Men's  Association.  After 
the  secession  of  the  Anarchist  section  in 
1873,  he  took  little  further  part  in  affairs, 
and  died  at  Hampstead  ten  years  later. 
His  chief  work  was  I)as  Kapital,  but  he 
wrote  also  many  able  pamphlets  on  Hegelian 
philosophy  and  economical  subjects. 

Mary  Stewart,  Queen  of  Scots  (b.  1542, 
d.  1587),  daughter  of  James  V.  of  Scot- 
land ;  was  educated  in  France,  and  be- 
trothed to  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Francis 
II.,  after  whose  death  in  1560  she  returned 
to  Scotland.  She  refused  to  renounce  her 
claim  to  the  Enghsh  succession,  but  at  first 
temporised  with  the  reformation ;  married 
Henry  Stewart,  Lord  Darnley,  in  1565,  but 
became  alienated  from  him,  and  probably 
connived  at  his  murder  two  years  later, 
after  which  she  was  carried  off,  ostensibly 
against  her  will,  and  married  by  Both- 
well  ;  was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and 
imprisoned  in  Lochleven  ;  escaped,  but 
was  defeated  at  Langside,  and  fled  to 
England  (May,  1568),  where  she  was  im- 
prisoned and  executed  for  complicity  in  the 
Babington  Plot,  her  connection  with  former 
conspiracies  haviag  been,  though  known, 
not  susceptible  of  proof. 

Slaxy  Tudor,  Queen  of  France  (fi.  1497, 


d.  1534),  daughter  of  Henry  VII. :  married 
Louis  XII.  in  1514,  and,  after  his  death  in 
the  following  year,  Charles  Brandon,  Duke 
of  Suffolk,  their  daughter  being  the  mother 
of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

Mary  of  Burgundy  {b.  1457,  d.  1482), 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold ;  resisted  the 
attempt  of  Louis  XL  to  dispossess  her,  and 
married  Maximilian  of  Austria  in  1477 ;  died 
through  a  fall  from  her  horse. 

Maxy  of  Guise  {b.  1515,  d.  1560),  daughter 
of  Claude,  Due  de  Guise;  married  James 
V.  of  Scotland  in  1538,  and  became  mother 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots ;  as  regent  of  Scot- 
land, after  her  husband's  death,  opposed  the 
reformation,  till  deposed  in  1559  by  the 
Lords  of  the  Congregation. 

Mary  I.,  Queen  of  England  (b.  1516, 
d.  1558),  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  by 
Kathaiiae  of  Aragon ;  came  to  the  throne 
in  1553,  after  a  short  struggle  with  North- 
umberland ;  restored  the  abbey  lands  taken 
by  Henry  VIII.  and  first-fruits  to  the 
Papacy ;  deprived  and  imprisoned  the  Pro- 
testant bishops,  and,  having  married  Philip 
n.  of  Spain,  persecuted  the  Protestants, 
contrary  to  the  promises  made  before  her 
accession.  The  end  of  her  reign  was 
marked  by  a  war,  in  conjimction  with  Spain, 
against  France,  when  Calais  was  lost  by 
England. 

Mary  II.  (b.  1662,  d.  1694),  elder  daughter 
of  James  II. ;  married  William  of  Orange 
in  1677,  and  reigned  with  him  as  queen  for 
five  years. 

Masaccio.    \_See  Guidi.] 

Masaniello  (Tommaso  Aniello)  {b.  1623, 
d.  1647),  Neapolitan  demagogue;  a  fisher- 
man, who  was  made  chief  magistrate  of  the 
city  by  the  populace,  which  had  risen 
against  the  Spanish  administration.  His 
conduct  became  overbearing,  and  he  was 
assassinated  eight  days  after. 

Masclef,  Fran(^ois  {b.  1662,  d.  1728), 
French  Orientalist,  published  a  Hebrew 
grammar,  and  applied  a  system  of  reading 
without  vowel  points  to  Hebrew,  Chaldaic, 
Syriac,  and  Samaritan. 

Masham  {tiee  Hill),  AbigaU,  Lady  (d. 
1734),  favourite  of  Queen  Anne,  and  Tory 
rival  of  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  whom 
she  supplanted  in  1711,  when  her  husband 
was  raised  to  the  peerage.  They  afterwards 
intrigued  with  the  Stewarts. 

Masinissa  {d.  149  b.c),  King  of  Numidia, 
and  ally  of  the  Romans  against  Carthage ; 
poisoned  his  wife  Sophonisba,  to  prevent  her 
being  taken  from  him  by  Scipio. 

Maskelyne,    Nevil    (/-.    1732.    d.    1811), 


Mas 


(644) 


Ma.s 


English  mathematician  ;  astronomer -royal 
from  17ti5  till  his  death;  observed  the 
transit  of  Venus  at  St.  Helena  in  1761,  and 
calculated  the  density  of  the  earth  at 
Schiehallien ;  published  the  British  Ma- 
rtiier's  Guide  (1763). 

Mason,  James  MuiTay  {b.  1798,  d.  1871), 
American  senator,  whose  arrest  by  Captain 
Wilkes  of  the  Trent,  when  proceeding  to 
England  as  Confederate  commissioner, 
caused  much  commotion  at  the  time  as  a 
breach  of  international  law. 

Mason,  Sir  John  {d.  1566),  English  states- 
man, son  of  a  monk  of  Abingdon,  where  he 
endowed  a  hospital ;  was  much  employed 
diplomatically  by  Henry  VIII. ,  and  made  a 
member  of  the  Privy  Council,  and,  after 
serving  her  predecessors,  became  treasurer 
of  the  chamber  to  Elizabeth. 

Mason,  Sir  Josiah  (b.  1795,  d.  1881),  manu- 
factui-er,  born  at  Kidderminster.  After 
being  engaged  in  many  humble  occupations, 
set  up  in  Birmingham  about  1824  as  a  maker 
of  split  rings  and  steel  pens,  of  which  he 
became  the  largest  manufacturer.  Having 
amassed  a  fortune,  he  estabUshed  in  1860 
the  orphanage  at  Erdington,  for  which  he 
was  knighted  in  1872.  He  was  also  the 
founder  of  the  Science  college  at  Birming- 
ham and  other  institutions. 

Mason,  William  {h.  1725,  d.  1797),  English 
poet,  canon  of  York,  and  author  of  Carae- 
tacus,  Isis,  and  other  poems. 

Masoudi  {d.  956),  Arab  writer  and  tra- 
veller, the  reputed  author  of  Ketab-al- 
Adjayb,  or,  Book  of  Wonders. 

Maspero,  Gaston  Camille  Charles  {b. 
1846),  French  Egyptologist ;  after  studying 
at  the  Lycee  and  the  Ecole  Normale,  was 
appointed  in  1874  assistant  professor  of 
Egyptian  archaeology  at  the  College  de 
France,  and  subsequently  succeeded  Mariette 
Bey  as  keeper  of  the  Boulak  Museum.  Among 
his  works  are  Histoire  Ancienne  des  Peuples 
de  r Orient,  Les  Contes  Populaires  de  VEgypte 
Ancienne,  and  several  monographs. 

Mass6na,  Andre,  Due  de  Eivoli  and 
Prince  of  EssUng  (*.  1758,  d.  1817),  French 
marshal,  bom  at  Nice;  served  in  Italy 
under  Bonaparte,  his  conduct  at  RivoU 
(1797)  and  as  commander  of  Eome  (1798) 
being  particularly  brilUant;  defeated  the 
Russians  at  Zurich  in  1799,  and  gallantly 
defended  Genoa  in  the  next  year.  Having 
served  in  Germany,  went  to  the  Peninsula, 
where  he  was  defeated  at  Busaco  and 
Fuentes  d'Onoro,  after  which  he  was  dis- 
graced by  Napoleon  ;  was  afterwards  em- 
ployed by  the  Bourbons,  and  ably  defended 
his  career  in  the  Assembly. 

Massenet,  Jules  {b.  1842),  French  com- 
poser;   obtained  first  prizes    at  the  Paris 


Conservatoire  for  pianoforte  and  fugue,  and 
the  Prix  de  Rome  for  David  Mizzio  (1863); 
made  his  debut  at  the  Opera  Comique  with  Le 
Grande  Xante  (1868),  and  became  professor 
of  composition  at  the  Conservatoire  in  1878. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  Suite  d^Orchestre 
(Pasdeloup  concerts),  Bon  Cesar  de  Bazan 
(Opera  Comique,  1873),  Eve,  an  oratorio 
(1S74),  La  Vierge,  sacred  legend  (1880), 
Herodiade,  opera  (Italian  opera),  and 
Mano7i,  comic  opera  (1883),  Esclarmonde, 
romantic  opera  (1889),  besides  popular  melo- 
dies, stage  music,  etc. 

Massey,  Gerald  {b.  1828),  English  writer, 
bom  of  poor  parents  in  Hertfordshire; 
came  to  London  as  an  errand-boy  at  fifteen, 
and  as  secretary  of  the  Christian  Socialists 
became  intimate  with  Kingsley  and  Maurice; 
wrote  for  literaiy  papers,  and  lectured  in 
America  and  the  colonies,  obtaining  much 
popularity.  Chief  among  his  works  are  My 
Lyrical  Life  (poems),  and  The  Secret  Drama 
of  Shakespcre's  Sonnets. 

Massey,  William  N.  {b.  1809,  d.  1S81), 
statesman  and  historian ;  author  of  History 
of  England  under  George  III.,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1844,  and  was  in  Parlia- 
ment from  1852  till  1865  (having  been 
under- secretary  for  the  Home  Department 
and  Chairman  of  Committee),  when  finance 
member  of  the  Council  of  India  and  Privy 
Councillor.  After  his  retirement  he  repre- 
sented Tiverton  as  a  Liberal  from  1872  till 
his  death. 

MassiUon,  Jean  Baptiste  {b.  1663,  d. 
1742),  French  preacher;  made  Bishop  of 
Clermont  in  1717  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
after  having  preached  very  eloquently  be- 
fore Louis  XIV.  on  several  occasions. 

Massinger,  Philip  (b.  1583,  d.  1640),  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  educated  at  Oxford ;  worked 
with  Fletcher,  Middleton,  and  others,  but 
lived  in  great  poverty ;  his  chief  plays  were 
A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,  The  City 
Madam,  The  Fatal  Dowry,  The  Maid  of 
Honotir,  etc. 

Masson,  Antoine(i.  1636,  d.  1702),  French 
engraver,  member  of  the  Academy  of  Paint- 
ing, his  chief  works  being  The  Travellers  of 
Emmaus,  called  The  Table  Cloth,  after 
Titian. 

Masson,  David  {b.  1822),  Scotch  vnriter, 
edited  a  paper  at  nineteen ;  held  the  chair 
of  English  literature  at  University  College 
from  1852  to  1865,  when  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  and  English  literature  in 
Edinburgh  University.  Chief  among  his 
writings  may  be  named  Essays  :  Biographical 
and  Critical  (1856),  A  Life  of  John  Milton 
(1858-78),  an  edition  oi  Milton's  works 
(1877),  and  Drummond  of  Hawthornden 
(1874). 


Mas 


(  545 


Mat 


Mastellata,  IL     [See  DonduccL] 

Masters,  Maxwell  Tylden,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

(b.  ia3o),  English  botanist ;  practised  as  a 
doctor  in  London  for  some  years,  and  was 
lecturer  on  botany  at  St.  George's  Hospital 
from  1855  to  18G8.  His  chief  works  are 
Botany  for  Beginners,  Flant  Life  (which 
have  been  translated  into  French,  Dutch, 
and  Russian),  and  Vegetable  Teratology. 

Masters,  Thomas  {d.  1643),  Enghsh  poet, 
author  of  Meiisa  Lubrica  (describing  the 
game  of  shovelboard),  and  a  Greek  poem, 
which  was  translated  by  Cowley.  Lord 
Herbert  of  Cherbury  wrote  an  epitaph  for 
him. 

Mather,  Cotton  {b.  1663,  d.  1728),  Puritan 
minister  at  Boston,  where  he  carried  on  a 
witchcraft  persecution,  and  wrote  Memor- 
able Frovid'.-nces  Relating  to  Witchcraft  and 
other  works. 

Mather,  Increase  (b.  1639,  d.  1723),  father 
of  preceding,  bom  at  Dorchester,  Massa- 
chusetts, where  his  father  had  been  pastor  ; 
became  president  of  Harvard  in  1685,  and 
visited  England  to  obtain  a  new  charter  for 
his  colony  in  1688.  He  also  wrote  many 
works. 

Matheson,  George,  D.D.,  E.R.S.E.    [b. 

1842),  Scottish  theologian  and  philosopher, 
although  he  had  lost  his  sight  when  a  boy, 
graduated  with  great  distinction  at  Glasgow, 
and  afterwards  took  orders  in  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  His  chief  works  are.  Aids  to  the 
Study  of  German  Theology  (1877),  Natural 
Elements  of  Revealed  Theology  (Baird  lecture, 
1882),  Confucianism  (from  the  Giles  lecture, 
1882),  Can  the  Old  Faith  Live  with  the  New  ? 
(1885),  and  Sacred  Songs  (1890). 

Mathew,  Hon.  Sir  James  Charles,  LL.D. 
{b.  1830),  English  judge,  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  where  he  was  senior  mode- 
rator in  1860  ;  was  called  to  the  bar  ia  1854, 
ajid  went  on  the  south-eastern  circuit ;  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench  in 
1881,  having  some  time  previously  been  a 
member  of  the  Committee  on  the  Costs  of 
Legal  Proceedings. 

Mathew,  Theobald  (6.  1790,  d.  1856), 
"Father  Mathew,"  Irish  temperance  advo- 
cate ;  preached  temperance  in  Ireland  and 
America  with  great  success,  and  earned  the 
title  of  the  "  Apostle  of  Temperance." 

Mathews,  Charles  (6.  1776.  <l.  1835), 
•comedian,  son  of  a  bookseller  iii  tiie  Strand, 
educated  at  Merchant  Taylors' ;  tirst  ap- 
peared professionally  in  Dublin  in  1794  ; 
played  Don  Manuel  in  She  Would  and  She 
Would  Not  at  Drury  Lane  in  1804 ;  from 
1808 gave  entortiiinTiioiits  and  "at  homes"  in 
London  and  New  York,  and  in  1828  became 
1  J 


joint  proprietor  of  the  Adelphi.     His  Me- 
moirs were  published  after  his  death. 

Mathews,  Charles  .Tames  {b.  1803,  d.  1878), 
his  son,  followed  the  same  profession ; 
married  Madame  Vestris  in  1838,  and  with 
her  managed  the  Olympic,  being  afterwards 
unfortunate  as  lessee  of  Covent  Garden 
(1838-41),  and  the  Lyceum  (1847-55).  In 
1858  he  went  to  America,  where  he  married 
Miss  Davenport,  and  henceforth  gave  up 
managing.  He  made  a  tour  of  the  world 
(1869-72),  and  acted  till  within  a  few  days 
of  his  death,  his  favourite  plays  being 
Used  Up,  As  Cool  as  a  Cucumber,  and  My 
Awful  Dad. 

Mathilde  Bonaparte,  Princesse  {b.  1820), 
daughter  of  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  cousin 
of  Napoleon  III. ;  married  Prince  Anatole 
Demidoff,  but  was  separated  four  years 
after,  and  lived  with  Louis  Napoleon  tiU 
his  marriage  ;  obtained  honourable  mention 
in  1861  for  pictures  at  the  Salon  de  Pein- 
ture. 

Matilda,  or  Maud,  Queen  of  England  (d. 
1083),  daughter  of  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flan- 
ders, married  her  cousin  William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  in  1U54,  and  became  Queen  of 
England  in  1066. 

Matilda  {d,  1151),  daughter  of  Eustace, 
Count  of  Boulogne,  and  wife  of  King 
Stephen  of  England. 

Matilda  (rf.  1118),  daughter  of  Malcolm, 
King,  of  Scotland,  and  Margaret,  sister  of 
Edgar  the  Atheling.  Her  marriage  with 
Henry  I.  united  the  Saxon  and  Norman 
lines. 

Matilda  {d.  1165),  her  daughter;  married 
Henry  V.  of  Germany  in  1114,  and  after  his 
death  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Anjou  ; 
carried  on  a  war  with  Stephen  for  the  crown 
which  Henry  I.  had  designed  for  her,  the 
contest  terminating  in  the  Treaty  of  WalUng- 
ford,  by  which  her  son  Henry's  succession 
was  recognised. 

Matilda,  Saint,  Empress  of  Germany  {d. 
968),  married  Henry  the  Fowler  in  909,  and 
became  the  mother  of  Otho  the  Great. 

MatUda  of  Tuscany  (A.  1046,  d.  1115), 
"the  Great  Coimtess,"  daughter  of  Bom- 
face  II.,  Duke  of  Tuscany;  married  first 
Godfrey  of  Lorraine,  and  secondly  Guelf, 
Duke  of  Bavaria;  supported  Gregory  VII. 
against  the  Emperor  Henry  IV. ,  who  made 
his  celebrated  submission  at  her  castle  of 
Canossa ;  afterwards  took  part  with  Conrad, 
his  son,  against  him,  sepii^ated  from  her 
husband  in  1095,  and  afterwards  made  over 
her  estates  to  the  Papacy. 

Matsys,  or  Messis,  Quentin  {b.  circa  1466, 
d.  1530  or  1531),  Flemish  painter,  originally 


Mat 


(546) 


Mat 


a  blacksmith,  his  best  known  pictures  being 
The  Descent  from  the  Cross  at  Antwerp,  and 
The  Usurers  at  Windsor. 

Mattathias  (r/.  166  b.c),  Jewish  priest, 
fatlier  of  the  Maccabees ;  successfully  op- 
posed the  introduction  of  idolatry  into 
Jerusalem  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

Mattel,  Paolo  da,  "Paoluccio"  {b.  1662, 
d.  1728),  Neapolitan  painter,  skilful  imi- 
tator of  the  great  masters ;  was  invited  to 
Rome  by  Benedict  XIII.,  and  painted 
several  pictures  there.  Other  works  of  his 
are  at  Genoa,  and  in  St.  Xavier,  Naples. 

Matteo  da  Sienna  (b.  1420,  d.  1495), 
painter,  "  the  Masaccio  of  the  Siennese 
school."  Besides  his  Virgin  with  Saints  and 
Angels  in  the  Sienna  museum,  and  some 
Madonne  now  at  Berlin,  he  executed  some 
of  the  mosaic  work  in  Sienna  cathedral 

Matter,  Jacques  {b.  1791,  <^.  1864),  French 
philosophical  writer,  received  from  the 
Academie  10,000  francs  for  his  Be  V Influence 
des  Moeurs  sur  les  Lois  in  1832.  He  also 
wrote  Histoire  du  Gnosticisme,  SchelUng 
(1842),  and  Histoire  de  la  Philosophic  dans 
ses  Rapports  avec  la  Beligion. 

Matteucci,  Carlo  (6.  1811,  c?.  1868),  Italian 
physicist  ;  was  several  times  minister  of 
public  instruction,  and  also  member  of  the 
Florence  council  of  education.  As  professor 
of  physics  at  Pisa  he  made  many  experi- 
ments and  discoveries  in  animal  electricity, 
and  published  Mannuale  di  Telegrafia 
Elettrica  (1850). 

Matthseus  Cantacuzenus  {d.  circa  1390), 
eldest  son  and  coadjutor  of  John  VI.,  Em- 
peror of  the  East,  abdicated  in  1355  ;  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  Canticles. 

Mattheson,  Johann  (6.  1681,  d.  1764), 
German  musician,  and  friend  of  Handel, 
whom,  however,  he  nearly  killed  in  a  duel 
in  1704 ;  composed  several  operas  {The 
Fleiades,  etc.),  and  some  sacred  pieces  for 
the  organ. 

Matthew  Paris  {d.  1259),  English  Bene- 
dictine of  St.  Albans  ;  verote  A  History  of 
England  from  1066  to  the  year  of  his  death; 
he  was  a  great  favourite  with  Henry  III. 

Matthew  of  Westminster  (14th  century), 
Benedictin  possibly  the  author  of  Flores 
Historiarutn  ab  Exordia  Mundi  usque  ad 
annum  1307. 

Matthews,  Right  Hon.  Henry  (6.  1826), 
statesman,  bom  m  Ceylon,  where  his  father 
was  a  judge ;  was  educated  at  Paris  and 
London,  and,  having  been  called  to  the  bar, 
made  a  reputation  as  a  barrister  in  the 
Home,  Tichborne,  and  Crawford  cases  ;  re- 
presented Dungarvan  from    1868  to   1874, 


and,  having  been  elected  as  a  Conservative 
for  Birmingham  in  1886,  was  appointed 
Home  Secretary  in  Lord  Salisbury's  second 
Ministry. 

Matthews,  Thomas  (6.  1681,  d.  1751), 
admiral  ;  distinguished  himself  at  Cape 
Passaro  in  1718,  and  in  an  expedition 
against  the  pirates  of  the  Indian  Ocean; 
compelled  Charles  III.  of  Naples  to  sign  a 
declaration  of  neutrality  under  threat  of 
bombardment  (1742),  but  was  deprived  of 
his  command  for  his  conduct  in  the  action 
off  Toulon  in  1744. 

MattWae,  August  (*.  1769,  d.  1835),  Ger- 
man philologist ;  author  of  Encyclopedic  von 
Fhilologie,  a  Greek  grammar,  and  similar 
works. 

Matthias,  Emperor  of  Germany  {b.  1557, 
d.  1619),  son  of  MaximiHan  II.  After  having 
been  governor  of  the  Low  Countries,  and 
Austria,  and  Himgary,  where  he  was 
obhged  to  tolerate  the  Protestants,  he  took 
up  arms  against  his  brother,  the  Emperor 
Rudolph,  who  ceded  him  Hungary  and 
Austria  in  1608.  Three  years  later  he  re- 
ceived the  Bohemian  crown,  and  was  elected 
emperor  in  1611.  His  conduct  under  Jesuit 
influence  precipitated  the  Thirty  Years' 
war. 

Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary 
(6.  1443,  d.  149U),  was  proclaimed  king  ia 
1458,  soon  after  his  release  from  imprison- 
ment at  Prague  ;  maintained  the  throne 
against  the  emperor,  and,  after  having  en- 
gaged in  successful  wars  with  the  Turks, 
received  the  Bohemian  crown  from  the  Pope 
on  condition  of  extirpating  the  Hus'^tes. 
While  thus  engaged  a  revolt  took  place  in 
Hungary,  supported  by  Poland  and  other 
powers,  which  combination  he  routed.  After 
this  he  engaged  in  two  wars  with  the  em- 
peror, and  captured  Vienna  in  1485,  living 
there  till  his  death. 

Matthieu,  Pierre  {b.  1563,  d.  1621),  French 
writer,  historiographer  to  Henri  IV. ;  author 
of  Histoire  de  Louis  XI. ,  Histoire  des  Guerres 
depuxs  1515  jusque  d  1598,  and  La  Guisiade 
(a  poem). 

Matthisson,  Friedrich  von  {b.  1761,  d. 
1831),  German  poet,  bom  near  Magdeburg; 
resided  at  the  courts  of  Anhalt- Dessau  and 
of  Wurtemberg.  His  chief  work  was  Ade- 
laide (1788),  which  was  set  to  music  by 
Beethoven,  but  he  also  published  poems, 
songs,  and  accounts  of  his  travels. 

Maturin,  Charles  Robert  {b.  1782,  d. 
1824),  Irish  writer,  bom  and  educated  at 
Dublin,  friend  of  Scott  and  Byron;  wrote 
Melmoth  and  other  romances,  Bertram 
(tragedy),  produced  with  success  at  Drury 
Lane  in  1816,  and  some  poems. 


Mat 


(547) 


Mau 


Maturlno  da  Firenze  (d.  circa  1528), 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  pupil  of 
Raffaelle,  and  friend  of  Caravaggio.  Most 
of  his  works  on  the  fac^ades  of  Roman 
palaces  and  churches  have  fallen  into  neg- 
lect, and  are  known  only  by  prints  taken 
from  them. 

Maty,  Matthew  {h.  1718,  d.  1776),  Dutch 
physician ;  came  to  England  in  l740,  and, 
having  entered  the  British  Museum,  became 
chief  librarian  iu  1772.  His  son,  Paul  {d. 
1787),  was  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society 
for  some  years. 

Maud.     [^See  MatUda.] 

Maudsley,  Henry,  M.D.  (b.  1835),  Eng- 
lish physician  ;  became  F.R.C.P.  in  1869, 
and  was  Gulstonian  lecturer  next  year  ;  was 
professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  at  Uni- 
versity College,  1869-79,  and  edited  for  some 
years  the  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  His 
chief  works  are  The  Physiology  and  Path- 
ology of  Mind  (1867),  and  Natural  Causes 
and  Supernatural  Seeming s  (1886). 

Maunder,  Samuel  {b.  circa  1790,  d.  1849), 
English  compiler  of  educational  works,  the 
chief  of  which  were  Biographical  Treasury 
and  Treasury  of  Useful  Knoivledge. 

Maupassant,  Henri  Guy  de  (J.  1850), 
French  novelist,  pupil  and  follower  of  Flau- 
bert, under  whom  he  studied  for  seven 
years,  beginning  to  write  ia  1880.  His 
chief  works  are  La  Maison  Tellier,  Les 
Contes  de  la  Bicasse,  Yvette,  Contes  du  Jour 
et  de  Nuit,  Pierre  et  Jean,  and  Afloat.  In 
1891  his  mind  became  deranged. 

Maupeou,  Rene  Nicolas  Augusta  {b.  1714, 
d.  1 792) ,  politician  ;  succeeded  his  father  as 
chancellor,  but  reversed  his  policy  by  be- 
coming the  instrument  in  the  suppression  of 
the  parlements  in  1771  and  the  estabUsh- 
ment  of  the  "  Parlement  Maupeou  "  iu  their 
place,  incurring  great  impopularity. 

Maupertuis,  Pierre  Louis  Moreau  de  (5. 
1698,  d.  1759),  geometrician;  went  to  Lap- 
land in  1736  to  measure  a  degree  of  the 
meridian,  and  published  on  his  return  Figure 
de  la  Terre  Determinee  ;  went  to  the  court  of 
Frederick  the  Great  in  1740,  and  re-organised 
the  Academy  of  Berlin,  of  which  he  be- 
came president ;  had  an  historical  quarrel 
with  Voltaire,  who  was  jealous  of  his  in- 
fluence. 

Maur,  Saint  {d.  584)  French  Benedictine  ; 
founded  many  French  monasteries,  and  the 
order  called  by  his  name. 

Maurepas,  Jean  Fredi'ric  Phc'lippeux, 
Comto  de  (b.  1701,  d.  1781),  8ta,tesman ; 
became  secretary  of  state  in  1715,  and 
afterwards  as  minister  of  marine  brought 
about  many  reforms  in  the  French  navy ; 
J  J  2 


was  disgraced  by  the  influence  of  Madame 
de  Pompadour  in  1749,  but  recalled  to 
power  by  Louis  XVI.,  with  whom  he  had 
much  influence  in  his  early  years. 

Matirice,  "  the  Elector,"  Duke  of  Saxony 
Q).  1521,  d.  1553),  German  prince,  son  of 
Henry  the  Pious  ;  served  imder  Charles  V. 
against  the  Turks  in  1542,  and  at  first  sup- 
ported him  against  the  Smalcaldic  League, 
being  made  Elector  of  Saxony  after  Miihl- 
berg  in  place  of  his  cousin  in  1547  ;  after- 
wards broke  with  the  emperor,  and  sided 
with  France  and  the  league  against  him, 
obtaining  from  him  the  peace  of  Passau 
which  secured  toleration,  but  was  mortally 
wounded  at  Siverhausen  in  the  following 
year. 

Maurice,  John  Frederick  Denison  (J.  1805, 
d.  1872),  English  theologian  and  social  re- 
former, son  of  a  Suffolk  Unitarian  minister; 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  and 
came  to  Loudon  in  1827,  where  he  for  some 
time  edited  the  Athencemn.  He  afterwards 
went  to  Oxford,  where  he  first  graduated, 
took  orders  in  the  English  Church,  and  began 
to  vmte.  He  became  chaplain  at  Guy's 
Hospital  in  1836,  professor  of  English  Utera- 
ture  at  Cambridge  in  1840,  and  of  theology 
at  King's  College,  London,  in  1846,  and  in 
1847,  with  Kingsley  and  others,  entered 
upon  the  Christian  Socialist  movement.  His 
Theological  Essays  (1853)  caused  his  re- 
moval from  King's  College,  and  he  then 
organised  the  Great  Ormond  Street  Working 
Men's  College.  For  some  years,  from  1860, 
he  held  a  London  living,  and  in  1866  suc- 
ceeded Grote  as  Knightbridge  professor  of 
moral  science  at  Cambridge.  He  was  twice 
married.  His  Life,  by  his  son,  was  pub- 
lished in  1884,  His  chief  works  were  Moral 
and  Metaphysical  Philosophy,  and  several 
tracts.  Subscription  no  Bondage,  The  Kingdom 
of  Christ,  What  is  lierelation  ?  etc. 

Maurice  of  Hesse -Cassel,  Augustus  (p. 
\bTl,  d.  1632),  founded  the  "Collegium 
Mauritianum,"  and  wrote  several  learned 
works. 

Maurice  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange  {b. 
1567,  d.  1625),  son  of  William  of  Orange, 
"the  Silent;"  became  Stadtholder  of  the 
United  Provinces  and  head  of  the  army  in 
1587,  and  successfully  carried  on  the  struggle 
against  Spain ;  refused  peace  in  1698,  but 
consented  to  a  truce  in  1609 ;  afterwards 
supported  the  Romanists  agamst  the  Remon- 
strants, and  put  to  death  Bameveldt,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  witk  France  and  England 
just  before  his  death. 

Mauricius,  Flavins  Tiberius  {b.  539,  d. 
602),  Emperor  of  the  East;  after  distin- 
guished military  service  under  Tiberius  II. 
m  Persia  and  the  East,  married  Constantia, 
his  daughter,  and  succeeded  him  in  682 ; 


Man 


(648) 


Max 


carried  on  successful  wars  against  the  Lom- 
bai'ds  and  Avars,  but  was  tiiiially  dethroned 
and  murdered  by  Phocas. 

Mauro  (loth  century),  Itahan geographer, 
a  monk  of  Venice  ;  made  a  planisphere  for 
Alfonso  V.  of  Portugal  in  14.57,  and  the 
celebrated  Mappamondo  some  time  after- 
wards. 

_Maury,  Jean  Siffrein,  "the  Abbe"  {b. 
174t5,  d.  1817),  French  ecclesiastic  and  poli- 
tician, son  of  a  bootmaker ;  became  the 
most  eloquent  debater  among  the  Royalists 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  (1789-91),  but 
was  subsequently  obhged  to  retire  to  Rome, 
whore  he  was  made  cardinal ;  returned  to 
Paris  in  1806,  and  became  archbishop  in 
1810,  but  was  disgraced  by  the  Bourbons  at 
the  restoration. 

Maury,  Matthew  Fontaine  {b.  1806,  d. 
1873),  American  hydrographer  and  naval 
officer,  of  Fi-ench  descent;  made  a  voyage 
roimd  the  world  in  1826,  and  was  afterwards 
astronomer  to  the  South  Sea  expedition  of 
Thomas  Jones  and  superintendent  of  the 
Washington  observatory,  where  he  pubUshed 
marine  charts  and  sailing  directions.  At  the 
Brussels  Conference  in  1853  his  system  was 
adopted  by  the  several  nations.  His  chief 
work  was  The  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea. 

Mausolus  {d.  circa  353  B.C.),  King  of 
Caria,  kno\\Ti  to  posterity  by  the  mauso- 
leum of  Halicaruassus,  erected  to  his  memory 
by  Artemisia,  his  wife. 

Mavrocordato,  Alessandro  {b.  1791,  d. 
1865),  Greek  statesman  and  diplomatist ; 
was  prominent  in  the  war  of  Independence, 
after  which  he  was  made  president  of  the 
Executive  Council ;  became  president  of  the 
Assembly  in  1843,  when  a  constitution  was 
established ;  was  envoy  at  Paris  from  1850 
to  1854,  when  he  again  became  minister, 
but  died  two  years  later.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Lord  Byron,  who  died  in  his  arms. 

Mavromichalis,  Petros  {b.  1775,  d.  1848), 
Maniote  chief  ("  Petro  Bey")  ;  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  Greek  war  of  Independence, 
driving  the  Turks  from  the  Morea.  He  was, 
however,  thrown  into  prison  by  Capo  d'Istria, 
but  was  released,  reinstated,  and  made  sena- 
tor and  admiral  by  King  Otho. 

Mawe,  John  {b.  1764,  d.  1829),  English 
mmeralogist;  collected  specimens  in  South 
America,  and  published  Treatise  on  Dia- 
monds and  Precious  Stones,  Travels  in  Brazil, 
etc. 

Maxentius,  Marcus  Valerius  (d.  312), 
Roman  Emperor,  son  of  Maximianus  (Aure- 
hus)  ;  reigned  some  time  with  his  father, 
but  compelled  him  to  resign,  put  to  death 
Severus,  quelled  a  revolt  "in  Africa,  and 
acted  with  great  cruelty,  but  was  at  length 


defeated  by  Constantino  and  drowned  in  the 
Tiber. 

Maximianus,  Galerius  (^d.  311),  Emperor 
of  the  East,  originaUy  a  Dacian  shepherd ; 
was  successful  as  a  soldier  against  the  Goths 
and  Persians,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
Diocletian,  on  whose  abdication  he  was 
proclaimed  Augustus,  but,  having  alienated 
the  Romans  by  his  cruelty,  was  compelled 
to  Hy  before  his  rival,  Maxentius. 

Maximianus,  Marcus  Aurelius  (310), 
Emperor  of  Rome,  by  origin  a  peasant; 
persecuted  the  Christians,  and  carried  on 
successful  wars  in  Germany,  but  his  army 
revolted  on  his  return  to  Italy,  and  he  was 
murdered  in  his  sleep. 

Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexico  {b.  1832, 
d.  1867) ;  having  been  commander  of  the 
Austrian  navy  and  governor  of  Venice,  was 
made  Emperor  of  Mexico  in  1864,  but  was 
soon  engaged  in  quelLLng  his  opponents 
under  Juarez,  by  whom  he  was  captured 
and  shot  in  1867.  He  was  buried  at  Vienna 
in  the  following  year. 

Maximilian  I.,  Emperor  (b.  1459,  d.  1519), 
son  of  Frederick  III.,  and  grandfather  of 
Charles  V. ,  elected  King  of  the  Romans  in 
1486,  and  emperor  in  1493,  but  not  crowned  ; 
married  Mary  of  Burgundy  in  1477,  and 
thus  obtained  the  Netherlands.  His  second 
wife  was  Biauca  Sforza,  after  the  marriage 
with  whom  he  formed  with  the  Pope,  Spain, 
and  Venice  a  league  against  France.  He 
afterwards  carried  on  unsuccessfid  wars 
with  Venice  and  the  Swiss,  but  in  1513 
joined  that  repubUc  and  Henry  VIII.  in  a 
Holy  League  against  France.  His  last  act  was 
the  attempt  to  induce  the  Diet  of  Augsburg 
to  support  him  against  the  Turks. 

MaximiUan  II.  (b.  1527,  d.  1576),  Emperor, 
son  of  Ferdinand  I.,  married  a  daughter  of 
Charles  v.,  and  was  made  regent  in  1548; 
was  elected  King  of  Bohemia  (1562)  and  of 
Hungary  (1563),  and  became  emperor  in  the 
following  year  ;  showed  great  toleration  in 
his  religious  policy,  and  tried  to  unite  the 
German  Protestants,  besides  remonstrating 
with  Philip  II.  on  the  subject  of  his  per- 
secutions in  the  Netherlands. 

Maximilian  I.,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  "  the 
Great  Duke"  (h.  1573,  d.  1651),  became 
chief  of  the  Catholic  League  of  Wurzburg 
in  1609,  and  defeated  the  Protestants  at 
Prague ;  was  made  elector  in  1623,  and 
confirmed  at  the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

Maximilian  IL  (*.  1662,  d.  1726),  son  of 
Ferdinand  became  elector  in  1679;  joined 
France  against  the  Grand  Alhance,  and  was 
put  to  the  ban  of  the  empire,  but  recovered 
his  estates  at  the  Treaty  of  Badeu  (1714). 

Maximilian    Joseph    L,   first    King   of 


Max 


(  549  ) 


May 


Bavaria  (b.  1756,  d.  1825),  succeeded  Charles 
Theodore  as  elector  in  1799  ;  improved  the 
criminal  law,  and  granted  freedom  of  wor- 
ship to  his  subjects ;  was  made  king  by 
Napoleon  in  1805,  but  deserted  him  after 
Leipzig.     He  granted  a  charter  in  1818. 

Maximilian  Joseph  II.  (b.  1811,  (^.1864), 
son  of  Louis' I.,  on  whose  abdication,  ia 
1848,  he  succeeded.  He  showed  himself  a 
strong  partisan  of  Austria,  and  opposed  the 
reconstruction  of  Germany. 

Maximinus  I.  (Maximin),  Emperor  of 
Rome  (d.  circa  238),  by  birth  a  Thracian 
shepherd  and  giant;  was  employed  by 
Alexander  Severus  to  organise  the  army, 
and  obtained  the  purple  after  his  assassia- 
ation  ;  defeated  the  incursions  of  the  Ger- 
mans in  236-7,  but  behaved  with  great 
cruelty  at  Rome,  and  was  murdered  with 
his  son. 

Maximinus  II.  (d.  circa  315),  an  niyrian 
shejiherd ;  was  made  Csesar  on  the  abdication 
of  Diocletian  and  Augustus  in  308  ;  shared 
the  East  with  Licinius,  and,  attempting  to 
conquer  the  whole,  was  defeated. 

Maximus.     [See  Fabius  Maximus.] 

Maximus  I.  (Pupienus),  Emperor  of 
Rome  ;  was  elected  emperor  on  the  death  of 
the  Gordians  in  238,  but  soon  after  mur- 
dered by  the  Praetorians. 

Maximus  II.  (Clemens)  (d.  circa  388), 
rebelled  against  Gratian,  and,  having  been 
proclaimed  emperor  in  Britain,  conquered 
Gaul,  and  was  recognised  in  383 ;  subdued 
Italy  in  387,  but  was  defeated  and  beheaded 
by  Theodosius  soon  after. 

Maximus  III.  (Petronius)  {d.  455),  con- 
tributed to  the  ruin  of  Aetius  in  454; 
caused  the  murder  of  Valentinian  III.  in 
the  following  year,  and  succeeded  him, 
marrying  his  widow,  Eudoxia ;  fled  from 
Rome  on  the  approach  of  the  Vandals,  and 
was  killed  by  his  troops. 

Max-Miiller,  Frederick  {b.  1823),  phi- 
lologist, of  German  birth,  son  of  Miiller  the 
poet  ;  was  bom  at  De«sau,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Lei])zig  and  Berlin,  studying  xmder 
Bopp,  Schelling,  and  Fleischer.  He  went 
to  Paris  in  1845,  and  next  year  to  England, 
where  he  was  persuaded  to  remain  by 
Bunsen.  He  settled  at  Oxford  in  1848,  was 
elected  Taylorian  professor  of  comparative 
philology  in  1854,  fellow  of  All  Souls'  1858, 
and  professor  of  a  new  chair  of  philology  in 
1868,  besides  holding  several  offices,  curator 
of  the  Bodleian,  etc.  In  1873  he  lectured  in 
Westminster  Abbey  on  the  Rclifiiowt  of  the 
World,  delivered  the  first  Hibbert  lecture 
in  1878,  and  the  GilTord  lectures  (Glasgow) 
in  1888  and  1801.  Among  his  works  may 
be  named  editions  of    the  Rig-  Veda  and 


other  sacred  books  of  the  East,  History  oj 
Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,  The  Science 
of  Language,  Introduction  to  the  Science 
of  Religion,  and  essays  on  mythology,  bio- 
graphy, etc. 

Max  O'Rell,  mm  de  plume  of  Paul  Blouet 
{b.  1848),  French  writer,  who  graduated  at 
Paris  in  1864-5;  entered  the  army  in  1869, 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Sedan,  and  fought 
against  the  Commune,  after  which  he  came 
to  England  as  a  correspondent ;  was  French 
master  at  St.  Paul's  school  from  1876  to 
1884,  and  lectured  in  England  and  America. 
He  has  written  John  Bull  et  son  lie,  Les 
Filles  de  John  Bull,  etc. 

Maxwell,  James  Clerk,  F.R.S.  (b.  1831,  d. 
1879),  physicist,  bom  at  Kirkcudbright ; 
after  being  second  wrangler  and  Smith's 
prizeman,  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  at  Aberdeen,  and  of  phj^sics 
and  astronomy  at  King's  College  (1860-8). 
In  1871  he  was  elected  professor  of  physics 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  made  numerous 
researches,  resulting  in  The  Kinetic  Theory 
of  Gases,  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  etc. 

Maxwell,  Mrs.     [_See  Braddon.] 

Maxwell,  William  Hamilton  {b.  1795,  d. 
1850),  Irish  writer  ;  author  of  a  Life  of  the 
Dtihe  of  Wellington  and  several  novels. 

Maxwell,  Sir  William  StirUng-  {b.  1818,  d. 
1878),  Scottish  writer  (assumed  the  name  of 
Maxwell  in  1866),  son  of  Mr.  Archibald 
Stirling,  of  Keir,  Perthshire  :  after  gradu- 
ating at  Cambridge,  travelled  in  France  and 
Spain,  and  represented  Perthshire  as  a  Con- 
servative for  several  years.  Married  Hon. 
Mrs.  Norton  in  1877.  His  chief  works  were 
Annals  o/"  the  Artists  of  Spain,  and  The 
CM  ster  Life  of  Ch  arles  V.   He  died  at  Venice. 

May,  George  Augustus  Chichester  {b. 
1815),  Irish  judge,  educated  at  Shrewsbuiy 
and  Cambridge  ;  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar 
in  1844,  was  law  adviser  of  the  Crown  in 
Ireland  1874-5,  and  Attorney -General  from 
then  till  1877,  when  he  became  Lord  Chief 
Justice  of  Ireland. 

May,  Thomas  (J.1594,  d.  1650),  English  his- 
torical writer ;  after  having  been  favoured 
by  Charles  I. ,  became  secretary  and  histori- 
ographer to  the  Long  Parliament,  and 
wrote  History  of  the  Parliament  of  England. 

May,  Sir  Thomas  ErsMne,  Right  Hon. 
{b.  1815,  d.  1886),  historian;  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1838,  and  became  clerk  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1871.  He  wrote  ^ 
Treatise  on  the  Latvs,  Privileges,  Proceedings, 
and  Usage  of  Parliament,  The  Constitutional 
History  of  England  from  1760  to  1860,  and 
several  other  works,  and  was  created  a  peer 
(Baron  Famborough)  a  few  days  before  hif 
death. 


May 


(550-) 


Maz 


Mayenne,  Chai-les  de  Lorraine,  Due  de  (b. 
I5i)i,  d.  kill),  French  politician,  son  of 
rraii9ois,  Due  de  Guise ;  became  head  of 
the  Catholic  League  on  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Henri,  in  I088 ;  was  defeated  at 
Arques  and  Ivxy  by  Henri  de  Navarre,  and 
defended  Paris  against  him  ;  convoked  the 
States -General  in  1593,  but  three  years  after 
submitted  to  his  rivad  as  Henri  lY.,  and 
dissolved  the  League. 

Mayer,  Johann  Simon  (b.  1763,  d.  1845), 
German  musician,  bom  in  Bavaria,  but 
lived  chiefly  in  Italy,  where  he  composed 
Medea,  Misteri  Eleusini,  and  other  operas. 

Mayer,  Johann  Tobias  {b.  1723,  d.  1762), 
German  astronomer  ;  taught  himself  mathe- 
matics, and  made  machines  at  the  age  of 
fourteen ,  was  made  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Gbttingen  in  1750,  and  prepared 
longitudinal  tables  for  use  at  sea,  for  which 
his  widow  received  £3,000  from  the  Enghsh 
Government.  He  also  invented  the  repeat- 
ing circle.  His  son  {d.  1830)  was  author  of 
Jtesearches  in  Heat. 

Mayer,  Julius  Robert  von  {b.  1814,  d. 
1878),  German  physicist;  after  walking  the 
hospitals  in  Munich  and  Paris,  embarked 
as  ship's  surgeon  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company.  After  his  return  he 
elaborated  his  observations,  and  in  1845  pub- 
lished Organic  Movement  in  Connection  with 
the  Transformation  of  Matter.  Among  his 
other  works  were  Remarks  on  the  Mechanical 
Equivalent  of  Heat,  Die  Mechanik  der  TFdrine, 
etc.    His  mind  was  at  times  affected. 

Mayliew,  Henry  {b.  1812,  d.  1887),  EngUsh 
writer  ;  author  of  London  Labour  and  the 
London  Foor,  The  Mormons,  and  other 
works  ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Punch, 

Maynard,  Sir  John  {b.  1602,  d.  1690), 
English  lawyer ;  was  manager  of  the  prose- 
cutions of  Strafford  and  Laud,  but  after 
this  withdrew  from  political  hfe ;  became 
king's  Serjeant  at  the  Restoration,  and  was 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  many  years, 
being  made  Commissioner  of  the  Great  Seal 
after  the  abdication  of  James  II.,  when 
nearly  ninety  years  old. 

Mayo,  Richard  Southwell  Bourke,  Earl  of 
(b.  1822,  d.  1872),  statesman,  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin;  entered  Parliament 
as  Conservative  in  1847,  and  as  Lord  Naas 
(from  1849)  continued  to  sit  in  the  Commons 
till  1867,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage. 
He  was  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  three 
times  under  Lord  Derby,  and  under  Disraeli, 
till  in  1868  he  became  Governor-General 
of  India,  while  serving  in  which  capacity, 
though  universally  respected  and  highly  suc- 
cessful, he  was  assassinated  by  a  Punjab 
fanatic  whilst  visiting  the  convict  settle- 
laeut  in  the  Andaman  Islands. 


Mayor,  John  Eyton  Bickersteth  (b.  1825), 
English  scholar,  bom  in  Ceylon,  and  edu- 
cated at  Slirewsbury  and  St.  John's,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  he  became  fellow  in  1849  ; 
was  university  librarian  from  1863  to  1867, 
and  was  elected  professor  of  Latin  in  1872. 
Among  his  works  are  an  edition  of  Juvenal. 
'Two  Lives  of  Nicholas  Ferrar,  and  Roger 
Ascham's  Schoolmaster, 

Mazarin,  Giulio,  Cardinal  (b.  1602,  d. 
1661),  French  statesman,  of  Italian  birth. 
After  being  in  the  diplomatic  service  of 
Spain,  he  came  to  France  in  1634  as  nimeio- 
extraordiuary  of  the  pope,  and,  having  been 
favoured  by  Richelieu,  joined  him  five 
years  later  in  opposition  to  the  papacy,  and 
became  naturalised  in  France.  In  1641  he 
was  created  cardinal,  and,  having  succeeded 
to  the  place  of  Richelieu  soon  after,  sup- 
ported Anne  of  Austria,  and  after  having 
twice  been  exiled  by  his  enemies'  influence, 
was  recalled  by  Louis  XIV.  iu  1653,  and 
remained  supreme  till  his  death.  He  had  a 
share  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  and 
negotiated  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees 
between  France  and  Spain. 

Mazel,  Abraham  (d.  1710),  a  Frenchman, 
chief  of  the  Camisards,  whose  revolt  in  the 
Cevennes  he  organised  ;  after  his  defeat  he 
escaped  from  prison,  but,  having  engaged 
in  a  fresh  revolt,  was  killed. 

Mazeppa,  Ivan  Stefanovitch  (b.  1644,  d. 
1709),  Cossack  hetman  ;  for  an  intrigue  with 
the  wife  of  a  Pohsh  noble  is  said  to  have 
been  bound  to  a  wild  horse  by  his  master, 
and  preserved  by  the  Cossacks,  among 
whom  he  found  himself ;  afterwards  served 
Peter  the  Great,  but  deserted  him  for 
Charles  XII.,  on  whose  defeat  he  took 
poison. 

Mazzinghi,  Joseph  (b.  1765,  d.  1844),  Eng- 
hsh  musician  of  Corsican  family,  was  pupil 
of  J.  Christoph  Bach,  and  an  organist  at 
ten ;  became  director  of  music  at  the  King's 
Theatre  in  1784,  and  had  the  (then)  Princess 
of  Wales  among  his  pianoforte  pupils.  The 
trio  Ye  Shepherds  Tell  .Sfewashis  only  com- 
position of  mark. 

Mazzini,  Giuseppe  (b.  1805,  d.  1872), 
Italian  patriot,  son  of  a  professor  at  Genoa, 
joined  but  abandoned  the  Carbonari ;  was 
arrested  in  1830  by  the  Sardinian  govern- 
ment, and  confined  at  Savona;  went  to 
France  after  his  release,  and  from  Mar- 
seilles organised  "  La  Giovine  Italia"  (the 
Young  Italy  party),  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Switzer- 
land ;  carried  on  at  Geneva  a  cosmopolitan 
agitation,  and  was  expelled  in  1836  by  the 
Swiss  government,  after  which  he  came  to 
London.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
again  went  to  Italy,  served  under  Gari- 
baldi, and  on  the  flight  of  Pius  IX.  became 


Maz 


(  551  ) 


Med 


a  member  of  the  Triumvirate.  The  coming 
of  the  French,  however,  compelled  him  to 
return  to  England ;  but  from  London  he 
organised  more  than  one  rising.  In  the 
events  of  1859-60  he  did  not  concur,  and 
when  elected  to  the  Italian  parliament 
refused  to  sit.  He  also  in  1866  refused  his 
pardon.  In  1869  and  1870  he  vainly 
attempted  to  excite  fresh  revolts,  and  died 
at  Pisa  in  1872.  He  wrote  much,  chiefly 
political  and  social  pamphlets,  which  were 
collected  by  Safii  in  ten  volumes. 

Mazzolini,  Ludovico,  "  U  Ferrarese"  (b, 
1481,  d.  1530),  Italian  painter,  pupil  of 
Lorenzo  Costa.  Three  of  his  pictures  are  in 
the  National  Gallery,  but  his  best,  Christ 
Disputing  with  the  Doctors,  is  at  Berlin. 

Mazzuchelli,  Ker  Francesco,  "  il  Moraz- 
zone"  (i.  1571,  d.  1622),  painter,  bom  at 
Morazzone,  in  the  Milanese  ;  became  an 
imitator  of  Tintoretto  and  Titian.  Fine 
altar-pieces  by  him  are  at  Milan  and  in  the 
Chartreuse  at  Paris. 

Mazzuoli,  Francesco.     \_See  Parmigianc] 

Mazzuoli,  Giuseppe,  "il  Bastaruolo"  (d. 
1589),  Italian  painter  of  the  Famese  school, 
pupil  of  Dossi ;  was  drowned  while  bathing. 
His  pictures  are  in  the  cathedral  and 
churches  of  Ferrara. 

Meade,  George  Gordon  (5.  1815,  rf._1872), 
American  general ;  after  serving  in  the 
Mexican  army,  commanded  for  the  Federals 
in  the  Civil  war,  superseding  Butterfield  in 
1863  on  the  Potomac.  He  also  commanded 
at  Gettysburg,  and  afterwards  served  under 
Grant,  and  at  his  death  was  at  the  head  of 
the  Atlantic  division. 

Meagher,  Thomas  Francis  (3.1823,(^.1867), 
Irish  agitator,  "  Meagher  of  the  Sword," 
was  bom  at  Waterf ord ;  as  a  member  of  the 
Young  Ireland  party  denounced  O'Connell, 
and  in  1848  was  tried  and  condemned  to 
death  for  participation  in  the  Ballingarry 
rising,  but  the  sentence  was  conunuted  to 
transportation.  Having  escaped  from  Van 
Diemen's  Land  in  1852,  he  lectiired  in 
America,  and  was  called  to  the  New  York 
bar  in  1855.  During  the  Civil  war  he 
raised  and  commanded  an  Irish  brigade  for 
the  North,  and  had  been  acting-governor  of 
Montana  for  two  years  when  he  was 
drowned  in  the  Missouri  at  Fort  Benton. 

Mecherino.     [See  Beccafumi.] 

MecM,  John  Joseph  {b.  1802,  d.  1880), 
British  agriculturist,  son  of  a  naturaUsed 
Italian  ;  set  up  as  a  cutler,  and  patented  a 
razor  strop.  Having  bought  some  land  in 
Essex,  he  tried  upon  it  with  success  deep 
drainage  and  steam-power,  and  wrote 
several  works  descriptive  of  his  improve- 
ments (JSoto  to  Farm   Profitably,  etc.).     In 


1856  he  became  sheriff  of  London,  in  whict 
year  he  also  received  a  testimonial  from 
agriculturists.  The  difBculties  of  his  later 
years  were  not  due  to  failure  in  farming. 

I      Meckel,   Johann    Friedrich    {b.    1781,  d. 

!  1833),  held  several  professorships  at  Halle; 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  teratology,  and 

'  wrote  several  works  on  comparative  ana- 
tomy,  Handbuch  der  Tathologischen  Ana- 

\  tomie,  etc. 

Mede,  or  Mead,  Joseph  {b.  1586,  <f.  1638), 
EngUsh  theologian,  professor  of  Greek  at 
Cambridge,  and  author  of  Clovis  Apoca- 
lyptica. 

Medici,  Grand  Dukes  of  Tuscany : — 

Cosmo  I.  (b.  1519,  d.  1574),  a  descendant 
of  Cosimo  de'  Medici ;  became  duke  in 
1537,  and  was  created  Grand  Duke  by  Pope 
Pius  V.  in  1569.  He  acquired  Sienna,  and 
re-established  the  university  of  Pisa  and  the 
Laurentiau  Ubrary. 

Francesco  I.  (b.  1541,  d.  1587),  son  of 
Cosimo,  whom  he  succeeded ;  ruled  tyran- 
nically, and  quarrelled  with  France,  Venice, 
and  Genoa ;  was  assassinated  with  Bianca 
Capello,  and  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  Car 
dinal  Francesco. 

Cosimo  II.  [b.  1590,  d.  1621),  succeeded 
Ferdinando  I.  in  1609,  and  aided  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  III.  in  his  war  with 
the  Turks.  He  was  succeeded  by  Fer- 
dinando II. 

Cosimo  III.  [b.  1642,  d.  1723),  succeeded 
Ferdinando  II.  in  1670 ;  made  an  unhappy 
marriage  with  Marguerite  Louise  d'Orleans, 
who,  united  with  his  son,  caused  him  great 
trouble. 

Giovanni,  or  Giangastajbe  {d.  1737),  was 
the  last  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  which,  by 
the  Treaty  of  Seville,  passed  to  Francis  of 
Lorraine. 

Medici,  Alessandro  [b.  1510,  d.  1537), 
natural  son  of  Lorenzo,  or  of  Clement  VII.  ; 
was  expelled  in  1527,  but  restored  by 
Charles  V.  three  years  later,  and  created 

I   duke  or  doge  in  1532 ;  was  assassinated  by 

I  Lorenzino  in  1537. 

Medici,  Cattarina  dei  (*.  1519,  d.  1589), 
Queen  of  France,  daughter  of  Lorenzo, 
Duke  of  Urbino;  married  Henri  II.,  when 
Duke  of  Orleans  (1533),  after  whose  death 
she  was  regent  for  their  sons,  Francis  II. 
and  Charles  IX.,  over  whom  she  exercised 
great  influence.  Her  great  aim  was  to  hold 
the  balance  between  the  Guises  and  the 
Huguenots,  and  her  hostility  to  the  latter 
has  been  much  exaggerated. 

Medici,  Cosimo  (the  Elder)  (b.  1389,  d. 
1464),  called  "  Padre  della  Patria,"  headed 
the  popular  party  against  the  Albizzi,  and 
aiter  his  return  from  exile  became  real 
ruler  of  Florence,  where  he  was  a  great 


aHed 


(652) 


Meh 


patron  of  literature  and  art,  and  established 
a  library.  His  son,  Pietro  (</.  14G9),  though 
secure  in  his  position,  vras  not  a  successful 
ruler. 

Medici,  Giovanni  {b.  1360,  d.  1428),  son  of 
Salvestro,  and  founder  of  the  greatness  of 
his  family  ;  served  Florence  as  a  dii^lomatist, 
and  became  gonfaloniere  in  1421.  He  made 
a  large  fortune  as  a  banker. 

Medici,  Giuliano  (the  Yoimger)  (Jb.  1478, 
d.  1516),  brother  of  Pietro ;  returned  to 
Florence  by  the  help  of  the  Spaniards  in 
1512,  and  became  chief  of  the  state,  after 
which  he  continued  subject  to  the  Papacy, 
now  in  the  hands  of  his  brother,  Leo  X. 

Medici,  Lorenzo,  "ilMagnifico"  {b.  1448, 
d,  1492),  son  of  Pietro,  became  dominant  in 
Florence  after  the  suppression  of  the  Pazzi, 
by  whom  his  brother,  Giuliano,  had  been 
murdered  (1478).  His  alliance  with  Venice 
and  Milan  excited  the  jealousy  of  the 
Papacy,  and  Sixtus  TV.  excommunicated 
Florence  on  his  account.  He  was  recon- 
ciled, however,  with  Innocent  VIII.,  and 
his  son,  Giovanni,  was  made  cardinal.  He 
was  a  great  patron  and  collector  of  manu- 
scripts. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  (the  Younger),  son  of 
Pietro ;  ruled  in  Florence  from  1513,  and 
was  created  Duke  of  Urbino  in  1516. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  di  Pier  Francesco,  or 
Lorenzino  (d.  1548),  related  to  Alessan- 
dro,  and  called  "the  Tuscan  Brutus" 
for  his.murder  of  him  ;  was  killed  at  Venice 
by  order  of  the  Grand  Duke  Cosimo  I. 

Medici,  Pietro  (the  Younger)  {b.  1471,  d. 
1503),  son  of  Lorenzo  ;  was  educated  by 
Politian,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1492, 
but  ruled  badly,  and,  having  surrendered 
Florence  to  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  city  (1494).  After 
an  unsuccessful  attempt,  three  years  later, 
to  seize  it,  he  joined  the  French  at  Naples, 
and  was  drowned  in  the  Garigliano  in 
1503. 

Medina,  Sir  John  Baptist  (b.  1659,  d.  1711), 
Belgian  portrait-painter  ;  came  to  London  in 
1686,  and  was  knighted  in  Scotland.  His 
portrait  of  himself  is  in  the  Florence  gal- 
lery, and  in  the  Surgeons'  Hall  at  Edin- 
burgh there  are  paintings  by  him. 

Meding,  Oskar  {b.  1829),  German  novelist 
("  Gregor  Samarow")  ;  was  for  some  time 
a  Prussian  administrator,  but  in  1859 
entered  the  service  of  Hanover,  accompany- 
ing the  king  to  Frankfort  in  1863.  After  the 
deposition  of  the  king  he  took  no  further 
part  in  affairs,  and  finally  settled  at  Berlin. 
His  chief  works  are  For  'Sceptre  and  Crown, 
a  romance  (1872-6),  Heights  and  Depths 
(1879-80),   and  others,    under    his    nom  de 


plume,  as  well  as  Memorien  ziir  Zeit- 
geschtchte,  A  Biography  of  William  J., 
Umperor,  etc. ,  under  his  own  name. 

Medlicott,  Henry  Benedict  (b.  1829),  Irish 
geologist,  educated  in  France,  and  at  Trbiity 
College,  Dublin;  was  elected  F.R.S.  in 
1877,  and  received  the  Woolaston  medal  in 
1888.  He  was  engaged  in  the  Irish,  English, 
and  Indian  geological  surveys,  and  was 
director  of  the  Geological  Society  of  India 
from  1876  to  1887.  His  works  include  A 
Manual  of  the  Geology  of  India,  papers  iu 
the  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society 
(Indian),  records  of  the  survey,  and  Ag- 
nosticism and  Faith  (1888). 

Meel,  Jan  (J>.  1599,  d.  1664),  Flemish 
painter,  pupil  of  Andrea  Sacchi,  and  one  of 
the  first  painters  of  secular  subjects,  his 
best  works  being  hunting-pieces  executed 
for  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 

Meer,  Jan  Van  der,  or  Meeren,  "the 
Old"  (Jb.  1627,  d.  1691),  Flemish  painter, 
bom  at  Schoonhoven,  his  chief  subjects 
having  been  sea-pieces  and  battle-pieces. 

Meer,  Jan  Van  der,  "the  Younger"  (Jb. 
1665,  d.  1698),  Flemish  painter,  perhaps  a 
son  of  the  last-named  ;  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Berghem,  and  is  considered  his 
best  pupil.  He  is  sometimes  known  as  De 
Jonghe. 

Meer  Allum  {d.  1809),  mioister  of  the 
Nizam  ;  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Mahrattas 
after  the  battle  of  Kvu-dla,  and  after  his 
release  made  treaties  with  Lord  Wellesley 
against  them.  A  reservoir  near  Hyderabad 
was  made  by  him,  and  his  family  have 
become  hereditary  prime  ministers. 

Meer  Cassim  became  Nabob  of  Bengal 
on  the  deposition  of  Meer  Jaffier  in  1760, 
having  to  cede  three  provinces  for  the 
office.  He  afterwards  raised  an  army 
against  the  English,  and  allied  himself  with 
the  Vizier  of  Oude,  but  was  defeated  by 
Hector  Munro,  and  disappeared  soon  after. 

Meer  Jaffier,  Subadar  of  Bengal  (d. 
1765),  created  nawab  by  Clive  after  the 
battle  of  Plassey,  when  he  had  deserted 
Suraja  Doula  and  joined  the  English  ;  was 
deposed  in  1760,  but  reinstated  after  the 
rebellion  of  Meer  Cassim,  his  son-in-law. 

Meer  Joomba  (d.  1662),  Mahometan 
general  and  statesman,  of  humble  birth ; 
after  having  been  a  diamond  merchant  at 
Golconda,  became  prime  minister  there, 
and  was  subsequently  grand-vizier  at  Delhi 
under  Aumngzebe. 

Mehemed  (Ahmohade  dynasty)  (d.  1213), 
succeeded  Yakub  Almansur  in  1199  as  ruler 
of  Spain  and  North  Africa ;  proclaimed  war 
against  the   Christians    in    1209,   and    wa» 


Meh 


{  553) 


Mel 


defeated  at  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa  three 
years  later  by  the  kings  of  Castile,  Aragon, 
and  Navarre. 

Mehemed  I.,  Ominiad  Khalif  of  Spain 
{b.  822,  ci.  866),  succeeded  Abderahinan  II. 
in  852  ;  carried  on  iinsuccessf  ul  wars  with 
Alfonso  III.  of  Leon. 

Mehemed  IL  (d.  1010),  usurped  the  throne 
in  lOO'J,  but  was  next  year  deposed  and 
beheaded. 

Mehemed  III.  (d.  1025),  dethroned  and 
killed  Abderahman  V.  in  1024,  but  was 
deposed  and  poisoned  soon  after. 

Mehemed  All  (Mohammed  Ah),  Pasha  of 
Egypt  (3.  1769,  d.  1849),  Albanian  by  birth; 
went  to  Egypt  to  support  Abercromby 
agamst  the  Erench,  and  some  years  after- 
wards (1805)  assumed  the  government 
in  defiance  of  the  Turkish  pasha.  He 
treacherously  massacred  the  Mamelukes 
both  in  1805  and  1811,  conquered  Nubia 
and  Arabia,  and  assisted  the  sultan  against 
the  Greeks,  while  he  also  reformed  the 
Egyptian  administration.  After  the  Greek 
war  he  rebelled  against  the  sultan,  and 
his  son  Ibrahim  conquered  SjTia  in 
1831.  However,  the  European  Powers 
interfered  when  he  claimed  hereditary 
rights,  and,  though  the  pasha  treacherously 
obtained  possession  of  the  Turkish  fleet  in 
1839,  he  was  driven  out  of  Syria  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  when  the  EngUsh  took  Acre, 
and  compelled  him  by  treaty  to  recognise 
the  suzerainty  of  the  sultan  in  Egypt.  He 
became  imbecile  a  year  before  his  death. 

Mehemet  All  Pasha  {b.  1827,  d.  1878), 
Turkish  general  and  statesman,  of  German 
birth  (Charles  Detroit) ;  deserted  the  Meck- 
lenburg merchant-service,  and  became  a 
Mahometan  at  Constantinople  He  served 
under  Omar  Pasha  in  the  Crimean  war, 
became  pasha  in  1867,  and  in  1873  sup- 
pressed the  brigands  on  the  Greek  frontier. 
He  was  commander-in-chief  during  part  of 
the  Russo-Turkish  war,  and  was  Turkish  , 
plenipotentiary  at  the  Berlin  Congress,  but  I 
was  assassinated  in  Albania  in  the  same 
year. 

Mehemed  AsMa  {b.  1462,  d.  1537),  Sultan 
of  Timhuctoo  :  formed  the  whole  of  the 
Soudan  into  a  Mahometan  state. 

M^hul,  fiticnne  Nicolas  {b.  1763,  d.  1817), 
Belgian  musician,  pupil  of  Gluck  at  Paris ; 
composed  Joseph,  an  oratorio,  J-Aiphrosine  et 
Coradin,  and  several  other  operas,  besides 
Betting  several  republican  songs,  Le  Chant 
dti  Depart,  etc. 

MeUhac,  Henri  (b.  1832),  French  dra- 
matist, collaborated  vrith  L.  Halevy. 

Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest  (fi.  1813, 


d.  1891),  painter,  born  at  Lyons;  attracted 
attention  by  his  Little  Messenger  in  1836, 
and  continued  to  exhibit  at  the  Paris  Salon 
for  many  years;  his  best  pictures  dis- 
tmguished  for  minute  detail  being  the 
JSapoleon  Cycle,  among  which  the  picture 
called  1814  was  sold  in  1887  for  the  highest 
price  ever  obtained  during  an  artist's  Ufe- 
time  (£34,000).  An  exhibition  of  his  works 
was  held  m  Paris  in  1884,  and  was  largely 
attended,  Meissonier  served  in  the  Itahan 
campaign  and  the  early  part  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  and  was  colonel  at  the  siege 
of  Paris. 

Mela,  Pomponius  (1st  century),  Eoman 
geographer,  perhaps  identical  with  Aniiffius 
Mela  mentioned  in  Tacitus  and  Pliny  as  a 
conspirator  against  Nero;  was  bom  in 
Spam,  and  wi-ote  De  Situ  Orbis.  which  has 
been  many  times  translated  (into  English  by 
Arthur  Golding  in  1585). 

Melancthon,  Philip  (b.  1497,  d.  1560), 
German  reformer ;  studied  under  Reuchlin, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at 
Wittemberg  at  an  early  age,  thus  becoming 
acquainted  with  Luther.  He  drew  up  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  of  which  he  sent  a 
copy  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
inviting  his  adhesion  ;  and  by  his  moderation 
as  well  as  his  writings  (Loci  Communes  'Iheo- 
loffici,  etc.)  did  much  to  help  the  refor- 
mation. Melancthon  is  the  Greek  form  of 
Schwarzerd  (  =  black  earth). 

Melbourne,  William  Lamb,  second  Vis- 
count {b.  1779,  d.  1848),  British  statesman, 
educated  at  Cambridge  and  Glasgow  Uni- 
versities; was  called  to  the  bar  in  1804,  and 
entered  Parliament  in  the  following  year  as 
a  supporter  of  Fox.  He  was  Chief  Secretary 
for  Ireland  under  Canning  in  1827,  and, 
having  succeeded  to  the  peerage,  was  Home 
Secretary  under  Earl  Grey  from  1830  to 
1834,  in  which  year  he  became  Premier. 
After  a  few  months  in  Opposition,  he  again 
held  that  position  tiU  1841,  but  from  that 
year  took  httle  further  part  in  affairs.  His 
brother,  a  diplomatist  of  some  distinction, 
who  had  been  created  Baron  Beauville  in 
1839,  succeeded  as  third  viscount  (d.  1853). 

MeleMades,  or  Miltiades,  Saint  (d.  314), 
was  elected  pope  in  311,  and  condemned  the 
Donatists  in  313. 

Melchthal,  Arnold  von  {d.  1317),  Swiss 
patriot  ;  by  the  conspiracy  of  Griitli  pre- 
pared the  way  for  "Wilhelm  Tell,  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  the  movement  being  cruelty 
inflicted  on  the  elder  Melchthal  by  the 
Austrians. 

Meldola,  Raphael  (b.  1849),  chemist,  of 
Jewish  descent,  grandson  of  a  chief  rabbi 
of  the  pame  name ;  was  sent  by  the  Royal 
Society  in  1875  in  charge  of  the  Nicobar 


Mel 


(554) 


Mel 


Island  expedition  to  observe  the  total 
eclipse.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
chemistry  iu  the  Finsbury  Technical  College 
in  1SS5,  and  elected  F.R.S.  iu  1886.  His 
chief  works  are  Inorganic  Chemistry,  an 
annotated  translation  of  Weismann's  Theory 
of  Descent,  and  a  Report  on  the  East  Anglian 
earthquake  of  1884. 

Melek  Chah,  surnamed  Djelal  Eddyn  (d. 
1093),  Seljukide  Sultan  of  Persia ;  founded 
an  observatory  at  Bagdad,  and  built  many 
towns  throughout  lujs  empire,  which  he 
greatly  extended. 

Melek  el  Adel  {b.  1143,  d.  1218),  Sultan 
of  Egypt  and  Damascus,  and  younger 
brother  of  Saladin,  to  whom  he  was  of  great 
assistance  in  his  struggle  with  the  Cru- 
saders. By  a  treaty  with  Richard  I.  he 
was  to  have  married  that  king's  sister,  but 
she  refused  her  consent,  and  in  1217  he 
■was  defeated  and  carried  to  Damietta  by 
Andrew  II.  of  Hungary. 

Melek  el  Afdahl  {d.  1225),  King  of  Damas- 
cxis  and  Jerusalem ;  succeeding  his  father 
Saladin,  having  previously  annihilated  a 
body  of  TempIai-3  near  Tiberiaa,  was  de- 
posed by  his  brother. 

Melek  el  Kamel  (Meledin)  {d.  1239),  son 
of  El  Adel,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Egypt ;  was  obliged  to  cede 
Jerusalem  to  the  Emperor  Frederick  II., 
whom  he  had  called  in  to  help  him  against 
his  brother ;  was  a  great  patron  of  science 
and  art,  and  built  the  grand  college  at 
Caii'O. 

Melek  el  Moadham  Touran  Cbah  {d.  12-50), 
brother  of  Meledin,  whom  he  assassinated 
and  succeeded ;  defeated  the  Crusaders  under 
St.  Louis,  but  afterwards  alienated  the 
Mamelukes,  and  ended  by  his  fall  the  dy- 
nasty of  Ayoub. 

Melendez  Valdez  {b.  1753,  d.  1817),  Span- 
ish  poet,  founder  of  the  Salamanca  school ; 
was  professor  of  philosophy  in  that  imiver- 
sity,  and  subsequently  obtained  several 
regal  offices ;  was  exiled  on  the  fall  of 
Jovellanos,  and,  though  restored  by  the 
revolution  of  Aranjuez,  died  in  great  poverty 
at  Montpellier.  Among  his  poems  were 
odes  to  Truth  and  Winter. 

Melho,  Philip  de  {h.  1723,  d.  1790),  Cinga- 
lese, the  first  who  was  converted,  preached 
in  Dutch,  Portuguese,  and  Tamil,  and 
translated  into  the  latter  dialect  the  New 
Testament  and  part  of  the  Old. 

Meli,  Giovanni  {b.  1740,  d.  1815),  Sicilian 
poet,  who  has  been  called  the  modern  Theo- 
critus, his  chief  works  (some  of  which  have 
been  translated  into  EngUsh  and  German) 
being  La  Fata  Galante,  Bucoliche,  and 
Ekgie,  Epistole,  and  Favole. 


MeUkoff,  Loris,  Count  (6.  1824,  d.  1888), 
Russian  general,  greatly  distinguished  m 
Armenia  during  the  Crimean  war  ;  as  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus,  com- 
pelled the  Turks  to  evacuate  Kars,  and  was 
created  governor  of  Astrakhan  in  1878.  As 
minister  of  the  interior  he  attempted  to 
crush  the  NihiLists  by  repression  mingled 
with  moderate  reforms,  but  resigned  after 
the  assassination  of  the  Tzar  in  1881. 

Melissus  (5th  century  B.C.),  Eleatic  phi- 
losopher, mentioned  by  Aristotle  and  others ; 
commanded  the  Samian  fleet  against  Athena 
in  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

Mellon,  Harriet  {d.  1837),  English  actress ; 
played  Lydia  Languish  at  Drury  Lane  in 
1795,  and  ten  years  later  made  a  gi-eat  hit 
as  Violante  in  The  Honeymoon.  In  1815 
she  married  Mr.  Coutts,  the  banker,  and 
retired  from  the  stage.  Her  second  husband 
was  the  Duke  of  St.  Albans.  The  bulk  of 
her  property  was  left  to  the  present  Baroness 
Burdett- Coutts. 

Melloni,  Macedonio  (J.  1798,  d,  1854), 
Italian  physicist ;  lived  in  exile  for  many 
years  on  account  of  his  liberal  opinions,  but 
on  his  return  to  Italy  became  professor  of 
physics  at  Naples  and  director  of  the  Vesu- 
vius observatory.  He  discovered  "  diather- 
mancy "  (transmission  of  heat). 

Melmoth,  WilUam  (J.  1710,  d.  1799),  Eng- 
lish scholar  ;  pubUshed  in  1747  a  translation 
of  the  Letters  of  Pliny,  and  afterwards  those 
of  Cicero.  Ilis  father  {d.  1743)  was  the 
author  of  the  once  popular  work,  Tlte  Im- 
portance of  a  Religions  Life. 

Melozzo,  or  Melozzi  da  Forii  {Jl.  eirca 
1470),  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school,  dis- 
tinguished as  one  of  the  earliest  masters  of 
perspective.  One  of  his  best  pictures,  The 
Ascension,  is  in  the  Quirinal,  having  been 
removed  thither  from  the  vault  of  the  Church 
of  the  Apostles. 

Melvil,  or  Melville,  Sir  James  (i.  1535, 
d.  1607),  Scotch  statesman;  after  serving 
several  foreign  princes,  followed  Mary 
Stewart  on  her  return  to  Scotland,  and 
gave  her  much  sound  advice,  being  also 
entrusted  with  missions  to  the  court  of 
Elizabeth,  which  he  described,  inter  alia,  in 
his  Memoirs. 

Melville,  Andrew  (h.  1545,  d.  circa  1622), 
Scotch  reformer  ;  after  having  been  pro- 
fessor at  Geneva,  returned  to  Scotland, 
where  he  became  principal  of  St.  Andrews. 
Having  been  imprisoned  for  his  opposition 
to  Episcopacy,  he  fled  to  Berwick,  and 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  of  London 
for  similar  proceedings  in  England,  after  his 
liberation  from  which  he  became  a  professor 
at  Sedan. 


Mel 


(555  ) 


Men 


Melville,  George  John  Whyte  (b.  1821,  d. 
1878),  noveUst  and  song  writer;  entered  the 
army  in  1839,  and  retired  ten  years  later, 
but  served  in  the  Turkish  contingent  during 
the  Crimean  war.  Amoug  liis  works  were 
Kate  Coventry,  The  Interpreter,  etc. 

Melville,  Henry  Dundas,  Viscount  {b. 
1740,  d.  1811),  statesman;  held  various 
offices  under  Pitt,  on  whose  resignation  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage.  He  was  im- 
peached, but  acquitted,  on  a  charge  of 
peculation. 

Melzi  d'Eril,  Francesco,  Due  de  Lodi  {b. 
1753,  d.  181(5),  Italian  statesman;  after 
having  been  chamberlain  to  Maria  Theresa, 
became  vice-president  of  the  Italian  re- 
pubhc,  but  retired  into  private  life  on  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon. 

Memling  or  Memlinc,  Hans  {d.  1494), 
Flemish  painter  of  the  school  of  van  Eyck, 
bom  in  or  near  Bruges,  is  said  to  have 
served  Charles  the  Bold  as  soldier  and 
painter.  His  chef-d^wuvre  is  the  Shrine  of 
St.  Ursula  in  St.  John's  Hospital,  Bruges, 
where  he  Uved  some  time  after  the  death  of 
his  patron. 

Memmi,  Sunone  {b.  1284,  d.  1344),  Italian 
painter  in  the  manner  of  Giotto,  born  at 
Sienna,  painted  for  his  friend,  Petrarch,  a 
portrait  of  Laura.  Frescoes  by  his  hand  are 
at  Florence  (Santa  Novella)  and  Pisa,  in 
the  Campo  Santo. 

Menabrea,  Luigi,  Marchese  di  Val-Dora 
(J>.  1809),  ItaUan  general  and  statesman; 
was  employed  diplomatically  by  Charles 
Albert,  and  became  chief  officer  in  the 
ministries  of  war  and  foreign  affairs.  In 
the  war  of  Independence,  as  head  of  the 
engineers,  he  conducted  the  siege  of  Pes- 
chiera,  and  was  present  at  Solferino.  He 
was  made  senator  by  Victor  Emmanuel,  and 
as  heutenant-general  directed  the  operations 
at  Gaeta  and  Capua;  was  minister  of  marine 
in  1861,  and  plenipotentiary  to  Germany  in 
1866.  From  1867  to  1869  he  was  head  of 
the  Italian  government,  and  was  afterwards 
ambassador  in  Vienna,  London,  and  Paris. 
He  was  created  marquis  in  1875. 

Menahem  {d.  761  b.c),  Bang  of  Israel, 
became  tributary  to  Pul,  King  of  Assyria, 
in  771  B.C. 

Menander  (b.  342,  d.  291  b.c),  Athenian 
poet,  founder  of  the  new  school  of  comedy, 
to  which  Plautus  and  Terence  belonged. 
Fragments  only  of  his  works  remain. 

Mendelssohn,  Moses  {b.  1729,  d.  1786), 
German  Jewish  philosopher,  friend  and 
pupil  of  Lessing;  wrote  Phacdo  (1767), 
Letters  on  the  Sensations,  and  other  works. 

Mendelssohn-Bartlioldy,  Felix  {b.  1809, 
d.  1847),  German  musical  composer,  son  of 


a  Hamburg  merchant,  and  grandson  of 
Moses ;  was  educated  by  Zelter  and  Berger, 
and  produced  an  opera  at  eighteen.  Ha 
first  came  to  London  in  1829,  and  after  a 
course  of  travel  became  musical  director  at 
Diisseldorf,  which  he  left  for  Leipzig  in 
1837.  In  1841  he  became  kapellmeister  to 
the  King  of  Prussia,  and  he  was  much  in 
England  from  time  to  time.  His  chief  com- 
positions are  St.  Paul  and  Elijah,  oratorios  ; 
the  Lobgesang  ;  and  Lieder  ohne  Worter. 

Mend^s,  Catulle  {b.  1843),  French  poet, 
bom  at  Bordeaux,  was  fined  and  imprisoned 
for  publishing  when  under  age  ;  afterwards 
wrote  Philomela  (lyrics),  Contes  Epiques, 
Poesies,  and  some  novels — Les  Folies  Amou- 
reuses,  Les  Mires  Ennemies,  Mephistophila, 
etc. 

Mendizabal,  Juan  Alvarez  j  (d.  1853), 
Spanish  statesman  ;  after  the  failure  of  the 
conspiracy  of  1819  came  to  England,  and 
became  a  merchant,  but  returned  to  Spain 
in  1835,  and  was  made  minister  of  finance. 
He  convoked  the  Cortes,  suppressed  the  re- 
maining monasteries,  and  after  a  brief  re- 
tirement resumed  office  till  1837.  From 
1841  to  1843  he  was  again,  under  Espartero, 
finance  minister. 

Mendoza,  Diego  Hurtada  da  (b.  1503,  d, 
1575),  Spanish  statesman  and  writer ;  waa 
governor  of  Siena,  and  ambassador  at 
Rome  under  Charles  V.,  but  was  expelled 
from  court  by  Philip  II.  While  at  Venice 
he  icollected  Greek  MSS.,  which  he  left  to 
the  Escurial,  and  pubhshed  the  first  com- 
plete edition  of  Josephus.  His  chief  original 
works  were  Lazarillo  de  Tonnes,  a  satirical 
romance,  and  La  Guerra  de  Granada. 

Mendoza,  Inigo,  Marques  da  Santillana 
{b.  1398,  d.  1458),  Spanish  poet,  founder  of 
the  Italian  school  of  poetry  ;  distinguished 
himself  in  battle  against  Navarre,  and  wrote 
Comedieta  da  Ponza,  Una  Serranilla,  and 
other  works. 

Mendoza,  Pedro  {d.  1537),  Spanish  cap- 
tain, who  sailed  to  South  Ajnerica  and 
founded  Buenos  Ayres  in  1535,  but  died  on 
the  return  voyage. 

Mendoza,  Pedro  Gonzalez  da  (b.  1428,  d. 
1495),  statesman,  son  of  Inigo,  was  chan- 
cellor of  Castile  and  Leon  in  the  time  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ;  was  called  "  the 
great  cardinal  of  Spain." 

Menedemus  {d.  circa  211  b.o.),  Greek 
philosopher,  founder  of  the  Eretrian  school ; 
is  said  to  have  helped  to  translate  the  Sep- 
tuagint. 

Meng-Tseu  (4th  century  b.c),  Chinese 
philosopher,  grandson  of  Confucius  ;  visited 
the  courts  of  several  princes,  and  wrote  a 
work  called  by  hia  name. 


Men 


(  556  ) 


Mer 


Mengotti,  Francesco.  Conte  {b.  1743,  d. 
1830),  Italian  economist ;  employed  by  the 
Venetian  government  and  Napoleon,  sup- 
ported free  trade  in  com,  and  wrote  a 
treatise  on  hydraulics. 

Mengs,  Anton  Rafael  {b.  1728,  d.  1779), 
German  painter  ;  studied  at  the  Vatican 
under  his  father,  and  was  court-painter  to 
Augustus  of  Saxony,  after  whose  death  he 
was  employed  by  the  King  of  Spain  and 
Clement  XIV.  His  Apollo  and  the  Muses, 
in  the  Villa  Albani,  and  the  Apotheosis 
of  Trajan,  at  Madrid,  are  his  best  works. 
The  altar-piece  at  All  Souls',  Oxford,  is 
by  him. 

Menno,  Simonis  (*.  1496,  d.  1561),  Dutch 
Anabaptist,  founded  the  sect  called  after 
him ;  was  proscribed  by  Charles  V. ,  but 
escaped. 

Menou,  Jacques,  Baron  de  {b.  1750,  d. 
1810),  French  general,  supported  the  revo- 
lution, and  advocated  the  arming  of  the 
National  Guard  ;  after  his  defeat  by  La 
Rophejaquelein  in  La  Vendue  he  was 
cashiered,  and  narrowly  escaped  death  at 
the  hands  of  the  Convention.  Having  ac- 
companied Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  he  took 
the  name  of  Abdallah,  and  became  a  Ma- 
hometan, and,  succeeding  to  the  command 
of  the  French  troops,  was  defeated  by  Aber- 
cromby  in  1804,  after  which  he  returned  to 
France. 

Menschikoff,  Alexander  Danilovitch  (*. 
1672,  d.  I'l'l'J),  Russian  statesman,  by  birth 
a  pastry-cook ;  served  as  aide-de-camp  to 
Peter  the  Great,  and,  among  other  ser- 
vices, won  the  victory  of  Kalisch  (1706) 
over  the  Swedes ;  helped  to  place  on  the 
throne  Catherine  I.,  after  whose  death  he 
was  banished  to  Siberia,  where  he  died, 

Menschikoff,  Alexander  Sergeivitch  {b, 
1789,  d.  1869),  Russian  general,  descendant 
of  last-named ;  entered  the  army  in  1812, 
and  went  through  the  close  of  the  Napo- 
leonic war  as  aide-de-camp ;  was  disgraced 
by  Alexander  I. ,  but  restored  by  Nicholas, 
who  employed  him  against  Persia.  He  was 
wounded  in  Turkey  in  1828,  and  was  am- 
bassador at  Constantinople  at  the  time  of 
the  Crimean  war,  in  which  he  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Russian  forces.  On 
the  death  of  Nicholas  he  retired. 

Mental,  Johann  {d.  1478),  is  said  to  have 
begun  to  print  books  at  Strasburg  in  1458. 

Menzel,  Adolf  Erdmann  (*.  1815),  Ger- 
man pamter,  was  appointed  in  1856  to  a 
professorship  at  the  BerUn  Academy.  His 
chief  subjects  are  drawn  from  the  period  of 
Fredenck  the  Great,  and  include  The  Round 
Table  of  Frederick  the  Great  (1850),  Frederick 
»t  the  Batth  of  Hochkirchen   (1856),    etc. 


Among  his  other  pictures,  of  which  an  ex- 
hibition was  held  at  Paris  in  1885,  may  be 
named  Blucher  and  Wellington  at  Waterloo 
and  The  Modern  Cyclops  (1872-5). 

Menzel,  Wolfgang  (b.  1798,  d.  1873), 
German  critic,  son  of  a  Silesian  doctor  ;  was 
a  leader  of  the  Burschenschaft  movement  at 
Jeua,  which  he  was  obliged  to  leave  after 
the  death  of  Kotzebue.  He  attacked  in  his 
Streckverse  Goethe  and  all  the  great  names 
of  the  preceding  generation,  and  also  Heine 
and  the  leaders  of  the  young  German  group 
of  writers. 

Mercadante,  Saverio  {b.  1797,  d.  1870), 
Italian  composer,  bom  near  Ban ;  was 
maestro  di  capella  at  Novara,  and  after- 
wards director  of  the  Naples  conservatorio. 
His  chief  works  were  VApotheosi  d'Ercole, 
cantata,  Elisa  e  Claudio,  I  Brigantx  (Paris, 
1836),  and  II  Giuramento  (Milan,  1837), 
operas  ;  and  some  opera  bouffes. 

Mercator  (Kremer),  Gerard  {b.  1512,  d. 
1594),  German  geographer;  made  globes 
for  Charles  V. ,  and  the  marine  charts  which 
bear  his  name. 

Mercie,  Marcus  Antoine  {b.  1845),  French 
sculptor,  in  1868  obtained  theprix  de  Rome. 
His  Gloria  Victis  (1874)  was  purchased  by 
the  government,  and  among  his  other  works 
may  be  named  The  Genius  of  the  Arts,  ex- 
hibited in  1877,  the  plaster  model  of  the 
bas-relief  for  Michelet's  tomb  in  P^re  La- 
chaise,  and  a  statue  of  Arago. 

Mercier,  Louis  Sebastien  {fi.  1740,  d.  1814), 
French  writer,  called  ' '  Le  Singe  de  Jean 
Jacques,"  for  his  attacks  on  philosophy  and 
science,  wrote  Tableau  de  Paris  (1781-8), 
Essai  sur  VArt  Dramatique  publier  PAn 
S44O,  and  some  plays  and  novels. 

Meredith,  George  (b.  1828),  novelist  and 
poet,  was  bom  in  Hampshire,  and  edu- 
cated chiefly  in  Germany.  He  left  law  for 
hterature,  publishing  Foems  in  1851,  The 
Shaving  of  Shagpat  (1855),  The  Ordeal  of 
Richard  'Fevere'l  (1859),  E^mn  Harrington 
(186n,  Rhoda  Fleming  (1865),  The  Egoist 
(1879),  Diana  of  the  Crossways  (1885),  and 
One  of  Our  Conquerors  (1891),  besides  several 
volumes  of  poems  and  other  works  of 
fiction. 

Meredith,  Owen.     [See  Lyiton.] 

Merian,  Maria  Sybilla  (*.  1647,  d.  1717), 
Swiss  painter  and  entomologist,  daughter  of 
an  engraver  at  Frankfort  ;  wrote  Histoirt 
des  Insectes  de  VEurope  et  de  PAmerique. 
Many  of  her  drawings  are  in  the  Sloane 
collection,  British  Museum. 

M^rini6e.  Prosper  (b.  1803,  d.  1870), 
French  writer,  and  son  of  the  author  of 
De   la  Peinture  d   riTuile;    he  was  made 


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Met 


inspector-general  of  historic  monuments  in 
1831,  and  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1844. 
He  wi-ote  Le  Tiiidtre  de  Clara  Gazul,  etc., 
a  collection  of  pretended  lUyrian  songs,  La 
Jacquerie,  Un  Chronique  de  Charles  IX., 
Monuments  Ristoriques,  Melanges  His- 
toriques  et  Litteraires,  several  collections  of 
romances,  and  after  his  death  appeared 
Lettres  d  une  Incunnue,  and  Lettres  a  une 
Autre  Inconnue.  He  was  a  strong  Bona- 
partist,  and  in  1853  became  senator  and 
chief  of  the  ministry  of  marine. 

Merivale,  Charles,  D.D.  {b.  1808),  his- 
torian and  divine,  gi-aduated  in  high  honours 
at  Cambridge  in  1830,  and  became  fellow 
of  St.  John's  College.  He  was  chaplain  to 
the  Speaker  from  1863  to  18u9,  and  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Ely  in  that  year. 
Beoides  his  Hoyle  Lectures,  he  published 
Mistory  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire 
(1850-62),  and  General  Mistory  of  Rome 
(1875). 

Merivale,  Herman  [b.  1806,  d.  1874),  his 
brother ;  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Oxford,  where  he  was  fellow  of  BaUiol,  and 
became  professor  of  political  economy  in 
1837.  Having  entered  the  Civil  Service  he 
became  imder-secretary  for  the  Colonies, 
and  afterwards  for  India.  His  chief  works 
were  Historical  Studies  (1868)  and  the  com- 
pletion of  Parkes's  Life  of  Sir  Fhilip 
Francis. 

Merivale,  Herman  Charles  (6.  1839),  dra- 
matist, son  of  last-named,  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1864 ;  edited  the  Annual  Register 
from  1874  to  1880,  and  wrote  All  for  Her, 
The  Cynic,  Fedora  (adaptation),  and  other 
plays,  besides  The  White  Pilgrim  and  other 
volumes  of  verse  and  essays. 

Merlin  de  Donai,  Philippe,  Comte  (A. 
1754,  d.  1838),  French  la^vyer  and  poli- 
tician ;  endeavoTired  to  maintain  the  royal 
authority  during  the  revolution,  but 
acquiesced  in  the  republic,  and  became 
minister  of  justice  in  1795,  and  one  of  the 
directors  in  1797.  Having  been  employed 
by  Napoleon  in  the  compilation  of  the  code, 
he  was  exiled  in  1815,  but  allowed  to  return 
in  1830. 

Merlin  de  Thlonville,  Antoine  {h.  1762,  d. 
1833),  revolutionist,  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  Jacobin  Club  in  1791 ;  defended  Mainz 
against  the  Prussians  1792-3,  tried  to  con- 
ciliate La  "Vendee  in  1793,  and  lost  his 
influence  in  the  Convention  through  his 
moderation. 

Merry,  William  Walter,  D.D.  {h.  1835), 
English  scholar  ;  after  being  fellow  and 
tutor  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  for  many 
years,  succeeded  Mark  Pattison  as  rector  in 
1884,  having  also  been  elected  pu>>lic  orator 
in  1880.    Among  his  editions  of  the  classics 


the  chief  are  Homer's  Odyssey  and  Aristo- 
phanes. 

Merton,  Walter  de  (d.  1277),  English 
statesman ;  was  chancellor  vuider  Henry 
III.  and  Edward  I.,  and  became  Bishop 
of  Rochester  in  1274.  He  founded  (1264) 
Merton  College,  the  first  strictly  collegiate 
foundation  at  Oxford. 

Morula,  Paul  (Van  Merle)  (*.  1558,  d. 
1607),  Dutch  writer,  bom  at  Dort ;  succeeded 
Lipsius  as  professor  of  history  at  Leyden, 
and  wrote  Tresor  des  Temps  and  other 
works. 

Meryon,  Charles  (Jb.  1821,  d.  1868),  French 
etcher,  son  of  an  English  physician  and  a 
ballet-dancer  ;  after  making  a  tour  of  the 
world  in  a  French  corvette,  settled  in  Paris, 
and  produced  Abside  de  Notre  I)anie,  Rue 
des  Mauvais  Garqons,  etc.  Want  of  success 
during  his  lifetime  broke  down  his  reason, 
and  he  died  in  the  Charenton  Asylum. 
After  his  death  his  works  began  to  be 
highly  esteemed. 

Mesmer,  Anton  {b.  1734,  d.  1815),  German 
physician,  bom  at  Merseburg,  Suabia  ;  pub- 
lished at  Vienna  in  1766  his  I)e  Flanetarum 
Injluxu  on  the  supposed  celestial  fluid  ;  went 
to  Paris  in  1778,  and  gained  such  notoriety 
that  a  government  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  his  theories,  Frank- 
lin being  a  member.  The  report  drawn  up 
by  BaiUy  declared  them  to  be  delusions. 

Messalina,  Valeria  {d.  48),  Roman  Em- 
press, notorious  for  her  licentiousness ;  was 
put  to  death  by  her  husband,  Claudius. 

Messenius,  Arnold  {d.  1651),  Swedish 
statesman ;  having  been  imprisoned  for 
fourteen  years  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  waa 
released  and  employed  by  Christina,  but 
conspired  against  her,  and  was  beheaded. 

Messis.     \_See  Matsys.] 

Metastasio  (Trapassi),  Pietro  (A.  1698,  (i, 
1782),  Italian  poet  and  dramatist,  was  edu- 
cated by  Gravina,  the  jurist,  who  left  him 
his  fortune ;  attracted  the  notice  of  Signora 
Bulgarini.  who  sang  in  his  Gli  OrtiEsperidi, 
and  took  him  into  her  house.  At  Rome  he 
produced  Artaserse,  Semiramide,  and  other 
operas.  He  was  afterwards  patronised  by 
Charles  VI.,  and  his  successors,  and  wrote 
L'Olimpiade,  La  Clemenza  di  Tito  (1734), 
and  some  cantatas,  La  Frimavera,  etc. 

Metcalf,  John  {b.  1717,  d.  1810),  though 
blind,  made  surveys  and  roads  for  twenty- 
five  years,  having  previously  served  at 
Culloden. 

Metcalfe,  Sir  Charles  Theophilus  (Lord) 
(J).  1785,  d.  1846).  English  administrator, 
son  of  a  director  of  the  East  India  Company, 
whose  service  he  entered  at  an  early  age. 


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After  fulfilling  a  difficult  mission  to  Eun- 

i'eet  Sing  iu  1808,  and  being  resident  at 
)elhi  and  Hyderabad,  be  became  Governor- 
General  in  1835,  but  his  act  giving  freedom 
to  the  press  was  resented  by  the  Company, 
and  he  returned  next  year  to  England.  A 
few  years  later  he  was  sent  to  Jamaica,  and 
was  Governor-General  of  Canada  from  1843 
till  1845,  when  his  health  obhged  him  to 
retire. 

Metellus,  Quintus  Caecilius  {d.  circa  95 
B.C.),  Roman  general,  called  Numidicus 
from  his  triumph  over  Jugurtha ;  was 
exiled  (100  B.C.)  for  his  opposition  to  Satur- 
ninus,  the  frieud  of  Marius,  but  recalled 
two  years  later.  His  son  {d.  63  B.C.)  was 
consul  with  Sulla  (80  B.C.),  and  afterwards 
the  colleague  of  Pompeius. 

Meteren,  Emmanuel  Van  {*.  1535,  d. 
1615),  Flemish  historian ;  author  of  a.  His- 
tory of  the  Netherlands,  on  which  Motley's 
work  is  largely  based. 

Methodius,  Saint  {d.  circa  900),  Greek 
monk  and  missionary ;  evangelised  Bulgaria 
about  850,  and  Bohemia  some  forty  years 
later,  besides  assisting  in  the  formation  of 
a  Slavonian  translation  of  the  Bible. 

Methuen,  John,  Lord  (d.  1706),  English 
statesman,  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  in 
1697  and  1702.  His  name  is  best  known  by 
the  commercial  treaty  which  he  concluded 
with  Portugal  in  1703. 

Metius,  Jacob  (J>.  1575),  a  Dutchman,  who 
is  said  to  have  invented  refracting  telescopes 
about  1609.  His  brother,  Adrian,  a  dis- 
tinguished astronomer,  took  part  in  the 
defence  of  Alkmaar. 

Meton  (5th  century  B.C.),  Athenian  as- 
tronomer, inventor  of  the  cycle  of  nineteen 
years  which  bears  his  name. 

Mettemich,  Clemens  Wenzel  Nepomuk 
Lothar  Fiirst  von  {b.  1773,  d.  1859),  Austrian 
statesman,  married  a  granddaughter  of 
Kaunitz,  and  after  having  been  ambassador 
at  Dresden,  Berlin,  and  Paris,  became  chan- 
cellor and  foreign  minister  in  1809,  when  he 
made  peace  with  Napoleon,  with  whom  he 
temporised  for  several  years,  attempting  to 
mediate  between  him  and  the  Allies  in  1813. 
At  last  he  took  an  open  part,  but,  at  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  and  afterwards,  con- 
tinued to  oppose  Prussia  and  the  aspirations 
of  the  Liberals.  After  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons  he  organised  the  Holy  Alliance, 
by  which  the  old  Neapolitan  despotism  was 
restored,  and  the  Spanish  constitution  sup- 
pressed. After  1830  he  was  obliged  to  con- 
fine his  efforts  to  Germany,  and  in  1848 
resigned,  and  came  to  England.  He  never 
again  held  office,  though  occasionally  con- 
sulted.    His  son  (J).  1829)  pursued  the  same 


career,  being  sent  on  a  special  mission  to 
Paris  in  1S59,  and  afterwards  representing 
Austria  there. 

Meung,  Jean  de,  or  Jean  Clopinel  (b. 
circa  1250),  French  poet,  author  of  Le  Roman 
de  la  Hose  ;  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of 
Philippe  le  Bel. 

Meyer,  Hans  {b.  1858),  German  tra- 
veller, studied  at  Leipzig,  Berlin,  and 
Strasburg,  where  he  prepared  a  work  on 
the  guild  of  goldsmiths;  joined  his  father 
as  a  pubUsher  at  Leipzig  in  1884,  having 
previously  written  Mne  Weltreise,  an 
account  of  his  travels  in  India  and  the 
PhiUppines.  In  1886  he  went  to  Africa, 
and  travelled  extensively,  being  the  first  to 
ascend  KiUmandjaro,  to  which  he  organised 
an  expedition  in  1888,  but  was  stopped  by 
an  insurrection.  Both  he  and  Baumann, 
his  companion,  were  made  prisoners,  and 
robbed  by  the  Arabs,  and  after  his  release 
he  returned  to  Europe  and  published  Zum 
Schneedom  des  KiUmandjaro.  In  1889  he 
made  a  fresh  expedition,  which  was  success- 
ful, the  great  feature  of  it  being  the  dis- 
covery of  the  first  African  glacier. 

Meyer,  Heinrich  {b.  1759,  d.  1832),  Swiss 
painter  and  writer  on  art ;  was  director  of 
the  Weimar  gallery,  and  a  friend  of  Goethe. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Winckelmann,  and 
wrote  Geschichte  der  Bildenden  Kiinste  be* 
den  Griechen. 

Meyerbeer,  Jacob  (J.  1791,  d.  1864), 
German  musical  composer,  son  of  a  banker 
at  Berlin ;  produced  an  oratorio,  Gott  und 
Die  Natur,  at  Darmstadt,  when  very  young, 
and  in  1813  went  to  Vienna  as  a  pianist. 
He  then  went  to  Italy,  where  he  composed 
II  Crociato  in  Egitto,  which  was  brought 
out  at  Venice.  Chief  among  his  other 
works  are  Robert  le  Diable  (1830),  the  result 
of  two  years'  work,  Zes  Huguenots  (1836), 
Le  Prophete  (1849),  and  Le  Pardon  de 
Ploermel,  or  Dinorah  (1859).  After  his 
death  L'Africaine  was  produced,  the  li- 
bretto of  which  was  written  by  Scribe. 

Meyrick,  Sir  Samuel  Eush  (J.  1783,  d. 
1848),  English  antiquary ;  arranged  the 
armour  in  the  Tower  and  at  Windsor,  and 
published  Engraved  Illustrations  of  Ancient 
Arms  and  Armour,  etc. 

Mezzofanti,  Giuseppe  {b.  1774,  d.  1849), 
Italian  linguist,  bom  at  Bologna,  where  he 
was  for  some  time  professor,  but  afterwards 
went  to  Rome  ;  became  librarian  of  the 
Vatican  and  cardinal.  He  knew  forty- 
eight  languages  and  many  dialects. 

Miall,  Edward  (b.  1809,  d.  1881),  English 
politician  ;  was  a  Congregationalist  min- 
ister until  1841,  when  he  went  to  London; 
founded  the  Nonconformist   and  two  years 


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later  became  the  chief  initiator  of  the  British 
Anti-State-Church  Association,  afterwards 
the  Liberation  Society.  He  represented 
Rochdale  from  1852  to  1857,  and  Bradford 
from  LStJ9  till  1874,  when  he  retii-ed  from 
public  life.  He  wrote  View  of  the  Voluntary 
Principle  and  several  similar  works. 

Miaoulis,  Andreas  {b.  1772,  d.  1835), 
Greekadmiral,  originally  a  merchant;  joined 
the  rising  of  1821,  served  vmder  Cochrane  in 
1826,  and  five  years  later  was  sent  to  offer 
the  crown  of  Greece  to  Otho  of  Bavaria. 

Michael,  the  Grand  Duke  {b.  1832), 
brother  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  II. ;  com- 
manded the  army  of  the  Caucasus  during 
the  war  of  1877-8,  and  became  governor- 
general  afterwards. 

Michael  Angelo.     [See  Michelangelo.] 

Michael  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East  (d.  eirca 
844),  succeeded  Nicephorus  I.  in  811 ;  was 
defeated  by  the  Bulgarians  and  deposed  in 
813,  and  died  in  a  convent. 

Michael  II.  (d.  829),  conspired  against 
Michael  I. ,  and  become  emperor  in  820 ; 
lost  Crete  in  824. 

Michael  III.  {d.  867)  succeeded  Theo- 
philus  in  842,  his  mother,  Theodora,  being 
regent ;  was  notorious  for  his  licentious- 
ness, and  was  murdered  while  in  a  state  of 
intoxication. 

Michael  IV.  [the  Paplagonian]  {d.  1041), 
married  the  Empress  Zoe,  and  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  in  1034 ;  left  the  chief 
power  in  the  hands  of  John  the  Eunuch, 
reconquered  Bulgaria  in  1041. 

Michael  V.  [Calaphates]  (d.  circa  1050), 
succeeded  his  \mcle,  Michael  TV.,  banished 
the  Empress  Zoe,  and  was  afterwards  de- 
throned, and  died  in  a  convent. 

Michael  VI.  [Stratioticus]  {d.  circa  1059), 
having  been  chosen  by  the  Empress  Theo- 
dora, succeeded  her  in  1056,  but  resigned  the 
following  year. 

Michael  VII.  {d.  circa  1090),  son  of  Con- 
stantine  XI. ;  shut  up  his  mother,  Eudoxia, 
the  regent,  in  a  convent  in  1071,  and,  having 
been  much  disturbed  by  rebellions,  abdi- 
cated in  1078,  becoming  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Ephesus. 

Michael  VIII.  [Palseologus]  {*.  1224,  d. 
1282),  having  been  crowned  emperor  at 
Nicaea  with  John  Lascaris,  regained  Con- 
stantinople from  the  Latins  in  1261,  and 
ordered  his  colleague  to  be  blinded,  for 
which  he  was  excommunicated  and  did 
public  penance ;  attempted  to  unite  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Churches  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Lyon  (1274),  and  subsequently  de- 
feated a  French  invasion. 


Michallon,  Achilles  Etna  (*.  1796,  d.  1822), 
French  artist,  pupil  of  David;  received  a 
pension  for  a  picture  painted  at  the  age  of 
twelve.  The  Combat  of  the  Centaurs  and 
Lapithce  is  the  best  knovni  of  his  works. 

Michaud,  Joseph  (b.  1767,  d.  1839),  French 
historian;  conducted  the  Quotidienne ,  a 
royalist  newspaper,  during  the  revolution 
and  after  the  restoration ;  wrote  Histoire  des 
Croisades,  and  with  his  brother  Louis  {d. 
1858)  founded  the  Biographic  Universelle. 

_  Michel,  Louise  {b.  1830),  French  revolu- 
tionist ;  took  an  active  part  with  the  Com- 
mune in  1870,  for  which  she  was  sentenced 
to  transportation  for  life,  but  returned  in 
1880  on  the  proclamation  of  the  amnesty, 
and  was  imprisoned  several  times  afterwards 
for  political  offences.  She  showed  some 
literary  talent,  which  was  recognised  by 
Victor  Hugo. 

Michelangelo  Buonarroti  {b.  1475,  d. 
1564),  ItaUan  painter,  poet,  architect,  and 
sculptor,  was  born  near  Arezzo  and  died  at 
Rome.  His  early  years  were  passed  at 
Florence,  where  he  was  patronised  by 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and  he  worked  in 
Venice  in  1494,  frequently  visiting  Rome 
during  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II.,  after 
whose  death  he  returned  to  Florence.  He 
directed  the  defence  of  the  city  against  the 
Imperialists  in  1529,  and  was  proscribed  at 
its  capture,  and  was  also  employed  in  the 
fortifications  of  Rome,  where  he  lived 
chiefly  after  1533.  His  chief  architectural 
achievement  was  the  plan  for  the  church 
and  dome  of  St.  Peter.  His  best  sculptures 
were  David,  at  Arezzo,  and  Moses,  in  the 
Sistine  chapel,  the  roof  of  which  he  painted. 
Among  his  pictures  the  most  celebrated  is 
The  Last  Judgment  (exhibited  in  1541), 
which  occupied  him  eight  years.  He  wrote 
some  sonnets,  which  have  been  translated 
by  J.  A.  Symonds,  and  a  few  also  by  "Words- 
worth. 

Michelet,  Jules  (b.  1798,  d.  1874),  his- 
torian ;  became  in  1838  professor  of  history 
at  the  College  de  France,  from  which  he  was 
dismissed  by  Napoleon  III.,  and  lived  after- 
wards chiefly  in  Italy.  His  chief  works 
were  a  History  of  France  in  seventeen  vol- 
umes (1833-60),  Histoire  de  la  Herolution 
Frangaise  (1847-53),  several  books  against 
the  Jesuits,  and  ZWisean,  La  Mer,  and 
other  works  on  natural  history.  His  second 
wife  was  a  writer  of  some  ability. 

Michelet,  Karl  Ludwig  (b.  1801),  German 
philosopher,  bom  at  Berlin,  where  he  was 
made  extraordinary  professor  in  1829.  He 
took  an  active  interest  in  the  events  of  1848, 
publishing  several  pamphlets.  In  addition 
to  his  editions  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  and  of 
Hegel's  works  he  wrote  History  of  Man- 
kind's Development  since  1775  (1859),  Hey  el, 


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der  TTnuidtrltffte  Philosoph  (1870),  and 
System  of  Fhilosophy  as  an  Exact  Science 
(1876-81). 

Michelozzi,  Michelozzo  {d.  1470),  Floreu- 
tiue  architect  and  sculptor,  studied  under 
Donatello,  and  designed  for  Cosimo  de' 
Me^lici  the  Palazzo  Riccardi  and  several 
other  buildings,  besides  restoring  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio. 

Mickiewicz,  Adam  {b.  1798,  d.  1855), 
Pohsh  poet;  having  been  exiled  in  1824, 
went  to  Paris,  and  became  professor  of 
Slavonic  in  1839,  but  was  suspended  for 
fanaticism  five  years  later.  His  chief  works 
were  Grnjina,  Bzkidy,  and  Wallenrod. 

MicMe,  WiUiam  Julius  {b.  1734,  d.  1788), 
Scotch  poet ;  having  failed  in  trade,  came  to 
London,  where  he  attracted  the  attention  of 
Lord  Lyttelton,  and  produced  a  translation 
of  Camoen's  Os  Lusiadas,  as  well  as  some 
original  ballads  {Cumnor  Hall,  The  Mariner'' s 
Wife,  etc.). 

Micraelius,  Johannes  (J.  1597,  d.  1658), 
German  writer,  protege  of  Christina  of 
Sweden,  and  author  of  Lexicon  Fhilosophi- 
cum,  etc. 

Middleton,  Conyers,  D.D.  (*.  1683,  d. 
1750),  English  scholar,  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge ;  had  a  lawsuit  with 
Beutley  on  the  subject  of  his  fees  for  the 
doctor's  degree.  His  chief  works  were  A 
Free  Inquiry  into  Miraculous  Powers  (1749), 
and  a  Life  of  Cicero. 

Middleton,  Sir  Hugh  {d.  1631),  mining 
engineer;  when  a  goldsmith  in  London, 
made  the  New  River  from  Amwell  and 
Chadwell  to  London,  for  which  he  was 
knighted  and  afterwards  received  a  baron- 
etcy. He  left  much  property  to  the  Gold- 
smiths' Company. 

Middleton,  John  Henry,  D.C.L.  {b.  1846), 
writer  on  art ;  after  being  educated  in  Italy 
and  at  Oxford,  was  appointed  in  1886  Slade 
professor  at  Cambridge.  His  chief  works 
are  Ancient  Rome  (1885),  and  many  articles 
in  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica  and  art 
journals  in  England  and  Italy. 

Middleton,  Thomas  {d.  1627),  dramatist: 
collaborated  with  Jonson,  Massinger,  and 
other  contemporaries,  and  wrote  numer- 
ous plays  by  himself,  among  which  the  chief 
were  A  Mad  World,  my  Masters,  The  Roar- 
ing Girl,  and  The  Witch. 

Middleton,  Thomas  Fanshawe,  F.R.S. 
(J).  1769,  d.  1822),  the  first  English  Bishop 
of  Calcutta,  where  he  founded  a  college  for 
the  education  of  missionaries. 

Midhat  Pasha  {b.  1822,  d.  1884),  Turkish 
statesman,  suppressed  brigandage  in  Rou- 


melia  and  a  rebellion  in  Bulgaria,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  Grand  Council  in  1860.  He 
was  governor  of  Bulgaria,  where  he  intro- 
duced reforms,  from  1864  to  18o6,  and  put 
down  a  second  rebelhon.  He  took  a  chief 
part  in  the  deposition  and  murder  of  Abd- 
el-Aziz  in  1876,  and  having  been  made 
grand -vizier  by  Abd-el-Hamid,  attempted  to 
introduce  parliamentary  government  into 
Turkey.  He  failed,  however,  and  was  sent 
into  exile  as  governor  of  Syria  in  1878, 
where  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  com- 
plicity in  the  murder  of  Abd-el-Aziz  and 
condemned  to  death,  but  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  banishment,  and  he  died  in 
Arabia  three  years  later. 

Mieris,  Franz  van  (b.  1635,  d.  1681), 
Flemish  painter,  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  was 
bom  at  Leydeu.  His  chief  pictures  were 
'Flie  Silk  Merchants,  The  Assembly  of  Ladies 
and  Mieris  and  his  Wife.  He  is  known  as 
"the  Elder,"  to  distinguish  him  from  his 
grandson. 

Mieris,  Franz,  "the Younger"  (J.  1689,  d. 
1763),  son  of  Willem,  a  painter ;  abandoned 
art  for  literature,  his  chief  works  being 
Historie  der  Nederlandsche  Vorsten,  and 
Groot  Charterhoek  der  Graven  van  Holland. 

Mieroslauski,  Louis  (6.  1814,  d.  1878), 
Polish  revolutionist ;  having  taken  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  risings  of  1830  and  1844, 
was  condemned  to  death  at  Berlin  in  1848, 
but  liberated  by  the  mob.  He  then  headed 
the  peasants  of  Posen,  afterwards  led  the 
revolution  in  Sicily,  and  aided  the  move- 
ment in  Baden,  and  was  made  dictator  of 
Poland  in  1863,  but  superseded,  owing  to  the 
jealousy  of  the  nobles. 

Mignet,  Francois  Auguste  Alexis  {b.  1796, 
d.  1834),  French  historian,  friend  of  Thiers  ; 
was  director  of  the  archives  at  the  Foreign 
Office  from  1830  to  1848,  when  he  was 
removed  by  Lamartine.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academie  Frangaise  in  1836,  and  his 
chief  works  were  a  History  of  the  French 
Revolution  (1824),  Negotiations' Relatives  d  la 
Succession  d'Espagne  sous  Louis  XIV., 
Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart  (1851),  a.nA.RivaUte 
de  Franqois  I«f  et  de  Charles  Quint  (1875). 

Mignon,  or  Minjon,  Abraham  (J.  1639,  d. 
1679),  German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort; 
studied  under  Van  Heem  at  Utrecht,  and 
excelled,  like  his  master,  in  flower  and  fruit- 
pieces. 

Miguel,  Dom  Maria  Evarist  {b.  1802,  d. 
1866),  Portuguese  prince,  younger  son  of 
John  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  exiled  in  1824 
for  an  attempt  to  overthrow  the  govern- 
ment. His  brother,  Dom  Pedro,  renounced 
the  throne  in  favour  of  his  daughter,  Maria 
da  Gloria,  on  condition  she  should  marry 
Miguel,   who,  however,  in    1828    declared 


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himself  Jang.  By  his  tyramiy  he  caused  a 
rebellion,  which  was  supported  by  England, 
and  he  capitulated  at  Evora  in  1834,  and 
never  returned  to  Portugal. 

Milan  Obrenovitcli  {b.  1854),  ex -King  of 
Servia  ;  having  beeu  educated  at  Paris,  was 
sent  for  to  Servia  in  1868  on  the  assassina- 
tion of  his  cousin,  Prince  Michael.  He  was 
crowned  in  1872,  joined  the  revolt  of  the 
Slavs  against  Turkey  in  1876,  and,  joiuiug 
with  Russia  in  the  war  which  followed, 
obtained  the  independence  of  his  country,  of 
which  he  was  proclaimed  the  tirst  king  in 
1882.  In  1885  he  declared  war  against 
Bulgaria,  but  was  signally  defeated,  and  in 
1889  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  sou,  his 
quarrel  with  Queen  Nathalie  having  become 
a  public  question  iu  the  country. 

Milano,  Giovanni  da  (b.  1350),  Italian 
painter ;  bom  at  Milan,  studied  under 
Gaddi  at  Florence,  and  imitated  Giotto,  his 
best  paintings  being  the  frescoes  at  Assist. 

Mildmay,  Sir  Walter  {h.  1522,  d.  1589), 
English  statesman ;  employed  by  Henry 
VIII.  and  his  successors,  being  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  for  twenty-three  years 
under  Elizabeth;  founded  Emmanuel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Mill,  James  {b.  1773,  d.  1836),  Scotch 
economist,  son  of  a  shoemaker  at  Forfar ; 
was  licensed  as  a  preacher  iu  1798,  but  gave 
up  the  profession  on  conscientious  grounds, 
and  in  1802  came  to  London.  In  1809  he 
obtained  an  appointment  in  the  India  House, 
and  with  Beutham  became  the  founder  of 
"Philosophic  Radicalism,"  being  also  in- 
timate with  Ricardo.  His  chief  works  were 
a  History  of  British  India  (1818),  and  Ele- 
ments of  Political  Economy  (1821-22). 

Mill,  John  Stuart  (*.  1806,  d.  1873), 
philosopher,  son  of  preceding,  by  whom  he 
was  educated ;  obtained  a  clerkship  in  the 
India  House  in  1823,  and  remained  there 
until  the  transfer  of  the  Indian  government 
to  the  Crown,  to  which  he  was  strongly  op- 
posed. He  early  began  to  contribute  to  the 
IVestminster  Review,  which  he  afterwards 
edited.  He  contemplated  writing  a  history  of 
the  French  revolution,  but  left  the  work  to 
his  friend,  Carlyle,  with  whom  and  Sterling 
he  was  very  intimate.  He  was  returned  for 
Westminster  as  a  Radical  in  1865,  but  was 
defeated  in  1868  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith.  His 
chief  works  were  System  of  Logic  (1843), 
Essay  on  Liberty  (1859),  Itepresentative  Gov- 
ernment (1860),  tfiilitarianism  (1861),  and 
Principles  of  Political  Economy  (1848). 

Millais,  Sir  John  Everett,  Bart.  (b.  1829), 
English  painter  ;  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  gaining  a  medal  at  the  Society  of 
Arts  when  only  nine.  He  first  exhibited  at 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1846,  and  became  a 


leading  member  of  the  Pre-Raphaelito 
school.  He  was  elected  A.R.A.  in  1853  and 
R.A.  in  1863,  and  received  a  baronetcy  in 
1885.  Among  his  pictures  may  be  named 
The  Widoic's  Mite  (1847),  Eeafs  ''Isabella'' 
(1849),  Mariana  in  the  Moated  Grange  (1851), 
Ophelia  (1852),  Souvenir  of  Velasquez 
(1868),  A  Bream  at  Dawn  (1869),  Scotch  Firs 
(1874),  etc.,  and  portraits  of  Mr.  Gladstone, 
Lord  SaUsbury,  Mr.  Bright,  Lord  Beacons- 
field,  and  many  other  public  men. 

Miller,  Hugh  (b.  1802,  d.  1856),  Scotch 
geologist  and  writer,  bom  in  Cromarty ; 
after  working  as  a  stonemason,  became  a 
journaUst  and  edited  at  Edinburgh  The 
Witness,  in  which  appeared  The  (Jld  Red 
Sandstone,  Footprints  of  the  Creator,  etc. 
He  also  wrote  The  Testimony  of  the  Rocks,  as 
well  as  many  pamphlets,  chiefly  in  the 
interest  of  the  Free  Church  movement. 

Miller,  James  {b.  1703,  d.  1744),  dramatist; 
while  at  Oxford  wrote  Humours  of  Oxford, 
and  afterwards  pamphlets  against  Walpole, 
and  several  plays,  the  chief  of  which  was  the 
tragedy  Mahomet. 

Miller,  "  Joaquin  "  (Cincinnatus  Hiner) 
(b.  1841),  American  poet;  worked  iu  Oregon 
and  California  as  editor,  lawyer's  clerk, 
miner,  and  county  judge,  and  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1870,  when  his  wife  had  obtained  a 
divorce.  Songs  from  the  Sierras  was  pub- 
lished in  London,  and  on  his  return  to 
America  he  produced  The  One  Fair  Woman 
(1876),  Memorie  and  Rime  (1884),  So7igs  of 
the  Mexican  Seas  (1887),  and  several  other 
works. 

Miller,  Joe  (^1.  1684,  d.  1738),  comedian; 
born  probably  in  London,  played  in  the 
comedies  of  Congreve,  his  other  favourite 
parts  being  Sir  Joseph  Whittol  in  TJie  Old 
Bachelor  and  Teague  iu  The  Committee. 
His  Book  of  Jests  was  first  published  in  1739. 

Miller,  PhiUp,  F.R.S.  {b.  1691,  d.  1771) 
botanist  and  gardener,  called  "Hortulano- 
rum  Princeps  "  ;  was  a  friend  and  corre- 
spondent of  Linnasus,  and  wrote  Gardeners' 
Dictionary  and  other  works. 

Miller,  Thomas  (*.  1808,  d.  1874),  poet, 
son  of  a  wharfinger  at  Gainsborough  ;  com- 
posed poems  while  apprentice  to  a  basket- 
maker,  and  was  helped  by  Rogers.  He 
afterwards  contributed  much  to  journals 
and  periodicals.  A  Bay  in  the  Woods 
(1836)  was  perhaps  his  best  work. 

Miller,  William  {b.  1810,  d.  1872),  Scotch 
poet,  bom  near  Glasgow  ;  became  a  wood- 
turner, and  wrote  Scottish  Nursery  Songs  ind 
Other  Poems,  containing  Willie  Winkie,  itc. 

Miller,  William  Allen,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  {b. 
1817,  d.  1870),  chemist;  educated  under 
Daniell  in  London  and  Liebig  at  Giessen; 


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became  professor  of  chemistry  at  King's 
College,  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society 
and  assayer  to  the  Mint,  and  wrote  Elements 
of  Chemistry. 

Miller,  William  Hallows,  F.R.S.,  D.C.L. 
{b.  1801,  d.  1880),  crystallographer  and 
mineralogist;  was  bom  near  Llandovery, 
and  graduated  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  fellow  of  St.  John's,  and  in  1832 
professor  of  mineralogy.  He  served  on 
several  royal  commissions,  was  foreign 
secretary  for  seventeen  years  to  the  Royal 
Society,  and  published  (with  "VV.  H.  Brooke) 
an  edition  of  Phillip's  Mineralogy. 

MiUer,  William  Harrison  {b.  1840), 
American  statesman ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1865,  and  practised  in  Peru  and 
Indiana,  being  the  partner  from  1874  of 
President  Harrison,  by  whom  he  was  made 
attorney-general  in  1889. 

Millet,  Jean  Francois  {b.  1814,  d.  1875), 
French  artist,  of  peasant  birth;  studied 
under  Delaroche,  and  became  the  friend  of 
Theodore  Rousseau.  His  chief  pictures 
are  The  Brothers  (now  iu  the  Louvre),  The 
Milkwoman  (1844),  The  Angelus  (1859),  Po- 
tato Planters  (1863),  and  Butter-making 
(1871),  etc. 

Millingen,  James  {b.  niA,d.  1845),  Eng- 
lish archffiologist ;  was  imprisoned  at  Paris 
in  1794  while  travelling;  wrote  Ancient 
Unedited  Monuments  and  other  works,  for 
which  he  received  a  pension  from  the 
Government. 

Millot,  Claude  Xavier  {b.  1726,  d.  1785), 
French  writer ;  author  of  Historie  Litteraire 
des  Troiibadours,  Elements  de  VHistoire  de 
France,  etc. ;  was  preceptor  to  the  Due 
d'Enghien. 

MiUs,  Charles  {b.  1788,  d.  1825),  historian, 
son  of  a  Greenwich  physician  ;  was  educated 
as  a  solicitor,  but  gave  up  his  profession, 
and  wrote  a  history  of  Mohammedanism 
(1817),  of  the  Crusades,  and  of  Chivalry. 

MiUs,  Edmund  James,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.  {b. 
1840),  English  chemist,  educated  at  Chel- 
tenham and  the  Royal  School  of  Mines ;  was 
appointed  professor  of  technical  chemistry 
at  Glasgow  in  1875.  His  chief  works,  besides 
important  technical  memoirs,  are  Destructive 
Distillation  and  (with  F.  J.  Rowan)  Fuel 
and  its  Applications. 

MLUy,  Nicolas  de  Thy,  Comte  de  (*.  1728, 
d.  1 784) ,  French  chemist ;  published  a 
treatise  on  the  manufacture  of  Dresden 
china,  and  effected  improvements  in  enamel 
colours. 

Milman,  Henry  Hart,  D.D.  (*.  1791,  d. 
1868),  English  historian,  son  of  Sir  Francis 
Milman,  physician  to  George  III.  ;  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Brasenose  College, 


Oxford,  of  which  he  became  fellow.  He 
took  orders  in  1816,  was  Bampton  lecturer 
in  1827,  became  Canon  of  Westminster  in 
1835,  and  in  1849  Dean  of  St.  Paul's.  His 
chief  works  are  a  History  of  Latin  Christi- 
anity to  the  Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.,  A 
History  of  the  Jews,  and  editions  of  Gibbon 
and  Horace.  In  1815  Fazio,  a  tragedy 
written  by  him,  was  produced  with  success 
at  Covent  Garden. 

Milne,  Sir  Alexander  Milne,  G.C.B., 
F.R.S.E.  {b.  1806),  admiral,  son  of  Admiral 
Sir  David  Milne ;  entered  the  navy  in 
1817,  having  served  under  his  father. 
Admiral  Bowles,  Sir  C.  Ogle,  and  Sir 
Charles  Napier  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  was  a  jimior  lord  of  the  Admiralty 
from  1847  to  1858,  senior  naval  lord  1866-8 
and  1872-6,  when  he  retired  with  a 
baronetcy.  During  the  years  1869-70  he 
commanded  the  Mediterranean  and  Channel 
squadrons. 

Milne,  Colin  {d.  1815),  Scottish  clergy- 
man ;  author  of  a  Botanical  Dictionary  and 
other  works  dealing  with  the  science  of 
botany. 

Milne,  Sir  David  {b.  1763,  d.  1845),  father 
of  the  above;  entered  the  navy  in  1778, 
distinguished  himself  by  the  capture  from 
the  French  of  Za  Pique  (1795),  La  Seine 
(1798),  and  the  Vengeance  (1800),  and  served 
as  rear-admiral  under  Lord  Exmouth  in  the 
attack  on  Algiers. 

Milne-Edwards,  Henri  (b.  1800,  d.  1885), 
French  zoologist,  born  at  Bruges,  of  English 
parents ;  succeeded  Cuvier  in  1838  at  the 
Academic  des  Sciences,  became  professor  of 
entomology  at  the  Museum  in  1841,  and  of 
entomology  and  physiology  in  the  Faculte 
des  Sciences  in  1843.  He  gained  the  Copley 
medal  in  1856,  and  wrote,  besides  text- 
books, Lemons  sur  la  Physiologic  et  I'Anatomie 
pomparev  (1857-81)  in  fourteen  volumes. 
His  son,  Alphonse  (b.  1835),  succeeded  him 
at  the  Museum. 

Milne-Edwards,  Frederick  William  {b. 
mi,  d.  1842),  physiologist,  brother  of  Henri, 
was  born  in  Jamaica.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Societe  Ethnologique,  and 
wrote  De  r Influence  des  Agents  Physiques 
sur  la  Vie  (1824),  and  other  works. 

Milner,  Isaac,  D.D.  {b.  1751,  d.  1820), 
EngUsh  divine;  was  bom  at  Leeds,  and 
brought  up  as  a  weaver,  but  subsequently 
entered  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
became  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
1783,  vice-chancellor  in  1792  and  1809,  and 
Lucasian  professor  in  1798,  being  also  in 
1791  appointed  Dean  of  Carlisle.  His 
brother,  Joseph  {d.  1797),  was  head  master 
of  Hull,  and  author  oi  History  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  which  was  finished  by  Isaac. 


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Milo,  Titus  Annius  {d.  48  B.C.),  Roman 
tribune,  banished  for  killing  Clodius  at 
Rome  in  52  B.C.  His  name  has  become 
known  from  the  defence  which  Cicero  wrote 
for  him,  but  did  not  deliver ;  having  joined 
the  faction  of  Sextus  Pompeius,  he  was 
killed  near  Thurium. 

MUosch  Obrenovitch  {b.  1780,  d.  1860), 
Prince  of  Servia  ;  submitted  to  the  Turks, 
and  became  governor  after  the  revolt  of 
Kara  George ;  rebelled  in  1817,  and  was 
recognised  in  1829  as  hereditary  prince ; 
was  compelled  to  abdicate  ten  years  later, 
but  recalled  in  1858. 

Miltiades.     \_See  Melchiades.] 

Miltiades  (5th  century  B.C.),  Athenian 
general,  tyraut  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese  ; 
commanded  at  Marathon  (490  B.C.),  but  was 
afterwards  condemned  for  treason,  and  died 
in  prison. 

Milton,  John  (6.  1608,  d.  1674),  EngUsh 
poet,  son  of  a  London  scrivener  of  some 
culture,  who  sent  him  to  St.  Paul's  school 
and  Cambridge  (Christ's  College),  after 
leaving  which  he  lived  with  his  father  in 
Buckinghamshire,  and  then  travelled  in 
France  and  Italy.  In  1644  he  published 
Areopagitica,  a  speech  for  the  liberty  of  un- 
licensed printing,  among  his  other  prose 
works  being  EiJconoklastes  and  Difensio  pro 
Populo  Anglicano  (in  answer  to  Salmasius), 
this  last  work  being  the  immediate  cause  of 
his  loss  of  sight.  He  was  appointed  foreign 
secretary  to  the  Council  of  State  in  1649,  and 
some  years  after  became  blind.  The  Allegro, 
Penseroso,  Comus,  Lycidas,  etc.,  were  written 
in  his  early  days,  and  his  greatest  work. 
Paradise  Lost,  was  published  in  1667,  and 
Paradise  Eegained  in  1671.  He  was  married 
three  times. 

Minmermus  (ca.  600  B.C.),  Greek  poet, 
fragments  of  whose  works  only  remain ;  is 
said  to  have  invented  the  elegiac  metre. 

Mina,  Francisco  Espozy  (*.  1781,  d.  1836), 
Spanish  guerilla  chief,  son  of  a  husbandman ; 
harassed  the  armies  of  Napoleon  in  Spain, 
and  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons 
made  two  attempts,  in  1820  and  1830,  to 
restore  the  constitution.  In  1835  he  com- 
manded the  royal  army  against  the  Carlists. 
His  nephew,  Xavtee  (b.  1789),  was  captured 
by  the  French  during  the  Peninsular  war, 
and  having,  after  his  release  from  Vincennes, 
joined  in  the  efEorts  to  free  Mexico,  was 
captured  and  shot  (1817). 

Mind,  Gottfried  (J.  1768,  d.  1814),  Swiss 
painter,  called  by  Madame  Le  Brun  the 
"Raphael  of  Cats,"  his  subjects  being 
these  and  other  animals. 

Minghetti,  Marco     {b.    1818,    d.    1886), 

Italian  statesman,  minister  of  public  works 

to  Pius  IX.  in  1848  ;  afterwards  entered  the 

•ervice  of  Sardinia,  and  became  the  friend 

EE  2 


of  Cavour,  being  minister  of  the  interior  in 
his  last  cabinet.  In  1861  he  became  vice- 
president  of  the  Italian  parliament,  and 
was  president  of  the  cormcU  and  minister 
of  finance  from  1861  to  1868,  and  again, 
after  being  ambassador  in  London,  from 
1873  to  1876.  He  was  author  of  JJella 
Economia  Publica,  published  in  1859. 

Minie,  Claude  Etienne  {b.  1814,  d.  1879), 
French  mechanic,  improved  for  the  French 
government  the  rifle  invented  by  Captain 
Devigne,  whose  pupil  he  had  been. 

Mino  da  Fiesole  {h.  1400,  d.  1486),  Italian 
sculptor,  among  whose  best  productions 
were  the  marble  pulpit  in  the  cathedral  of 
Prato,  and  the  monimient  of  Paul  II.  in  the 
Vatican. 

Minot,  Laurence  (14th  century),  English 
poet,  whose  works  were  discovered  by 
Tyrwhit  and  edited  by  Ritson  in  1794. 

Minto,  Gilbert  EUiot,  Earl  of  {b.  1751,  d. 
1814),  statesman,  was  viceroy  of  Corsica 
1794-6,  ambassador  at  Vienna  in  1799, 
president  of  the  Board  of  Control  in  1806, 
and  Governor-General  of  India  from  1807 
to  1812,  being  created  an  earl  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  His  son,  the  second  Earl  {d. 
1859),  was  Lord  Privy  Seal  from  1846  to 
1852. 

Minto,  WilMam  {b.  1845),  Scotch  writer ; 
graduated  with  distinction  at  Aberdeen  in 
1865,  and  having  for  some  years  acted  as 
assistant  there  to  Professor  Bain,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  logic  in  1 880.  Among 
his  works  are  English  Prose  Writers  and 
English  Poets  ;  Bejoe,  in  the  "  English  Men 
of  Letters''''  series,  and  several  novels— 7%c 
Crack  of  Boom,  The  Mediation  of  Ralph 
Hardelot,  etc. 

Minucius  Felix,  Marctis  (3rd  century),  an 
African,  celebrated  as  a  rhetorician  at 
Rome,  where  he  was  converted,  and  vrrote 
Octavius,  a  dialogue  in  defence  of  Chris- 
tianity, of  which  there  is  a  translation  by 
Lord  Hailes. 

Miolan-Carvallio,  Marie  Caroline  {b. 
1827),  French  vocalist,  bom  at  Marseilles, 
and  educated  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire 
under  Duprez ;  after  a  brilliant  provincial 
tour,  made  her  debut  at  Paris  at  the  Grand 
Opera  in  Lucia  di  Lammermoor.  At  the 
Opera  Comique  she  appeared  in  Auber's 
Ambassadrice.  and  in  several  operas  com- 
posed expressly  for  her,  and  in  1853  mar- 
ried M.  Carvalho  (Carvaille),  director  of  the 
Theatre  Lyrique,  where  she  became  prima 
donna.  In  England  she  was  very  successful, 
singing  as  Marguerite  in  Gounod's  Faust  at 
the  Italian  Opera  in  1863. 

Miot  de  Melito,  Andre,  Comte  (6.  1762, 
d.  1841),  French  statesman  ;  after  having  a 
narrow  escape  from  death  in  1794,  was 
ambassador  at  Florence  in  the    following 


Mir 


(564) 


Mit 


year,  and  afterwards  cantinually  employed 
by  Napoleon.  His  Mi  moires  were  published 
in  I85S. 

Mirabeau,  Honore  Gabriel  Eiquetti, 
Conite  de  (6.  1749,  d.  1791),  French  orator 
and  statesman,  son  of  the  Marquis  de 
Mirabeau,  author  of  VAmi  des  Hommes ; 
after  a  stormy  youth,  culminating  in  an 
imprisonment  in  the  Bastille  for  nearly  two 
years,  was  sent  by  Calonne  on  a  secret 
mission  to  Berlin.  At  the  opening  of  the 
revolution  he  was  elected  deputy  bj'  the 
Tiers-£tat  of  Aix,  and  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  proceedings  of  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly, but  attached  himself  to  no  party  in 
it.  During  the  last  few  months  of  his  life 
he  had  an  understanding  with  the  queen, 
and  at  his  death  was  engaged  in  organising 
a  movement  in  favour  of  constitutional 
monarchy,  having  previously  on  several 
occasions  supported  the  royal  prerogative. 
His  brother,  the  Vicomte  ("Barrel  Mira- 
beau "),  was  a  reactionary  royalist. 

Miramon,  Miguel  (jb.  1833,  d.  1867), 
Mexican  statesman;  commanded  the  army 
of  the  Clerical  party  against  Juarez,  and 
was  named  president  in  1859,  but  was  soon 
after  deposed  and  defeated,  and  having 
afterwards  supported  Maximilian  was  shot 
with  him  in  1867. 

Miranda,  Francisco  {b.  1750,  d.  1816), 
Spanish-American  general;  after  having 
been  in  the  army  of  his  own  country,  went 
to  France  and  served  under  Dumouriez  in 
Flanders,  but  having  been  accused  by  the 
Jacobins  of  treason  was  banished.  In  1806 
he  went  to  Guatemala,  where  he  had  before 
taken  part  in  a  rising,  and  now  resumed  his 
revolutionary  operations;  was  arrested  in 
1812,  and  died  in  a  dungeon  at  Cadiz  four 
year3  later. 

Mirandola.     [^See  Pico  della  MLrandola.] 

Mireveldt,  Michel  Jansen  (6.  1568,  d. 
1641),  Dutch  painter,  bom  at  Delft ;  gained 
great  reputation  as  a  painter  of  portraits,  of 
which  he  is  said  to  have  executed  several 
thousand. 

Misliweczek,  Joseph,  "II  Boemo"  (b. 
1737,  d.  1781),  Bohemian  composer ;  com- 
posed several  operas,  of  which  Bellerofonte 
was  the  phief. 

Mitchel,  John  {b.  1815,  d.  1875),  Irish 
pohticiau,  son  of  a  Nonconformist  minister  ; 
after  leaving  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
practised  as  a  solicitor,  but  in  1845  became 
editor  of  the  Xation,  and  two  years  later  of 
the  United  Irishnien,  a  "physical  force" 
paper.  For  his  writings  in  the  latter  he 
was  convicted  for  sedition  and  transported, 
but  escaped  in  1862  to  the  United  States, 
where  he   edited  the    Citizen.     In  1875  he 


was  returned  for  Tipperary,  and  died  while 
the  petition  against  him  was  under  discus- 
sion. He  wrote  a  Life  of  Hugh  O^Neil, 
and  Jail  Journal,  an  account  of  his  life  in 
Van  Diemen's  Land. 

Mitcbell,  Sir  Andrew  {d.  1771),  British 
diplomatist ;  became  ambassador  at  Brussels 
in  1751,  and  afterwards  envoy-extraordinary 
to  Berlin,  where  he  won  the  friendship  of 
Frederick,  and  drew  him  from  the  French  to 
the  English  alUance. 

Mitchell,  Donald  Grant  {b.  1822),  Ameri- 
can writer;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1841,  and 
afterwards  travelled  in  Europe,  being 
United  States  consul  at  Venice  from  1853  to 
1855.  Under  the  signature  ' '  Ik  Marvel ' '  he 
published  Fresh  Gleanings :  or,  a  New  Sheaf 
from  the  Old  Fields  of  Continental  Europe 
(1847),  and  under  his  own  name,  Fudge 
JDoings,  Out  of  Town  Places,  and  various 
other  works. 

MitcheU,  Peter  {b.  1824),  Canadian 
statesman,  bom  and  educated  at  Newcastle, 
New  Brunswick,  of  the  Executive  Govern- 
ment of  which  province  he  was  a  member 
from  1858  to  1865.  He  did  much  to  pro- 
mote confederation,  and  on  the  formation 
of  the  first  Dominion  Government  (1867) 
became  minister  of  marine,  which  ofiice  he 
held  tiU  1873.  In  1878  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  settlement  of  the  fisheries  dis- 
pute with  the  United  States. 

Mitchell,  Sir  Thomas  Livingstone  (6. 
1792,  d.  1855),  British  explorer;  served  in 
the  army  during  the  Peninsular  war,  and 
was  appointed  surveyor-general  of  New 
South  Wales  in  1830.  He  wrote  accounts 
of  his  explorations  in  Three  Fxpeditions  into 
the  Interior  of  Australia  (1838),  and  Journal 
of  an  Australian  Explorer  (1848),  and  also 
wrote  Australian  Geography.  In  1851  he 
made  an  expedition  to  the  Bathurst  gold- 
fields. 

Mitford.     {See  Eedesdale.] 

Mitford,  Mary  Eussell  (6.  1786,  rf.  1855), 
English  dramatic  writer  and  novelist ;  after 
some  early  poems,  produced  Julian,  Fos- 
cari,  and  several  other  plays,  one  of  which 
{Charles  I.)  was  suppressed,  Atherton  and 
other  novels,  Our  Village,  and  Reminiscen- 
ces (1824). 

Mitford,  William  {b.  1744,  d.  1827),  his- 
torian ;  sat  for  several  years  in  the  House  of 
Commons  as  a  Tory,  and  from  that  stand- 
point wrote  his  Ifistori/  of  Greece  (1780- 
1818),  to  which  that  of  Grote  was  in  a 
measui'e  a  reply. 

Mithridates  [Eupator]  (/.  63  B.C.),  King 
of  Pontus,  called  the  "  Great,"  was  sixth  of 
the  name,  and  succeeded  his  father  (Euer- 
getes)  in  120  B.C.     He  reversed  his  policy, 


Mit 


(565) 


Mol 


however,  causing  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Bomans  after  his  capture  of  Bithynia  and 
Phrygia;  was  defeated  by  Fimbria  (85),  but 
was  victorious  over  Mursena  in  81,  and 
conquered  Cappadocia ;  after  being  con- 
quered by  Lucullus  (73-68),  recovered  his 
domiuions  in  67,  but  was  finally  defeated 
by  Pompey  and  compelled  to  flee.  When 
meditating  marching  into  Europe  he  was 
opposed  by  his  son,  Pharnaces,  and  put  an 
end  to  his  life  by  taking  poison. 

Mitre,  Bartolomeo  [b.  1821),  South  Ameri- 
can general ;  after  a  contest  with  Urquiza, 
caused  the  abdication  of  Derqui  in  1861,  and 
was  next  year  elected  president  of  the 
Argentine  republic.  In  1865  he  formed  an 
alliance  with  Brazil  against  Lopez  of  Para- 
guay. In  1874  he  attempted  to  excite  a 
military  rising  at  Bueuos  Ajtcs,  and,  having 
failed,  was  pardoned,  but  compelled  to  leave 
Argentine  territory. 

MitsclierUcli,  Eilhard  (6.  1794,  d.  1863), 
German  chemist,  bom  in  Oldenburg;  dis- 
covered the  "law  of  isomorphism,"  and 
wrote  a  Lehrhuch  der  Chemie.  After  study- 
ing under  Berzelius  at  Stockholm,  he  was 
appointed  to  a  professorship  at  BerHn  in 
1822,  and  six  years  later  was  elected  foreign 
fellow  of  the  Eoyal  Society. 

Mivart,  St.  George,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (fi. 
1827),  English  naturalist  and  philosopher; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1851 ;  was  secretary 
of  the  Linnaean  Society  1874-80,  and  re- 
ceived the  degrees  of  Ph.D.  from  Rome, 
and  M.D.  from  Louvain.  In  1874  he  be- 
came professor  of  biology  at  University 
College,  Kensington.  His  chief  works  are 
The  Genesis  of  Species  (1871),  an  attack  on 
Darwinism  so  far  as  it  is  applied  to  mind, 
Man  and  Apes  (1873),  Nature  and  Thought 
(1883J,  The  Origin  of  Human  Reason  (1889), 
On  Truth,  as  well  as  numerous  zoological 
monographs  and  contributions  to  the  leading 
periodicals, 

Mnesikles  (/.  430  b.c),  Athenian  archi- 
tect, contemporary  of  Perikles ;  designed  the 
Propylasum,  an  entrance  to  the  Akropolis. 

Mochnacki,  Maurice  (*.  1804,  d.  1834), 
Polish  writer  and  patriot;  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  rising  of  1831,  of  which  he  wrote 
an   account,   and   was    also    author    of    O 

Litcraturze  Tohkiej. 

Mocquard,  Jean  Constant  (J.  1791,  d. 
1864),  French  lawyer  :  after  having  attained 
greatsuccess  in  his  profession,  lost  his  voice, 
but  in  1848  became  secretary  to  Louis 
Napoleon  and  chief  of  his  cabinet. 

Modjeska,  Helena  {h.  1844),  Polish  ac- 
tress ;  first  appeared  professionally  in 
1862,  and  attracted  much  attention  by  her 
playing  in  Adrienne  Zecouvreur  at  Warsaw 


in  1868.  In  1876  she  emigrated  with  her 
second  husband,  who  worked  as  a  farmer 
in  California;  but  having  learnt  English 
appeared  on  the  San  Francisco  stage  in  her 
old  part.  She  afterwards  played  at  New 
York  in  La  Lame  aux  Camelias,  and  at 
London  in  1880  in  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Frou- 
Frou,  and  her  old  favourites.  In  1882  she 
created  a  sensation  in  Sardou's  Odette,  and 
after  playing  Rosalind  in  America,  appeared 
in  1885  at  the  Lyceum. 

Moffat,  Robert,  D.D.  {b.  1795,  d.  1883), 
Scotch  missionary  ;  after  working  some  time 
as  a  gardener  at  Manchester,  was  ordained 
in  1816,  and  went  out  to  Africa,  where  he 
was  a  missionary  for  twenty-three  years. 
He  reduced  the  Bechuana  language  into 
written  form,  and  translated  the  Bible  into 
it.  One  of  his  daughters  married  Living- 
stone. 

Mohammed.     {Sec  Mahomet.] 

Mohl,  Juhus  {b.  1800,  d.  1876),  German 
Orientalist ;  in  1823  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
became  the  pupil  of  De  Sacy  and  Remusat, 
and  the  friend  of  Cuvier  and  Humboldt. 
Although  appointed  professor  at  Tiibingen  in 
1826  he  remained  in  Paris,  where,  in  1852, 
he  became  oriental  inspector  of  the  imperial 
press.  He  was  frequently  in  England,  and 
married  an  English  lady,  Mary  Clarke,  by 
whom,  his  J'lngt-sept  Ans  d'Htstoire 
des  Etudes  Orientales  was  published  after 
his  death  (1879-80).  He  also  published  edi- 
tions of  many  Persian  and  Chinese  classics. 

Moi,  Pieter  van  {b.  1590,  d.  1650),  Flem- 
ish historical  painter  of  the  school  of 
Rubens,  whose  works  are  in  Antwerp  cathe- 
dral and  other  chirrches  in  Flanders,  some 
also  being  in  the  Louvre. 

Moira,  Lord.     [See  Hastings.] 

Moivre,  Abraham  de  {b.  1667,  d.  1754), 
French  mathematician,  friend  of  Leibnitz 
and  Newton;  published  in  1716  The  Doctrine 
of  Chances. 

Mola,  Pietro  Francesco  (d.  1665),  Italian 
painter ;  was  trained  in  the  school  of  Albano, 
but  afterwards  studied  the  Venetian  masters. 
His  pictures  are  in  churches  at  Rome,  and 
at  Milan,  in  Santa  Maria  della  Vittoria,  are 
St.  John  in  the  Desert  and  St.  Paul  the  Her- 
mit. There  is  another  painter  of  the  name, 
some  of  whose  pictures,  in  the  manner  of 
Albano,  are  in  the  Palazzo  Salviati,  Rome. 

Molay,  Jacques  de  {d.  1314),  last  grand 
master  of  the  Templars,  who  was  burned  to 
death  by  order  of  Clement  V.  and  Philip 
the  Fair,  who  fabricated  charges  against 
him  in  order  to  obtain  the  property  of  the 
order. 

Mol^,   Franqois  Rene  {b.  1734,  d.  1802), 


Mol 


(566) 


Mol 


French  comedian  of  some  talent ;  joined  the 
Jacobins  during  the  revolution,  and  offici- 
ated in  St.  Roch  as  priest  of  the  goddess  of 
Reason. 

M0I6,  Louis  Matthieu,  Comte  de  {b.  1780, 
d.  1855),  French  statesman,  whose  father 
was  a  victim  to  the  revolution ;  having  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  Napoleon  in  1806  by  a 
volume  of  absolutist  essays,  was  made 
minister  of  justice  in  1813.  After  the  resto- 
ration he  for  a  short  time  held  office  under 
Louis  XVIII.,  and  after  the  second  revo- 
lution was  premier  from  1836  to  1839. 

Molesworth,  Mrs.  (Mary  Louisa  Stewart), 
novelist  aud  wiiter  of  stories  for  children, 
including  Carrots  (1876),  Herr  Baby  (1881), 
etc. 

Molesworth,  Sir  William  (b.l%lO,d.  1855), 
English  politician  and  writer ;  having  been 
educated  at  Edinburgh  and  in  Germany, 
entered  Parliament  in  1832,  and  in  1853 
became  Commissioner  of  Works,  and  soon 
after  Colonial  Secretary.  With  Roebuck  he 
established  the  London  Meview,  and  was  also 
for  a  time  proprietor  and  editor  of  the 
Westminster  Review.  He  issued  a  reprint 
of  the  works  of  Hobbes,  and  was  engaged 
on  his  Life  when  he  died. 

Molesworth,  Rev.  William  Nassau  (b. 
1816,  d.  1890),  English  writer,  son  of  Rev. 
J.  N.  Molesworth ;  took  an  active  part  in 
politics  as  a  Liberal,  from  which  point  of 
view  his  History  of  England  from  1830  was 
written.  Among  his  other  works  were  A 
History  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  and  Eng- 
land and  France,  a  prize  essay. 

Molesworth,  Sir  Guildford  Lindsey  {b. 
1828),  civil  engineer,  brother  of  thepreceding. 
He  went  out  to  Ceylon  in  1859,  where  he  be- 
came director-general  of  the  railway  in 
1865,  and  of  public  works  in  1867,  and  in 
1871  was  appointed  consulting  engineer  to 
the  government  of  India.  His  PoiTcetbookof 
Engineering  Formiilce  is  a  standard  work. ' 

Molevme,  Bertrand  de  (b.  1744,  d.  1S18), 
French  statesman  ;  was  appointed  minister 
of  marine  in  1791,  and  tried  to  organise  a 
royal  party  in  the  Assembly,  but  after  the 
10th  of  Au^st  (1792)  was  obliged  to  seek 
refuge  in  England,  where  he  wrote  his 
Memoires. 

Moliere,  Jean  Baptiste  [Poquelin]  {b. 
1622,  d.  1672),  dramatist;  was  educated  by 
the  Jesuits,  and  studied  law,  but  about 
1645  changed  his  name,  and  became  an 
actor.  He  began  to  write  plays  in  1653, 
and  took  part  in  them  himself,  first  per- 
forming before  Louis  XIV.  in  1658.  In 
1673,  while  playing  Argan  in  Le  Malade 
Imaginaire,  he  was  seized  with  convulsions, 
and  died  soon  after.     It  was  only  by  the 


intervention  of  the  king  that  the  Chui-ch 
alhrwed  him  burial.  ,His  chief  plays  were 
L'Etourdi  (^1658),  V Ecole des  Femmes  (1662), 
Le  Mixnntlirope,  Le  Medecin  Malgre  Lui, 
Tartiijfe  (1669),  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme. 

Molina,  Luis  (b.  1535,  d.  1600),  Spanish 
Jesuit ;  author  of  De  Liberi  Arbitrii  cum 
Gratice  JJonis  Concordia,  a  work  aroimd 
which  much  controversy  raged. 

Molinet,  Claude  du  (*.  1620,  d.  1687), 
French  archaeologist,  librarian  of  Saint 
Genevieve,  and  author  of  a  History  of  the 
Popes  from  Martin  V.  to  Lnnocent  XL,  illus- 
trated by  their  coins. 

Molinos,  Miguel  {b.  1640,  d.  1697),  Span- 
ish theologian,  founded  the  sect  of  the 
Quietists,  and  wrote  The  Spiritual  Guide, 
which  was  condemned  by  the  Inquisition, 
and  its  author  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  life.  The  book  was  translated  into 
French,  Latin,  and  Dutch. 

Mbllendorf,  Richard,  Graf  von  {b.  1724, 
d.  1816),  Prussian  general  ;  was  page  to 
Frederick  the  Great  throughout  the  Silesian 
campaigns,  and  afterwards  had  a  distin- 
guished miUtary  career,  becoming  tield- 
marshal  in  1793.  He  won  the  battle  of 
Kaiser's-Lautern  in  the  following  year,  aud 
was  woimded  at  Auerstadt. 

Mollien,  Nicholas,  Comte  (b.  1758,  d. 
1850),  French  statesman  ;  was  employed  by 
Calonne,  and  had  a  share  in  negotiating  the 
peace  of  1 786 ;  entered  the  service  of  Na- 
poleon in  1801,  and  was  minister  of  finance 
from  1806-15. 

Moltke,  Helmuth  Karl,  Graf  von  (J.  1800, 
d.  1891),  German  strategist,  was  born  in 
Mecklenbiu'g,  and  after  serving  three  j^ears 
in  the  Danish  army,  and  passing  through 
the  army  school  at  Berlin,  entered  the 
Prussian  army,  and  from  1835  to  1839  was 
military  adviser  to  the  Turkish  pashas  at 
Constantinople.  On  his  return  he  married  his 
niece.  Miss  Burt,  and  in  1848  became  chief 
of  the  staff  at  Magdeburg.  He  attended 
the  Crown  Prince  (the  Emperor  William) 
as  equerry  for  several  years,  and  was  one  of 
the  chief  agents  in  the  reorganisation  of 
the  army  which  preceded  the  Danish  war. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  war  against 
Austria  which  followed,  and  at  its  close  be- 
came immediately  engaged  in  preparations 
for  mobilising  the  army  in  view  of  a  struggle 
with  France.  When  the  rupture  came  it 
was  he  who  planned  the  campaigns  which 
led  to  the  overthrow  of  that  country  and 
the  unification  of  Germany.  He  was  created 
field-marshal  in  1871,  a  life-member  of  the 
Upper  House  in  1872,  and  in  1888  resigned 
the  office  of  chief  of  the  staff.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  Poland  and  several  autobio- 
graphical works. 


Mol 


(567) 


Mon 


Molza,  Francesco  {b.  1489,  d.  1544),  | 
Italian  poet ;  author  of  Ninfa  Tiberina,  and 
some  good  imitationsof  TibuUus.  His  grand- 
daughter, Tarquinia,  was  highly  praised  by 
Tasso,  and  was  presented  with  the  citizen- 
ship of  Rome. 

Mommsen,  Theodor  (J.  1817),  German 
historian,  son  of  a  Schleswig  clerg\-man ; 
having  travelled  in  France  and  Italy  col- 
lecting inscriptions  for  thi'ee  years,  obtained 
a  professorship  at  Leipzig  in  1848,  but  was 
removed  on  political  grounds.  He  subse- 
quently held  chairs  at  Zurich  and  Breslau, 
and  in  1858  was  appointed  professor  at 
Berlin,  where  he  became  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  In  1880  his  library, 
with  most  of  his  notes  and  manuscripts,  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  His  chief  works  are  his 
History  of  Rome,  which  has  been  translated 
into  English,  as  also  has  his  Early  Inhabitants 
of  Italy,  the  correction  and  supervision  of 
the  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Latinaricm,  Oscan 
Studies,  and  several  political  pamphlets. 

Monaldeschi  {d.  1657),  one  of  the  suite  of 
Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden ;  was  assassi- 
nated by  her  orders  at  Paris  for  betraying 
her  confidence. 

Monbeillard,  PhiUbert  {b.  1720,  d.  1785), 
French  naturalist ;  author  of  Collection 
Academique  and  the  ornithological  part  of 
Buffon's  Histoire  Naturelle, 

Monboddo,  James  Burnett,  Lord  {b.  1714, 
d.  1799),  Scotch  judge  ;  came  to  London  in 
1745,  and  subsequently  published  Ancient 
Metaphysics  and  The  Origin  and  Progress  of 
Language. 

Moncey,  Bon  Adrien,  Due  de  Conegliano 
(i.  1754,  d.  1842),  marshal  of  France;  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  Spain,  and  commanded 
the  gendarmerie  of  Paris  under  Napoleon, 
but  accepted  the  Bourbons  and  retained  his 
command,  after  undergoing  imprisonment 
for  refusing  to  preside  at  the  trial  of  Ney ; 
had  command  of  the  expedition  of  1823 
against  Spain. 

Monck,  Right  Hon.  Charles,  Viscount  {b. 
1819),  British  statesman,  sat  for  Portsmouth 
as  a  Liberal  from  1852  to  1857,  and  was  a 
lord  of  the  Treasury  from  1855  to  1858 ;  was 
Governor-General  of  British  America  from 
1861  to  1868,  and  was  one  of  the  commis- 
aioners  appointed  to  carry  out  the  Irish 
Church  Act.  He  was  made  a  peer  of  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1866,  having  been  an 
Irish  viscount  since  1849. 

Moncrieff,  Sir  Alexander,  K.C.B.,  F.R  S. 

(J  1829),  engineer,  colonel  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Royal  Artillery ;  travelled  extensively 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  supplied  topo- 
graphical information  to  the  Colonial  Office, 
and  was  present  as  a  militia  oiScer  at  the 


bombardment  of  Sebastopol,  when  first 
occurred  to  him  the  idea  of  his  invention  of 
the  disappearing  system  (for  mounting  guns), 
afterwards  improved  in  the  hydro-pneumatio 
system. 

Moncrieff,  James,  Lord  (i.  1811),  Scotch 
judge  of  an  old  family,  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833  ;  was 
Solicitor-General  for  Scotland  (1850-51)  and 
Lord  Advocate  tiU  the  change  of  ministry 
in  March,  1852,  being  reappointed  in  De- 
cember of  that  year,  and  holding  office  till 
1858,  and  again  from  1859  to  1866,  and  in 
1868-69,  in  which  year  he  became  lord 
justice  clerk.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in 
1871,  and  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1874,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
under  the  Endowed  Institutions  (Scotland) 
Act  of  1878. 

Monge,  Gaspard,  Comte  de  Peluse  {b. 
1746,  d.  1818),  French  mathematician,  the 
chief  founder  of  the  Ecole  Polytechnique, 
taught  natural  philosophy  at  Lyons  when 
only  sixteen  ;  became  minister  of  marine  in 
1792,  and  accompanied  the  Egyptian  expe- 
dition in  1798,  on  his  return  from  which  he 
was  ennobled,  and  given  an  estate  by  Na- 
poleon, on  whose  fall  he  was  expelled  the 
institute,  and  soon  after  lost  his  reason.  He 
wrote  several  mathematical  worksi 

Monica,  Saint  {b.  332,  d.  387),  mother  of 
Saint  Augustine. 

Monier-WtUiams,  Sir  Monier,  D.C.L., 
LL.D.  (b.  1819),  Orientalist,  was  bom  at 
Bombay,  and  educated  at  King's  College 
and  Balliol,  Oxford  ;  after  holdiug  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Sanscrit  at  Haileybury  College 
for  fourteen  years,  was  elected  to  the  same 
chair  at  Oxford  in  1860.  He  visited  India 
three  times  after  this,  the  result  being  the 
foundation  of  the  Indian  Institute  at  Ox- 
ford, which  was  opened  in  1884.  He  was 
knighted  in  1886.  Besides  many  editions 
and  translations  of  Sanscrit  classics,  he  is 
author  of  A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Sans- 
crit Language  arranged  with  the  Classical 
Languages  of  Europe,  English-Sanscrit  and 
Sanscrit-English  dictionaries,  A  Hindustani 
Primer,  etc.,  axxd.  Religious  Thought  and  Life 
in  India. 

Monk,  George  (A.  1608,  d.  1670),  English 
general  ;  served  in  the  Royalist  army  in 
England  and  Ireland,  but  was  made 
prisoner  at  Nantwich,  and  remained  five 
years  in  the  Tower.  After  his  I'elease  he 
again  commanded  in  Ireland,  and  was 
Cromwell's  lieutenant  in  Scotland,  but  soon 
after  the  latter's  death  took  the  chief  part  in 
restoring  Charles  II.,  for  which  he  received 
the  dukedom  of  Albemarle.  As  admiral, 
he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Dutch 
in  1666.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 


Mon 


(568  1 


Mon 


MonS-Bretton,  Lord,  Right  Hon.  {b. 
1825).  statesman,  son  of  Sir  John  Dodson, 
represented  East  Sussex  as  a  Liberal  from 
18o7  to  1874,  and  Chester  from  that  year 
till  1880,  when  he  was  unseated  on  petition, 
but  sat  for  Scarborough  till  1885,  when  he 
received  a  peerage.  Mr.  Dodson  was  chair- 
man of  Committees  from  1865  to  1872, 
financial  secretary  to  the  Treasuiy  1873-4, 
President  of  the  Local  Government  Board 
1880-2,  and  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of 
Lancaster  1882-5. 

Monmouth,  James,  Duke  of  (b.  1649,  d. 
1685),  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  by  Lucy 
Walters,  was  bom  at  Rotterdam,  created 
duke  at  the  age  of  fourteen  ;  served  in  the 
French  army  against  the  Dutch  in  1673,  and 
defeated  the  Covenanters  at  BothweU  Brigg 
in  1678.  He  had  been  the  Whig  candidate 
for  the  succession  against  the  Duke  of 
York,  and  soon  after  the  accession  of  the 
latter  headed  a  rebellion,  was  defeated  at 
Sedgemoor,  and  executed. 

Monnler,  Henri  Bonaventure  (b.  1799,  d. 
1877),  French  writer,  actor,  and  caricaturist ; 
author  of  Memoires  de  Joseph  Frudhomme,  La 
Grandeur  et  la  Decadence  de  Joseph  Frud- 
homme, a  comedy,  in  which  he  played  the 
title-r6le,  Scenes  Fopulaires  Dessinees  d  la 
Flume,  etc. 

Monnoyer.     {See  Baptiste.] 

Monro,  Alexander  {b.  1697,  d.  1767), 
Scotch  physician,  pupil  of  Cheselden  and 
Boerhaave  ;  became  professor  of  anatomy  to 
the  Edinburgh  Company  of  Surgeons,  and 
instituted  the  medical  school  there,  besides 
publishing  Osteology  and  several  other 
works.  His  son,  Alexander  {d.  1817),  suc- 
ceeded to  his  professorship,  and  was  author 
of  several  medical  works,  as  was  also  a 
grandson  of  the  same  name. 

Monro,  James,  C.B.  {h.  1838),  British 
administrator ;  educated  at  Edinburgh  and 
Berlin  ;  entered  the  Bengal  Civil  Office  in 
1857,  and  retired  in  1884,  when  he  was 
appointed  assistant-commissioner  of  metro- 
poUtau  police.  From  1888  to  1890  he  was 
chief  commissioner,  when  he  retired,  owing 
to  a  disagreement  with  the  Home  Office. 

Monroe,  James  {h.  1751,  d.  1831),  fifth 
President  of  the  United  States  ;  served  with 
distinction  in  the  war  of  Independence, 
being  wounded  at  Trenton,  and  in  1783  was 
el_ected  member  of  Congress.  From  1794  to 
1796  he  was  American  plenipotentiary  in 
France,  after  which  he  went  to  London  in  a 
similar  capacity.  From  1811  to  1817  he 
was  secretary  of  state,  and  was  chosen  pre- 
sident in  the  latter  year,  being  re-elected  in 
1821.  A  message  to  Congress  in  1823  con- 
tained what  has  since  been  known  as  the 
"  Monroe  doctrine." 

Monroe,  Right  Hon.   Justice  (6.   1839), 


Irish  judge,  graduated  at  Queen's  College, 
Galway,  and  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in 
1863.  Having  taken  silk  in  1S77,  he  waa 
law-adviser  to  the  Irish  Government  1878- 
80,  and  Solicitor-General  for  Ireland  1884-5, 
when  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Chan- 
cery division,  being  created  privy  coub- 
cillor  next  year. 

Monstrelet,  Euguerrand  de  {d.  1453), 
French  historian,  provost  of  Cambrai, 
wi'ote  a  Cltronique  of  the  years  1400-53,  of 
which  an  English  translation  appeared  in 
1810. 

Mont,  Deodato  del  {h.  1581,  d.  1634), 
Flemish  painter,  pupil  of  Rubens,  who 
procured  for  him  the  appointment  of 
painter  and  architect  to  Duke  Albert  and 
the  Infanta  Isabella.  Two  of  his  best  pic- 
tures are  at  Antwerp,  in  the  chiu'ches  of  the 
Jesuits  and  Notre  Dame. 

Montagu,  Basil  [b.  1770,  d.  1851),  English 
writer,  son  of  Lord  Sandwich  and  Miss 
Ray  ;  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  published 
treatises  on  the  law  of  bankruptcy  ;  worked 
with  Romilly  and  others  for  the  mitigation 
of  the  penal  code,  and  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Coleridge.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Bacon,  with  biography,  and 
several  other  works. 

Montagu  (Montacute),  John  Neville.  Lord 
{d.  1471),  brother  of  Warwick,  the  "King- 
maker"; was  ennobled  by  Edward  IV.  in 
1461,  and  won  the  battle  of  Hexham  in 
1464,  but  deserted  the  Yorkists  in  1470,  and 
was  killed  at  Barnet  in  the  following  year. 

Montagu,  Lady  Mary  Wortley  {h.  circa 
1690,  d.  1762),  was  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Kingston,  and  went  with  her  husband  to  Con- 
stantinople in  1716,  whence  she  wrote  her 
Letters  to  Pope,  Addison,  and  others.  She 
introduced  inoculation  into  England.  An 
edition  of  her  works  was  published  in  1861. 
Her  son,  Edwaed  {d.  1776),  ran  away  from 
Westminster,  became  a  chimney-sweep,  and 
afterwards  a  muleteer  in  Spain,  and  after 
sitting  in  ParUament  some  years,  went 
abroad  again,  and  became  a  Mahometan. 

Montagu,  Right  Hon.  Lord  Robert  {b. 
1825),  English  politician  and  writer.  After 
graduating  at  Cambridge,  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1859  as  member  for  Huntingdon- 
shire, which  he  represented  as  a  Con- 
servative till  1874,  when  he  was  returned 
as  a  Conservative  Home  Ruler  for  West 
Meath.  He  left  the  Home  Rulers,  how- 
ever, in  1877,  and  Parliament  tliree  years 
later.  He  was  vice-president  of  the  Coun- 
cil and  Charity  commissioner  1867-8 :  be- 
came a  Romanist  in  1870,  but  left  the 
Catholics  in  1882.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  among  which  may  be  named  Some 
Popular    Errors '  Concerning    Folitics    and 


Mon 


(569) 


ItHon 


Religion  (1874),  Remarks  on  Mr.  Gladstone's 
Political  Expostulations  on  the  Vatican  De- 
crees (1874),  Recent  Events,  with  a  Clite  to 
their  Solution. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquem  de  (i.  1533,  d. 
1592),  French  writer,  was  educated  at  the 
College  de  Guienne  at  Bordeaux,  partly 
under  George  Buchanan,  and  became  a  j  udge 
of  the  Parlement  there  in  1554.  He  took  no 
part  in  affairs,  but  was  driven  from  his 
chateau  for  two  years  by  the  wars  of  the 
League,  during  which  time  he  formed  his 
friendship  with  Marie  de  Goumay.  In  1588 
he  was  chosen  to  negotiate  a  treaty  between 
Guise  and  Navarre  at  Blois.  His  Essais, 
of  which  Shakespeare  and  Ben  Jonson 
possessed  translations,  were  first  published 
m  1580. 

Montalembert,  Charles  Forbes  de  Tryon, 
Comte  de  (b.  1810,  d.  1870).  French  writer 
and  politician,  son  of  an  English  colonel, 
who  was  created  peer  of  France,  and  was 
ambassador  at  Stockholm ;  was  born  in 
London,  but  educated  chiefly  in  Paris.  He 
became  one  of  the  followers  of  Lamenuais, 
and  first  attracted  notice  by  a  speech  iu  the 
Chamber  (1831)  in  favour  of  free  Catholic 
schools.  Having  visited  England  and  the 
East,  he  became  a  leader  of  the  Ultra- 
montane party,  but  also  on  one  point  a 
strong  Liberal,  yet  he  made  a  great  speech 
in  favour  of  the  Sonderbund  in  1847.  Hav- 
ing been  a  member  of  the  Assemblies  of  1848 
and  1849,  and  been  received  at  the  French 
Academy  in  1852,  he  retired  from  public  life 
Boon  afterwards.  His  chief  works  were  La 
Vie  de  St.  Elisabeth  de  Hongrie  (1835-6),  Bit 
Vandalisme,  et  du  Catholicisme  dins  I' Art 
(1839),  VEglise  Libre  dans  VEtat  Libre 
(1863). 

Montalivet,  Marthe  Camille,  Comte  de 
{b.  1801,  d.  1880),  statesman,  from  an  early 
age  took  part  in  public  affairs ;  opposed  the 
Polignac  ministry,  and  after  the  revolution 
of  1830  was  several  times  minister  of  the 
interior  between  that  year  and  1840,  and 
continued  to  be  an  adviser  unofficially  of 
Louis  Philippe,  whom  he  endeavoured  to 
persuade  to  dismiss  Guizot.  After  the 
establishment  of  the  second  republic  he 
pubhshed  several  works  in  defence  of  the 
Orleanist  monarchy,  and  was  elected 
senator  only  a  year  before  his  death. 

Montanus  (2nd  century),  a  Phrygian, 
founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Montanists, 
whose  principles  Tertullian  favoured. 

Montcalm  de  Saint  V^ran,  Louis  Joseph, 
Marquis  de  (i.  1712,  (/.  175')),Freuch  general; 
was  named  commander  of  the  French  forces 
in  Canada  in  175G,  where  he  won  several 
victories,  and  fortified  Quebec,  but  was  de- 
feated by  Wolfe  in  1759,  and  mortally 
woimded. 


Monteagle,  Thomas  Spring  Rice,  Lord  (>. 
1790,  d.  Ib66),  statesman,  bom  at  Limerick, 
which  he  represented  from  1820  till  1832, 
when  he  was  elected  for  Cambridge.  He 
became  Colonial  Secretary  in  1834,  and 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  resigning  that  office  in  1839,  when 
he  became  a  peer.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  sat  on  several  royal 
commissions  on  art. 

Montebello,  Due  de.     [See  Lannes.] 

Montecucculi,  Raimondo,  Count  (J.  1608, 
d.  1681),  Italian  general  in  the  service  of 
the  empire.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  war  he 
defeated  the  Swedes,  and  drove  them  out  of 
Bohemia  in  1646,  but  was  taken  prisoner 
in  1639 ;  was  made  marshal  in  1648,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  Poland  and  against 
the  Turks,  winning  the  victory  of  the  Raab 
in  1664,  and  was  afterwards  an  able 
opponent  of  Turenne  and  Conde  in  Holland 
and  on  the  Rhine.  He  was  author  of 
Memorie  inferno  all'  Arte  BelUea, 

Montefiore,  Sir  Moses,  Bart.  (J).  1784,  d, 
188-3),  Jewish  philanthropist;  having  made 
a  fortune  on  the  Stock  Exchange,  founded 
the  Alliance  Assurance  Company  and  the 
Provincial  Bank  of  Ireland,  and  devoted 
his  great  wealth  to  the  relief  of  his  co- 
religionists and  others. 

Montegut,  Emile  {b.  1826),  French  writer, 
bom  at  Limoges  ;  author  of  Les  Pays  Bas, 
Impressions  de  Vot/nge  et  d'Art  (1869), 
L'Angleterreet  les  Colonies  Australes,  Poetes 
et  Artistes  de  V Italic,  Le  Marechal  Eavoilt, 
and  translations  of  Emerson's  Essays, 
Macaulay's  History,  and  Shakespeare's 
plays. 

Montelupo,  Rafi'aelo  da  [d.  circa  1570), 
Italian  sculptor,  pupil  and  assistant  of 
Lorenzetti  at  Rome ;  after  serving  as  bom- 
bardier at  San  Augelo,  made  bas-reliefs  at 
Loretto.  He  afterwards  assisted  Michel- 
angelo, and  was  architect  of  the  Duomo  at 
Orvieto,  but  his  monument  to  Baldassare 
Turini  at  Pescia  was  his  best  work. 

Monten,  Dietrich  (*.  1799,  d.  1843),  Ger- 
man miUtary  painter,  his  chief  works  being 
The  Storming  of  Belgrade,  The  Battle  of 
Liitzen,  etc. 

Montepin,  Xavier  de  {b.  1824),  French 
writer,  conspicuous  in  1848  as  an  auti- 
revolutionary  journalist ;  became  the  author 
of  numerous  novels,  Confessions  d'un  Bo- 
hhne  (1849),  Les  Viveurs  de  Paris  (1852-6), 
Le  Medecin  des  Folles  (1879),  etc.,  and  of 
Pauline,  La  Slrene  de  Paris,  and  other  plays. 

Months,  Lola  {d.  1861),  adventuress, 
whose  real  name  is  supposed  to  have  been 
Gilbert.  Having  run  away  with  a  captain, 
and  for  some  time  appeared  on  the  stage,  she 


Mon 


( ^^'^  ) 


Mon 


became  through  her  beauty  a  political  power 
in  Europe,  being  for  some  time  the  mistress 
of  King  Lewis  of  Bavaria,  who  created  her  a 
couutess.  After  the  revolution  she  con- 
tinued to  be  a  notorious  character,  and  at 
last  died  in  New  York. 

Montespan,  Fran^oise  Athenais  de  Roche- 
chouart,  Marquise  de  {b.  1641,  d.  1707),  mis- 
tress of  Louis  XIV.,  having  been  dame  de 
palais  to  the  queen.  After  being  gradually- 
supplanted  by  Madame  de  Maintenon,  she 
withdrew  from  court  in  1814,  and  became 
devote. 

Montesquieu,  Charles  le  Secondat,  Baron 
de  {b.  1689,  d.  1755),  French  philosopher, 
became  president  of  the  Bordeaux  Parle - 
ment  in  1716,  and  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1728.  Having  given  up  his 
appointments,  he  visited  England  in  the 
course  of  his  travels,  and  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  first  at- 
tained celebrity  by  his  Lettres  Fersanes,  a 
picture  of  contemporary  life,  but  his  chief 
work  was  Z' Esprit  des  Lois  (1748),  which 
was  preceded  by  Les  Causes  de  la  Grandeur 
des  Romains  et  de  leur  Decadence,  and  other 
works. 

Monteverde,  Claudio  (*.  1568,  d.  1643), 
Venetian  composer  ;  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  published  operas  and  to  have  in- 
troduced the  tremolo.  Ariana  (1607)  and 
L'Offeo  were  his  chief  productions. 

Montezuma  I.,  Emperor  of  Mexico  {d. 
1471),  after  having  been  the  victorious 
general  of  his  uncle,  succeeded  him  in  1436. 
He  defeated  the  people  of  Chalis,  and  em- 
banked the  lake  of  Tezcuco. 

Montezuma  II.  (b.  1466,  d.  1520),  his 
grandson,  became  emperor  in  1502,  and 
governed  with  gi-eat  cruelty.  His  dominions 
having  been  attacked  and  conquered  by 
Cortez,  he  was  killed  by  his  subjects  while 
persuading  them  to  submit  to  the  Spaniards. 

Montfaucon,  Bernard  de  {b.  1655,  d. 
1741),  French  scholar;  having  served  in  the 
army  under  Turenne,  entered  the  con- 
gregation of  St.  Maur  in  1675,  and  after- 
wards wrote  many  works,  the  chief  of  which 
was  L'Antiquite  Expliqiiee  et  Representee  en 
Figures. 

Montfort,  Simon  de  {d.  1218),  fourth 
Count,  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  leader 
of  the  cruel  crusade  against  the  Albigenses 
(1208).  He  afterwards  took  Toulouse  from 
Count  Raymond,  and  was  killed  while 
trjing  to  recover  it  after  its  recapture.  He 
was  made  Earl  of  Leicester  by  King  John. 

iilontfort,  Simon  de  {d.  1265),  Earl  of 
Leicester,  and  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
bom  in  France,  but  came  to  London  in 
1231,  and  married  the  king's  sister ;  was 
appointed  governor  of  Guienne  in  1246,  but 


provoked  much  complaint  from  the  severity 
of  his  rule,  and  resigned  in  1253.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  headed  the  constitutional 
party  against  Henry  III.,  and  gained  the 
practical  control  of  the  government  after 
the  battle  of  Lewes,  but  part  of  the 
baronage,  being  jealous  of  ms  influence, 
joined  the  Royalists  against  him,  and  he 
was  defeated  and  slain  at  Evesham.  The 
people,  however,  canonised  him ;  hymns 
were  composed  in  his  honour,  and  miracles 
wrought  at  his  tomb. 

Montgolfler,  Jacques  Etienne  {h.  1745, 
d.  I7yi>)'  French  paper-maker,  inventor  of 
the  balloon,  the  idea  of  which  is  said  to 
have  been  suggested  by  a  study  of  Piiest- 
ley's  works.  The  first  experiment  was 
made  in  1783  at  Annonay,  the  birthplace  of 
the  Montgolfiers,  and  it  was  afterwards 
repeated  at  Versailles.  Joseph,  his  elder 
brother  {fi.  1810),  had  a  share  in  the  in- 
vention, and  also  devised  a  hydraulic 
machine,  called  a  water-ram. 

Montgomery,  Alexander  {d.  circa  1615), 
Scotch  poet ;  author  of  The  Cherrie  and  the 
Slae  ;  was  a  favourite  of  James  VL,  who 
gave  him  a  pension. 

Montgomery,  Florence  {b.  1847),  daughter 
of  Sir  A.  Montgomery,  and  author  of  Mis- 
understood (1869),  Thrown  Together,  and 
many  similar  tales. 

Montgomery,  Gabriel  de  {b.  1530,  d, 
1574),  while  captain  of  the  Scots  Guard 
killed  Henry  II.  in  a  tournament ;  became 
a  Huguenot,  and  fought  bravely  against  the 
Catholics  till  taken  at  Matignon  and  exe- 
cuted. 

Montgomery,  James  {b.  1771,  d.  1854), 
Scotch  poet;  made  his  way  on  foot  to 
London,  where  he  became  a  journalist,  and 
was  several  times  imprisoned  for  his 
writings.  His  chief  poems  were  The  World 
Before  the  Flood  and  Greenland.  He  re- 
ceived a  Civil  List  pension  of  £150  by 
recommendation  of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 

Montgomery,  Robert  (b.  1807,  d.  1855), 
poetaster,  whose  works  are  now  unknown 
and  unread,  and  were  immortalised  by  Ma- 
caulay's  onslaught  in  the  Edinburgh  Review, 

Montholon,  Charles  Tristan,  Comte  de  (J. 
1782,  d.  1853),  chamberlain  of  Napoleon  I. ; 
was  severely  wounded  at  Waterloo,  after 
which  he  accompanied  his  master  to  St. 
Helena,  and  published,  in  the  form  of 
Memoires,  the  documents  written  by  him 
there.  He  was  afterwards  imprisoned  for 
his  share  in  the  descent  of  Louis  Napoleon 
on  Boulogne  in  1840. 

Monti,  Raffaelle  {b.  1818,  d.  1881),  Italian 
sculptor,  bom  at  Milan ;  visited  Vienna  and 
England  in  1847,  and,  having  taken  part 
in  the  popular  movement  in  Italy  in  tha 


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following  year,  returned  to  England.  His 
chief  works  were  The  Veiled  Vestal  and  The 
Sleep  of  Sorrow  and  the  Bream  of  Joy. 

Montluc,  Blaise  de  {b.  1501,  d.  1677), 
French  marshal ;  distinguished  for  his 
services  under  Francis  I.  in  Italy,  and 
afterwards  notorious  for  his  cruelty  to  the 
Huguenots ;  wrote  Memoires,  which  were 
called  by  Henri  I V.  the  • '  Soldier' s  Breviary. ' ' 

Montmorency,  Anne  Due  de  [b.  1492,  d. 
1567),  French  marshal  and  Constable  of 
France,  descended  from  Matthieu,  "the 
Great  Constable,"  and  minister  of  Philip 
Augustus,  Louis  VIII.,  and  Blanche  of 
Castile.  After  serving  Francis  I. ,  and  being 
taken  prisoner  at  Pavia,  he  was  made  con- 
stable in  1538,  but  afterwards  exiled;  was 
restored  by  Henri  II.,  in  whose  reign  he 
suppressed  the  rebellion  in  Guienne,  but 
was  captured  at  St.  Quentin ;  afterwards 
endeavoui-ed  to  hold  the  balance  between 
the  Guises  and  the  Huguenots,  but  ulti- 
mately joined  the  former.  He  was  made 
prisoner  at  Dreux,  but  won  the  victory  at 
St.  Denis,  where,  however,  he  was  mortally 
wounded.  His  brother,  Henri,  who  had 
been  governor  of  Languedoc  fifty  years, 
and  afterwards  joined  Henri  of  Navarre, 
succeeded  him  as  duke. 

Montmorency,  Henri,  Due  de  (,i.  1595,  d. 
1632),  son  of  Henri  and  nephew  of  Anne, 
was  made  admiral  of  France  in  his  eighteenth 
year;  defeated  De  Eohau,  the  Huguenot 
leader,  in  16:28,  and  the  Spaniards  vmder 
Doria  in  1630,  and  was  created  marshal, 
but  being  jealous  of  the  power  exercised  by 
Eichelieu,  raised  a  rebelUon  in  Languedoc, 
and  having  been  captured,  was  put  to  death 
by  his  orders. 

Montorsoli,  Fra  Giovan  Angelo  (/?.  1563), 
Italian  sculptor,  bom  near  Florence,  was 
employed  by  Clement  VII.  to  restore 
statues,  and  assisted  Michelangelo  at 
Florence.  He  executed,  among  other  works, 
the  statue  of  Andrea  Doria  at  Genoa. 

Montpensier,  Anne  Marie  of  Orleans 
(Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier)  {h.  1627,  d. 
1693).  daughter  of  Gaston,  Due  d' Orleans 
and  niece  of  Louis  XIII. ;  was  a  bold  and 
able  partisan  of  Conde,  opposing  Richelieu 
and  aiming  at  marriage  with  Louis  XIV. ; 
was  secretly  married  to  the  Comte  de 
Lauzun.  whose  liberation  from  prison  she 
effected  after  ten  years,  but  was  badly 
treated  by  him.     She  left  copious  MSmoircs. 

Montpensier,  Antoine  Louis  d' Orleans, 
Due  de  ib.  1824,  d.  1S90),  fifth  son  of  Louis 
Philippe  ;  having  distinguished  himself  as  a 
soldier  in  Africa,  married  the  sister  of  Isa- 
bella, Queen  of  Spain,  and  came  to  England 
after  the  revolution  of  1848.  Twenty  years 
later  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  Spanish 
throne,   and  in   1870  he  killed  Enrique  de 


Bourbon  in  a  duel.  After  the  abdication 
of  Amadeus  I.,  he  supported  the  claims  of 
his  nephew,  AKonso,  to  whom  one  of  his 
daughters  was  married,  another  becoming 
the  wife  of  the  Comte  de  Paris, 

Montpetit,  Armand  de  {b.  1713,  c?.  1800), 
French  artist ;  invented  the  "eludonic"  style 
of  painting,  on  which  he  wrote  an  essay, 
and  also  made  some  improvements  in  the 
steam-engine. 

Montrose,  James  Graham,  Marquis  of  {b. 
1612,  d.  1650),  Royalist  leader  ;  was  born  in 
Eduiburg:h,  and  lived  some  time  in  France  as 
an  officer  iu  the  Scottish  Guard.  Onhis  return 
he  first  joined  the  Covenanters,  but  after- 
wards became  a  zealous  Royalist,  gaining 
several  battles  for  the  king,  but  was  de- 
feated by  Lesley  at  Philiphaugh  in  1645. 
and  four  years  later,  having  been  captured 
in  Orkney,  was  brought  to  Edinburgh  and 
executed. 

Montucla,  Jean  Etienne  (b.  1725,  d.  1799), 
French  mathematician ;  accompanied  Turgot 
to  Cayenne  as  secretary  and  astronomer  in 
1764,  and  was  intimate  with  Lalande, 
D'Alembert,  and  others ;  wi-ote  Histoire  des 
Mathematiques  and  other  works. 

Moody,  Dwight  Lynian  {b.  1837),  Ameri» 
can  preacher,  born  in  Massachusetts ;  re- 
nounced Unitarianism  and  became  a  Con- 
gregatioualist,  served  during  the  Civil  war 
on  the  Christian  Commission,  and  from  1865 
entirely  abandoned  business.  His  church 
and  school-house  at  Chicago  having  been 
burnt  down  in  1871,  he  came  to  England  to 
raise  finids  for  rebuilding  them,  and  was 
successful  in  his  object.  He  had  previously 
visited  the  country  iu  1864,  and  paid  two 
later  visits,  accompanied  by  Sankey,  in  1873 
and  1883. 

Moolraj,  governor  of  Mooltan  ;  succeeded 
Sawan  Mull  in  1844,  and  some  time  after- 
wards caused  to  be  treacherously  murdered 
Mr.  Agnew  and  Lieutenant  Anderson,  who 
had  come  to  enforce  payment  of  his  suc- 
cession fee.  In  1848  his  capital  was  stomied, 
and  having  surrendered  he  was  imprisoned 
for  life. 

Moor,  Karl  van  {b.  1656,  d.  1738),  Dutch 
painter,  bom  at  Leyden  ;  painted  portraits 
and  historical  pictures,  among  them  being 
one  of  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  for 
the  emperor. 

Moore,  Sir  John  {b.  1761,  <^.  1809),  soldier ; 
son  of  a  doctor  at  Glasgow,  who  edited 
Smollett's  works;  served  in  the  American 
war,  in  Corsica  (1794),  in  the  attack  on  St. 
Lucia,  of  which  he  became  governor,  and 
subsequently  in  Ireland,  Holland,  Egypt, 
aud  Sicily  (1806).  On  his  return  from  an 
expedition  in  aid  of  Sweden  he  was  sent  to 
Portugal  to  command  an  army  to  cooperate 
with  the  Spaniards.      He  was  obliged  to 


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retreat  from  Salamanca  to  the  sea,  and  won 
the  victory  of  Coriuma  (1809),  hut  fell  in  the 
hattle. 

Moore,  John,  D.D.  {h.  1662,  d.  1714), 
Bishop  successively  of  Norwich  and  Ely. 
His  valuable  library  was  purchased  by 
George    I.,  and    presented   to    Cambridge 

University. 

Moore,  Sir  Jonas  (*.  1617,  d.  1681), 
mathematician ;  patronised  by  Charles  I., 
and  made  surveyor- general  of  ordnance  by 
Charles  II.,  founded  a  mathematical  school 
at  Christ's  Hospital,  and  wrote  several 
mathematical  works. 

Moore,  Thomas  (b.  1779,  d.  1852),  Irish 
writer,  son  of  a  grocer  at  Dublin  ;  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1779,  and  went 
to  London  soon  after,  where  he  obtained 
the  entree  to  Holland  House.  In  1804  he 
went  to  Bermuda  as  registrar  to  the  Ad- 
miralty Court,  but  after  a  tour  in  Canada 
and  the  States  returned  to  England  in  1806. 
After  nearly  having  a  duel  with  Jeffrey  he 
became  his  friend,  as  also  that  of  Bjrron  and 
Sheridan,  both  of  whose  hves  he  wi-ote.  A 
pension  of  £300  was  conferred  on  him  in 
1835.  Chief  among  his  works  were  Lal/a 
Mookh  (1817),  Irish  Melodies  and  Sacred 
Songs,  The  Epicurean,  A  Life  of  Lord  E. 
Fitzgerald,  etc. 

Moore,  Thomas  (b.  1821,  d.  1887),  English 
botanist ;  author  of  the  Treasure  of  Botany 
and  editor  of  Ferns  of  Great  Britain,  Nature- 
printed. 

Moorhouse,  James,  D.D.  {b.  1826),  divine, 
son  of  a  Manchester  merchant,  was  educated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge ;  became 
Bishop  of  Melbourne  in  1876,  and  of  Man- 
chester in  1885. 

Moorshed  Koolee  Khan  {d.  1725),  viceroy 
of  Bengal  under  Aurungzebe.  Having  been 
originally  a  slave,  left  the  province  in  a  high 
state  of  cultivation,  and  founded  Moors- 
hedabad,  but  persistently  opposed  the  Eng- 
lish. 

Morales,  Luis  de  {d.  1586),  Spanish 
painter,  called  "El  Divino,"  from  his 
Bubiects  being  sacred :  was  pensioned  by 
Philip  II. 

Moran,  Patrick,  Cardinal  (i.  1830), 
Eomanist  Archbishop  of  Sydney,  was  bom 
in  Ireland,  and  educated  in  Rome ;  after 
being  professor  of  Hebrew  to  the  propa- 
ganda and  secretary  to  Cardinal  Cullen, 
became  Bishop  of  Ossory,  and  Archbishop 
of  Sj'dney  in  1884.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Persecu- 
tions under  Cromwell  and  the  Puritans,  Irish 
Saints  in  Great  Britain,  and  The  Federal, 
Government  in  Australasia. 

Moratin,  Leandro  Fernando  de  {b.  1760, 


d.  1828).  Spanish  dramatist,  patronised  by 
Florida  Blanca  and  Godoy;  produced  El 
Vicjo  y  la  Nina,  Escuela  de  los  Maridos,  and 
other  plays,  besides  a  translation  of  Hamlet 
and  some  lyrics.  His  father,  Nicolo  {d. 
178U),  was  also  a  dramatist,  his  chief  works 
being  Lucretia  and  La  Petimetra. 

Moray.     [See  Murray.] 

Mordaunt.     {See  Peterborough.] 

More,  Hannah  {b.  1745,  d.  1833),  English 
vn-iter,  born  near  Bristol,  where,  with  her 
sister,  she  kept  a  school ;  became  acquainted 
with  Johnson,  Burke,  and  their  circle  when 
in  London,  but  returned  to  the  country  in 
1786.  Her  chief  works  were  Sacred  Dramas 
(1782),  Practical  Piety  (1811),  and  several 
poems  and  successful  plays,  Percy  being 
brought  out  by  Garrick  at  Drury  Lane. 

More,  Henry,  D.D.  {b.  1614,  d.  1687), 
Cambridge  Platonist  philosopher,  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  wrote  Divine  Dialogues  and  Psychozoia  : 
the  Life  of  the  Soul  (1640). 

More,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1478,  d.  1535), 
statesman  and  writer,  son  of  Sir  J.  More, 
a  judge :  was  educated  in  the  household  of 
Archbishop  Morton,  who  sent  him  to  Oxford, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Eras- 
mus. He  entered  Parliament  in  1504,  where 
he  took  an  independent  course,  refusing  a 
pension  from  the  king,  whose  favour,  how- 
ever, and  that  of  Wolsey,  he  enjoyed ;  was 
knighted  in  1522,  became  Speaker  in  1523, 
and  on  the  fall  of  Wolsey,  Chancellor,  but 
resigned  in  1532,  and  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  two  years  later  for  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  supremacy.  He  was  then  con- 
demned by  attainder,  and  executed  on  a 
charge  of  treasou.  He  wrote  Utopia  and 
several  other  works,  most  of  them  in  Latin. 

Moreau,  Jean  Victor  {b.  1761,  d.  1813), 
general ;  commanded  the  army  of  the  Rhine 
in  1796,  and  after  defeating  the  Archduke 
Charles,  made  a  masterly  retreat ;  after- 
wards gained  victories  at  Biberach  and 
Hoheuliuden  (1800),  and  took  Salzburg. 
Bonaparte  became  jealous  of  his  fame  and 
distrustful  of  his  political  principles,  and  he 
was  sent  into  exile  in  1804  on  a  charge  of 
conspiracy.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he 
joined  the  allies,  and  was  soon  after  mortally 
woiuided  at  Dresden. 

Moreau  de  la  Sarthe,  Jacques  {b.  1771,  d. 
1826),  French  physician;  smthox  oi  Histoire 

Natnrelle  de  la  Femme  (1803).  I 

Moreau  de   Saint   Mery,   Mederic  filie     ) 
(b.  1750,  d.  1819).  French  administrator  and 
founder  of  the  Musee  de  Paris,  published 
Lois  et  Constittitions  des  Colonies  Fran<;aise 
de  VAmerique,  1550  A  1785. 


Mor 


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Mor 


MoreU,  Thomas  {b.  1703,  d.  1784),  Eng- 
lish scholar,  fellow  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, author  of  Thesaurus  Grcecce  Poeseos 
and  the  hbretto  of  several  of  Handel's 
oratorios.  He  also  assisted  Hogarth  in  his 
Analysis  of  Beauty. 

MoreUet,  Andre,  Abbe  (b.  1727,  d.  1819), 
French  economist,  friend  of  Franklin,  the 
philosopher ;  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille 
at  the  opening  of  the  revolution  for  a 
pamphlet  against  the  court.  He  -wrote 
Theorie  du  Faradoxe,  and  translated  Bec- 
caria's  work  on  Crimes  and  Funishments. 

Moreto  y  Cabana,  Augustin  {d.  1669), 
Spanish  dramatist,  contemporary  with  Cal- 
deron,  his  best  work  being  the  comedy 
El  Desden  con  el  Desden.  His  Guardar  una 
Muger  no  Fuede  Ser  has  been  thought  to 
have  been  the  model  of  L' Ecole  des  Maris. 

Morgan.     {See  De  Morgan.] 

Morgan,  Right  Hon.  George  Osborne  {b. 
1826),  English  politician,  born  at  Conway; 
after  a  distinguished  career  at  Oxford,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1853,  and  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  1869.  He  entered  Par- 
liament as  a  Liberal  in  1868  for  Denbigh- 
shire, was  Judge  Advocate  General  from 
1880  to  1885,  and  uuder-secretary  for  the 
colonies  in  1886,  having  been  prominent 
in  the  carrying  of  the  Burials  Act,  the 
Married  Women's  Property  Act,  and  the 
Abolition  of  Corporal  Punishment  in  the 
Army.  He  is  also  author  of  a  standard 
work  on  Chancery  practice,  and  several 
political  pamphlets. 

Morgan,  Sir  Hemy  {d.  1690),  Welsh 
buccaneer ;  ravaged  the  Spanish  colonies 
and  plimdered  Puerto  Bello  in  1668,  and 
was  knighted  by  Charles  II. 

Morgan,  Sydney,  Lady  \nee  Owenson], 
{b.  1783,  d.  1859),  Irish  novelist,  daughter 
of  an  actor  ;  author  of  The  Wild  Irish  Girl, 
Woman  and  her  Master,  Passages  from  my 
Autobiography,  and  other  works.  Afterthe 
death  of  Sir  C.  Morgan  she  received  a  Civil 
List  pension. 

Morghen,  Raffaelle  San2ao  Cavaliers  {b. 
17oS,  (/.  1833),  Italian  engraver,  bom  at 
Naples ;  reproduced  most  of  Raffaelle's 
works,  and  The  Last  Supper  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci.  He  was  invited  to  Paris  in  1812  by 
Napoleon. 

Morier,  James  (J.  1780,  d.  1849),  author  of 
books  of  travels  in  the  East,  and  of  Ilajji 
Baba  of  Ispahan,  and  other  novels. 

Morier,  Sir  Robert  Burnett,  G.C.B., 
D.C.L.  {b.  1826),  diplomatist;  after  gra- 
duating at  Oxford,  served  in  the  Education 
Department,  and  as  attache  at  Vienna  and 
Berlin,  and  after  having  been  a  member  of 
the  Tariff  Commission  of  1865,  secretary  of 


legation  at  Athens,  charge  d'affaires  at 
Frankfort,  Darmstadt,  Stuttgardt  and  Mu- 
nich, was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  Portugal  in  1876,  to  Spain  in  1881,  to 
Russia  in  1884,  and  to  Rome  in  1892. 

Morin,  Jean  (6.  1591,  d.  1659),  French 
Orientalist,  chaplain  to  Henrietta  Maria ; 
was  noted  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Samari- 
tan language,  of  which  he  published  a 
gi'ammar  and  lexicon. 

MorlaccM,  Francesco  (b.  1784,  d.  1841), 
Italian  composer,  whose  works  include  ora- 
torios {Gil  Angeli  al  Sepolchro,  1802,  etc.), 
operas  {II  Ritratto),  and  masses. 

Morland,  George  {b.  1763,  d.  1804), English 
painter,  whose  subjects  were  generally 
chosen  from  low  life  and  rustic  scenery 
(farmyards,  scenes  at  village  alehouses, 
etc.),  lived  a  very  irregular  life,  and  died  in 
a  sponging-house  in  Loudon. 

Morland,  Sir  Samuel  {d.  1695),  engineer  ; 
was  employed  diplomatically  in  Savoy  by 
Cromwell,  and  received  a  baronetcy  from 
Charles  II.,  in  whose  reign  he  invented  the 
speaking  -  trumpet,  and  an  arithmetical 
machine. 

Morley,  Right  Hon.  Albert  Parker,  3rd 
Earl  of  {b.  1843),  statesman,  educated  at 
Eton  and  Balliol,  was  a  lord-in-waiting 
from  1868  to  1874,  under-secretary  for  war 
under  Mr.  Gladstone  (1880-5),  but  resigned 
the  office  of  First  Commissioner  of  Works  in 
1886  owing  to  disagreement  with  the  policy 
of  Home  Rule.  In  1889  he  was  elected 
chairman  of  committees  in  the  House  of 
Lords. 

Morley,  Henry  {b.  1822),  biographer  and 
writer  ;  after  practising  as  a  doctor  in  Shrop- 
shire for  four  years,  came  to  London  in 
1851  as  a  joiirnalist  and  edited  Household 
Words;  was  English  lecturer  at  King's 
College  from  1857  to  1865,  and  professor  of 
English  from  1865  to  1889  at  University 
College,  when  he  became  Emeritus  professor. 
He  edited  for  Routledge  the  Universal 
Library,  and  for  Cassell  The  National 
Library,  and  wrote  besides  numerous  bio- 
graphies {Clement  Marot,  etc.),  A  First 
Sketch  of  English  Literature,  Tables  of  Eng- 
lish Literature,  and  edited  Florio's  Mon- 
taigne, BosweU's  Johnson,  etc. 

Morley,  Right  Hon.  John  {b.  1838),  states- 
man and  writer,  bom  at  Blackburn  and 
educated  at  Cheltenham  and  Oxford  ;  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1859,  but  devoted  his 
time  to  writing.  He  edited,  among  other 
publications,  the  Fortnightly  Review  from 
1867  to  1882,  the  Fall  Mall  Gazette  fram  1S80 
to  1883,  and  Macmillan  1883-85.  and  after 
two  imsuccessful  candidatures  (in  1869  and 
1880)  entered  Parliament  in  1883  as  member 


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for  Newcastle.  He  from  the  first  adopted 
Home  Kiile,  and  in  IbSti  became  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland,  and  again  in  1892.  His 
chief  works  are  Edmund  Burke ;  an  Histori- 
cal Study,  Voltaire,  Jtousseau,  Diderot,  On 
Compromise,  Life  of  Cobden,  Walpole  and 
Chatham,  in  the  ^^  Statesmen  "  series ;  and  he 
edited  the  "  English  Men  of  Letters"  series. 

Money,  Samuel  {b.  1809,  d.  1886),  Non- 
conformist philanthropist,  devoting  his 
wealth  to  all  good  works,  the  chief  result 
of  his  munificence  being  the  Memorial  Hall, 
Farringdon  Street.  He  represented  Bristol 
from  1868  to  1885,  and  declined  a  peerage 
on  retiring  from  public  life.  His  son, 
Aenold  Moelet  (J).  1849),  having  been 
called  to  the  bar  in  1873,  was  returned  for 
Nottingham  in  1880,  and  in  1886  became 
patronage  secretary  to  the  Treasury,  and 
chief  Liberal  whip. 

Momay,  Philippe  de  {b.  1549,  d.  1623), 
French  statesman,  fled  to  England  after  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew;  afterwards 
joined  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  became  his 
chief  counsellor,  reconciling  him  with 
Henri  III.  in  1589  ;  obtained  from  Hemi 
IV.  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  but  was  dismissed 
by  him  in  1600  as  an  over-zealous  Huguenot. 

^Momin^on,  Garrett  Wesley,  Earl  of  (b. 
1735,  d.  1781),  Irish  musician  and  composer, 
professor  of  music  at  Dublin ;  composed, 
besides  sacred  music,  many  glees  (0  Bird  of 
Eve,  Come,  Fairest  Nymph,  etc.) 

Momy,  Charles  Auguste  Lotiis  Joseph, 
Due  de  {b.  1811,  d.  I860),  French  statesman, 
said  to  be  half -brother  of  Napoleon  III.,  was 
adopted  by  the  Due  de  Morny,  and  served 
some  time  in  the  French  army,  after  which 
he  became  a  speculator.  Having  had  a  share 
in  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851,  he  became  minister 
of  the  interior,  but  resigned  on  account  of 
the  decrees  confiscating  the  Orleans  property. 
From  1854  till  his  death  he  was  president  of 
the  Corps  Legislative, 

Morosini,  Francesco  (6.  1611,  d.  1694), 
Doge  of  Venice,  called  "H  Peloponesiaco," 
from  his  conquest  of  the  Morea  from  the 
Turks  in  1651  ;  afterwards  lost  Candia,  and 
was  tried  for  misconduct,  but  acquitted, 
and,  after  being  elected  Doge  in  1688,  de- 
feated the  Turks  on  several  occasions. 

Morpeth,      George     William     Howard, 
Viscount,  and  Earl  of  Carlisle  {b.  1802,  d. 
1864),  entered  Parliament  in  1826,  and  be- 
came Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  in  183o- 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  Lord  Lieutenant. 

Morris,  Francis  Orpen  (6.  1810),  British 
naturalist,  son  of  Rear-Admiral  H.  G. 
Morris;  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1833,  and 
soon  after  took  orders,  and  became  chaplain 
to  the  Duke  of  Cleveland;  wrote  History 


of  British  Birds  (1851-7),  Natural  History 
of  British  Butte^fties,  An  Essay  on  Scientific 
Nomenclature,  etc. 

Morris,  Gouvemeur  (h.  1752,  d.  1816), 
American  statesman  ;  became  a  member  of 
the  Provincial  Congress  of  New  York,  and 
was  one  of  those  who  drew  up  the  state 
constitution  in  1776;  was  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  Congress  1777-SO, 
being  the  colleague  of  R.  Morris  as 
superintendent  of  finance.  He  was  one  of 
the  draughters  of  the  federal  constitution 
in  1787,  after  which  he  passed  many  years 
in  Europe,  being  minister  to  France  'during 
the  revolution,  and  became  United  States 
senator  on  his  return.  He  wrote  Observa- 
tions on  the  Amei'ican  Revolution,  and  his 
Correspondence  throws  much  light  on  the 
French  revolution. 

Morris,  Rev.  John  (*.  1826),  Catholic 
biographer  and  writer,  bom  in  India,  was 
secretary  to  Cardinals  Wiseman  and  Man- 
ning, and  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1867.  Among  bis  works  are  Lfe  of  S. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury,  The  Letter  Books  of 
Sir  Amyas  Paulet,  and  The  Troubles  of  Our 
Catholic  Forefathers. 

Morris,  Lewis  {b.  1833),  poet,  grandson  of 
the  Welsh  poet  of  the  same  name,  was  bom 
in  Carmarthen,  and  educated  at  Sherborne 
and  Oxford,  and  having  been  called  to  the 
bar  practised  as  a  conveyancer  for  several 
years.  He  was  several  times  an  unsuccesf  ul 
Liberal  candidate,  and  was  some  time  vice- 
chairman  of  the  Reform  Club.  His  chief 
works  are  The  Epic  of  Hades  (1876-7),  Given: 
a  Brama  in  Monologue  (1878),  The  Ode  of 
Life  (1880),  Songs  of  Britain  (containing  the 
Jubilee  Ode),  and  A  Vision  of  Saints. 

Morris,  Right  Hon.  Michael,  Lord  [b. 
1827),  Irish  judge,  bom  in  Galway,  and 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was 
called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1849,  and  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  1863.  He  entered  Par- 
liament as  an  Independent  in  1865  for 
Galway,  was  successively  Solicitor-  and 
Attorney- General  for  Ireland  in  1866,  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  Common  Pleas  in 
1867,  Lord  Chi«f  Justice  in  1876,  and  in 
1889  Lord  of  Appeal,  receiving  a  life  peer- 
age in  1890.  He  was  a  member  of  several 
commissions  on  Irish  Primary  Education. 

Morris,  Philip  Richard  (i.  1838),  artist; 
at  first  engaged  as  an  iron-founder,  but 
having  attracted  the  notice  of  Holman 
Hunt,  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
where  in  1858  he  won  the  gold  medal  for 
his  Good  Samaritan,  and  won  a  travelling 
studentship.  He  was  elected  A.R.A.  in 
1877,  and  exhibited  at  the  Academy  and  the 
Grosvenor  Gallery  The  Shadow  of  the  Cross, 
A  Procession  at  Bieppe  (1877),  Home ;  A 
Family  Group  (1886),  etc. 


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Mor 


Morris,  Eev.  Kichard,  LL.D.  (i.  1S33), 
philologist  and  -writer  ;  after  being  lecturer 
on  English  at  King's  College  school,  was 
elected  in  1875  headmaster  of  the  Royal 
Masonic  Institute  for  Boys.  In  1874  he 
was  president  of  the  Philological  Society. 
Among  his  works  are  The  Etymology  of 
Local  Saines,  Specimens  of  Early  English, 
&ud  Historical  Outlines  of  English  Accidetwe, 
and  editions  of  Early  English  Alliterative 
I'oems.  Chaucer's  Bo'ethius,  etc. 

Morris,  Sobert  (6.  1734,  d.  1806),  Ameri- 
can financier,  bom  in  Liverpool :  emigrated 
at  an  early  age  and  settled  in  Philadelphia, 
becoming  a  partner  in  the  counting-house 
of  C.  Willing  ;  opposed  the  Stamp  Act,  and 
signed  the  Non -importation  Agreement 
(17(35).  Having  become  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  he  signed  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  and  greatly 
helped  the  American  cause  from  his  own 
purse,  both  dirring  the  war  and  afterwards. 
He  founded  the  Bank  of  North  America, 
was  superintendent  of  finemce  from  1781  to 
1784,  but  declined  the  secretaryship  of  the 
treasury ;  was  finally  ruined  by  his  specu- 
lations, and  died  in  prison  for  debt. 

Morris,  William  (J.  1834),  English  poet 
and  Socialist,  son  of  a  London  merchant ; 
was  educated  at  Marlborough  and  Oxford, 
and  in  1863,  with  D.  G.  Rossetti,  Bume 
Jones  and  others,  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  artistic  wall-paper  and  household 
decorations.  During  his  leisure  hours  he 
gave  Socialist  lectures,  and  wrote  poetry, 
his  chief  productions  having  been  The  Life 
and  Death  of  Jason  (1867),  The  Earthly 
Paradise  (1868-70),  The  Story  of  Sigurd 
the  Tolsung  (1877),  besides  translations  of 
the  JEnetd  and  the  Odyssey,  and  some  prose 
works,  of  which  the  chief  is  A  Tale  of  the 
House  of  the  Wolfings  (1889). 

Morrison,  Richard,  D.D.  (*.  1782,  d. 
1834),  Orientalist ;  went  to  China  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  1807,  and  was  chief  founder  of 
the  Anglo-Chinese  college  at  Malacca.  He 
published  a  Chinese  version  of  the  Bible, 
and  a  Chinese  dictionary  and  grammar. 

Morse,  Samuel  Finley  Breese  (jb.  1791,  rf. 
1872),  American  electrician,  sou  of  a  Con- 
gregatiouaUst  mmister  in  Massachusetts; 
having  graduated  at  Yale,  came  to  England 
in  1810,  and,  becoming  a  pupil  of  West,  ex- 
hibited The  Dying  Hercules  at  the  Academy 
ia  1813.  He  afterwards  abandoned  art  for 
science,  and  in  1837  took  out  a  patent  for 
his  electric  telegraph,  the  first  overhead 
message  being  sent  from  Washington  to 
Baltimore  in  1844.  It  was  afterwards  gene- 
rally adopted,  the  inventor  receiving  an 
international  testimonial  in  1858.  Disputes 
subsequently  arose  as  to  priority  of  invention 
with  Professor  Henry,  and  on  account  of 
the  infringement  of  Morse's  patent. 


Mortier,  fidouard  Adolphe,  Due  de  Tre- 
vise  {b.  1768,  d.  1835),  marshal  of  France; 
was  sent  by  Napoleon  to  occupy  Hanover  in 
1803,  gained  some  victories  in  Spain  ia 
1809,  was  defeated  at  Montmartre  in  1814  ; 
also  distinguished  himself  at  Friedland  and 
in  Russia.  He  gave  in  his  adhesion  at  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  and  was  war 
minister  to  Louis  Philippe  for  several 
months,  being  soon  after  killed  by  an  in< 
femal  machine. 

Mortimer,  Edmund  {d.  1381),  son  of 
Roger,  married  Philippa,  daughter  of 
Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence.  Their  grand- 
daughter, Anne,  married  Richard,  Earl  of 
Cambridge,  grandfather  of  Edward  IV. 

Mortimer,  Roger,  Ear^  of  March  (*.  1287, 
d.  1330),  the  favourite  of  Isabella,  wife  of 
Edward  II.,  whom  he  assisted  to  overthrow 
the  Despencers,  and  afterwards  ruled  Eng- 
land ;  was  arrested  by  Edward  III.  for  the 
murder  of  his  father,  and  hanged  at  Tyburn. 
His  grandson,  Roger,  was  restored  to  the 
earldom  in  1354. 

Morton,  James  Douglas,  fourth  Earl  of 
(d.  1581),  Scotch  statesman,  favoured  the 
reformation,  and  was  made  chancellor  in 
1563  ;  fled  to  England  after  the  miurder  of 
Rizzio,  for  his  share  in  which  he  received  a 

Eardon  by  the  influence  of  Bothwell,  whom, 
owever,  he  afterwards  opposed,  becoming 
again  Chancellor,  and  in  1572  Regent  of 
Scotland.  In  1581  he  was  executed  as  an 
accomplice  in  the  murder  of  Damley,  the 
accusation  being  probably  imtrue. 

Morton,  John,  Cardinal  (6.  1410,  d.  1500), 
statesman,  became  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1478, 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1486  ;  was 
employed  diplomatically  by  Edward  IV., 
plotted  against  Richard  III.,  and  became 
Lord  Chancellor  under  Henry  VII.,  when  he 
devised  the  well-known  dilemma  of  "  Mor- 
ton's fork." 

Morton,  Levi  Parsons  (b.  1824),  American 
statesman,  bom  at  Shoreham,  Vermont ; 
foxmded  in  1863  the  banking-house  of 
Morton,  Bliss  and  Co.  (New  York),  and 
Morton,  Rose  and  Co.  (London)  ;  dechned 
the  Republican  nomination  as  vice-president 
in  1880,  but  accepted  it  and  was  elected  ia 
1888,  ha\'ing  in  the  intervening  years  been 
American  minister  in  France. 

Morton,  Samuel  George  (6.  1799,  d.  1851), 
American  physician,  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Philadelphia  ;  latterly  gave  his  chief  at- 
tention to  ethnological  researches,  the  re- 
sults of  which  were  published  in  his  works. 
Crania  Americana,  Crania  JEyyptiaca,  Types 
of  Mankind  (posthumous). 

Moryson,  Fynes  {b.  1566),  English  tra- 
veller, secretary  to  Lord  Mountjoy,  deputy 


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Mou 


of  Irelaud ;  published  an  Itinerary  (1617), 
and  several  works  on  Ireland. 

Moscheles,  Ignaz  (b.  1794,  d.  1870),  Ger- 
man pianist  and  composer,  bom  at  Prague, 
where  he  studied  before  going  to  Vienna ; 
became  a  great  pianist,  visiting  all  the  prin- 
cipal Coutiuental  towns,  and  coming  to 
England  in  1820.  He  settled  in  London, 
and  became  in  1825  professor  at  the 
Academy,  but  in  1846  was  appointed  to  a 
professorship  at  Leipzig.  Among  his  pupils 
were  Thalberg  and  Mendelssolm,  and  his 
Life,  edited  by  his  wife,  appeared  in  1873. 

Moschus  (/.  circa  250  B.C.),  Greek  pas- 
toral poet,  a  native  of  Syracuse. 

Moseilama  (Jl.  632),  Arab  chief;  set  up 
himself  as  a  rival  of  Mahomet,  with  whom 
he  proposed  a  partition  of  the  earth  ;  was 
defeated  by  Khaled  and  slain,  and  his  party 
was  soon  suppressed. 

Moseley,  Henry  Nottidge,  F.R.S.  (b.  1844, 
d.  1891),  scientific  writer,  son  of  Rev.  H. 
Moseley,  F.R.S. ;  after  leaving  Oxford, 
studied  medicine  in  London,  Vienna,  and 
Leipzig,  and  in  1871  was  a  member  of  the 
£clipse  expedition  to  Ceylon  and  southern 
India.  During  the  years  1872-6  he  was 
with  the  Challenger  expedition  as  naturalist, 
and  on  his  return  became  fellow  of  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  and  in  1881  Linacre  pro- 
fessor of  human  and  comparative  anatomy. 
He  wrote  Notes  by  a  Naturalist  on  the 
^^ Challenger^'  (1879),  and  many  scientific 
memoirs. 

Moser,  George  Michael  (*.  1705,  d.  1783), 
Swiss  artist,  bom  at  Schaffhausen;  came 
to  England  and  became  a  goldsmith  and 
enameller;  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1768.  His  daughter, 
Mary  {b.  1744),  a  flower-painter,  became  an 
Academician. 

Moses,  the  lawgiver  of  Israel,  flourished 
probably  about  1500  B.C. 

Mosheim,  Johann  Lorenz  von  {b.  1694, 
d.  1755),  German  writer,  bom  at  Lttbeck  of 
noble  parents,  professor  of  theology  at 
Gottingen ;  wrote  Institutionum  Ecclesiasticce 
Historice  Libri  V.  and  other  works,  and  also 
translated  Cudworth's  Intellectual  System  of 
the  Universe,  with  annotations. 

Moss,  Robert,  D.D.  {b.  1666,  d.  1729), 
Dean  of  Ely  and  chaplain-iu-ordinary  to 
William  III.,  Anne,  and  George  I.,  being 
dismissed  in  1718  for  his  share  in  the 
Bangorian  controversy ;  wrote  The  Report 
Vindicated  from  Mis-reports,  a  defence  of 
Convocation. 

Mossop,  Henry  (*.  1729,  d.  1773),  tra- 
getliau,  bom  in  Connaught,  and  educated  at 
Dublin,   where  he  appeared  as  Zanga    in 


Young's  Revenge.  He  played  in  London 
with  success,  but  was  tinally  ruined  by  the 
management  of  a  Dublin  theatre. 

Motenabbi,  Abul  Ahmed  {b.  915,  d.  965), 
Arabian  poet,  attempted  to  form  a  Moham- 
medan sect ;  afterwards  went  to  Egjrpt,  and 
was  killed  by  robbers  on  his  return  to 
Damascus.  French  and  German  translations 
of  some  of  his  poems  are  extant. 

Motherwell,  WilUam  {b.  1797,  d.  1835), 
Scotch  poet  and  journalist;  made  a  collection 
of  ballads,  called  Minstrelsy  .•  Ancient  and 
Modern. 

Motley,  John  Lothrop  {b.  1814,  d.  1877), 
American  historian,  educated  under  Ban- 
croft, and  at  Harvard,  Berlin,  and  Gottin- 
gen, being  intimate  with  Bismarck  at  the 
German  universities ;  published  in  1856  his 
Rise  of  the  Butch  Republic,  the  result  of  ten 
years'  labour.  This  was  published  at  his 
own  expense,  but  was  very  successful,  and 
the  History  of  the  United  Netherlands  was 
finished  in  1868.  Motley  was  American 
minister  at  Vienna  1861-7,  and  in  London 
1869-70.  He  afterwards  published  The 
Life  and  Death  of  John  of  Barneveldt 
(1874),  living  chiefly  in  Holland  and 
England,  where  he  died.  His  Correspond- 
ence appeared  in  1889. 

Motte.     \_See  Lamotte.j 

Motteville,  Frances,  Dame  de  {d.  1689), 
French  lady,  favourite  of  Anne  of  Austria 
and  friend  of  Henrietta  Maria ;  was  banished 
from  court  by  the  influence  of  Richelieu, 
after  whose  death  she  was  recalled,  and 
wrote  Memoires  pour  servir  A  fHistoire 
d'Anne  d^ Autriche. 

Mottley,  John  {d.  1750),  English  writer, 
said  to  have  been  the  real  author  of  Joe 
Miller'' s  Jests;  wrote  several  plays,  and 
Uves  of  Peter  the  Great  and  the  Empress 
Catherine  I. 

Mouchy,  Philippe  de  Noailles,  Due  de  {b. 
1715,  d.  1794),  French  marshal;  defended 
the  Tuileries  on  June  20,  1792,  and  was  two 
years  later  guillotined  with  his  wife,  called 
by  Marie  Antoinette  "  Madame  L'Eti- 
quette." 

Moukhtax  Pasha,  Ahmed  {b.  1837),  Turk- 
ish general ;  served  in  Montenegro  and  in 
the  Yemen  campaign  of  1869,  and  was  tutor 
to  Prince  Ysouf  in  1864.  After  having 
held  the  governorships  of  Crete  and  Erze- 
roum,  he  was  engaged  in  suppressing  the 
revolts  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  in  1875, 
and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Russia 
was  appointed  commander-m-chief  in  Asia 
Minor,  but  was  badly  supported,  and  forced 
to  retire  from  Erzeroum.  In  1878  he  was 
special  commissioner  to  Crete  and  governor 


Mon 


(  577  ) 


HLoz 


of  Janina,  and  in  18S5  was  appointed  to 
cooperate  with  Sir  H.  D.  Wolff  in  Egyi^t 
as  commissioner  under  the  Auglo-Turkish 
convention. 

Mouley  el  Hassan,  Sultan  of  Morocco  (b. 
1831),  succeeded  his  father,  Sidi-Muley 
Muhamraed,  in  1873,  although  not  the 
eldest  son. 

Moulton,  John  Fletcher  (b.  1844),  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Madeley,  and  educated  at 
Kingswood  school,  Bath,  and  at  Cambridge, 
where,  having  been  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Routh,  he 
became  senior  wrangler  and  Smith's  pnze- 
man,  obtaining  the  gold  medal  at  Loudon 
University  the  same  year  (186S).  In  1873 
he  resigned  his  fellowship  at  Christ's  College, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar,  becomiug  Queen's 
Counsel  ia  1885,  being  also  ia  Parliament  for 
a  few  months.  In  1880  he  was  elected 
F.R.S.  for  the  papers  written  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Spottiswoode,  in  1879,  upon  the 
discharge  of  electricity  in  vacuum  tubes. 

Moulton,  William  Eiddian  (6. 1835),  brother 
of  the  last,  English  theologian,  born  at  Leek  ; 
graduated  at  London  in  1856  with  great  dis- 
tinction, and  soon  after  entered  the  Wesleyan 
ministry.  He  was  a  member  of  the  New 
Testament  Revision  Company,  wrote  a  His- 
toryoftheE^iglish  Bible  (1878) ,  and  translated 
and  edited  Wiener's  Grammar  and  Neio 
Testament  Greek.  In  1890  he  was  president 
of  the  Wesleyan  Conference.  He  has  been 
for  nearly  twenty  years  Principal  of  the 
Leys  school,  Cambridge. 

Moultrie,  John  {b.  1799,  d.  1874).  English 
poet ;  having  taken  orders,  obtained  the 
living  of  Rugby  in  1828,  and  became  inti- 
mate with  Dr.  Arnold.  He  wrote  The 
Bream  of  Life  (1843),  and  My  Brother''s 
Grave,  and  Godiva,  which  originally  ap- 
peared in  The  Etotiian,  of  which,  with 
Praed,  he  was  the  chief  support. 

Mountfort,  WilUam  {h.  1659,  d.  1692), 
EugUsh  actor,  a  protege  of  Judge  Jefferies ; 
was  assassinated  when  growing  in  repu- 
tation by  Lord  Mohun  and  Captain  Hill, 
who  were  jealous  for  a  preference  supposed 
to  be  shown  him  by  Mrs.  Bracegirdle.  He 
wrote  a  few  plays. 

Mount-Temple,  William,  Lord  {b.  1811, 
d.  1888),  statesman,  second  son  of  Earl 
Cowper;  was  a  lord  of  the  Admiralty, 
1846-52,  President  of  the  Board  of  Health 
1853-55,  and  subsequently  vice-president  of 
the  Education  Committee,  and  Commissioner 
of  Works.  He  introduced  the  Cowper- 
Temple  clause  in  the  Education  Act  of  1870, 
and  received  a  peerage  ten  years  later. 

Mouton,  Georges,  Comte  de  Lobau,  (6. 
1770,  d.  1838),  French  soldier,  rose  from  the 
ranks  to  be  a  general.  Fought  in  the 
Napoleonic  campaigns,  and  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1830. 
LL 


Mowat,  Hon.  Oliver  {b.  1820),  Canadian 
statesman,  bom  at  Kingston,  Upper  Canada ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1842,  and  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  1856.  He  was  elected 
for  South  Ontario  as  a  Liberal  in  1858,  and 
became  provincial  secretary  the  same  year, 
was  postmaster-general  1863-64,  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  Upper  Canada  1864-72,  when 
he  became  premier  and  attorney-general  of 
Ontario. 

Mowbray,  Right  Hon.  Sir  John  Robert 
{b.  1815),  EngUsh  politician;  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  represented 
Durham  as  a  Conservative  from  1853  to  1868, 
when  he  became  member  for  Oxford  Uni- 
versity. He  was  Judge  Advocate- General 
in  Lord  Derby's  second  and  third  ministries, 
and  was  swoni  of  the  Privy  Council  in  1858. 
He  assumed  the  name  of  Mowbray  (in  heu 
of  Cornish)  on  his  marriage  in  1847,  and  re- 
ceived a  baronetcy  in  1880.  His  son,  Mr. 
R.  G.  Mowbray,  fellow  of  All  Souls',  entered 
Parliament  in  1886  as  member  for  the  Prest- 
wich  division  of  Lancashire. 

Moyses,  David  {b.  1653,  d.  1630),  Scotch 
writer,  accompanied  James  VI.  to  England 
as  his  page,  and  kept  a  diary  of  the  occur- 
rences at  court,  the  MS.  of  which  is  in  the 
Advocate's  Library,  Edinburgh.  It  was 
printed  in  1753  under  the  title  of  Memoirs  of 
the  Affairs  of  Scotland,  1577-1603,  with  a 
Discourse  on  the  Conspiracy  of  Goiorie. 

Mozart,  Johann  Chrysostom  Wolfgang 
Amadeus  (6.  1756,  d.  1791),  German  com- 
poser, was  bom  at  Salzburg;  composed  some 
pieces  at  the  age  of  five,  when  he  was  taken 
to  Munich,  and  performed  with  his  sister 
before  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  In  1763  the 
children  went  on  a  tour  to  all  the  principal 
German  towns,  as  well  as  Brussels  and 
Palis,  and  in  April,  1764,  gave  concerts  in 
Loudon.  On  his  return  to  Salzburg  in  1769, 
Mozart  became  director  of  the  Archbishop's 
concerts,  and  soon  after  made  a  tour  in 
Italy,  after  his  return  from  which,  at  the 
end  of  1778,  he  settled  at  Vienna.  Here, 
in  his  twenty-fifth  year,  he  wrote  Idomeneo 
on  the  occasion  of  the  first  rejection  of  his 
suit  to  Constance  Weber,  whom  he  manied 
in  1782.  V Enlevement  du  Serail  was  com- 
posed in  1782,  Ifozze  di  Figaro  1786,  Don 
Giovanni  1787,  Die  Zauberflote  and  La 
Clemenza  di  Tito  1791,  and  Va.&  Requiem  ox\. 
his  death-bed,  in  addition  to  which  he  pro- 
duced many  masses,  symphonies,  concertos, 
etc. 

Mozley,  James  Bowling,  D.D.  (i.  1813,  d. 
1878),  English  theologian,  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  where  he  became  fellow  of  Mag- 
dalen in  1837,  when  he  waa  ordained,  and 
Regius  professor  of  divinity  in  1871,  having 
been  made  canon  of  Worcester  in  1869.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  The  Augus- 
tinian  Doctrine  of  Predestination,  A  Revieiu 


Moz 


(578) 


Mill 


of  the  Baptismal  Controverstj,  and  Bampton 
lectures  On  Mirades  (1865). 

Mozley,  Thomas  {h.  1806),  brother  of  the 
above,  became  fellow  of  Oriel  iu  1829,  and 
was  for  mauy  years  on  the  stafE  of  the  Times, 
and  wrote  Retniniscences,  chiefly  of  Oriel 
College  and  the  Oxford  Movement  (188'2), 
and  Meminiscences,  chiefly  of  Towns,  Villages, 
and  Schools  (1885). 

Mudge,  Thomas  (*.  1715,  d.  1794),  watch- 
maker, born  at  Exeter ;  published  Thoughts 
on  Improving  Watches  (1765),  and  obtained  a 
parliamentary  grant  of  £3,000  for  his  chro- 
nometers. 

Mueller  [Muller],  Sir  Ferdinand  von, 
M.D.,  K.C.M.G.,  F.R.S.  [b.  1825),  Austra- 
lian botanist  of  German  extraction ;  was 
born  at  Rostock,  but  emigrated  to  Australia 
in  18i7,  and  after  travelling  in  South  Aus- 
tralia for  four  years  collecting  plants,  was 
made  Government  botanist  of  Victoria.  He 
afterwards  accompanied  Gregory's  expe- 
dition, and  was  one  of  those  who  reached 
Termination  Lake  in  1856.  From  1857  to 
1873  he  was  director  of  the  Melbourne 
Botanic  Gardens,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners for  the  industrial  exhibitions 
held  there  in  1854,  1862,  and  1867.  Among 
his  works  are  Fragmenta  Phytographica 
Australice,  and  The  Plants  of  Victoria. 

Muggleton,  Ludowick  (A.  1607,  d.  1697),  a 
tailor,  founded  with  John  Reeve,  about 
1651,  the  sect  called  "Muggletonians," 
whose  doctrines  were  contained  in  The  In- 
terpretations of  Revelation  XL,  and  Neivs 
from  Heaven,  Muggleton  was  opposed  by 
George  Fox  and  Penn,  and  convicted  of 
blasphemy  in  1676. 

Muir,  John  (b.  1810,  d.  1882),  Sanscrit 
scholar ;  having  graduated  at  Glasgow,  was 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company 
from  1828  to  1853,  and  published  Original 
Sanskrit  Texts  on  the  Origin  and  History  of 
the  People  of  India,  their  Religion  and  Insti- 
tutions (1858-70),  and  other  works,  besides 
a  translation  of  Kuenen's  live  Rooks  of 
Moses. 

Muir,  Matthew  Pattison  (*.  1848),  chem- 
ist, born  and  educated  at  Glasgow  ;  having 
held  several  posts  iu  which  university,  was 
elected  fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1881,  and  became  examiner 
on  the  natural  science  tripos.  Among  his 
works  are  Chemists  l^^ Heroes  of  Science^' 
series),  A  Treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Chem- 
istry, and  several  chem'ical  works  wiitten  in 
collaboration. 

Muir,  Sir  William,  K.C.S.I.,  D.C.L.  {b. 

1819),  his  brother,  entered  the  Bengal  civil 
service  in  1837,  became  governor  of  the 
North-West  Provinces  in  1868,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  CouncU  of  India  from  that 


year  till  1885,  when  he  became  principal  of 
Edinburgh  University.  His  chief  works 
are  Life  of  Mahomet  (1858-61),  and  an 
Abridgment  (1877),  Annals  of  the  Early 
Khahfate  (1883),  and  The  Khalifate :  its 
Rise,  Decline,  and  Fall  (1891). 

Mulgrave,  Lord.     [See  Normauby.] 

MulhaU,  Michael  G.  (b.  1836),  statistician, 
born  in  Dublin  and  educated  at  the  Irish 
college,  Rome ;  author  of  Progress  of  the 
/ro)/f/ (1880),  Dictionary  of  Statistics,  His- 
tory of  Prices,  etc.  His  wife  received  a 
complimentary  diploma  from  the  Italian 
Geographical  Society  for  her  work  Between 
the  Amazon  and  the  Andes  (1883). 

Muller,  George  {b.  1805),  German  preacher, 
born  near  Halberstadt,  came  to  England  in 
1829,  and  in  1835  first  proposed  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Bristol  orphanage.  He  pub- 
lished his  Narrative  at  first  in  1837,  con- 
tinuing it  in  1841,  1844,  and  1856.  In  1886 
he  went  to  Queensland  to  preach, 

MiiUer,  Gerard  Friedrich  (6. 1705,  d.  1783), 
German  writer  and  traveller,  born  in  West- 
phalia, settled  in  Russia  in  1725,  and  ex- 
plored Siberia  with  Gmelin  and  Delisle  in 
1733 ;  was  made  councillor  of  state  and 
F.R.S. ,  and  published  Collections  for  the 
History  of  Russia,  and  other  works. 

Miiller,  Johann  von  (b.  1752,  d.  1809), 
Swiss  historian,  bom  at  Schaffhausen,  where 
he  was  professor  of  Greek ,  was  subsequently 
professor  of  history  at  Cassel,  councillor  of 
the  imperial  chancery  and  secretary  of  state 
for  the  Bonapartist  kingdom  of  WestphaUa, 
He  wrote  History  of  the  Swiss  Confederation^ 
and  A  Course  of  Universal  History  (Tii- 
bingen). 

Miiller,  Johaim  Gotthard  von  (b.  1747,  d. 
1830),  German  engraver,  patronised  by  the 
sovereigns  of  Wiirtemberg ;  was  a  member 
of  both  French  and  German  academies,  and 
engraved  portraits  of  Schiller,  Louis  XVI., 
and  Wille,  the  Madonna  delta  Seggiola,  and 
other  works.  His  son,  Christian  Feied- 
EiCH  (d.  1816),  was  an  artist  of  great 
promise,  his  chief  production  having  been 
the  print  of  RaifaeUe's  Madonna  di  San 
Sisto. 

Muller,  Johannes  (*.  1801,  d.  1858),  Ger- 
man physiologist,  bom  and  educated  at 
Coblentz  ;  was  appointed  professor  of  physi- 
ology at  Bonn  in  1830,  and  held  the  same 
chair  at  Berlin  from  1833  till  his  death. 
His  Flements  of  Physiology  was  translated  in 
1842  into  English,  and  gave  a  great  impetus 
to  the  study,  though  itself  soon  superseded. 

Miiller,  Karl  Ottfried  {b.  1797,  d.  1840), 
historian,  bom  at  Brieg  (Silesia),  became 
professor  at  Gottingen;   visited  Italy  and 


Mill 


(579) 


Man 


Greece  in  1839,  and  died  at  Athens.  His 
chief  works  were  Geschichte  Hellenischen 
Sta^nme  imd  Stddte  and  Die  Dorier  (1820-4), 
translated  and  edited  by  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis 
and  H.  Tufnell  in  1880,  Geschichte  Grie- 
chiaclien  Litter atur,  translated  by  Lewis 
and  completed  by  Donaldson,  Die  ]£trnskei\ 
and  an  account  of  the  life  and  works  of 
Pheidias. 

Muller,  Wilhelm  {b.  1794,  d.  1827),  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Dessau,  studied  under 
Wolf  and  Buttman  at  Berlin,  and  served  iu 
the  war  of  Liberation.  Besides  a  translation 
of  Marlowe's  Faustns  and  two  novels,  he 
published  Griechenlieder,  Gedichte  aus  dem 
hinterlassenen  Fapiei-en  eines  reisenden  Wald- 
hornisten,  and  I>ie  schone  3IuUerin,  and 
Winto-reise,  which  were  set  to  music  by 
Schubert.  A  statue  to  him  in  his  native 
place  was  unveiled  in  1884  by  his  son  Max 
Muller. 

MiiUer,  William  James  [b.  1812,  d.  1845), 
English  landscape  -  painter  of  German 
parentage,  exhibited  Peasants  on  the  Banks 
of  the  Mhine  at  the  Academy  in  1836.  In 
1838  he  travelled  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  and 
leaving  Bristol  for  London  on  his  return 
produced  The  Age  of  Francis  I.  (twenty-six 
folio  designs).  His  masterpieces,  the  Lycian 
sketches,  were  exhibited  in  1843  as  the  re- 
sult of  several  years  travel  in  Asia  Minor. 
He  died  suddenly  at  Bristol  in  the  midst  of 
his  fame. 

MuUick  Umber  (d.  1626),  minister  of 
Ahmedmugger,  cheeked  the  Moguls,  founded 
Aurungabad,  and  recovered  several  pro- 
vinces ;  settled  landed  property  by  regis- 
tration, and  directed  an  assessment  after  its 
survey. 

MuUinger,  James  Bass  (b.  1834),  English 
historical  writer ;  after  graduating  with  dis- 
tinction at  Cambridge,  became  lecturer  on 
history  at  Bedford  College,  and  subsequently 
at  St.  John's  and  Trinity,  Cambridge.  His 
chief  works  are  The  Ihiiversity  of  Cambridge 
from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Accession  of 
Charles  I.  (1873-84),  and,  with  Professor 
Gardiner,  An  Introduction  to  English  His- 
tory. 

Mulock,  Dinah  [Craik]  {b.  1826,  d.  1887), 
English  writer,  daughter  of  a  clergyman  of 
Stoke-on-Trent ;  married  Mr.  G.  L.  Craik 
in  1865,  having  in  the  previous  year  received 
a  Civil  List  pension.  Her  chief  works  were 
Olive  (ISoO),  John  JffaUfax,  Gentleman  (1856), 
A  life  for  a  life  (1860),  etc. 

Mulready,  William,  R.A.  (b.  1786,  d. 
1863),  Irish  painter  of  the  school  of  Wilkie, 
bom  at  Ennis;  came  to  London  ia  1792, 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy  and  vmder 
John  Varley,  whose  sister  he  married,  and 
at  first  occupied  himself  in  illustrating  books 
ll2 


and  in  scene-painting.  He  designed  for  the 
Post  Office  the  envelope  called  after  him, 
and  among  his  chief  pictures  may  be  named 
The  Judgment  of  Solomon,  The  Wolf  and  the 
Lamb  (1820),  Choosing  the  Wedding  Gown 
(1845),  and  The  Fight  Interrupted  (1815). 

Mummius,  Lucius,  Achaicus  (;?.  150  e.g.), 
Roman  consul,  notorious  for  his  despoiling 
of  Corinth  (146  B.C.)  after  his  victories  over 
the  Achtean  League. 

Miinchausen,    Karl    Friedrich    Jerome, 

Baron  vou  {h.  1720,  d.YlTi),  German  soldier, 

a  native  of  Hanover ;  served  several  years 

i  in  the  Russian  army  against  the  Tartars. 

I  The  well-known  exploits  and  adventures  of 

I  the  Baron  were  published  in  English  in  1785. 

Mundella,  Right  Hon.  Anthony  John  (i. 
1825),  statesman,  of  Itahau  ancestry ;  became 
engaged  in  trade  at  Nottingham,  and  in 
1859  organised  courts  of  arbitration  for  the 
settlement  of  labour  disputes.  He  was 
elected  as  a  Radical  for  Sheffield  in  1868, 
j  was  vice-president  of  the  Education  Com- 
I  mittee  and  Charity  commissioner  from  1880 
to  1885,  and  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  from  February  to  July,  1886,  and  1892. 

Munk,  William,  M.D.,  physician,  educated 
at  University  College  and  at  Leyden,  became 
F.R.C.P.  in  18')4,  also  consulting  physician 
to  the  Roj^al  Hospital  for  Incurables.  He 
made  diseases  of  the  lung  and  heart  his 
speciality,  and  compiled  The  Roll  of  the 
Jtogal  College  of  Fhystcians  of  Lotidon  (1861). 

Munkacsy,  Mikhail  (*.  1846),  Hungarian 
painter,  of  poor  parentage ;  was  at  first 
apprenticed  to  a  carpenter,  but  made  a 
name  in  1870  by  his  Last  Bay  of  a  Con- 
demned Frisoner,  exhibited  at  the  Paris 
Salon.  Among  his  best  pictures  are  The 
Night  Roamers,  Christ  before  Pilate  (1882), 
Christ  on  Calvary  (1884),  and  The  Last 
Moments  of  Mozart  (1886). 

Muimich,  Burchard  Christoph,  Graf  von 
(6.  1683,  d.  1767),  Russian  general ;  having 
been  a  chief  agent  in  the  elevation  of  the 
Tsarina  Anne,  obtained  great  influence ; 
destroyed  the  Tartar  fortress  of  Perekof 
(1736),  captured  Oczakoff,  and  after  de- 
feating the  Turks,  invaded  Moldavia.  In 
1740  he  deposed  the  regent,  Biren,  but  was 
himself  supplanted  and  sent  to  Siberia  in  the 
following  year,  being  recalled  thence,  how- 
ever, in  1762.  He  completed  the  Ladoga 
canal. 

Munro,  Hugh  Andrew  Johnstone  (6.  1819, 
d.  1885),  scholar,  bom  at  Elgin,  and  educated 
at  Shrewsbury  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  he  became  fellow  in  1843  ; 
was  from  1869  to  1872  professor  of  Latin, 
the  first  edition  of  his  Lucretius  having 
appeared  in  1864.     He  was  also  author  of 


Mun 


(580) 


Mur 


Criticisms  and  Elucidations  of  Catullus 
(ISTS).  aud  several  other  works,  which  gave 
him  the  reputatiou  of  the  best  Latin  scholar 
of  his  daj'. 

Munro,  Sir  Thomas  (J.  1760,  d.  1827), 
general  and  statesman.  After  several  years' 
service  in  the  Indian  army,  was  appointed 
administrator  of  the  territories  gained  from 
Tippoo  Sahib,  and  in  1820  governor  of 
Madras,  in  which  capacity  he  successfully 
directed  the  Burmese  war. 

Munster,  Georg,  Graf  von  {b.  1820), 
Gennan  diplomatist,  sou  of  a  Hanoverian 
statesman ;  entered  the  Prussian  service  after 
the  annexation  of  Hanover,  and  was  named 
ambassador  to  England  in  1873,  having  been 
previously  the  author  of  several  politico- 
historical  works. 

Munster,  George  Fitzclarence,  Earl  of  {b. 
1794,  d.  1842),  son  of  William  IV.  by  Mrs. 
Jordan ;  served  with  distinction  in  the  Penin- 
sular war  and  in  India,  and  was  ennobled 
on  the  accession  of  hi^  father,  but  com- 
mitted suicide  in  1842. 

Munter,  Balthasar  (i.  1735,  d.  1793), 
German  divine,  whose  name  has  become 
known  by  his  Narrative  of  the  Conversion 
and  Death  of  Count  Struensee  (1773). 

Miinzer,  Thomas  {d.  1525),  founder  of  the 
Anabaptists;  headed  a  popular  rising  in 
western  Germany  in  1524,  but  having  been 
defeated  was  captured  and  beheaded. 

Murad  Bey  (d.  1801),  Mameluke  chief, 
opposed  the  French,  but  was  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  the  Pyramids  in  1798;  burnt  the 
French  fleet  in  the  following  year,  but  re- 
mained neutral  at  the  action  at  Heliopolis 
in  1800,  and  finally  submitted  to  Kleber. 

Murat,  Joachim,  King  of  Naples  (b.  1768, 
d.  1815),  French  cavalry  ofiicer,  son  of  an 
innkeeper;  became  aide-de-camp  to  Bona- 
parte in  1796,  and  four  years  later  married 
his  sister,  Marie  Caroline;  commanded  the 
cavalry  at  Marengo,  became  marechal  de 
France  in  1805,  and  Grand  Duke  of  Berg 
after  Austerlitz.  He  invaded  Spain  in  1808, 
and  was  made  King  of  Naples  for  his  ser- 
vices. In  1812  he  followed  the  emperor  to 
Russia,  but  in  1813  intrigued  with  his 
enemies,  who  guaranteed  his  kingdom  to 
him;  but  the  Bourbons  refusing  to  recog- 
nise him,  he  attacked  Austria,  and  when 
defeated  went  to  France.  In  a  final  at- 
tempt to  regain  his  kingdom  he  was  captured 
and  shot.  His  elder  son  (Napoleon  Achille) 
settled  in  Florida,  married  a  grand  niece  of 
Washington,  and  died  in  1847 ;  and  the 
second,  Napoleon  Lucien  Chaeles  {d. 
1875),  having  returned  to  France,  became 
senator  in  1852,  and  was  recognised  as  a 
member  of  the  imperial  family  in  1353. 


Muratori,  Ludovico  Antonio  {b.  1672, 
d.  1750),  Italian  antiquary,  librarian  and 
professor  of  history  at  Milan,  his  chief 
works  having  been  Antiquitates  Itaiicoe 
Medii  j^vi,  Annali  d' Italia,  and  Scriptores 
liernin  Italicrum. 

Murchison,  Sir  Roderick  Impey,  Bart., 
F.R.S.  {b.  1792,  d.  1871),  geologist,  born 
in  Ross-shire,  North  Biitain ;  served  in  the 
Peninsula,  but  resigned  after  Waterloo, 
and  began  a  course  of  travels,  exploring  the 
Auvergne  district,  studied  the  structui'e  of 
the  Alps  with  Sedgwick,  and  in  1839  pub- 
lished his  Silurian  System,  the  result  of  his 
investigations  in  Wales.  In  1845  appeared 
Russia  and  the  Ural  Mountams,  the  result 
of  similar  investigations.  In  1855  he  became 
director  of  the  Geological  Survey  and  of  the 
School  of  Mines,  and  in  1870  estabUshed  at 
Edinburgh  a  chair  of  geology  and  min- 
eralogy. 

Mure,  David,  Lord  (Jb.  1810),  Scotch 
judge,  brother  of  W.  Mure,  having  been 
called  to  the  Scottish  bar,  was  made  Sohcitor- 
General  in  1858,  Lord  Advocate  1859,  and  a 
judge  of  session  1865. 

Mure,  WiUiam,  D.C.L.  (b.  1799,  d.  1860), 
historian,  bom  in  Ayrshire,  and  educated  at 
Westminster,  Edinburgh,  aud  Bonn,  repre- 
sented Renfrew  as  a  Conservative  from  1845 
to  1855.  His  chief  work  was  A  Critical 
History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece  (1850-7).  He  also  wrote 
monographs  on  Egyptian  subjects. 

MuriUo,  Bartolome  Esteban  (b.  1618,  d. 
1682),  Spanish  painter,  pupU  of  Juan  del 
Castillo ;  after  living  in  great  poverty,  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Velasquez,  who  intro- 
duced him  to  the  Escorial.  He  made  a 
reputation  by  his  pictures  in  the  "  Claustro 
Chico  "  of  the  Seville  Franciscan  Convent, 
and  afterwards  painted  Madonnas  and  Holy 
Families,  his  chef-d'ceiivre  being  The  Im- 
maculate Conception,  now  in  the  Louvre. 
Murillo  died  from  the  effects  of  a  fall  from 
scaffolding  when  engaged  on  a  picture  of 
The  Espoiisals  of  St.  Catherine. 

Murphy,  Arthur  {b.  1727,  d.  1805),  Irish 
dramatist,  and  for  a  short  time  an  actor, 
wrote  several  plays,  the  chief  of  which  are 
The  Way  to  Keep  Him  and  The  Grecian 
Ba'ighter ;  also  a  life  of  Garrick. 

Murray,  Alexander,  D.D.  (b.  1775,  d. 
1S13),  scholar,  almost  self-taught,  son  of  a 
Highland  shepherd  ;  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  the  classical,  French,  and  Abyssinian 
tongues,  and  held  the  chair  of  oriental  lan- 
guages at  Edinburgh.  He  wrote  a  History 
of  the  European  Languages. 

Murray,  Alexander  S.,  LL.D.  {b.  1841); 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Berlin,  and 


Mnr 


(581) 


Mus 


having  been  assistant  keeper,  became  keeper 
of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities  at  the 
British  Museum  in  1886.  He  is  author  of  a 
work  on  the  history  of  Greek  sculpture. 

Murray,  Right  Hon.  Sir  Charles  A., 
K.C.B.  {*.  1816),  diplomatist  and  writer. 
Having  been  master  of  the  royal  household 
and  groom-in-waiting,  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service  in  1844,  and  was  subsequently 
consul-general  in  Egypt,  minister  iu  Swit- 
zerland, envoy  to  Persia,  minister  in  Saxony, 
and  envoy  to  Denmark  and  Portugal.  He 
became  privy  councillor  in  1875,  and  wrote 
The  Frairie  Bird,  Travels  in  North  America, 
etc. 

Murray,  David  Christie  {b.  1847),  novelist, 
bom  at  West  Bromwich ;  began  life  as  a 
journalist,  coming  to  London  in  1873,  but, 
after  having  been  special  correspondent  to 
the  Tunes  in  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  de- 
voted himself  to  fiction,  and  produced 
Joseph's  Coat  (1880),  By  the  Gate  of  the  Lea, 
The  Way  of  the  World,  Aunt  Rachel,  Wild 
Dorrie,  etc. 

Murray,  Eustace  Clare  Grenville  (b.  1819, 
d.  ISSl),  journalist  and  novelist,  wrote 
The  Boving  Itiglishman,  The  Member  for 
Paris,  Young  Brown,  etc. 

Murray,  Sir  George  (*.  1772,  d.  1846), 
English  officer;  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Peninsular  war,  became  governor  of  the 
military  college,  Woolwich,  in  1809,  and 
was  master-general  of  the  ordnance  in 
1834-.5.  He  was  also,  ia  1828,  Colonial 
Secretary,  and  edited  Marlborough's  de- 
spatches. 

Murray,  G.  G.  A.  {b.  1866),  scholar,  bom  ia 
Sydney,  the  son  of  Sir  T.  A.  Murray,  Speaker 
of  New  South  Wales;  was  educated  at 
Merchant  Taylors'  school  and  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where,  having  carried  off  all 
the  classical  prizes,  he  was  elected  fellow  of 
New  College,  and  in  1889,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three,  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Glasgow.  In  1891  he  published  Gobi  or 
Shamo,  a  novel. 

Murray,  James  Stewart,  Earl  of  [b.  1570), 
Scotch  statesman,  natural  son  of  James  V. ; 
became  a  Calvinist,  protected  his  sister 
Mary  in  the  exercise  of  her  religion,  but 
afterwards  opposed  her  in  hopes  of  help 
from  Elizabeth  ;  joined  in  the  murder  of 
Rizzio,  and,  after  some  years  in  France,  be- 
came regent  on  the  deposition  of  the  queen, 
and  ruled  well,  but  was  assassinated  by  one 
of  the  Hamiltons. 

Murray,  John  (b.  1778,  d.  1843),  publisher; 
succeeded  to  the  management  of  the  busi- 
ness founded  by  his  father  in  Fleet  Street. 
In  1803  he  dissolved  partnership  with  Mr. 
Highly,  and,  having  come  into  contact  with 
Canning,  started  the  Quarterly  Beview.  He 
afterwards  published  the  works  of  Byron, 


Heber,  and  others,  acting  with  great  muni- 
ficence in  aU  his  dealings,  and  the  business 
was  removed,  in  1812,  to  Albemarle  Street. 
The  Life  of  John  Murray  was  published  in 
1891.    "John  Murray  the  third  died  in  1892. 

Murray,  Liudley  (b.  1745,  d.  1826), 
American  writer,  son  of  a  New  York 
merchant,  from  whom  he  ran  away,  but 
afterwards  returned,  and  practised  as  a 
lawyer.  After  the  revolution  he  made  a 
fortune  iu  busmess,  and  came  to  England, 
where  he  published  his  English  Grammar. 

Musa-Ibn-Nosse3rr  (b.  640,  d.  717),  Arab 
general ;  conquered  Spain,  but  after  his  re- 
turn from  Syria  was  ill-treated  by  the 
khalif ,  and  died  in  great  poverty. 

Musseus  (5th  century),  Athenian  poet, 
the  "  Grammarian  ;  "  supposed  author  of 
the  original  poem  on  The  Lores  of  Hero  and 
Lmnder. 

Musaeus,  Johann  Karl  August  {b.  1735, 
d.  1787),  German  writer,  professor  at  Wei- 
mar, wrote  Yolksmarchen  der  Leutscher 
(1782),  Grandison  der  Zweite,  and  a  satirical 
work  on  Lavater. 

Muspratt,  James  Sheridan  [b.  1821), 
chemist,  born  iu  Dubhn  ;  was  a  pupil  of 
Liebig,  and  worked  with  Hofmann,  dis- 
covering tomiline  and  nitraniliue,  the  two 
organic  bases.  He  also  wrote  The  Dictionary 
of  Chemistry,  and  foimded  the  Liverpool 
College. 

Musset,  Alfred  de  (*.  1810,  d.  1857), 
French  poet;  became  a  follower  of  Victor 
Hugo,  and  produced  Contes  d'Espagne  et 
d'ltalie  (1830),  Les  Nuits  (1835-7),  having 
in  the  previous  years  been  in  Italy  with 
George  Sand.  He  was  librarian  to  the 
minister  of  the  interior  under  Louis  Philippe 
and  the  empire,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Academy  in  1852.  Besides  his  verse,  he 
wrote  stories  (Co7ifession  d''un  Etfant  du 
Siicle,  Lui  et  EUc,  etc.)  and  plays,  such  as 
La  Nuit  Venetienne  and  Lorenzaccio,  A.ndre 
del  Sarto,  Fantasio,  Barberine,  On  ne  badine 
pas  avec  r Amour,  etc. 

Musset-Pathay,  Victor  de  {b.  1768,  d. 
1832),  French  biographer ;  took  part  in  the 
Biographie  Universelle,  and  wrote  Ststoire 
de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  J.  Bousseau, 
and  other  works. 

Mustapha  I.,  Sultan  of  Turkey  (J.  1591, 
d.  1639) ;  succeeded  Ahmed  I.  in  1617,  be- 
came imbecile,  and  was  twice  deposed  and 
finally  strangled. 

Mustapha  II.  (b.  1664,  d.  1703),  succeeded 
Ahmed  II.  iu  1695 ;  defeated  the  Russians 
and  Venetians,  but  lost  the  battle  of  Zenta 
to  Prince  Eugene,  and  was  obliged  to  con- 
clude the  Peace  of  Carlo witz  (1699).  He 
was  compelled  to  abdicate  soon  after  tho 
loss  of  Kiuprih,  his  vizier. 


Mus 


(582) 


Nai 


Mustapha  IIL  {b.  1717,  d.  1774)  succeeded 
Osmau  III.  iu  1757 ;  lost  the  Crimea  in  a 
war  with  Russia,  but  repelled  an  attack  on 
Moldavia ;  was  a  patron  of  the  learned. 

Mustapha  IV.  {b.  1779,  d.  1808),  suc- 
ceeded Selim  III.,  but  ruled  cruelly,  and 
was  deposed  and  strangled. 

Musurus  Pasha,  Constautiue  {b.  1807,  d. 
1891),  Turkish  diplomatist;  was  well 
educated  in  the  classics  and  European 
languages,  and  in  1834  was  sent  to  pacify 
Sanies,  in  which  he  was  very  successful.  In 
1840  he  became  plenipotentiary  at  Athens, 
whence,  after  an  attempt  on  his  Ufe,  he  was 
recalled  iu  1848,  and  sent  to  Austria,  and 
three  years  later  went  to  London,  whei-e  he 
remained  as  ambassador  till  1885.  A  trans- 
lation into  Greek  verse,  by  him,  of  Dante's 
Dk'ina  Commedia  was  published  in  London 
(1882-4-5). 

MutsuHito  (S.  1852),  Mikado  of  Japan; 
ascended  the  throne  in  1867,  and  soon  after 
abolished  the  feudal  system,  and  gave  his 
country  a  parliamentary  constitution. 

Muziano,  Girolamo  {d.  circa  1590),  Italian 
painter,  born  near  Brescia ;  went  to  Rome 
in  1559,  where  he  was  patronised  by  Gregory 
XIII.  His  Resurrection  of  Lazarus  is  lost ; 
but  the  picture  of  Christ  Washitig  the  Dis- 
ciples^ Feet  is  in  Rheims  cathedral. 

Muzio,  Girolamo  (b.  1496,  <^.  1576),  Italian 
scholar,  author  of  Lettere  Cattoliche,  etc.; 


gained    the    name   of    "Malleus   Hsereti- 
corum  "  from  his  attacks  on  Luther. 

Muzuffer  Jung  {d.  1751),  Soubadar  of  the 
Deccau  ;  was  supported  by  the  French  and 
Cliimda  Sahib  against  Nasir  Jung  and  the 
English,  by  whom  he  was  defeated.  He  was 
again  in  power  in  1749,  but  was  killed  two 
years  later  in  a  personal  encounter  with  the 
Nawab  of  Karnool,  a  disaffected  Patau  chief. 

Muzuflfer  Shah  I.  (b.  1342,  d.  1411),  after 
having  for  five  years  been  viceroy  of  Guzerat 
for  the  Emperor  Feroze  Toghluk,  he  usurped 
the  throne,  and  founded  a  dynasty  wMch 
ruled  till  1583. 

Myddleton.     {See  Middleton.] 

Myron  {b.  circa  480  B.C.),  Greek  sculptor, 
bom  iu  Boeotia,  was  the  rival  of  Polycletus. 
His  Cow  Lowing  was  extant  at  Athens  in 
Cicero's  time,  but  all  his  productions  have 
now  perished,  though  the  Discobolus  at  the 
British  Museum,  which  was  found  near 
TivoU  in  1791,  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of 
his  statue. 

Myronides,  Athenian  general;  defeated 
the  Corinthians  at  Megara  457  B.C.,  and  the 
Boeotians  at  .Slnophyta  456  B.C. 

Mytens,  Daniel  {b.  circa  1590),  Flemish 
portrait-painter,  many  of  whose  works  are 
at  Hampton  Court;  was  patronised  by 
James  I.  and  Charles  I.  before  the  rise  of 
Vandyck. 


N 


Naas,  Lord.     [See  Mayo.] 

Nabis  {d.  192  B.C.),  Tyrant  of  Sparta,  ruled 
with  great  cruelty  from  about  205  B.C.,  and 
was  finally  defeated  by  Philopoemen,  general 
of  the  Achaean  League,  and  killed  in  at- 
tempting to  escape. 

Nachtigal,  Gustav  {b.  1834,  d.  1885), 
German  explorer ;  went  to  Africa,  and  be- 
came physician  to  the  Bey  of  Tunis,  and 
having  been  in  1868  entrusted  by  the  King 
of  Prussia  with  a  mission  to  the  Sultau  of 
Boruu,  made  extensive  explorations  in  the 
Eastern  Soudan,  which  he  described  in 
Sahara  und  Sudan  (1879-81).  In  1883  he 
was  commissioner  to  inquire  into  the  state 
of  German  commerce  in  Western  Africa. 

Nadab  ((/.  953  b.c).  King  of  Israel:  suc- 
ceeded Jeroboam  in  954  B.C.,  and  was  killed 
by  Baasha  next  year. 

Nadir  Shah  [Thamas-Kouli-Khan],  ruler 


of  Persia  (fi.  1688,  d.  1747),  having  been  a 
chief  of  banditti,  entered  the  service  of  Shah 
Thamas  II.,  and  having  driven  out  the 
Afghans  restored  him  to  his  throne  (1730), 
but  afterwards  deposed  him  and  usurped 
the  sovereignty  (1736).  He  subsequently 
invaded  Afghanistan  and  Hindostan,  taking 
Delhi  (1740),  and  was  finally  assassinated  by 
a  conspiracy  of  his  generals,  who  dreaded 
his  cruelty. 

NSBvius,  Cneius  {d.  circa  202  B.C.),  Roman 
poet,  fragments  only  of  whose  chief  work 
(an  epic  on  the  first  Punic  war)  are  extant. 

Nahum,  Jewish  prophet,  lived  about  700 

B.C. 

Nairne,  Caroline  Oliphant,  Baroness  (b. 
1766,  d.  1845),  Scottish  song-writer,  called 
"the  Flower  of  Stratheam,"  pubUshed  The 
Scottish  Minstrel  (1822-4).  Caller  Herrin\ 
Land  o'  the  Leal,  and  The  Laird  o'  Cockpen, 
are  among  her  best-known  songs. 


Nan 


(583) 


Nap 


Nana  Sahib  {b.  circa  1821,  <f.  uncertaiu), 
origiually  known  as  Seereek  Dhondo  Puuth, 
claimed  the  possessions  of  his  adopted  father, 
Bajee  Rao,  Peishwah  of  Poonah,  on  his 
death  in  1851,  and  on  his  failure  to  obtain  a 
pension  determined  on  revenge.  He  caused 
the  massacre  of  the  garrison  of  Cawnpore 
on  June  29,  1857,  and  was  proclaimed 
peishwah,  but  was  defeated  by  Havelock  on 
July  17,  after  which  he  fled  into  Nepaul.  A 
person  pretending  to  be  he  was  in  1874 
delivered  to  the  Government  by  Scindia. 

Nanek,  or  Nanuk  {b.  1469,  d.  1539),  founder 
of  the  Sikhs  ("Followers  "),  was  a  native  of 
the  Punjab,  and  travelled  about  India 
preaching,  visiting  also  Mecca  and  Medina. 
He  tried  to  reconcile  Buddhism  and  Moham- 
medanism, and  his  doctrines  are  contained 
in  the  book  Adi-gratith,  an  English  trans- 
lation of  which  appeared  in  1877. 

Nangis,  GuiUaume  de  (13th  century), 
French  writer ;  was  keeper  of  the  records 
at  St.  Denis  from  1289  to  1299,  and  wrote  a 
LatLu  chronicle  to  the  year  1300,  a  French 
chronicle,  and  a  life  of  St.  Louis. 

Nani,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  1616.  d.  1678), 
Venetian  writer  and  diplomatist,  was 
twenty-five  years  ambassador  at  Paris,  and 
author  of  Istoria  della  Republica  Veneta. 

Nansen,  Fridjof,  Ph.D.  {b.  1861),  Norwe- 
gian explorer,  after  a  previous  voyage  to 
the  northern  seas  in  1882,  went  to  Green- 
land in  1889,  and  published  an  account  of 
his  voyage  in  Across  Greenland.  He  was 
made  curator  of  the  Christiania  museum  on 
his  return,  and  the  Storthing  voted  200,000 
kroner  for  a  fresh  expedition  to  the  North 
Pole  to  be  led  by  him  in  1892. 

Naoroji,  Dadabhai  {b.  1825),  the  son  of  a 
Parsee  priest,  educated  at  Elphiustone  Col- 
lege, Bombay,  where  he  became  professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy.  In 
1867  founded  the  East  India  association, 
and  in  1874  became  minister  to  the  Gaekwar 
of  Baroda,  and  member  of  the  legislative 
council  of  Bombay  1885-88.  Stood  for 
Parliament  in  1886,  and  again  in  1892,  when 
he  was  elected. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  James  {b.  1782,  d. 
1853),  British  general,  brother  of  Sir  "W. 
Napier,  and  grandson  of  the  fifth  Lord 
Napier,  served  in  Ireland  in  1798,  was 
wounded  and  captured  at  Corunna,  but  in 
1811  returned  to  the  Peninsula,  and  was 
wounded  at  Busaco.  He  held  command  in 
the  American  war  (1S12-15),  went  to  the 
Ionian  Islands  in  1819,  and  in  1841  was 
natmed  commander  of  the  Bombay  army. 
He  conducted  tlie  war  agaiust  Scinde, 
wiiiiiiii!^  the  battles  of  Meeanee  and  Hyder- 
abad, and  on  its  annexation  became  governor 


of  the  coimtry.  In  1849  he  was  sent  to 
take  the  chief  command  in  the  second  Sikh 
war. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  John  {b.  1786,  d.  1860), 
admiral,  cousin  of  the  above,  distinguished 
himself  in  an  action  with  the  French  in  1807, 
and  served  in  the  Peninsula  and  agiinst 
the  United  States  in  the  succeeding  year. 
In  1833,  when  in  the  Portuguese  service,  he 
destroyed  the  fleet  of  Dom  Miguel,  served 
against  Mehemet  Ali  in  1850,  commanded 
the  Channel  fleet  1846-8,  and  was  com- 
mander of  the  Baltic  fleet  in  1854,  captured 
Bomarsund,  but  refused  to  attack  Cronstadt. 
He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for  some 
years,  and  vrrote  books  on  the  wars  in 
Portugal  and  Syria,  and  Tlie  Navy  (1851). 

Napier,  or  Neper,  Laird  of  Merchiston, 
John  (b.  1550,  d.  1617),  Scottish  mathema- 
tician, invented  logarithms  (1614). 

Napier,  Right  Hon.  Sir  Joseph,  Bart.  {b. 
1804,  d.  1882),  Irish  judge,  represented 
DubHn  University  1848-58,  became  Attorney- 
General  for  Ireland  in  1852,  and  Lord 
Chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1858.  Ten  years 
later  he  was  named  a  member  of  the  judicial 
committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 

Napier,  Macvey  (i.  1776,  d.  1847),  con- 
ducted the  Edinburgh  Review  for  eighteen 
years,  edited  the  seventh  edition  of  the 
Encyclopcedia  Brittanica,  and  was  intimate 
with  Macaulay,  Jeffrey,  and  Lytton. 

Napier,  Mark  (d.  1879),  Scotch  writer, 
author  of  Memorials  of  John  Napier  of 
Merchistoun,  Life  and  Times  of  Montrose, 
and  Memorials  of  the  Tune  of  Grahaine  of 
Claverhouse,  besides  legal  works. 

Napier,  Sir  William  (b.  1785,  d.  1860), 
military  historian,  entered  the  army  in  1800, 
served  in  the  Peninsula  and  elsewhere  till 
1814,  and  in  the  aiTny  of  occupation  in 
France  till  1819.  He  was  governor  of 
Guernsey  from  1841  to  1847,  his  iZw^ory  of 
the  Peninsular  War  having  appeared  be- 
tween 1828  and  1840.  He  also  wrote  a  life 
of  his  brother.  Sir  Charles  James  Napier 
(q.v.),  and  other  works. 

Napier,  William,  Lord  (/;.  1787,  d.  1834), 
admiral,  served  as  a  midshipman  atTraialgar, 
and  in  1833  was  appointed  sui)eriutendent  of 
British  interests  in  China,  in  which  capacity 
he  sailed  up  the  Canton  river  in  the  follow- 
ing July,  but  died  at  Macao  two  months 
later. 

Napier  of  Magdala,  Robert,  Baron  {b. 
1810,  d.  1890),  general,  took  part  in  the 
Sutlej  campaign  (1^)45),  was  chief  engineer  at 
the  siege  of  Mooltan  and  at  Goojerat  during 
the  second  Sikh  war,  and  in  1852  was  em- 
ployed against  the  Afreedee  tribes.    He  was 


Nap 


(584) 


Naq. 


chief  of  the  staff  to  Sir  James  Outram  at 
Luckuow,  commanded  a  brigade  at  the 
capture  of  Gwalior,  and  defeated  Tantia 
Topee  at  Alipore.  After  serving  in  the 
Chinese  war,  he  was  member  of  the  Indian 
Council  (1861-5),  commander  of  the  Bombay 
army  (1862-7),  and  received  a  peerage  for 
his  conduct  of  the  Abyssinian  war.  He  was 
commander-iu-chief  in  India  1870-6,  be- 
came Field-Marshal  in  1882,  and  would 
have  held  the  chief  command  had  war  with 
Russia  broken  out  in  1878.  He  was  buried 
in  St.  Paul's  cathedral. 

Napier  and  Ettrick,  Right  Hon.  Francis, 
Lord,  K.T.  (b.  1819),  administrator:  was 
British  minister  at  Washington,  the  Hague, 
St.  Petersburg,  and  Berlin  successively, 
and  governor  of  Madras  from  1866 
to  1872.  After  his  return  to  England 
he  was  chairman  of  the  Crofter  Com- 
mission. 

Napoleon  I.  {b.  1769,  d.  1821)  was  bom  at 
Ajaccio,  being  the  second  sou  of  Charles 
Bonaparte,  a  Corsican  advocate.  He  was 
educated  at  Brieone,  entered  the  French 
army  in  1785,  and  first  became  notable  for 
his  conduct  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1793, 
when  he  commanded  the  artillery.  Two 
years  later  he  led  the  troops  of  the  Con- 
vention against  the  Sections,  and  in  1796, 
soon  after  his  first  marriage,  received  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Italy.  After  his 
great  successes  in  this  war,  he  in  May,  1798, 
set  out  for  Egypt,  where  he  defeated  the 
Mamelukes  and  invaded  Syria,  but  was 
checked  at  Acre.  Having  left  Egypt 
secretly  he  reached  France  in  October,  1799, 
overthrew  the  Directory,  aud  became  first 
consul.  He  now  again  invaded  Italy,  and 
made  peace  with  Austria  aud  England  in 
1801  aud  1802,  reconstructing  the  German 
empii'e  in  the  interests  of  France,  while  he 
also  concluded  a  concordat  with  the  pope, 
and  remodelled  the  French  constitution  aud 
legal  system.  War  broke  out  again  with 
England  in  1803  and  Austria  in  1805.  He 
crushed  the  latter  at  Ulm  and  Austerlitz, 
but  failed  iu  his  designs  on  the  former. 
Next  year  Prussia  was  conquered  at  Jena 
and  Auerstadt,  aud  iu  1807,  after  an  inde- 
cisive campaign,  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  was 
made  with  Russia.  The  Continental  system 
was  now  organised  against  England,  and 
the  crown  of  Spain  given  to  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  The  second  great  attempt 
of  Austria  ended  with  the  defeat  of 
Wagram  (1809)  ;  after  which  Napoleon 
divorced  Josephine  Beauharnais,  and  mar- 
ried Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  emperor. 
Meanwhile,  however,  in  the  Iberian  Pen- 
insula, the  French  arms  had  been  held  in 
check,  and  a  breach  vdth  Russia  occurred 
in  1812,  the  results  of  which  were  the  in- 
vasion of  that  country,  the  disastrous  retreat 


of  the  Grand  Army  aud  the  rising  of  Ger- 
many. After  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  France 
was  invaded  from  east  aud  south,  and  on 
April  11,  1814,  Napoleon  abdicated,  and 
was  banished  to  Elba.  Next  year  he 
escaped,  held  France  at  his  feet,  biit  after  a 
hundred  days  met  his  final  defeat  at  Water- 
loo (June  18,  1815).  He  passed  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  exile  at  St.  Helena,  where  he 
dictated  his  Memoirs. 

Napoleon  II.  {b.  1811,  d.  1832),  generally 
known  as  the  King  of  Rome,  sou  of  Napo- 
leou  I  by  Maria  Louisa,  died  of  consumption 
at  Schonbrunn. 

Napoleon  III.  (b.  1808,  d.  1873),  the 
third  sou  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of 
Holland,  and  Hortense  de  Beauharnais,  be- 
came head  of  the  house  after  the  death  of 
his  elder  brothers  and  of  the  King  of  Rome, 
and  iu  1836  made  a  first  attempt  to  assert 
his  claims,  the  result  of  which  was  exile  to 
the  United  States.  In  1840  he  made  another 
attempt,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
castle  of  Ham,  whence  he  escaped  to  Eng- 
land in  May,  1846.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Assembly  in  1848,  and  soon  after  became 
president  of  the  republic.  Afer  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  1851,  his  term  of  office 
was  prolonged  to  ten  years,  and  less  than  a 
year  later  a  plebiscite  was  held,  and  Louis 
Napoleon  became  Emperor  of  the  French. 
He  joined  England  in  the  Crimean  war,  and 
in  1859  (in  which  year  his  life  was  attempted 
by  Orsini)  helped  Sardinia  against  the 
Austriaus,  and  also  took  part  in  the  opera- 
tions against  China  (1858-60)  and  Mehemet 
Ah  (1860-1),  but  he  failed  m  Mexico  in 
1861,  and  his  government  becoming  in- 
creasingly unpopular  in  France,  he  sought 
a  remedy  in  the  quarrel  with  Prussia. 
The  result  was  his  defeat  and  capture  at 
Sedan  (September  1,  1870),  after  which  he 
was  deposed,  and  on  his  release  lived  in 
England  till  his  death.  Napoleon  III.  was 
the  author  of  several  works,  the  chief  of 
which  were  La  Vie  de  Cesar  (1865),  and 
Bes  Idees  Napoleoniennes  (1839). 

Napoleon,  Prince  Eugene  Louis,  Prince 
Imi^erial  {b.  1856,  d.  1879),  son  of  the  above, 
served  in  the  Prussian  war,  entered  at 
Woolwich  iu  1872,  and  in  1879  lost  his  life 
in  the  Zulu  war. 

Napoleon,  Prince      [See  Bonaparte.] 

Naquet,  Joseph  AUred,  M.D.  {b.  1834), 
French  politician,  author  of  Principes  de 
Chimiefondes  sur  les  Theories  Modernes ;  was 
imprisoned  for  conspiracy  against  the  Empire 
in  1867,  and  iu  1870  became  secretary  to  the 
committee  of  National  Defence.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  legaUsing  divorce  in  1886,  and 


Nar 


(585) 


Nan 


•was  one  of  the  chief  supporters  of  General 
Boul  anger. 

Narbonne,  Louis,  Comte  de  (b.  Hob,  d. 
1813),  French  soldier  and  statesman;  was 
minister  for  war  in  1791,  but  incurred  the 
wrath  of  the  Jacobins  by  his  moderation, 
and  was  with  difficulty  saved  by  his  friend, 
Madame  de  Stael.  He  was  afterwards 
aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon,  and  in  the  year 
of  his  death  ambassador  at  Vienna. 

Naxdi,  Jacopo  (b.  1476),  Italian  historian ; 
was  exiled  from  Florence  for  opposition  to 
the  Medici,  and  retired  to  Venice,  where  he 
wrote  a  History  of  I'lorvnce  and  translated 
Livy. 

Nares,  Sir  George  Strong,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S. 
(b.  1831),  Arctic  explorer,  accompanied  the 
expedition  of  1852,  served  in  the  Crimean 
war,  and  commanded  the  ClwUenger  (\.%l'l-h), 
contributing  Reports  on  Ocean  Soundings  to 
the  account  of  the  voyage.  In  1875,  when 
in  command  of  the  Alert,  he  penetrated  to 
a  point  farther  north  than  had  been  yet 
reached,  publishing  both  an  Official  Report 
and  a  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  in  1876,  in 
which  year  he  was  knighted. 

Nares,  Robert  (6. 1753,  <f.  1829), philologist; 
became  assistant  librarian  at  the  British 
Museum  in  1795,  and  afterwards  canon  of 
Lichfield.  He  was  also  vice-president  of  I 
the  Royal  Society  in  1823.  His  chief  work  j 
was  A  Glossary  of  Words,  Fhrases,  etc.,  of 
Elizabethan  Authors,  a  new  edition  of  which 
appeared  in  1867. 

Narses  (6th  century),  a  eunuch  in  the 
service  of  Justinian,  who  rose  to  be  general ; 
defeated  Totila  the  Goth  in  552,  freed  Italy 
from  the  Ostrogoths,  and  ruled  the  country 
for  fifteen  years,  dying  some  time  after  568. 

Naruszewicz,  Adam  Stanislaus  {d.  1796), 
Polish  writer  ;  left  an  unfinished  History  of 
Poland. 

Narvaez,  Pamphila  de  (16th  century), 
Spanish  general ;  commanded  the  expedition 
against  Cortez  in  1520,  and  some  years  later 
discovered  the  Bay  of  Pensacola,  after  which 
no  more  was  heard  of  him, 

Narvaez,  Ramon  Maria  (b.  1800,  d. 
1868),  Spanish  statesman;  defeated  the 
Carlists  at  Arcos  in  1836,  and  in  1838  became 
captain-general  of  Old  Castile.  He  con- 
spired iu  the  interest  of  Christina  against 
Espartero  two  years  later,  and  fled  to 
France,  but  iu  1843  displaced  his  opponent, 
and  was  subsequently  several  times  prime 
minister,  his  policy  being  strongly  re- 
actionary. 

Nash,  John  {d.  1835),  English  architect, 
designed  Buckingham  Palace  and  the  Hay- 
market  theatre,  the  present  form  of  Regent 


Street  and  great  part  of  western  London 
being  also  his  work. 

Nash,  Richard,  "Beau  Nash"  (J).  1674,  rf. 
1761  j,  leader  of  fashion  at  Bath,  where  he 
was  master  of  the  ceremonies  for  fifty  years ; 
was  ultimately  ruined  by  gambling. 

Nash,  Thomas  {d.  circa  1601),  dramatist 
and  satirist ;  author  of  Dido,  Queen  of  Car- 
thage (1594),  Fierce  Penilesse,  his  Supplica- 
tion to  the  Bivell  (1592),  etc. 

Nasmith,  David  (*.  1799,  d.  1839),  Scotch 
pliilautliropist ;  foxmded  city  missions  at 
London,  Glasgow,  and  other  places. 

Nasmjrth,  Alexander  (6.  1757,  d.  1840), 
founder  of  the  Scottish  school  of  landscape- 
painting,  and  a  pupil  of  Allan  Ramsay. 
There  is  a  portrait  of  Burns  by  him  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery,  London. 

Nasmyth,  Charles  {b.  1825,  d.  1861),  a 
major  in  the  British  army,  who,  with 
Captain  Butler,  defended  Silistria  in  1853. 

Nasmyth,  James  {b.  1808,  d.  1890),  en- 
gineer, son  of  Alexander ;  was  some  time 
assistant  to  Henry  Maudslay,  after  whose 
death  he  settled  at  Manchester.  Here  he 
invented  the  steam-hammer,  which  was 
adopted  by  Government  in  1843.  His  auto- 
biography, edited  by  S.  Smiles,  contains  an 
account  of  the  torpedo-ram  and  his  other 
iaventions. 

Nasmyth,  Patrick  or  Peter  {b.  1786,  d. 
1831) ,  brother  of  James ;  followed  his  father's 
profession,  and  was  called  "  the  English 
Hobbema."  Two  of  his  landscapes  are  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Nasr-ed-Deen.     {See  Persia,  Shah  of.] 

Nast,  Thomas  {b.  1840),  American  carica- 
turist, bom  at  London  ;  while  in  Italy  with 
Garibaldi  sent  sketches  to  English  and 
American  papers,  and  during  the  American 
Civil  war  gained  the  name  of  "  Destroyer  of 
the  Tammany  Ring"  by  his  caricatures 
against  that  association.  He  afterwards 
gave  lectures  with  illustrations  executed  in 
face  of  the  audience,  and  also  painted  in 
oils. 

Natalie,  Queen  of  Servia  {b.  1859),  married 
King  Milan  in  1875,  and  was  divorced  in 
1888,  the  validity  of  the  divorce  being,  how- 
ever, more  than  doubtful. 

Nathan,  Isaac  or  Mordecai  (fl.  1450), 
Jewish  rabbi ;  published  the  first  Hebrew 
concordance  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Naud6,  Gabriel  {b.  1600,  d.  1653),  French 
physician,  librarian  to  Cardinal  jNIazarin, 
and  afterwards  to  Christina  of  Sweden.  His 
chief  work  was  Apology  for  the  Great  Men 
who  have  been  Accused  of  Magic. 


Nau 


(  586) 


Nen 


Naudet,  Joseph  (*.  1786,  d.  1878),  French 
writer,  professor  of  poetry  at  the  College  de 
France  (,1821-30),  and  director  of  the  royal 
library  (1840-57),  published  Klstoire  de 
VEtahUssemt'nts,  des  Progres,  et  de  la  Decadence 
de  la  MonarcJiie  des  Goths  en  Italie  (1811), 
and  other  historical  works,  besides  editions 
of  Tacitus  and  Catullus,  and  a  translation 
of  Plautus. 

Naunton,  Sir  Robert  (d.  1635),  English 
statesman,  employed  as  a  diplomatist  in 
France  and  Scotland  under  EUzabeth ;  re- 
ceived several  offices  from  James  I.,  and  in 
1618  became  Secretary  of  State.  He  was 
also  public  orator  at  Cambridge,  and  author 
of  I'ragmenta  Regalia. 

Navarette,  Martin  Fernandez  de  (b.  1765, 
d.  1844),  Spanish  sailor  and  writer,  author 
of  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Maritime  Dis- 
coveries made  by  the  Spaniards  mice  the  Close 
of  the  Fifteenth  Century  and  Collection  of 
Unpublished  Documents  for  the  History  of 
Spain,  which  was  continued  after  his  death. 

Naylor,  James  (d.  1660),  fanatic,  joined 
George  Fox,  but  was  afterwards  disowned 
by  the  Quakers;  was  declared  guilty  of 
blasphemy  by  Parliament,  and  barbarously 
punished. 

Neal,  Daniel  (b.  1678,  d.  1743),  Noncon- 
formist divine ;  author  of  History  of  the 
Puritans  and  History  of  New  England. 

Neander,   Johana  August   Wilhelm    {b. 

1789,  d.  1850)  (David  Mendel),  German 
theologian  of  Jewish  parentage,  professor 
of  theology  at  Berlin.  Many  of  his  works 
have  been  translated,  the  chief  of  them 
being  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and 
Church,  Life  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  The 
Emperor  Julian  and  his  Age. 

Nearchus  (4th  century  B.C.),  a  Cretan, 
was  naval  commander  under  Alexander  the 
Great.  Fragments  are  extant  of  his  voyage 
from  India  to  Babylon. 

Necker,  Jacques  (i.  1732,  d.  1804),  French 
statesman,  of  Geuevese  birth  ;  made  a  repu- 
tation when  a  banker  at  Paris  by  his  work 
Sur  la  Legislation  et  la  Commerce  des  Grains, 
and  was  appointed  comptroller-general  in 
1777,  retiring  in  1781  after  vain  attempts  at 
reform.  In  1788  he  retiuned  to  office,  and 
when  dismissed  by  the  court  in  July,  1789, 
was  the  most  popular  man  in  France,  but 
after  his  recall  gradually  lost  his  reputation, 
and  returned  to  Switzerland  in  September, 

1790.  His  Administration  des  Finances  de  la 
France  (1784)  had  a  large  sale.  Madame 
Neckee  {nee  Susanne  Curchod)  was  cele- 
brated for  her  benevolence  and  her  salon 
and  her  early  love  affair  with  Gibbon. 

Needham,  Marchmont  (J,  1620,  d.  1678), 
English  political  writer,  edited  Mercurius 


Britannicus  (Parliamentarian),  Mercurius 
Pragmaticus  (Royalist),  and  Mercurius 
Politicus  for  the  Commonwealth  (1649-60). 

Neefs,  Peter,  the  Elder  {b.  1570,  d.  1651), 
Flemish  painter,  pupil  of  Steenwyck,  his 
subjects  being  chiefly  arcliitectural.  -He 
had  a  son,  a  painter,  who  was  known  as 
"  Young  Neefs." 

Near,  Aart  {b.  circa  1619),  Dutch  painter, 
chiefly  of  marine  subjects.  Several  of  his 
works  are  in  the  National  Gallery.  His 
son,  EoLON  Hendeick  (d.  1703),  was  a 
historical  and  portrait  painter. 

NeiU,  James  George  (b.  1810,  d.  1857), 
English  general ;  was  second  in  command  of 
the  Turkish  contingent  during  the  Crimean 
war,  and  in  the  Indian  Mutiny  took  and  held 
Allahabad,  avenged  the  massacre  of  Cawn- 
pore,  but  was  shot  by  a  mutineer  when 
before  Lucknow. 

Neilson,  Lilian  Adelaide  {b.  1850,  d.  1880), 
actress,  distinguished  for  her  rendering  of 
Shakesperean  characters,  Juliet  being,  per- 
haps, her  best  part.  In  1872  she  made  a  tour 
in  America. 

N6laton,  Auguste  {b.  1807,  d.  1873),  French 
siirgeon  and  physician,  professor  of  clinical 
surgery  at  Paris  (1851-67),  and  surgeon-iu- 
ordinary  to  Napoleon  III. ;  is  best  known 
from  his  having  extracted  a  bu?let  from 
Garibaldi's  foot  after  Aspromonte  (^860). 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Viscount  (A.  1758,  d. 
1805),  English  admiral,  son  of  a  Norfolk 
clergyman ;  entered  the  navy  in  1770,,'^rved 
in  the  American  war,  and  under  Lord  Hood 
in  the  war  with  revolutionary  Franct',  be- 
coming commodore  in  1796,  and  rear-adr  ural 
after  the  battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent  1  '97. 
In  the  following  year  he  won  the  battle  of 
the  Nile,  for  which  he  was  made  baron,  aid 
in  1801  brilliantly  disobeyed  Sir  Hyde  Park'^r 
by  attacking  Copenhagen.  After  this  hq 
commanded  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  o\- 
October  21,  1805,  saved  England  from  in- 
vasion by  his  defeat  of  the  combined  French 
and  Spanish  fleets  at  Trafalgar,  but  fell  in 
the  action. 

Nemours,  Louis  Philippe  d' Orleans,  Due 
de  {b.  1814),  second  son  of  King  Louis 
Philippe,  was  elected  King  of  the  Belgians 
in  1831,  and  afterwards  offered  the  crown  of 
Greece,  but  both  were  declined  for  him  by 
his  father.  After  serving  in  Algeria,  he 
became  regent  on  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother  in  1842,  left  France  in  1848,  returned 
in  1870,  and  in  1873  had  an  interview  with 
the  Comte  de  Chambord. 

Nennius,  reputed  author  of  Historia 
Britonum,  a  chronicle  extending  from  Brut 
the  Trojan  to  680. 


Nep 


(587) 


New 


Nepomui,  John  of  {b.  circa  1330,  d.  1383), 
confessor  to  Sophia,  wife  of  Wenceslaus  IV. 
of  Bohemia,  by  which  Mng  he  was  thrown 
into  the  Moldan.  Many  hold  this  story  to 
be  mythical. 

Nepos,  Cornelius  {d.  circa  24),  Latin  writer, 
friend  of  Cicero.  To  him  is  attributed  Vitm 
Ezcellentium  Imperatorum,  etc. 

Neri.Filippo  de  {b.  1515,  d.  1595),  Catholic 
saint,  founded  in  1556  Congregation  of  the 
Priests  of  the  Oratory,  which  was  introduced 
into  England  by  Cardinal  Newman. 

Nero,  Lucius  Domitius  {b.  37,  d.  68), 
Emperor  of  Rome,  grandson  of  Germanicus ; 
was  adopted  by  Claudius  in  the  year  50,  and 
succeeded  him  in  54.  He  caused  his  mother, 
Agrippiua,  to  be  murdered  for  opposing  his 
divorce  from  Octavia  and  marriage  with 
Poppasa  Sabina,  this  being  accomplished  by 
the  murder  of  the  former.  He  persecuted 
the  Christians,  whom  he  charged  with  the 
burning  of  Rome  in  64,  and  married  Messa- 
lina  after  the  death  of  his  second  wife.  The 
conspiracy  of  Piso  was  discovered,  but  on 
the  success  of  that  of  Galba  Nero  put  an  end 
to  his  life. 

Nerva,  Marcus  Cocceius  {d.  98),  Roman 
emperor,  succeeded  Domitian  in  96,  and 
reigned  two  years. 

N^mda.     [See  Norman-Neruda.] 

Nesselrode,  Karl  Hobert,  Count  (b.  1780, 
d.  1862),  Russian  statesman  ;  while  attached 
to  the  embassy  in  Paris  obtained  informa- 
tion of  Napoleon's  designs,  took  part  in  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-15),  and  was 
foreign  minister  under  Alexander  I., 
Nicholas,  and  Alexander  II.  till  18.56.  He 
left  an  Autobiography  in  French. 

Nestor  (/l.  1116),  a  monk  of  Kief:  left  a 
chronicle,  which  is  the  earUest  work  on 
Russian  history. 

Nestorius  {d.  circa  450),  was  deposed  from 
the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  by  the 
influence  of  Cyril,  and  banished  to  the 
Libyan  desert.  He  founded  the  sect  of  the 
Nestorians. 

Netscher,  Kaspar  {b.  1639,  d.  1GS4), 
German  painter,  who  excelled  in  depicting 
costume  and  draperies.  His  sons,  Theodore 
(d.  1732)  and  Constantine  {d.  1722),  were 
portrait-painters  of  merit. 

Nettleship,  Henry  (*.  1839),  English 
scholar.  After  a  distinguished  career  at 
Oxford,  was  elected  fellow  of  Lincoln  in 
1861,  of  Coi-pus  in  1873,  and  in  1878  became 
professor  of  Latin.  His  chief  work  is 
Lectures  and  Essai/s  on  Subjects  Connected 
with  Latin  Literature  and  Scholarship  (1885). 

Neulioflf,  Baron  Theodore  von  {d.  1756), 


German  adventurer.  Having  been  obliged 
to  leave  his  country  on  account  of  a  duel, 
served  in  the  Spanish  army  against  the 
Moors,  and  in  1735  was  crowned  King  of 
Corsica,  but  being  unable  to  achieve  its 
independence  came  to  England.  Here  he 
was  imprisoned  for  debt  for  some  years, 
his  liberation  being  at  last  effected  by 
Horace  Walpole. 

Neumann,  Karl  Friedrich  (J.  1798,  d. 
1870),  German  Orientalist  ;  was  deprived 
of  his  professorship  at  Munich  in  1852  on 
account  of  his  Liberalism,  and  settled  at 
Berlin,  where  he  published  Memoirs  of 
David,  an  Armenian  Philosopher,  and 
several  historical  works  dealing  with  China. 

Neville,  George  {d.  1476),  ecclesiastical 
statesman,  brother  of  Warwick  the  King- 
maker ;  was  made  Bishop  of  Exeter  when 
imder  age,  and  became  Lord  Chancellor  in 
1469,  in  which  year  he  pronounced  judg- 
ment in  favour  of  the  Yorkist  claim  to  the 
throne.  On  the  rupture  with  Edward  IV. 
he  was  deprived  of  the  seals,  but  had 
meanwhile  become  Archbishop  of  York. 
He  had  the  custody  of  Edward  in  1470,  and 
was  subsequently  confined  in  the  Tower 
and  at  Calais. 

Neville,  Henry,  actor ;  played  with 
Fechter  in  No  Thoroughfare,  took  a 
leadmg  part  at  the  Vaudeville  in  The 
School  for  Scandal,  London  Assurance,  etc., 
and  was  subsequently  lessee  of  the  Olympic. 
He  published  The  Stage ;  its  Fast  and 
Present,  in  Relation  to  Fine  Art. 

Newcastle  [-under-Lyme],  Thomas  Pel- 
ham,  Duke  of  {b.  1693,  d.  1768),  statesman  ; 
was  a  great  favourite  of  George  I.,  who  made 
him  Privy  Councillor  in  1717,  and  a  lord 
justice  during  his  absence  in  Hanover.  In 
1724  he  became  a  Secretary  of  State,  and 
was  Prime  Minister  from  1754  to  1756,  and 
again  from  1757  to  1762. 

Newcastle,  Henry  Pelham-Clinton,  fifth 
Dukeof  {h.  1811, <^.  1864),  statesman;  entered 
Parliament  (as  Lord  Lincoln)  in  1832,  be- 
came Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests 
1841,  and  in  1846  Chief  Secretary  for  Ire- 
land. He  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in  1851  ; 
was,  as  a  Peelite,  Colonial  Secretary  and 
Secretary  for  War  successively  in  the  Aber- 
deen Ministry,  and  again  held  the  lormer 
oflfice  from  1859  to  1864. 

Newcastle[-upon-Tyne],  William  Caven- 
dish, first  Duke  (b.  \')'^1,  d.  1676),  did  good 
service  to  the  Royalist  cause  during  the 
Great  Rebellion,  and  was  created  marquis 
in  1643,  and  duke  in  1664. 

Newdigate,  Sir  Roger,  Bart.  {b.  1719,  d. 
1806),  rejiresented  Oxford  University  for 
many  years,  and  founded  the  prize  for  an 
English  poem  winch  is  annually  awarded. 


New 


(688) 


Nic 


Newdigate  -  Newdegate,  Edward  (b. 
1825),  eutered  the  army  iu  1842,  and  be- 
came lieutenant-general  in  1887,  and  gover- 
nor of  the  Bermudas,  having  served  in  the 
Crimea  and  in  the  Zulu  war  of  1879. 

Newman,  Edward  (6.  1801,  d.  1876), 
naturalist ;  author  of  Grammar  of  Ento- 
mology (1835),  History  of  British  Ferns 
(1845),  and  History  of  British  Moths 
(1869). 

Newman,  Francis  WilHam  {b.  1805), 
philosophical  writer,  brother  of  Cardinal 
Newman  ;  resigned  his  fellowship  at 
Balliol  in  1830  on  conscientious  grounds, 
and  travelled  iu  the  East,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  in  the  University  of  London 
from  1846  to  1863.  Among  his  chief  works 
are  The  Soul :  its  Sorrows  and  Aspirations 
(1849),  Phases  of  Faith  (1850),  and  Theism, 
jDoctrtnal  and  Practical  (1858),  besides 
translations  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odes  of 
Horace. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  Caj-dinal  (b.  1801, 
d.  1890),  theologian,  sou  of  a  London  ban- 
ker ;  graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1820,  and  was  elected  fellow  of 
Oriel.  He  took  orders  in  1824,  when  he 
became  vice-principal  of  St.  Albau's  Hall, 
and  in  1828  became  vicar  of  St.  Mary's. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  Tractarian 
movement,  and  in  1841  wi'ote  Tract  XC, 
which  was  severely  condemned.  After 
living  at  Littlemore  for  some  years  in 
seclusion,  he  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Church  in  1845  ;  founded  the  Brompton 
oratory  in  1850,  and  directed  the  Edg- 
baston  oratory  for  the  greater  part  of  his 
remaining  years.  He  took  part  in  contro- 
versies with  Kingsley  in  1864  and  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  1874,  and  accepted  the  Infalli- 
bility dogma  vrith  some  reservations.  He 
was  created  cardinal  in  1879.  Chief  among 
his  works  were  Apologia  pro  Vttd  Sua,  An 
Essay  in  Aid  of  a  Grammar  of  Assent 
(1870),  and  The  Dream  of  Gerontius. 

Newton,  Alfred,  F.R.S.  (6.  1829), 
zoologist ;  went  to  Spitzbergen  iu  1864, 
and  also  visited  Iceland  and  North  America. 
In  1866  he  became  professor  of  zoology  and 
comparative  anatomy  at  Cambridge,  and, 
besides  other  works,  was  author  of  The 
Zoology  of  Ancient  Europe. 

Newton,  Charles  Thomas,  D.C.L.,  Ph.D  , 

etc.  (J).  1816),  archaeologist ;  was  assistant 
in  the  antiquities  department  of  the 
British  Museum  1840-52,  when  he  became 
vice-consul  at  Mitylene,  and  made  the 
important  discoveries  described  in  his 
Travels  and  Discoveries  in  the  Levant.  From 
1861  to  1885  he  was  keeper  of  Greek  and 
Koman  antiquities,  and  edited  the  collection 
of  ancient  Greek  inscriptions  in  the  British 
Museum.     His  wife,  a  daughter  of  Joseph 


Severn,  was  an  artist  of  merit,  and  died  in 
1866. 

Newton,  Gilbert  Stuart  {b.  1794,  d.  1835), 
painter,  friend  of  Washington  Irving.  He 
became  A.R.A.  in  1828,  and  R.A.  in  1832, 
and  became  insane  soon  after.  His  Yoi'ick 
and  the  Grisette  is  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac  {b.  1642,  d.  1727), 
natural  philosopher  ;  was  bom  at  Wools- 
thorpe,  Lincolnshire,  and  educated  at  Gran- 
tham and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
After  going  dovni  for  some  years,  during 
which  he  published  his  theory  of  light  and 
discovered  the  law  of  gravitation,  he  be- 
came fellow  of  his  college  in  1667,  and  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  two  years  later.  He 
was  chosen  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  ia 
1671,  was  president  for  twenty-five  years 
from  1703,  and  became  also  master  of  the 
Mint,  being  knighted  in  1705.  He  repre- 
sented the  University  in  Parliament.  His 
PhilosopJna  Xaturalis  Principia  appeared 
in  1687.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  his  epitaph  being  written  by  Pope, 
and  a  full  account  of  his  life  and  writings 
by  Sir  D.  Brewster  was  published  in  1855. 

Newton,  John  {b.  1725,  d.  1807),  divine, 
the  friend  of  Cowper,  with  whom  he  pro- 
duced Olney  Hymns.  He  wrote  also  several 
other  works. 

Newton,  John  (b.  1823),  American 
general ;  served  with  credit  at  Washington, 
Gettysburg,  and  elsewhere  during  the  Civil 
war,  and  was  appointed  commissioner  of 
public  works  at  New  York  in  1886. 

Newton,  Thomas  (*.  1704,  d.  1782), 
divine ;  author  of  Dissertations  on  the 
Prophecies ;  became  Bishop  of  Bristol  in 
1761. 

Ney,  Michel,  Prince  de  la  Moskowa  (6. 
1769,  d.  181.5),  marshal  of  France;  entered 
the  army  in  1787,  and  first  distinguished 
himself  as  general  of  division  under  Moreau 
(1799-1800).  He  was  minister  in  Switzer- 
land in  1803,  but  iu  1805  gained  his  title  of 
Due  d'Elchingeu  by  his  capture  of  that 
village  when  in  command  of  the  8th  corps. 
A  gi-eat  part  of  the  success  of  the  campaign 
against  Prussia  was  due  to  him,  as  was  also 
the  victory  of  Friedland.  He  was  recalled 
from  Spain  on  accoimt  of  a  quarrel  with 
Masseua,  and  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow 
commanded  the  rear-guard  of  the  Grande 
Armee.  He  was  active  in  the  campaign  of 
1813,  but  was  defeated  at  Deunewitz.  He 
was  continued  in  the  command  of  his 
division  by  the  Bourbon  government,  but 
soon  joined  Napoleon,  and  led  the  charge  of 
the  Old  Guard  at  Waterloo,  after  which  he 
was  shot  as  a  traitor. 

Niccolini,  Giovanni  Battista  {b.  1785,  d. 


Nic 


(589  ) 


Nic 


]861),  Italian  poet,  librarian  and  secretary 
to  the  Florence  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  ; 
author  of  Arnaldo  da  Brescia  (1845),  Gio- 
vanni da  Procida,  and  Nahiwco  (printed  in 
London  1819),  which  were  directed  against 
Austrian  domination. 

Niccolo  da  Pisa.     [See  Pisano.] 

Nicephorus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(i.  758,  d.  828),  was  deposed  and  banished 
in  815  by  Leo  the  Armenian  for  refusing  to 
accept  lus  decree  against  images.  He  wrote 
Breviarium  Histortcum,  a  history  of  Con- 
stantinople in  Greek. 

Nicephorus  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East  {d. 
811),  conspired  against  Irene  in  802,  and 
banished  her  to  Lesbos  ;  made  a  treaty  with 
Charlemagne  in  803,  but  was  compelled  to 
pay  tribute  to  Haroun  al  Raschid.  He 
governed  with  great  cruelty,  and  was  sur- 
prised and  slain  in  his  camp  by  the  Bul- 
garians. 

Nicephorus  XL  [Phocas]  {b.  912,  d.  969), 
recovered  Cihcia,  Syria,  and  Cyprus  from 
the  Saracens ;  was  crowned  in  963,  and 
murdered  by  John  Zimisces  in  969. 

Nicephorus  III.  succeeded  Michael  VII. 
in  1078 ;  defeated  Bryennius,  but  was 
deposed  by  Alexis  Comnenus  in  1081,  and 
became  a  monk. 

Niceron,  Jean  Pierre  {b.  1685,  d.  1738), 
French  vmter ;  author  of  Memoires  pour 
servir  a  VHistoire  des  Hommes  Illustres  de  la 
Republiqtce  des  Lettres  (forty-four  volumes). 

Nichol,  John  Pringle  {b.  1804,  d.  1859), 
Scottish  clergyman  and  astronomer ;  author 
of  Views  of  the  Architecture  of  the  Heavens, 
Cyclopcedia  of  the  Physical  Sciences,  and 
other  works. 

Nichol,  John,  LL.D.  {b.  1833),  his  son ; 
was  professor  of  English  literature  at  Glas- 
gow from  1861  to  1889,  and  wrote  Tables  of 
European  Literature  and  History,  Byron 
{'■'■Men  of  Letters"  series).  Bacon's  Life 
and  Philosophy  {"Philosophical  Writers''^) 
and  other  works. 

Nicholas,  the  Tsar  {b.  1796,  d.  1855), 
third  son  of  Paul ;  succeeded  Alexander  I. 
in  1825,  after  repressing  a  miUtary  insur- 
rection, the  object  of  which  was  to  make 
Constantino  emperor,  with  a  constitution. 
He  carried  on  wars  with  Persia  and  Turkey, 
and  crushed  the  rising  of  the  Poles  in  1830. 
He  died  during  the  Crimean,  or  second 
Turkish  war. 

Nicholas,  the  Grand  Duke  {b.  1831), 
third  son  of  the  above  ;  saw  some  service  in 
the  Crimea,  and  commanded  the  Russian 
troops  in  Europe  up  to  April,  1878,  in  the 
Eusso-Turkish  war.  In  1890  he  lost  his 
reason,  but  partially  recovered. 


Nicholas  I.,  Prince  of  Montenegro  {b. 
1841),  succeeded  his  uncle  in  1860. 

Nicholas  I.,  Pope  of  Rome  (d.  867),  was 
consecrated  in  858  ;  excommunicated  Pho- 
tius,  and  attempted  to  induce  the  Eastern 
bishops  to  obey  him,  the  result  being  the 
final  schism  between  the  East  and  West. 
He  condemned  the  divorce  and  marriage  of 
Lothaire,  and  was  attacked  in  consequence, 
but  in  a  conflict  with  the  chief  bishops  of 
the  West  he  maintained  the  papal  su- 
premacy. 

Nicholas  II.  {d.  1061),  was  elected  in 
1058,  and  introduced  reforms. 

Nicholas  III.  {d.  1280),  elected  in  1277 ; 
imduly  favoured  his  family,  the  Orsini,  but 
attempted  a  reconciliation  with  the  Greek 
Church. 

Nicholas  IV.  {d.  1292),  elected  in  1288 ; 
busied  himself  in  the  adornment  of  Rome, 
but  was  unsuccessful  in  his  attempt  to  pro- 
mote a  fresh  crusade. 

Nicholas  v.,  "Da  Sarzana"  {b.  1389, 
d.  1455),  was  elected  iu  1447  (the  abdi- 
cation of  the  anti-pope,  two  years  later, 
bringing  to  an  end  the  "Great  Schism"), 
and  defeated  the  conspiracy  of  Porcari  in 
1452.  He  was  a  great  scholar,  was  chief 
founder  of  the  Vatican  library,  and  of 
several  Italian  universities,  and  offered  an 
asylum  to  the  Greeks  driven  out  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

Nichols,  John  {b.  1745,  d.  1826),  printer 
and  editor;  conducted  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine  for  many  years,  and  pubUshed 
Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eiyh  teenth  Century, 
and  Lllmtrations  of  the  Literary  History  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century,  the  latter  of  which 
was  continued  by  his  son,  John  Bowtee 
Nichols  {d.  1863). 

Nichols,  John  Gough  {b.  1806,  d.  1873), 
antiquary ;  edited  the  Gentleman'' s  Maga- 
zine, and  pubUshed  Facsimiles  of  Auto- 
graphs of  Personages  Conspicuous  in  English 
History,  tvith  Biographical  Memoirs  (1829), 
Literary  Remains  of  King  Edward  VI.,  etc. 

Nicholson,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  D.C.L.  {b. 

1808),  was  Speaker  in  New  South  Wales 
from  1846  to  1856,  and  some  time  chancellor 
of  the  university  of  Sydney. 

Nicholson,  Henry  Alleyne,  M.D.,  D.Sc, 
etc.  {b.  1844),  zoologist ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Toronto  iu  1871, 
of  biology  at  Durham  (1874),  of  natural  his- 
tory at  St.  Andrews  (1875),  and  at  Aber- 
deen in  1882,  being  also  Swiney  lecturer  on 
geology  at  the  British  Museum.  Among  his 
works  are  manuals  of  zoology  and  palaeon- 
tology. 

Nicholson,  John  (6.  1822,  d.  1857),Britiah 


Nic 


(590  ) 


Ifit 


Boldier  ;  served  with  distinction  in  the  first 
Afghan  war,  the  Sutlej  camijaign,  and  the 
second  Sikh  war,  and  during  the  Mutiny 
disarmed  the  Sepoys  at  Peshawur,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Delhi. 

Nicholson,  Margaret,  a  mad  woman,  at- 
tempted the  Hfe  of  George  III.  August  2, 1786. 

Nicias  (d.  413  b.c),  Athenian  statesman 
and  general,  leader  of  the  Oligarchical 
party ;  was  one  of  the  commanders  of  the 
Sicilian  expedition,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  was  defeated,  captured,  and  put  to  death. 

Nicol,  Erskine,  Hon.,  A.R.A.  (b.  1825), 
painter,  was  born  at  Leith,  and  Hved  much 
in  Ireland,  scenes  from  which  country  form 
the  majority  of  his  subjects. 

Nicolai,  Christoph  Friedrich  {b.  1733,  d. 
1811),  German  bookseller  and  writer :  estab- 
lished the  Allgememe  Deutsche  Biblothek,  and 
published  ie<<e?'s  on  Modern  Literature,  etc. 

Nicolai,  Otto  {b.  1810,  d.  1849),  Gei-man 
composer,  wrote  TJie  Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor, etc. 

Nicolas,  Sir  Nicholas  Harris  {b.  1799,  d. 
1848),  antiquary,  author  of  History  of  the 
Orders  of  Knighthood,  Despatches  of  Lord 
Nelson,  and  other  works.  He  served  when 
young  in  the  navy,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1825. 

Nicot,  Jean  (b.  1530,  d.  1600),  when 
ambassador  to  Portugal  in  1559  brought 
back  the  tobacco  plant,  which  was  called 
"  herba  nicotiana  "  after  him. 

Niebuhr,  Carsten  (b.  1733.  d.  1815),  tra- 
veller, born  at  Hanover ;  was  geographer  to 
the  Danish  expedition  to  Arabia  of  1761-2, 
and  returned  alone  from  India  through 
Persia  and  Turkey,  publishing  an  account 
of  the  expedition  in  Description  of  Arabia 
and  Travels  in  Arabia. 

Niebuhr,  Barthold  Georg  {b.  1776,  d. 
1831),  his  son,  historian  and  philologist; 
was  bom  at  Copenhagen,  but  in  1805  en- 
tered the  Prussian  service,  and  became  privy 
councillor.  He  was  several  years  minister 
at  Rome,  and  negotiated  the  concordat  of 
1821.  In  1823  he  obtained  a  chair  at  Bonn, 
and  his  Homische  Geschichte  appeared  in 
enlarged  form  in  1827.  It  was  translated  by 
Hare  and  Thirlwall.  He  was  also  author  of 
Corpus  Scriptorum  Histories  Byzantinm  and 
other  works,  and  discovered  at  Verona  the 
fragments  of  Gaius. 

Niel,  Adolphe  (*.  1802,  d.  1869),  marshal 
of  France ;  served  with  credit  in  Algeria 
and  at  Rome  (1849),  and  as  chief  of 
engineers  captured  Bomarsund  in  the  Cri- 
mean war,  while  he  afterwards  directed  for 
the  French  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  He  also 
took  part  in  the  war  with  Austria  in  1859, 
and  was  minister  of  war  from  1867  to  1869. 


Niemcewicz,  Julian  Ursin  {b.  Ylbl,  d. 
1841),  Polish  statesman  and  writer ;  was 
aide-de-camp  to  Kosciusko  in  1794,  and 
after  two  years'  imprisonment  went  with 
him  to  America.  On  the  establishment  of 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw  he  became 
secretary  to  the  Senate,  a  post  which  he 
lost  on  account  of  his  support  of  the  rising 
of  1830,  having  also  taken  part  in  the  fram- 
ing of  a  new  constitution  after  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna.  His  chief  work  was  His- 
torical  Ballads. 

Niepce  de  Saint  Victor,  Claude  Marie 
Francois  {b.  1805,  d.  1870),  inventor  of  j)hoto- 
graphy  on  glass,  was  bom  at  Saint  Cyr,  and 
served  some  years  in  the  French  army.  In 
1847  he  announced  his  discovery,  and  after- 
wards invented  the  "  heliochrome  "  process 
and  "heliography"  (1853).  In  1855  his 
Iteeherches  Fhotographiques  appeared,  but 
he  refused  to  patent  his  inventions. 

Nightingale,  Florence  {b.  1829),  was  bom 
at  Florence,  and  in  1851  entered  an  institu- 
tion of  sisters  of  mercy  at  Kaisers werth. 
On  November  4,  1854,  she  arrived  with 
ninety-two  women  at  Scutari,  and  brought 
the  hospital  there  to  a  high  state  of  effici- 
ency. A  testimonial  was  offered  her  but 
dechned.  She  wrote  Notes  on  Hospitals, 
Notes  on  Nursing,  and  other  works. 

Nigra,  Constantino,  Comit  {b.  1827), 
Italian  diplomatist,  was  badly  wounded  at 
Rivoh,  and  afterwards  entered  the  diploma- 
tic service.  He  was  secretary  to  Cavour  at 
the  Paris  Congress  in  1856,  and  as  Itahan 
minister  there  ia  1870  endeavoured  to  avert 
the  war  with  Prussia.  In  1876  he  was 
transferred  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1882 
to  Loudon,  where  he  remained  three  years. 

Nikita.    [See  Nicholas  I.  of  Montenegro.] 

Nilsson,  Christine  {b.  1843),  Swedish 
singer,  daughter  of  a  farmer  ;  went  to  Paris 
in  1860,  and  on  October  27,  1864,  made 
her  debut  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  in  La 
Traviata.  Her  first  appearance  in  England 
was  in  1867,  and  in  1870-2  she  made  her 
first  tour  in  the  United  States,  her  retire- 
ment taking  place  in  1888.  She  married 
M.  Rouzaud  in  1872,  and  in  1887  Count  de 
Miranda. 

Nimrod,  nom  de  plume  of  Charles  Appee- 
LEY  {b.  1778,  d.  1843),  author  of  Hunting 
Tours  (1835),  The  Turf,  the  Chase,  and  the 
Itoad  (1837),  etc. 

Ninon  de  I'Enclos.    [See  L'Enclos.] 

Nithsdale,  William  Maxwell,  fifth  Earl  of 
{b.  1676,  d.  1744),  Scottish  nobleman,  cele- 
brated for  his  escape  from  the  Tower,  which 
was  effected  by  his  wife  in  1716,  after  the 
rebeUion  of  the  previous  year. 


Ni2s 


(591) 


Nor 


Nizam  al  MiQuk  [d.  1092),  Grand  Vizier  of 
Persia  for  nearly  thirty  years ;  founded  and 
endowed  the  college  of  Bagdad,  and  wrote 
a  history  of  his  times.  He  was  killed  by  an 
assassin. 

Nizami,  Abu  Mohammed  Nizam  Eddyn 
(12th  century),  Persian  poet,  the  German 
memoir  of  whose  life  and  writings  was 
translated  into  Enghsh  in  1873.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  KhaniHah,  consisting  of  five 
poems,  one  of  which  is  Iskander-Nameh — 
the  "  Alexander  Booky 

NoaiUes,  Adrien  Maurice,  Due  de  (6. 
1(378,  d.  1766),  French  general ;  was  pre- 
sident of  the  council  during  the  minority  of 
Louis  XV.,  but  lost  his  place  for  a  time 
through  the  influence  of  Dubois.  He  com- 
manded at  Dettiugen,  and  in  old  age  again 
became  a  minister.  Two  of  his  sons  were 
marshals  of  France. 

Noble  John  Willock  {p.  1831),  American 
statesman  ;  rose  from  the  ranks  to  be 
brigadier-general  during  the  Civil  war, 
and,  after  practising  many  years  as  a  law- 
yer, was  named  secretary  of  the  interior  in 
1889. 

Noble,  Mark  {h.  1784,  d.  1827),  clergyman 
and  antiquary,  author  of  History  of  the 
College  of  Arms,  Lives  of  the  English  Regi- 
cides, Memoirs  of  the  Protectorate  House  of 
Cromicell,  etc. 

Nodier,  Charles  {b.  1780,  d.  1844),  French 
■writer,  became  librarian  of  the  Bibliotheque 
de  1' Arsenal  in  1823.  Among  his  works 
were  Le  Eoi  de  Boheme  (1830),  and  Lies  de 
las  Sierras  (romances). 

Noel,  Baptist  Wriothesley  {b.  1798,  d. 
1873),  divine,  left  the  Church  soon  after  the 
Gorham  decision  (1848),  and  joined  the 
Baptists,  defending  his  position  in  his 
Essay  on  the  Union  of  Church  and  State. 
He  wrote  also  several  other  works. 

Nolan,  Captain  Lewis  Edward  {b.  1817,  d. 
1854),  British  officer.  After  serving  in  the 
Austrian  army  and  in  India,  was  sent  to 
Turkey  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war 
to  purchase  horses,  and  was  killed  at  Bala- 
clava while  carrying  the  fatal  order  for  the 
charge  to  Lord  Lucan. 

Nollekens,  Joseph  {b.  1737,  d.  1823),  Eng- 
lish sculptor,  son  of  a  Dutch  landscape-pain- 
ter :  was  the  friend  of  Blake  and  Flaxman, 
and  made  a  large  fortune  by  his  art,  speci- 
mens of  which  are  the  bust  of  Goldsmith  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  those  of  Pitt  and 
Fox  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

Noodt,  Gerard  {b.  1647,  d.  1725),  Dutch 
civilian,  rector  and  professor  of  law  of 
Leyden,  whose  works  were  published  in 
1716. 


Norbury,  John  Toler,  Earl  of  (*.  1745,  d. 
1831),  Irish  judge,  celebrated  for  his  wit;  as 
Attorney- General  prosecuted  the  rebels  of 
1798,  and  in  1800  became  Chief  Justice  of 
the  Common  Pleas,  being  created  an  earl  on 
his  retirement  in  1827. 

Nordberg,  Georg  {b.  1677,  d.  1744),  Swe- 
dish historian  ;  accompanied  Charles  XII. 
in  his  campaigns  as  chaplain,  and  was  cap- 
tured at  Pultowa.  He  wrote  a  Life  of 
Charles  XI L. 

NordensMbld,  Nilo  Adolf  Erik,  Baron  (6. 
1832),  Arctic  explorer,  bom  at  Helsingfors, 
Finland,  made  voyages  of  exploration  to 
Spitzbergen  in  1861,  1864,  and  1866,  and 
visited  Greenland  in  1870.  After  several 
preparatory  voyages  he  started  in  1878, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  KiKg  of  Sweden, 
to  discover  a  north-east  passage,  and  his 
Voyage  of^  the  Vega  round  Asia  and  Europe 
appeared  in  an  English  version  in  1883. 

Nordica,  Madame  [Mrs.  Gower],  singer, 
was  bom  and  educated  in  America,  and 
afterwards  went  to  Italy.  She  acquired 
a  reputation  by  her  rendering  of  Mar- 
guerite. 

Norfolk,  Roger  Bigod,  Earl  of  (<f.  1270), 
Earl  Marshal  of  England  ;  headed  the  em- 
bassy of  1245  to  the  Council  of  Lyons  to 
complain  of  the  exactions  of  Innocent  IV., 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.,  at  first  against  but  later  in 
favour  of  the  king. 

Norfolk,  Roger  Bigod,  Earl  of  {d.  1307), 
nephew  of  preceding ;  inherited  the  dignity 
of  marshal  in  1270,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  Welsh  wars,  and  in  obtaining  the 
confirmation  of  the  charter  from  Edward  I. 

Norfolk,  Thomas  Mowbray,  Duke  of  (d. 
1399),  was  created  duke  by  Richard  II.  in 
return  for  his  support  against  Gloucester, 
but  was  banished  for  life  after  the  quarrel 
with  Henry  of  Hereford. 

Norfolk,  Thomas  Howard,  Duke  of  (d. 
1524),  was  made  prisoner  at  Bosworth, 
where  his  father  ("  Jack  of  Norfolk  ")  was 
killed;  became  lord  treasurer  in  1501,  and 
next  year  arranged  the  marriage  of  Mar- 
garet Tudor  with  James  IV.  of  Scotland. 
He  commanded  at  Flodden,  and  negotiated 
the  peace  with  France  in  1514. 

Norfolk,  Thomas  Howard,  Duke  of  {d. 
1554),  son  of  last-named,  rendered  great 
services  to  Henry  VIII.  as  a  soldier  in 
France  and  Scotland,  and  was  chiefly  in- 
strumental in  putting  an  end  to  the  Pil- 
grimage of  Grace  (1.536).  He  was  lord 
deputy  of  Ireland  (1520-2)  ;  opposed  the 
Reformation,  bringing  about  the  fall  of 
Cromwell,  but,  having  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  king,    was  condemned  to 


Nor 


(592) 


Nor 


death,  and  only  escaped  by  the  death  of 

Henry. 

Norfolli,  Thomas  Howard,  Duke  of  (d. 
1572),  grandson  of  last-named,  was  for  long 
greatly  favoured  by  Elizabeth,  but  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  in  1569  on  the  discovery 
of  his  views  with  regard  to  Mary  Stuart. 
He  was  soon  released,  but  having  broken 
his  pledges,  was  found  guilty  of  treason  and 
executed. 

Norman,  Sir  Henry  Wylie,  G.C.B.,  etc. 
(I).  182G),  entered  the  Bengal  anny  in  1844  ; 
was  for  seven  years  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  India,  and,  having  held  various  mihtary 
appointments  and  been  governor  of  Jamaica, 
became  governor  of  Queensland  in  1888. 
He  served  in  the  Punjab  campaign  and 
throughout  the  Mutiny. 

Norman,  John  Paxton  {b.  1819,  d.  1871), 
judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Bengal,  was 
assassinated  when  entering  the  court  at 
Calcutta.  He  was  author  of  a  treatise  on 
Law  and  Practice  Relating  to  Letters.  Patent 
for  Inventions. 

Norman,  Eobert  (16th  century),  dis- 
covered the  dip  of  the  magnetic  needle,  and 
made  improvements  in  the  compass. 

Nonuan-N^ruda,  Wilhelmine  [Lady 
Halle]  {b.  1840),  violinist,  was  bom  at 
Brtin  ;  made  her  first  appearance  in  1846, 
and  from  1870  visited  England  every  winter. 
Her  first  husband  was  Ludwig  Norman. 

Normanby,  Constantine  Phipps,  Marquis 
of  {b.  1797,  d.  1863),  statesman  and  diplo- 
matist, son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Mulgrave ; 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Whig  in  1819,  be- 
came governor  of  Jamaica  in  1831,  Lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  1835,  and  was  created 
marquis  in  1838.  He  was  Colonial  Secre- 
tary (1839)  and  Home  Secretary  (1839-40), 
and  in  1846  became  ambassador  at  Paris, 
whence  he  went  to  Florence  in  1854.  He 
had  controversies  with  Louis  Blanc,  Lord 
Palmerston,  and  Mr.  Gladstone. 

Normanby,  George,  second  Marquis, 
G.C.B.  {b.  1819),  sat  for  some  years  in 
the  House  of  Commons ;  was  governor  of 
Nova  Scotia  (1858-1866),  of  Queensland 
(1871-74),  of  New  Zealand  (1874-78),  and 
Victoria  (1878-84). 

Norris,  Edwin  {b.  1795,  d.  1872),  philol- 
ogist ;  compiled  the  first  Assyrian  diction- 
ary, and  published  a  grammar  of  the  Bornu 
language,  etc. 

Norris,  Sir  John  ("  Foulweather  Jack  ") 
{d.  1749),  admiral,  served  under  Rooke, 
Russell,  and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel ;  was 
joint -admiral  with  Peterborough  in  1705, 
and  in  1710  commander  iu  the  Mediter- 
ranean.   He  led  expeditions  to  the  Baltic  in 


1715  and  1717,  in  which  year  he  was  sent  aa 
special  envoy  to  the  Tsar.  In  1744  he  com- 
manded against  the  French. 

Norris,  John  (b.  1657,  d.  1711),  English 
Platonist ;  author  of  The  Theory  and  Regula- 
tion  of  Love,  etc. 

North,  Christopher.     [^See  WilsDn.] 

North,  Hon.  Sir  Ford  (b.  1830),  judge; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1856,  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  1877,  and  in  1881  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench, 
beiug  transferred  to  the  Chancery  Division 
in  1883. 

North,  Francis,  Baron  Guilford  {b.  1637, 
d.  1685),  EngUsh  judge,  grandson  of  Lord 
Dudley  North  (d.  1666),  the  poet,  and  son 
of  the  biographer  of  the  same  name ;  became 
Solicitor-General  in  1671,  Attorney-General 
1673,  and  Lord  Keeper  in  1682,  when  he 
was  made  a  peer.  He  wrote  a  Philosophical 
Essay  on  Music. 

North,  Roger  {d.  1733),  lawyer  and  bio- 
grapher, son  of  Sir  Dudley  North  {d.  1691), 
author  of  Observations  on  the  Manners,  Cus- 
toms, and  Jurisprudence  of  the  Turks  ;  wrote 
lives  of  his  brothers  and  The  Examen :  or, 
Inquiry  into  the  Credit  and  Veracity  of  a 
Pretended  Complete  History  (Kennefs  His- 
tory  of  England). 

North,  Frederick,  Earl  of  Guilford,  com- 
monly known  as  Lord  North  {b.  1732,  d. 
1792),  statesman,  of  the  same  family  as  the 
preceding ;  became  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer in  1769,  and  from  1770  to  1782  was 
Prime  Minister,  after  which  he  formed  a 
coalition  with  Fox,  and  was  joint  secretary 
with  him  for  a  few  months.  He  was  the 
favourite  minister  of  George  III.,  but  to- 
wards the  end  of  his  administration  wished 
to  conclude  peace  with  the  colonies. 

Northhrook,  Francis  Baring,  Lord  {b. 
1796,  d.  1866),  statesman,  represented 
Portsmouth  as  a  Whig  from  1826  to  1865 ; 
held  subordinate  offices  under  Earl  Grey  and 
Lord  Melbourne  ;  was  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  1839-41,  and  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  1849-52,  being  created  ajpeer  in 
1865. 

Northbrook,  Right  Hon.  Thomas,  Earl 
of,  K.G.  (b.  1826),  grandson  of  preced- 
ing; entered  Parliament  in  1857,  and  held 
various  subordinate  offices  between  that 
date  and  1866,  when  he  became  a  peer. 
From  1868  to  1872  he  was  imder-secretary 
for  war,  and  was  Governor-General  of 
India  from  the  latter  year  till  1876,  when  he 
resigned  on  the  Afghan  question.  He  was 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  imder  Mr.  Glad- 
stone from  1880  to  1885,  and  in  1884  went 
to  E^pt  as  High  Commissioner.  He  broke 
with  nis  chief  on  the  Home  Rule  question. 


Nor 


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Nov 


NortllCOte,  James  (6.  1746,  d.  1831),  pain- 
ter, sou  of  a  Plymouth  watchmaker ;  was 
a  pupil  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  whose 
Memoirs  he  published  (1813-15),  and  also 
wrote  a  Life  of  Titian.  Among  his  pictures 
were  The  Young  Frinces  Murdered  in  the 
Tower,  and  numerous  portraits. 

NortllCOte,  Sir  Stafford.  [See  Iddesleigh.] 

Northumberland,  Henry  Percy,  Earl  of 
(d.  1408),  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
of  Edward  III.,  and  received  his  title  from 
Richard  II.,  but  joined  Henry  of  Lancaster 
against  him.  In  1402  he  won  the  victory  of 
Honuldon  Hill  and  captured  Douglas,  but 
he  twice  rebelled  against  Henry  IV.  and 
was  killed  in  battle. 

Northumberland,  John  Dudley,  Duke  of 
(b.  1502,  d.  1553),  son  of  the  minister  of 
Henry  VII. ,  was  ennobled  by  Henry  VIII. , 
and  obtained  wealth  from  the  spoils  of  the 
monasteries  ;  was  made  high  admiral  1545, 
and  Earl  of  Warwick  two  years  later,  and 
in  1551  obtained  his  dukedom.  He  in- 
trigued against  Somerset,  procured  an 
alteration  of  the  succession  in  favour  of  his 
daughter-in-law,  Jane  Grey,  and  was  be- 
headed for  treason  by  Queen  Mary. 

Northumberland,  Sir  Hugh  Smithson, 
Duke  of  {d.  1786),  intermarried  with  the 
old  family,  assumed  the  name  of  Percy,  and 
was  created  duke  in  1766. 

Northumberland,  Algernon  Percy,  Duke 
of  {b.  1792,  d.  1865),  served  in  the  navy  till 
1815  ;  was  created  Lord  Prudhoe  next  year, 
and  succeeded  his  brother  as  duke  in  1847. 
He  was  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
1852-3,  president  of  the  Royal  Institution 
1842-65,  and  was  a  great  benefactor  to  the 
navy. 

Northiunberland,  Algernon,  Duke  of  {b. 
1810),  sat  in  the  Commons  as  a  Conservative 
for  several  years,  and,  having  held  several 
subordinate  offices,  was  Lord  Privy  Seal 
under  Lord  Beaconsfield  1878-80. 

Norton,  Hon.  Caroline  [Mrs.]  (b.  1808, 
d.  1877),  granddaughter  of  Sheridan, 
novelist  and  poet,  her  chief  works  being 
Stuart  of  Bunleath  (1851),  Lost  and  Saved 
(1863),  and  The  Lady  of  La  Garaye  (1870).  A 
divorce  suit,  with  Lord  Melbourne  as  co- 
respondent, was  brought  against  her  in 
1836,  but  the  charge  was  disproved.  In 
1877  she  married  Sir  W.  Stirling-Maxwell. 

Norton,  Right  Hon.  Sir  Charles  Adder- 
ley,  Lord  (6.  1814),  statesman  ;  represented 
North  Staffordshire  as  a  Conservative  for 
thirty-seven  years ;  was  vice-president  of 
the  Education  Committee  in  1858-9,  under- 
secretary for  the  Colonies  1866-8,  and 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  1874-8, 
being  created  a  peer  in  the  latter  year,  and 


subsequently  was  a  member  of  several  royal 
commissions. 

Nostradamus,  Michel  {b.  1503,  d.  1566), 
French  astrologer  and  physician,  bom  in 
Provence;  published  in  1555  Prophetical 
Centuries,  which  acquired  such  vogue 
that  the  author  was  made  physician  to 
Charies  IX. 

Nott,  Josiah  Clark  (i.  1804,  d.  1878), 
American  ethnologist  and  physician  ;  author 
of  Physical  History  of  the  Jewish  Race 
(1850),  and,  with  G.  R.  Gliddon,  Types  of 
Mankind  (1854),  and  Indigenous  Races  of  the 
Earth  (1857). 

Nott,  Sir  William  {b.  1782,  d.  1845), 
general ;  held  Candahar  in  1841,  and  next 
year  marched  on  Cabul,  won  the  victory  of 
Ghuznee,  and  carried  oil'  the  gates  of  Som- 
uauth.  Ill-health  obliged  him  to  return 
home,  where  he  died. 

Nottingham.     {See  Finch  and  Howard  of 

Effingham.] 

Noue,  Fraugois  de  la,  "Bras  de  Fer" 
(J).  1531,  d.  1591),  French  Calvinist  soldier ; 
derived  his  nick-name  from  his  having  had  an 
iron  arm  made  for  him  in  place  of  one 
which  had  been  amputated  ;  was  dis- 
tinguished at  Jamac  (1569)  and  Valen- 
ciennes (1571),  but  joined  the  Huguenots 
after  the  massacre  of  1572,  and  sub- 
sequently served  the  Dutch,  and  was 
killed  at  Lamballe  during  the  wars  of  the 
League. 

Noureddin-Malmioud,  Sultan  of  Egypt 
and  Syria  {b.  1118,  d.  1173),  defeated  the 
second  Crusade,  and  afterwards  took  Da- 
mascus and  Edessa;  was  defeated  by  the 
Christians  in  1159,  but  afterwai-ds  con- 
quered Egypt,  where  Saladin  was  aiming 
at  independence,  when  the  sultan  died. 
Noureddin  is  a  Moslem  saint. 

Novalis,  pen-name  of  Friedrich  von 
Hardenberg  (*.  1772,  d.  1801),  German  poet 
and  philosopher,  a  native  of  Saxony.  His 
chief  works,  edited  by  his  friends,  Tieck 
and  Schlegel,  consist  of  The  Pupil  at  Sais 
&ndi  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen — philosophical 
romances,  the  latter  unfinished,  and  Hymns 
to  the  Night. 

Novatianus  (3rd  century),  heresiarch 
and  founder  of  the  sect  called  after  him ; 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Rome  in  251,  but  waa 
soon  deposed. 

Novello,  Clara  Anastasia  {b.  1818),  English 
vocalist,  married  Count  Gigliucci  in  1843, 
and  retired  in  1860. 

Novello,  Joseph  Alfred  (b.  1810),  organist 
and  music  publisher,  friend  of  Mendelssohn. 
He  settled  in  Italy  in  1856. 


Nov 


(594) 


O'Br 


NoveUo,  Vincent  (b.  1781,  d.  1861),  mu- 
rical  composer  and  publisher.  Died  at 
Nice. 

Noy,  William  {d.  1634),  English  lawyer ; 
as  Attorney- General  recommended  the  im- 
position of  ship-money. 

Nubar  Pasba  (i.  1825),  Egyptian  states- 
man, bom  at  Smyrna,  but  educated  in 
Europe  ;  was  secretary  to  Mehemet  Ali  and 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  and  became  minister  of 
public  works  in  1864,  and  of  foreign  affairs 
in  1867.  He  introduced  reforms  in  the 
admioistration  of  justice,  and  his  last  term 
of  office  was  under  Tewfik  from  1884  to 
1888. 

Nugent,  George  Grenville,  Lord  (b.  1788, 
d.  1850),  poUtician  and  writer,  brother  of 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham ;  represented 
Aylesbury  as  a  Whig  for  many  years,  and 
was  a  lord  of  the  Treasury  in  1830.  He  was 
high  commissioner  of  the  Ionian  Islands 
1832-5,  and  was  again  returned  for  Ayles- 
bu^  in  1847.  His  chief  work  was  Memorials 
of  Mampden  and  his  Times  (1831). 

Nugent,  Lavall,  Count  {b.  1777,  d.  1862), 
soldier ;  served  first  in  the  Austrian  and 
then  in  the  English  army,  and  after  being 


captain-general  at  Naples,  returned  to  the 
former  service  ;  took  part  in  the  wars  in 
Hungary  (1848),  and  Italy  (1848  and  1S60), 
rising  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal. 

Numa  Pompilius,  second  [mythical]  King 
and  reputed  law-giver  of  Rome. 

Numerianus,  Marcus  Aurelius  {d.  284),, 
Roman  emperor ;  reigned  eight  months 
with  Carinus,  and  was  murdered  by  his 
father-in-law. 

Nunez -Pereira  {b.  circa  1360),  Constable 
of  Portugal,  and  rounder  of  the  house  of 
Braganza ;  after  rendering  great  services 
against  Castile  and  Ceuta,  retired  to  a 
monastery  about  1420. 

Nunez  de  Axce,  Gaspar  (Jb.  1834),  Spanish 
poet,  called  the  "  Tennyson  of  Spain  "  ; 
author  of  several  comedies  besides  his 
lyrics. 

Nuvolone,  Carlo  (J.  1608,  d.  1651), 
Milanese  painter  in  the  manner  of  Guido. 
His  brother,  Giuseppe  {d.  1703),  executed 
a  fine  picture  of  St.  Dominic  raising  a  dead 
man. 

Nuzzi,  Mario  [Mario  da  Fiori]  {b.  1603,  d* 
1673),  NeapoUtan  flower-painter. 


Oakeley,  Sir  Herbert  Stanley  (i.  1830), 
was  elected  professor  of  music  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  in  1865. 

Gates,  Titus  {b.  circa  1650,  d.  1705),  son  of 
a  ribbon  weaver;  in  1677  became  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits, 
but  soon  afterwards  recanted  and  pre- 
tended he  had  discovered  a  "  Popish  plot. " 
In  consequence  of  his  representations  Lord 
Stailord  and  others  were  executed.  He  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  £1,200  a  year,  but  on 
the  accession  of  James  II.  was  condemned 
to  the  pillory,  and  suffered  other  indignities. 
William  III.  granted  him  a  pension. 

Obadiah,  a  Hebrew  prophet.  Supposed  by 
some  to  have  lived  in  the  6th  century  B.C. 

Oberlin,  Jeremias  Jakob  {b.  1735,  d.  1806), 
was  bom  at  Metz,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  1782.  He 
was  imprisoned  during  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
He  edited  Csesar,  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Tacitus. 

Oberlin,  Johann  Friedrich  (b.  1740,  d. 
1826),  brother  of  the  preceding:  was  ap- 
pointed Lutheran  pastor  of  the  Ban  de  la 


Roche  in  1767,  and  devoted  his  life  to  im- 
proving the  moral  and  physical  condition  of 
the  rude  inhabitants.  His  agricultural 
schemes  were  especially  successful. 

O'Brien,  Sir  J,  Terence  N.  (b.  1830), 
served  on  the  north-west  frontier  of  India 
and  in  the  Mutiny ;  became  governor  o£ 
Newfoundland  in  1888. 

O'Brien,  Lucius  {b.  1832),  president  of  the 
Royal  Canadian  Academy  of  Arts. 


_  O'Brien,   William    (6. 
tionaUst ;      represented 
South    Tyrone     1885-6; 
Cork  since  1886. 


1852),  Irish  Na- 
Mallow  1883-5, 
and    North-east 


O'Brien,  William  Smith  {b.  1803,  d.  1864), 
Irish  agitator,  represented  County  Limerick 
as  a  moderate  Conservative  1826-43  ;  joined 
O'Connell  in  1843,  but  separated  from  him 
in  1846,  and  formed  the  "Young  Ireland" 
party;  in  1847  founded  the  "Confedera- 
tion ; "  was  tried  for  sedition  in  March, 
1848,  but  acquitted  :  attempted  to  create  a 
rising  in  Thurles,  but  was  arrested  and 
condemned    to    death.     Hip    sentence    wa* 


Occ 


(695) 


Odo 


afterwards  commuted  to  transportation  for 
life.  In  1856  he  received  a  full  pardon. 
He  died  at  Bangor. 

Occam,  William  of  (d.  circa  1349),  school- 
man, bom  in  Surrey ;  studied  imder  Duns 
Scotus  in  Peiris,  but  afterwards  opposed  his 
master,  and  founded  the  "Nominalist" 
school:  upheld  the  power  of  temporal 
sovereigns  agaiust  the  claims  of  the  popes, 
and  was  patronised  by  Louis  of  Bavaria ; 
wrote  Disputatio  super  Potestate  Ecclesias- 
tica,  and  Summa  Totius  Logicce. 

Occleve,  Thomas  (6.  nrca  1370),  an  Eng- 
lish lawyer  and  poet;  wrote  the  Story  of 
Jonathan,  etc. 

Ochino,  Bernardino  (*.  1487,  d.  1564), 
ItaUan  reformer ;  entered  the  Capuchin 
order  in  1534 ;  through  the  influence  of 
Juan  de  Valdez  changed  his  religious  views ; 
fled  to  Switzerland,  and  thence  to  England, 
where  he  remained  1547-53  ;  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Mary  returned  to  Switzerland,  and 
became  a  pastor  at  Zurich  ;  died  in  Moravia. 
He  published  Prediche,  etc. 

Ochterlony,  Sir  David  {b.  1758,  d.  1825), 
general,  defended  Delhi  against  Holkar 
(1804),  and  conducted  a  successful  campaign 
against  the  Nepaulese  (1816). 

Ockley,  Simon  (*.  1678,  d.  1720),  divine 
and  OrientaHst,  bom  at  Exeter;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  in 
1711.  His  chief  work  is  a  History  of  the 
Saracens  (1718). 

O'ConneU,  Daniel  Q>.  1775,  d.  1847),  bom 
in  Kerry,  educated  at  St.  Omer  and  Douay, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1798.  His  agitation 
for  removing  the  political  disabilities  of  the 
Roman  Cathohcs  culminated  in  1828,  when 
he  was  elected  for  Clare,  but  not  allowed  to 
take  his  seat.  Amidst  great  excitement  the 
Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  was  passed  in 
1829.  He  first  demanded  the  repeal  of  the 
Union  LQ  1841.  After  holding  several  mon- 
ster meetings  in  Ireland,  he  was  arrested, 
fined,  and  imprisoned,  but  this  judgment 
was  reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords  (1844), 
O'Connell  was  opposed  to  the  use  of  phy- 
sical force,  and  discountenanced  the  Char- 
tists and  the  "  Toung  Ireland  "  party.  He 
died  at  Genoa. 

O'Connor,  Charles  (d.  1828),  antiquary 
and  historian ;  published  Eerum  Hiberni- 
earum  Scriptores  (1814-26). 

O'Connor,  Feargus  Edward  (b.  1796,  d. 
1855),  Chartist  leader,  bom  near  Cork,  re- 
presented that  town  in  Parliament  1832-5. 
At  first  supported  O'Connell,  but  afterwards 
became  a  leader  of  the  Chartists,  whose 
cause  he  advocated  in  his  paper,  the  iV&r- 
thern  Star.  He  was  elected  member  for 
Nottingham  in  1847,  and  presented  the 
M  M  2 


monster  petition  in  1848.    In  1852  he  became 
insane. 

O'Connor,  Thomas  Power  {b.  1848),  Irish 
Nationalist,  entered  Parliament  in  1880 ; 
lectured  in  the  United  States  1881 ;  be- 
came president  of  the  Irish  National  League 
in  1883  ;  has  represented  the  Scotland  divi- 
sion of  Liverpool  since  1885.  He  has  pub- 
hshed  Lord  Beaconsfield :  a  Biography,  The 
Parnell  Movement  (1885),  and  was  some  time 
editor  of  the  Star  newspaper. 

Octavia  (d.  11  b.c),  daughter  of  C. 
Octavius  and  sister  of  Augustus;  was  first 
married  to  C.  Marcellus,  and  afterwards  to 
M.  Antonius,  who  divorced  her. 

O'Curry,  Eugene  (i.  1796,  d.  1862),  Irish 
antiquary;  published  works  on  The  MS. 
Materials  of  Ancient  Irish  History  and  The 
Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Irish, 
and  was  co-editor  of  the  Brehon  Laws, 

Odenathus  (d.  267),  expelled  Sapor,  KiTig 
of  Persia,  from  Syria,  and  proclaimed  him- 
self King  of  Palmyra ;  afterwards  invaded 
Persia  and  captured  Ctesiphon.  In  264  his 
sovereignty  was  acknowledged  by  the  Em- 
peror Gallienus.  After  his  assassination  his 
wife,  Zenobia,  ruled  at  Palmyra. 

Odevafere,  Joseph  Denis  (5.  1798,  d.  1830), 
Belgian  painter,  studied  under  David  at 
Paris.  Among  his  chief  works  are  The 
Peace  of  Utrecht  and  The  Battle  of  Nieuport. 

Odling,  William  {b.  1829)  became  Wayn- 
flete  professor  of  chemistry  at  Oxford  in 
1872. 

Odo,  Saint  (6.  879,  d.  943),  Abbot  of 
Clugny,  was  renowned  for  his  holiness  and 
wisdom.  His  system  of  monastic  discipline 
was  adopted  generally  on  the  Continent. 
He  wrote  The  Life  of  St.  Gerard,  Count  of 
Awillac,  and  Morals  of  St.  Gregory. 

Odo,  Saint  {b.  958),  was  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  by  Edmund  in  944. 
He  enforced  a  strict  rule  of  life  among  the 
monks,  and  punished  the  recalcitrant  with 
undue  severity. 

Odo  de  ConteviUe  {b.  1032,  d.  1097),  half- 
brother  of  William  I.,  was  made  Bishop  of 
Bayeux  in  1049 ;  after  the  Conquest  was 
granted  the  earldom  of  Kent.  He  held  the 
office  of  grand  justiciar,  and  during  Wil- 
liam's absence  in  Normandv  (1067)  dis- 
played great  avarice  and  cruelty. 

Odoacer  {d.  493),  a  Herule  or  Eugian 
chieftain,  after  attacking  and  slaying  the 
patrician  Orestes,  and  deposing  his  son,  the 
Emperor  Romulus  Augustulus  (476),  ruled 
Italy  as  patrician  under  the  Eastern  Em- 
peror, Zeno,  but  was  practically  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign.      He   waa   overthrown 


O'Do 


(  596) 


Ola 


by  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  who 
put  him  to  death. 

O'Donnell,  Leopold,  Duke  of  Tetuan  (b. 

1809,  d.  1867),  Spanish  soldier  and  politician,, 
of  Irish  descent,  served  the  regent  Christiua 
in  the  first  Carlist  war ;  brought  about  the 
fall  of  Espartero  (1843),  but  afterwards 
became  minister  of  war  under  him  (1854) ; 
after  Espartero's  second  fall  (1856)  was  for 
a  short  time  chief  minister. 

O'Donovan,  Denis,  E.R.G.S.  (b.  1836),  a 
writer  on  art  and  literature,  who  has  ren- 
dered great  public  services  in  Queensland 
and  Victoria. 

O'Donovan,  Edmund  (i.  1838,  d.  1883), 
was  correspondent  of  the  Daily  News  during 
the  Russo-Turkish  war  (1877-8)  ;  penetrated 
to  Merv  (187^),  and  pubUshed  The  Merv 
Oasis  (1882) ;  was  killed  in  the  African  ex- 
pedition of  Hicks  Pasha. 

O'Donovan,  John  {b.  1809,  d.  1861),  Celtic 
scholar,  son  of  a  peasant ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Irish  at  Belfast  in  1849.  He  edited 
the  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters  (1856). 

(Ecolampadlus,  Johannes  (b.  1482,  d. 
1531),  a  German  reformer,  whose  real  name 
was  Hausschein.  After  long  hesitation  he 
embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation 
in  1522.  He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life 
at  Basle,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  estab- 
lishing the  Reformation  in  Switzerland.  He 
inclined  to  ZwingU's  view  of  the  Sacrament 
rather  than  to  that  of  Luther. 

(Eder,  Georg  Ludwig  (4.  1728,  d.  1791), 
was  appointed  professor  of  botany  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1752.  His  chief  work  is  Flora 
Danica.  In  later  life  he  became  distin- 
guished as  an  economist  and  financier. 

CEMenschlager,  Adam  Gottlob  (b.  1779, 
d.  1850),  Danish  poet,  visited  Goethe  at 
Weimar  in  1806 ;  after  travelling  in  France 
and  Italy  returned  to  Copenhagen  (1810), 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  aesthetics  in 
the  university.  Among  his  works  are  the 
dramatic  poems  of  Aladdin  and  Hakon  Jarl, 
Falnatoke  and  other  tragedies,  and  an  epic 
entitled  The  Gods  of  the  North. 

Oersted,  Hans  Christian  {b.  1777,  d.  1851), 
Danish  man  of  science,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  Copenhagen  in  1806. 
His  great  discovery  was  the  power  of  an 
electric  current  upon  a  magnet,  from  which 
the  science  of  electro -magnetism  has  been 
developed. 

Offa  [d.  795),  King  of  Mercia,  succeeded 
Ethelbald  in  755.  He  slew  Ethelbert,  King 
of  the  East  Angles,  and  seized  his  do- 
minions. 

OffenbacH,  Jacques  (6.    1819,    d.    1880), 


opera -bouffe  composer,  bom  of  Jewish 
parents  at  Cologne  ;  composed  many  pieces 
for  his  theatre  at  Paris  (1855-80),  including 
Orphee  (tuxEnfers(l858),  MadameFavart,  etc. 

Ogilby,  John  {b.  1600,  d.  1676),  a  self- 
ediirated  writer,  translated  "Virgil,  ^sop, 
and  Homer.  He  is  satirised  in  MacFlecknoe 
and  the  Dunciad. 

Ogle,  Dr.  William  (b.  1827),  superintendent 
of  statistics  in  the  General  Register  Office ; 
has  contributed  papers  to  the  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Medico -Chirurgical  Society 
and  the  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society. 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward  {b.  1698,  d. 
1785),  English  general,  served  under  Marl- 
borough and  Eugene  ;  in  1733  founded  the 
colony  of  Georgia,  which  he  named  after 
George  II.  ;  returned  to  England  in  1743, 
and  held  a  command  against  the  Jacobites 
(1745). 

Ohm,  Georg  Simon  {b.  1787,  d.  1854), 
German  man  of  science ;  discovered  "  Ohm's 
law  "  of  electricity,  by  which  the  intensity 
of  a  current  is  stated  in  terms  of  the  electro- 
motive force  and  the  resistance  of  the 
circuit. 

Ohmacht,  Landelin  [b.  1761,  d.  1834), 
German  sculptor,  pupil  of  Canova,  settled 
at  Strasburg  in  1801 .  The  Judgment  of  Faris 
at  Munich  is  a  fine  specimen  of  his  art. 

Ohuet,  Georges  {b.  1848),  French  novelist, 
author  of  Serge  Parrine  (1881),  Le  Maitre 
de  Forges  (1882),  etc.,  etc. 

Ojeda,  Alonzo  de  (6.  circa  1465),  Spanish 
navigator ;  was  the  companion  of  Columbus 
in  his  second  voyage  (1493)  ;  led  an  expe- 
dition to  the  New  World  in  1499-1500,  and 
discovered  Venezuela. 

O'Keefe,  John  {b.  1747,  d.  1833),  dramatic 
writer  and  actor,  bom  at  Dublin.  His  fii'st 
api)earauce  in  London  was  at  the  Haymarket 
in  1777.  He  wrote  The  Agreeable  Surprise, 
Wild  Oats,  and  other  plays. 

Oken,  or  Okenfass,  Lorenz  (b.  1779,  d. 
1851), philosopher  and  morphologist ;  in  1802 
published  his  Sketch  of  a  System  of  Natural 
Philosophy,  containing  the  germ  of  his  theory 
of  growth  by  a  process  of  subdivision  and 
repetition  of  cells,  which  he  called  infusoria; 
in  1807  announced  his  theory  of  the  homology 
of  the  cranium  with  the  vertebral  colunm  ; 
was  professor  at  Jena  (1807-19),  Munich 
(1827-32),  and  Zurich  (1832-51). 

Olaf  I.,  Tryggvason,  King  of  Norway  (d. 
1000),  joined  Svein,  King  of  Denmark,  in 
his  invasion  of  England  (994) ;  came  to 
terms  with  Ethelred,  and  was  baptised  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  was  chosen 
king  about  995 ;   endeavoured  to  establish 


Ola 


t«S7) 


Ols 


Christianity  in  Norway ;  was  slain  in  a  sea- 
fight  against  Svein  of  Denmark. 

Olaf  n.,  "  the  Saint"  {d.  1030),  spent  his 
youth  in  piracy,  became  king  in  1015 ; 
during  his  reign  suppressed  the  Vikings  and 
established  Christianity  in  Norway.  In 
1028  he  was  expelled  from  Norway  by  Knut 
of  Denmark,  fled  to  Sweden,  and  thence  to 
Russia ;  returned  iu  1030,  but  was  defeated 
and  slaiu  at  Stiklestad. 

Olaf  IIL  {d.  1093)  ascended  the  throne 
about  1068. 

Olaf  rV.  (b.  1098,  d.  1116)  succeeded  his 
father,  Magnus  III. 

Olaf  V.  (b.  1371,  d.  1387)  succeeded  his 
father,  Hakon,  in  1380. 

Olavides,  Pablo  Antonio  Jose,  Count  of 
Pilos  (6.  1725,  d.  1803),  was  made  intendant- 
general  of  Andalusia,  and  planted  and 
colonised  the  barren  region  of  the  Sierra 
Morena. 

Olbers,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Matth'aus  (b, 
1758,  d.  1840),  German  astronomer,  prac- 
tised as  a  physician  at  Bremen.  In  1797  he 
announced  a  new  method  of  determimng  the 
orbits  of  planets.  He  discovered  the  planets 
Pallas  (1802)  and  Vesta  (1807),  and  in  1815 
the  comet  which  bears  his  name. 

Oldcastle,  Sir  John,  Lord  Cobham  {d. 
1417),  was  a  leader  of  the  Lollards,  whom 
he  sheltered  at  his  castle  of  Cowling  in 
Kent.  On  the  accession  of  Henrj'  V.  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  whence  he  escaped 
into  Wales  (1413).  In  1417  he  was  captured 
and  burnt. 

Oldenbvtrg,  Henry  (d.  1678),  came  to  Eng- 
land during  the  Commonwealth  as  political 
agent  for  his  native  town  of  Bremen ;  be- 
came secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1662, 
and  was  the  first  to  publish  the  Fhilosophical 
Transactiom. 

Oldham,  John  (6.  1653,  d.  1683),  satirical 
poet,  wrote  Four  Satires  against  the  Jesuits 
and  Pindaric  Odes,  and  translated  Juvenal. 
He  was  patronised  by  the  Earl  of  Kingston, 
at  whose  seat  he  died. 

Oldmixon,  John  {b.  1673,  d.  1742),  a  mis- 
cellaneous writer  and  critic,  satirised  in  the 
Dunciad. 

Oldys,  "William  (5.  1696,  d.  1761),  Eng- 
lish antiquai-y  and  bibliographer,  wrote  The 
British  Librarian,  a  Life  of  Sir  Walter 
Haleigh,  and  many  of  the  lives  in  the 
Biographia  Britannica. 

Oleg,  Prince  of  Russia  [d.  912),  was  a 
kinsman  of  Ruric,  who  appointed  him 
guardian  of  his  son,  Igor  (879).  Oleg  made 
himself  king,  and  greatly  extended  the 
Kussian  dominions. 


Olga  (d.  969),  wife  of  Igor,  Prince  of 
Russia,  carried  on  the  government  after  his 
death  in  945.  In  955  she  visited  the  emperor 
Constantiue  Porphyrogenitus  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  was  converted  to  Christianity. 

Oliphant,  Lawrence  (b.  1829,  d.  1888), 
accompanied  Lord  Elgin's  mission  to  China 
(1857-9),  and  was  charge  d'affaires  at  Pekin 
(1859-62).  He  afterwards  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  found  a  socialist  and  reli- 
gious community  at  Portland,  United  States. 
His  later  years  were  spent  chiefly  in  the  East. 
He  wrote  Piccadillg,  Altiora  Peto,  and  other 
novels  satu-ising  fashionable  life,  also  descrip- 
tions of  his  travels,  and  religious  works  such 
as  Scientific  Eeltgion  (1888),  etc. 

Oliphant,  Mrs.  Margaret  [nee  Wilson]  (J. 
1828),  has  published  the  Chronicles  of  Carling- 
ford,  and  other  novels,  a  Life  of  Edward  Ir- 
ving (1862),  The  Makers  of  Florence  {l876),eUi. 

Oliphant,  Thomas  Lawrence  Kington  (b. 
1831),  has  published  Old  and  Middle  English 
(1878),  New  English  {18SQ),  life  of  Frederick 
II.  (1862),  etc. 

Olivarez,  Gasparo  de  Guzman,  Count  of, 
Duke  of  San  Lucar  {b.  1587,  d.  1645),  Spanish 
statesman  ;  was  chief  minister  of  Philip  IV. 
from  1621  to  1643.  During  his  adminis- 
tration several  revolts  occurred,  and  Portugal 
became  an  independent  kingdom  (1640). 

Oliver,  Isaac  {b.  1556,  d.  1617),  English 
artist;  studied  under  Hilliard  and  Zucchero. 
His  portraits  include  miniatures  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  Sir 
Philip  Sidney.  His  son,  Petee  (i.  1601,  d. 
1654),  was  much  employed  by  Charles  I. 

Olivetan,  Pierre  Robert  (d.  1538),  French 
reformer,  born  at  Noyon;  was  related  to 
Calvin,  and  is  said  to  have  had  great  in- 
fluence in  the  formation  of  his  religious 
views.  It  js  doubtful  whether  Olivetan  or 
Lefevre  d'Etaples  first  translated  the  Bible 
into  French. 

Olivier,  Guillaimie  Antoine  (&.  1756,  d. 
1814),  naturalist,  bom  near  Toulon  ;  accom- 
panied Bruguiere  on  a  scientific  expedition  to 
Persia  (1792-8).  He  wrote  an  etomological 
dictionary,  an  account  of  his  travels,  and 
other  works. 

Ollivier,  Olivier  iSmile  {b.  1825),  French 
politician ;  was  called  to  the  Paris  bar  in 
1847  ;  in  1869  formed  a  cabinet,  in  which  he 
was  minister  of  justice  (1869-72).  He  after- 
wards supported  the  pretensions  of  Prince 
Napoleon. 

Olmstcl,  Frederick   Law    {b.   1822),  an 

American  landscape-gardener. 

Olshausen,  Hermann  {b.  1796,  d.  1839), 
German  Protestant  divine ;  was  professor  of 


Oly 


(598 


Ora 


theology  at  Kouigsberg  (1827-34)  and  Er- 
laugea  (18o4-9).  In  his  treatise  ou  The 
Deeper  Sense  of  Scripture  he  pleads  for  an 
allegorical  interpretation.  He  also  wrote  a 
work  ou  The  Genuineness  of  the  Four  Gospels, 
and  a  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament, 
which  was  continued  by  Ebrard  and  others. 

Olybrius,  Amicius  {d.  472),  Roman  Em- 
peror ;  married  the  widow  of  Valentinian 
III.,  and  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  Ricimer 
(472),  but  died  the  same  year. 

Olsmapias  {d.  316  b.c),  daughter  of  Neo- 
ptolemus,  King  of  Epirus ;  about  357  B.C. 
was  married  to  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  by 
whom  she  was  afterwards  divorced.  She 
outlived  her  son,  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
was  put  to  death  by  Cassander. 

O'Malley,  Edward  Loughlin  (b.  1842), 
became  chief  justice  of  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments Ln  1889. 

Omax  {h.  581,  d.  644),  the  second  khalif ; 
was  one  of  Mahomet's  earliest  followers. 
He  succeeded  Abu  Bekr  in  634.  During  his 
khalifate  the  Saracen  empire  was  extended 
over  Syria,  Palestine,  Persia,  and  Egypt. 

Omar  Khayydm  {b.  circa  1050,  d.  1122), 
a  Persian  poet  and  astronomer  (translated 
by  Fitzgerald). 

Omar  Pasba  {b.  1806,  d.  1871),  Turkish 
soldier  ;  was  by  birth  an  Austrian  Slav,  his 
real  name  being  Mikail  Lattas.  He  was 
employed  in  suppressing  revolts  in  Albania, 
Bosnia,  and  other  provinces  (1842-53)  ;  on 
the  outbreak  of  war  with  Russia  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  ;  expelled  the 
Russians  from  the  Danubian  principalities 
(1854),  and  defeated  them  at  Eupatoria,  in 
the  Crimea  (1855),  but  failed  to  relieve  Kars. 

O'Meara,  Barry  Edward  {b.  \liQ,d.  1836), 
after  serving  in  the  army  as  a  surgeon,  re- 
sided with  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena  as  his  phy- 
sician (1811-18).  In  1822  he  published  A 
Voice  from  St.  Helena :  or,  Napoleon  in  Exile. 

Omla,  or  Omejryah,  a  cousin  of  Mahomet ; 
was  ancestor  of  Moawia,  who  reigned  at 
Damascus  661-80,  and  was  foimder  of  the 
Omiad  dynasty  of  khalifs. 

Omichund  {d.  1759),  an  Indian  banker; 
notorious  for  the  part  he  played  in  the  in- 
trigues between  Clive  and  Meer  Jaffir.  He 
accepted  a  large  sum  as  bribe  for  his  silence 
concerning  the  treaty  by  which  Meer  Jailir 
was  to  succeed  Suraj-oo-Dowlah. 

Ommaney,  Admiral  Sir  Erasmus  {b.  1814), 
was  second  in  command  of  the  Franklin 
Search  Expedition  (1850).  During  the  war 
with  Russia  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  White 
Sea  expedition,  and  afterwards  held  com- 
mands in  the  Baltic. 


Omri,  King  of  Israel;  lived  in  the  10th 
century  B.C.    He  built  the  town  of  Samaria. 

Onkelos,  the  traditional  author  of  an 
Aramaic  Targum  or  version  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, which  appears  to  date  from  about  the 
2nd  century.  In  some  places  it  is  a  trans- 
lation, in  others  a  paraphrase. 

Onslow,  William  Hillier,  Earl  of  (jb.  1853), 
was  appointed  governor  of  New  Zealand  in 

1888. 

Opie,  John,  R.A.  (fi.  1761,  d.  1807),  son  of 
a  carpenter  at  Truro  ;  was  in  1781  taken  by 
Dr.  Wolcott  ("Peter  Pindar")  to  Loudon, 
where  he  became  a  fashionable  portrait- 
painter.  His  works  include  portraits  of 
Johnson,  Lady  Hamilton,  and  Fox,  also 
Tlie  Death  of  Rizzio,  and  other  historical 
pictui-es.  His  second  wife,  Amelia  {b.  1769, 
d.  1853),  daughter  of  Dr.  Alderson,  of 
Norwich,  wrote  Fathers  and  Daughters, 
Simple  Tales,  etc. 

Opltz,  Martin  (Jb.  1597,  d.  1639),  was  bom 
in  Silesia.  In  1625  he  was  crovmed  poet- 
laureate  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II. 
His  best  poems  are  didactic.  He  also  wrote 
hymns  and  sonnets.  His  Essay  on  German 
}  ersif  cation  and  his  own  purity  of  idiom 
exercised  great  influence  in  the  development 
of  the  German  language  and  literature. 

Oppert,  Julius  {b.  1825),  a  French  Orient- 
alist, born  in  Hamburg.  His  works  chiefly 
relate  to  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

Oppian  (b.  circa  200),  Greek  poet,  bom  in 
Cilicia ;  wrote  Halieutica,  a  poem  on  Ashing, 
which  he  presented  to  the  Emperor  Gara- 
calla. 

Orange,  Princes  of : — 

(1)  William  I.,  "the  Silent"  (b.  1533,  d. 
1584),  son  of  WiUiam,  Count  of  Nassau; 
inherited  large  domains  in  Brabant,  Flan- 
ders, and  Holland  ;  was  sent  as  a  boy  to  the 
court  of  Charles  V.  ;  enjoyed  the  confidence 
of  that  emperor,  but  was  distrusted  by  his 
son.  Philip  II.  On  learning  the  designs  of 
Philip  and  Henri  II.  of  France  against  the 
Protestants  (1559),  he  determined  to  espouse 
their  cause.  When  the  Duke  of  Alva 
arrived  in  the  Low  Countries  (1567),  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurgents,  and, 
after  a  protracted  struggle,  founded  the 
repubhc  of  the  Netherlands  (1579),  of  which 
he  was  elected  the  first  stadtholder.  He 
was  assassinated  at  Delft. 

(2)  Maueick  of  Nassau  {b.  1567,  d. 
1625),  second  son  of  the  preceding ;  was  one 
of  the  most  skilful  strategists  of  the  age. 
He  was  appointed  stadtholder  of  Holland 
in  1587,  and  soon  afterwards  of  Utrecht, 
Overyssel,  and  Gueldres.  The  war  with 
Spain  was  continued  till  1609,  after  which 
the   Dutch   were   able    to  maintain   their 


Ore 


(699 


Orl 


independence.  In  1618  Barneveldt,  who 
accused  Maurice  of  ambitious  projects, 
was  put  to  death.  Maurice  succeeded  his 
elder  brother  as  Prince  of  Orange  (1618). 

(3)  Feedeeick  Henry  of  Nassau  (b. 
1584,  d.  1647),  brother  of  the  preceding; 
became  stadtholder  ou  his  death  in  1625. 
He  carried  on  the  war  against  Spain  with 
prudence  and  success. 

(4)  WiLUAii  II.  (b.  1626,  d.  1650),  was 
son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1648.  He  married  Mary,  daughter  of 
Charles  I.  of  England. 

(5)  William  in.  [See  WiUiam  III.  of 
England.] 

(6)  John  William  Feison  {b.  1687,  d. 
1711),  sou  of  Henry  Casimir,  Stadtholder  of 
Groningen ;  became  Prince  of  Orange  on 
the  death  of  William  III.  in  1702.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  against  the  French  at 
Oudenarde  and  Malplaquet. 

(7)  William  Chaeles  Heney  (b.  1711, 
d.  1751),  posthumous  son  of  the  preceding ; 
was  elected  stadtholder  in  1747.  The  dignity 
was  then  made  hereditary  in  his  family. 

Orcagna,  or  Orgagna,  Andrea  (b.  1329, 
d.  1389),  Florentine  architect,  sculptor,  and 
painter,  was  son  of  a  goldsmith  named 
Clone.  Among  his  best  paintings  are  the 
scenes  from  Dante  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  and  the  Triumph 
of  Death  and  the  Last  Judgmejit  in  the 
Campo  Santo  at  Pisa.  He  built  the  taber- 
nacle of  Or  San  Michele,  and  the  Loggia  de' 
Lanzi  of  the  Grand  Ducal  Palace  at 
Florence,  which  was  completed  after  his 
death. 

Orcliardson,  William  Quiller,  R.A.  (6. 
1835),  painter,  bom  at  Edinburgh  ;  has 
exhibited  Tlie  Queen  of  Swords  (1877),  Vol- 
taire at  the  Due  de  Sullt/'s  (1883),  Mariage 
de  Convenance  (1886),  etc. 

Ordericus  Vitalis  {b.  1075,  d.  circa  1143), 
English  chronicler,  bom  near  Shrewsbury  ; 
was  educated  at  the  abbey  of  Ouche,  in 
Lisieux,  and  ordained  priest  in  1107.  His 
Historice  Ecclesice  includes  a  valuable  his- 
tory of  his  own  times. 

Orellana,  Francisco  {d.  1550),  Spanish 
traveller,  sailed  with  the  Pizarros  to  Peru 
in  1531.  In  1540-1  he  followed  the  river 
Marailon  to  its  mouth,  and  named  it  the 
Amazon,  from  the  warlike  women  of  the 
neighbourhood. 

Orelll,  Johann  Kaspar  von  [h.  1787,  d. 
1849),  classical  scholar,  bom  at  Zurich.  His 
chief  works  are  his  editions  of  Horace 
(1837-8),  Tacitus  (1846-7),  aud  Cicero 
(1826-31).  He  was  also  joint-author  of 
the  Onomasticon  Tullianum  (1836-8),  and 
published  Inscnptionum  Laiinarum  Selec- 
tarum  Colketw  (1828). 


Orestes  {d.  476),  became  secretary  to 
Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  about  446.  In  475, 
after  deposing  Julius  Nepos,  he  declared 
himself  patrician,  and  set  up  his  son, 
Eomulus  Augustulus,  as  emperor.  He  was 
defeated  by  Odoacer,  who  put  him  to  death. 

9rfila,  Matthieu  (6.  1787,  d.  1855),  phy- 
sician and  chemist,  bom  in  Minorca ;  was 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Academy  of 
Medecine  at  Paris  1823-53.  He  wrote  a 
Treatise  on  Poisons  (1813),  a  Treatise  on 
Medical  Jurisprudence  (1847),  etc. 

Origen  (i^.  185,  d.  254),  Christian  Father, 
born  at  Alexandiia,  studied  under  Clement ; 
was  ordained  presbyter  at  Caesarea  in  228  ; 
fled  to  Cappadocia  to  avoid  persecution 
(235)  ;  was  imprisoned  and  tortui-ed  during 
the  persecution  imder  Decius  (250) ;  died  at 
Tyre.  Origen  was  well -versed  in  Greek 
philosophy,  and  was  extremely  liberal  in 
his  views.  He  advocated  an  allegorical  in- 
terpretation of  Scripture,  and  denied  eternal 
punishment ;  he  was  consequently  regarded 
as  a  heretic,  both  in  his  Ufetime  and  after- 
wards. His  chief  work  is  the  Hexapla, 
consisting  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  various  Greek  renderings, 
arranged  in  six  colimms. 

Orleans,  Dukes  of : — 

First  House.— {I)  Louis  (*.  1372,  d. 
1407),  was  second  son  of  Charles  V. 
of  France.  Charles  VI.  having  lost  hia 
reason,  two  parties  arose,  headed  respec- 
tively by  Louis  and  John,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. Louis  was  murdered  by  his  rival ; 
hence  arose  the  quarrel  between  the 
Burgundians  and  the  Amiagnacs.  (2) 
Chaeles  (b.  1391,  d.  1465),  son  of  Louis, 
was  a  poet,  and  wrote  many  ballads  and 
songs.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Agiacourt 
(1415),  and  remained  in  England  till  1440. 
(3)  Louis.     [iSee  Louis  XII.] 

Second  House. — Gaston  Jean  Baptistb 
(b.  1608,  d.  1660),  was  younger  son  of  Henri 
IV.,  and  brother  of  Louis  XIII.  He  was  an 
enemy  of  Richelieu,  and  took  part  in  a 
conspiracy  against  him  in  1642.  His 
daughter  was  the  celebrated  Mdlle.  de 
Montpensier. 

Third  House.— (l)  Piiilippe  {b.  1640,  d. 
1701),  second  son  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France. 
distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of  Louis 
XIV.  (2)  Philippe  {b.  1674,  d.  1723),  son 
of  the  preceding ;  commanded  in  Italy 
(1706)  and  Spain  (1707-8).  He  became 
regent  on  the  death  of  Loius  XIV.  (1715), 
but  soon  afterwards  committed  the  cares  of 
government  to  his  favourite,  Dubois.  (3) 
His  son,  Louis  (*.  1703,  d.  1742),  retired  to 
the  abbey  of  St.  Genevieve.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  Bible.  (4)  Louis 
Phtlippk  {b.  1725,  d.  1785),  sou  of  the 
preceding ;     fought     at     Dettingen    (1743) 


Orl 


(600) 


Osm 


and  Fontenoy  (1757).  (5)  Loms  Philippe 
Joseph  {h.  1747,  d.  1793),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, adopted  democratic  views,  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  was  regarded 
as  the  leader  of  the  popular  party.  In 
1792  he  obtained  a  seat  in  the  National 
Convention,  assumed  the  title  of  "Egalite," 
and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In 
April,  1793,  he  was  proscribed,  and,  after 
six  months'  imprisonment  at  Marseilles, 
giiillotined.  His  son,  LoiTis  Philippe,  be- 
came king  of  the  French. 

Orleans,  Ferdinand  Philippe  Louis,  Duke 
of  {b.  1810,  d.  1842),  eldest  son  of  Louis 
Philippe  ;  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  Antwerp  and  in  tlie  African  campaign. 
He  died  from  the  effects  of  a  carriage  ac- 
cident. He  left  two  sons,  the  Count  de 
Paris  and  the  Due  de  Chartres. 

Orleans,  Prince  Louis  Philippe  Eobert, 
Duke  of  {b.  1869),  eldest  son  of  the  Coimt  de 
Paris ;  in  1890  was  imprisoned  under  the 
Expulsion  Bill  (1886). 

Orloff,  Gregori  (b.  1734,  d.  1783),  a 
favourite  of  Catherine  II.  of  Russia ; 
planned  the  revolution  against  Peter  III. , 
which  placed  her  on  the  throne  (1762),  and 
hoped  to  become  king.  It  is  said  that  she 
offered  to  marry  him  privately,  and  that  his 
retirement  from  court  was  due  to  her  dis- 
pleasure at  his  refusal.  His  brother, 
Alexis  (b.  1736,  d.  1808),  was  the  mur- 
derer of  Peter  III.  He  became  chief  ad- 
miral in  1768,  and  defeated  the  Turks  at 
Tschesme  (1770).  Alexis  Feodoeo vetch 
(b.  1787,  d.  1861),  nephew  of  Gregori  and 
Alexis,  negotiated  the  treaties  of  Adrian- 
ople  (1829)  and  Unkiar-Skelessi  (1833)  ; 
represented  Russia  at  the  Congress  of  Paris  ; 
and  was  made  president  of  the  council  in 
1856. 

Orme,  Robert  (b.  1728,  d.  1801),  became  a 
member  of  the  council  at  Fort  St.  George  in 
1754,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  his- 
toriographer to  the  East  India  Company. 
He  published  a  History  of  the  Military 
Transitions  of  the  British  Nation  in  Hin- 
dustan and  Historical  Fragments  of  the 
Mogul  Empire. 

Ormond,  James  Butler,  Duke  of  (5. 
1610,  d.  1688),  went  to  Ireland  in  1641  as 
lieutenant-general,  and  gained  several  vic- 
tories over  the  rebels  ;  was  Lord- Lieutenant 
1643-7  ;  followed  Charles  II.  in  his  exile ; 
was  again  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
1661-8.  In  1670  he  narrowly  escaped 
assassination  at  the  hands  of  the  notorious 
Colonel  Blood. 

Orobio,  Balthasar  {d.  1687),  a  Spanish 
Jew,  professor  of  metaphj'sics  at  Sala- 
manca ;  wrote  Certamen  Ph  ilosophicum 
against  the  doctrines  of  Spinosa. 


Orosius,  Paulus,  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic, 
who  lived  early  in  the  5th  century.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  St.  Augustine.  He  wrote 
Historiarum  AdversHs  I'aganos  Lihri  VJI., 
an  historical  work  in  defence  of  Christianity, 
which  was  translated  by  King  Alfred. 

Orsini,  Felice  {b.  1819,  d.  1858),  Italian 
revolutionist ;  while  acting  as  Mazzini's 
agent  in  Italy,  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
in  Mantua,  but  escaped  to  England  (1856). 
In  January,  1858,ihe  attempted  to  assassinate 
Napoleon  III.  by  throwing  bombs  under 
his  carriage,  for  which  he  was  executed. 

Ortelius,  Abraham  (A.  1527,  d.  1598), 
geographer,  bom  at  Antwerp  ;  twice  visited 
England ;  in  1575  became  geographer  to 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  His  chief  work  is 
Theatntm  Orbis  Terrarum  (1570). 

Orton,  Job  {b.  1717,  d.  1783),  Noncon- 
formist divine,  bom  at  Shrewsbury  ;  wrote 
Jfemoirs  of  Dr.  Doddridge,  etc. 

Osbom,  Sherard  {b.  1822,  d.  1875),  British 
admiral,  joined  in  the  Franklin  Search  Ex- 
pedition of  1850 ;  in  1856  commanded  the 
squadron  in  the  Black  Sea ;  served  in  the 
Chinese  war  1857-8.  He  wrote  several 
books  of  travel. 

Osborne,  Lord  Sydney  Godolphin  {b.  1808, 
d.  1889),  philanthropist,  was  rector  of  Dur- 
weston,  Dorset,  1841-75.  He  made  great 
efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  agri- 
cultural poor,  contributing  many  letters  on 
the  subject  to  the  Times  under  the  signature 
of  "  S.  G.  O." 

Oscar  I.,  King  of  Sweden  {b.  1799,  d. 
1859),  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  XIV., 
in  1844.  His  reign  was  peaceful  and  un- 
eventful. 

Oscar  II.  {b.  1829)  succeeded  his  brother, 
Charles  XV.,  in  1872.  He  has  translated 
Faust  into  Swedish,  and  written  a  Memoir  of 
Charles  XII. 

Osiander,  Andreas  (b.  1498,  d.  1552),  Ger- 
man reformer,  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Konigsberg  in  1548.  He  was  regarded 
by  his  colleagues  as  inclined  to  heresy. 

Osman,  Ali,  called  ' '  Osman  Digna  "  (b. 
circa  1836),  commanded  the  insurgents  in 
the  rebellion  excited  by  the  Mahdi,  which 
began  in  1881. 

Osman  Nubar  Pasha  (*.  1832),  Turkish 
general ;  distinguished  himself  by  his  gallant 
defence  of  Plevna  against  the  Russians 
(1877).  He  was  minister  of  war  1878-80, 
and  again  in  1881  and  1882. 

Osmund,  Saint  (d.  1099),  Norman  eccle- 
siastic, accompanied  William  I.  to  England  ; 
became  his  chancellor,  and  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Salisbury,  the  cathedral  of  which 


Oss 


(601) 


Otw 


was  completed  under  his  direction.  He 
compiled  the  breviary,  missal,  and  ritual 
known  as  the  Use  of  Sarum.  He  was 
canonised  in  1457. 

Ossington,  John  Evelyn  Denison,  Viscount 
{b.  1800,  d.  1873),  entered  Parliament  in 
1823 :  was  Speaker  1857-72,  when  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage. 

Ossoli,  Sarah  Margaret  Fuller,  Mar- 
chioness {b.  1810,  d.  1850),  American 
authoress,  started  the  Transcendental  Dial 
in  1840  ;  after  visiting  England  and  France 
passed  into  Italy  (1847),  where  she  was 
privately  married  to  the  Marquis  Ossoli ; 
was  lost  at  sea  with  her  husband  while  re- 
turning to  America.  She  wrote  Women  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century^  etc. 

Ossory,  Thomas  Butler,  Earl  of  {b.  1643, 
d.  1680),  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Ormond; 
distinguished  himself  at  sea  against  the 
Dutch ;  commanded  the  EngUsh  forces  at 
Mons  (1677). 

Ostade,  Adrian  {b.  1610,  d.  1685),  Dutch 
painter,  bom  at  Haarlem,  was  a  pupil 
of  Hals  and  Eembrandt.  He  resided  for 
many  years  at  Haarlem,  and  died  at  Am- 
sterdam. His  paintings  depict  scenes  from 
low  life  in  a  very  lively  manner.  Among 
them  are  The  Fish-Market  and  A  Hmoker 
Lighting  his  Ftpe.  His  brother,  Isaac  (b, 
1621,  d.  1649),  belonged  to  the  same  school. 

Ostervald,  Jean  Frederic  {b.  1663,  d. 
1747),  Protestant  divine,  was  bom  at 
Neufchatel,  and  passed  his  life  in  his  native 
town.     His  writings  are  voluminous. 

Oswald,  Saint  (h.  circa  605,  d.  642) ,  became 
King  of  Northumbria  in  635  ;  defeated  Cad- 
wallon,  King  of  Wales  ;  extended  his 
supremacy  over  Strathclyde  and  Wessex ; 
was  slain  in  battle  by  Penda,  King  of 
Mercia.  At  his  request  Aidan  came  from 
lona  to  preach  in  Northumbria. 

Othman,  or  Osman  (i.  1259,  d.  1326), 
founder  of  the  Ottoman  dynasty,  was  son 
of  an  Oguzian  chieftain  named  Orthogrul, 
who  established  himself  near  the  Sangar  in 
Asia  Minor.  He  took  Nicasa  (1304),  and 
founded  a  kingdom  consisting  of  Bithynia, 
Phrygia,  and  the  neighbouring  regions. 

Othman  Tbn  AfiFan  {d.  656),  the  third 
khalif,  was  Mahomet's  son-in-law,  and 
one  of  his  earUest  followers.  He  succeeded 
Omar  in  644.  His  nepotism  caused  great 
dissatisfaction,  and  he  was  at  last  assassin- 
ated at  Medina. 

Otho,  Marcus  Salvius  (J.  32,  d.  69),  Eoman 
of  patrician  descent,  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror by  the  Prajtorian  Guards,  but  was 
defeated  by  "Vitellius  at  Bedriacum,  and 
committed  suicide. 


Otlio  L  to  IV.,  Emperors.     [See  Otto.] 

Otho  (b.  1815,  d.  1867),  son  of  Ludwig 
II.,  King  of  Bavaria  was  chosen  King  of 
Greece  in  1833.  His  attempts  to  govern 
as  a  despot  and  with  the  aid  of  German 
counsellors  made  him  very  unpopular. 
In  1843  he  was  compelled  to  grant  a  liberal 
constitution.  His  attack  on  Turkey  during 
the  Ciimean  war  occasioned  the  interference 
of  England  and  France.  In  1862  a  revolt 
broke  out,  and  he  was  forced  to  retire  to 
Bavaria. 

Ottley,  WilUam  Young  {b.  1772,  d.  1836), 
Eughsh  artist,  resided  many  years  in  Italy. 
He  wrote  The  Italian  School  of  Design,  An 
Enquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Early  Mistory 
of  Engraving  on  Copper  and  Wood,  etc. 

Otto  L,  "the  Great,"  Emperor  of  the 
West  {b.  912,  d.  973),  son  of  Henry  the 
Fowlerj  was  chosen  King  of  Germany  in 
936 :  in  951  was  summoned  to  aid  the 
Italians  against  Bereugar,  and  married 
Adelheid,  widow  of  King  Lothair;  routed 
the  Hungarians  near  Augsbui-g  in  955 ;  in 
962  was  crowned  emperor  at  Rome  by  Pope 
John  XII.  He  subsequently  deposed  John, 
and  set  up  Leo  VIII.  in  his  stead.  He  ex- 
tended his  dominion  over  nearly  the  whole 
of  Italy,  re-established  the  Western  Empire, 
and  made  many  reforms  in  church  and 
state. 

Otto  XL  (J.  955,  d.  983),  succeeded  his 
father,  Otto  I.,  after  defeating  his  rival, 
Henry  of  Bavaria ;  thwarted  an  attempt  of 
Lothair  of  France  to  gain  possession  of 
Lorraine ;  invaded  Apulia  and  Calabria, 
which  he  claimed  through  his  wife  Theo- 
phania,  daughter  of  Nicephorus  Phocas, 
but  was  defeated  by  a  combined  army  of 
Greeks  and  Saracens  (982). 

Otto  IIL  (J.  980,  d.  1002),  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  crowned  at  Home  by 
Gregory  V.  in  996.  He  aimed  at  reviving 
the  glory  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Otto  IV.  (6.  circa  1174,  d.  1218),  son  of 
Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  was 
elected  in  1197,  when  a  rival  party  chose 
Philip  of  Suabia.  After  a  long  struggle  Otto 
was  crowned  at  Rome  (1209),  but  in  1212 
Frederick  II.  was  chosen  in  his  stead.  In 
1214  Otto  was  defeated  at  Bou vines  by 
Philip  Augustus  of  France. 

Ottocar  II.,  King  of  Bohemia  (d.  1278), 
by  his  marriage  with  Margaret,  sister  of 
Frederick  II.  (12.'; 2),  obtained  Austria  and 
Styria,  but  was  forced  to  cede  these  terri- 
tories to  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  and  to  do 
homage  for  Bohemia  and  Moravia  (1275). 

Otway,  Thomas  {b.  1651,  d.  1685),  drama- 
tist, born  in   Sussex;    after  failiug   as   an 


^Oud 


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Owe 


actor,  took  to  writiug  for  the  stage,  and 
produced  Alcibiades  iu  1G7«5.  His  finest 
tragedies  are  The  Orphan  (1680),  and  Venice 
Freserved  (1682).  He  is  said  to  have  died  of 
starvation. 

Oudinot,  Charles  Nicholas,  Duke  of 
Reggio  and  marshal  of  France  (I).  1767,  d. 
1847),  fought  with  distinction  in  the  Austrian 
campaign ;  gained  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka 
and  greatly  contributed  to  that  of  Friedland 
(1807) ;  stood  by  Napoleon  in  the  Russian 
campaign  and  that  of  1818,  but  took  no  part 
in  the  Hundred  Days,  and  acquiesced  iu  the 
restoration.  His  son,  Chaeles  Nicholas 
Ottdinot,  Duke  of  Reggio  {b.  1791,  d.  1863), 
commanded  the  French  anny  sent  in  1849 
to  Rome  to  restore  Pius  IX. 

Oughtred,  William  {b.  1573,  d.  1660),  Eng- 
lish divine  and  mathematician,  educated  at 
Cambridge ;  wrote  Clavis  Mathematica,  etc. 

Ouida,  the  pseudonym  of  Louise  de  la 
Ramee  [b.  1840),  English  novelist  of  French 
extraction.  Ainong  her  works  are  Under 
Two  Flags  (1867)  and  Moths  (1880). 

Ouless,  Walter  WilUam,  R.A.  {b.  1848), 
portrait -painter,  born  in  Jersey.  Among 
those  who  have  sat  to  him  are  Charles  Dar- 
win, John  Bright  (1879),  and  Cardinal 
Newman  (1880). 

Ouseley,  Rev.  Sir  Frederick  Arthur  Gore, 
Bart.  (b.  1825,  d.  1889),  sou  of  Sir  Gore 
Ouseley :  became  professor  of  music  at  Ox- 
ford in  1855. 

Ouseley,  Sir  Gore,  Bart.  {b.  1769,  d.  1844), 
diplomatist ;  went  to  Persia  as  ambassador 
in  1810,  and  brought  about  peace  between 
Persia  and  Russia. 

Outram,  Sir  James  {b.  1803,  d.  1863), 
general,  obtained  an  Indian  cadetship  iu 
1819  ;  was  political  agent  in  East  Khaudesh 
1825-35,  and  in  Mahi-Kantha  1835-8  ;  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Afghan  war  as 
aide-de-camp  to  Sir  J.  Keane ;  in  1842 
was  political  agent  in  Scinde ;  quarrelled 
with  Sir  Charles  Napier,  whose  policy  to- 
wards the  Ameers  he  regarded  as  oppres- 
sive; was  appointed  commissioner  of 
Baroda  ia  1847 ;  was  resident  at  Luckaow 
1854-6:  commanded  the  Persian  expedition 
1857.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  he 
hastened  back  to  India,  and  took  part  with 
Havelock  in  the  relief  of  Lucknow. 

Overall,  John  {b.  1559,  d.  1619),  divine, 
became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  in  1614,  and  of 
Norwich  in  1619.  He  wrote  the  sacra- 
mental part  of  the  Church  Catechism,  and 
compiled  the  Convocation  Book. 

Overbeck,  Johann  Friedrich  {b.  1789,  d. 
1869),  religious  artist,  bom  at  Liibeck, 
studied  at  Vienna  under  Fuger ;    in   1810 


went  to  Rome,  and  joined  in  establishing 
the  Pre-Raphaelite  brotherhood  in  the 
monastery  of  Saut'  Isidoro ;  became  a 
Roman  Catholic  iu  1814.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  Chrinfs  Agony  in  the  Garden 
ri8o5)  at  Hamburg,  and  The  Vision  of  St. 
Francis  (1830)  at  Assisi. 

Overbury,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1581,  d.  1613), 
courtier  and  miscellaneous  writer  ;  was  in- 
troduced to  James  I.  by  Robert  Carr,  after- 
wards Earl  of  Somerset.  Having  opposed 
that  nobleman's  marriage  with  the  Countess 
of  Essex,  he  was  thrown  into  the  Tower, 
and  there  died  of  poison.  Somerset  and  the 
countess  were  found  guilty,  but  pardoned. 
Overbury's  chief  work  is  his  Characters. 
He  also  wrote  The  Wife  (a  poem),  etc. 

Overstone,  Samuel  Jones  Loyd,  Baron 
{b.  1796,  d.  1883),  was  Whig  member  for 
Hythe  1819-26,  and  became  a  recognised 
authority  on  financial  matters.  His  Tracts 
and  Other  Ftibhcations  on  Metallic  and  Paper 
Currency  were  published  between  1837  and 
1857.  The  Bank  Act  of  1844  was  based 
upon  his  proposals. 

Overweg,  Adolph  {b.  1822,  d.  1852),  Ger- 
man traveller,  born  at  Hamburg,  joined  the 
expedition  of  Richardson  and  Barth  to 
Lake  Tchad  (1850)  :  arrived  at  the  lake 
with  Barth  in  April,  1851,  and  died  in  the 
neighboui'hood  in  September. 

Ovid  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso)  (J>.  43  B.C., 
d.  17  A.D.),  Roman  poet,  patronised  by 
Augustus.  The  cause  of  his  banishment  to 
Torai,  a  town  of  the  Getse,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube,  has  always  remained  a 
mystery.  He  died  in  exile.  His  chief 
poems  are  the  Amores,  de  Arte  Amandi, 
Fasti,  and  Metamorphoses, 

Oviedo  y  Valdes,  Gonzalo  Fernandez  de 
{h.  1478,  d.  1557),  Spanish  historian,  bom  at 
Madrid,  went  to  the  West  Indies  as  super- 
intendent of  the  gold  foundries  (1513) ;  be- 
came alcayde  of  St.  Domingo  in  1535  ;  after 
passing  many  years  in  Hispaniola,  returned 
to  Spain,  and  died  at  Valladolid.  Charles  V. 
made  him  historiographer  of  the  Indies.  His 
chief  work  is  a  General  and  Natural  His- 
tory of  the  West  Indies  in  fifty  books. 

Owen,  Henry  (*.  1716,  d.  1795),  Welsh 
clergvman,  became  vicar  of  Edmonton  in 
1775."  He  wrote  Observations  on  the  Four 
Gospels^  Crttica  Sacra :  or,  an  Introduction  to 
Hebrew  Criticism,  etc. 

Owen,  Rev.  James  (6.  1838),  president  of 
the  Baptist  Union. 

Owen,  John  (J.  1560,  d.  1622),  Latin  epi- 
grammatist, educated  at  Winchester  and 
Oxford.  He  became  master  of  the  free 
school  at  Warwick. 


Owe 


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Fao 


Owen,  John  {b.  1616,  d.  1683),  Noncou- 
formist  divine,  bom  at  Stadham,  in  Oxford- 
shire, was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  At  first  a  Presbyterian,  he  after- 
wards became  an  Independent ;  preached 
before  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  day 
after  Charles  I.'s  execution  ;  accompanied 
Cromwell  to  Ireland  and  Scotland;  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford 
(1651),  and  held  the  oiB.ce  of  vice-chancellor 
1652-7,  but  was  driven  from  the  university 
in  1659.  He  died  at  Ealing.  His  writings 
ai-e  voluminous.  Among  the  best  known  are 
a  Discourse  Concerning  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
The  Doctrine  of  Justijication  by  Faith. 

Owen.  Sir  Eichard  (b.  1804),  anato- 
mist and  palaeontologist,  was  educated  at 
Edinburgh  University  and  St.  Bartliolo- 
mew's  Hospital.  During  his  connection 
with  the  museum  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  (1828-56),  where  he  succeeded  Mr. 
Clift  as  curator,  he  published  several  Cata- 
logues at  the  collections,  and  edited  Hunter's 
Animal  Economy  (1837).  In  1856  he  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  natural 
history  department  of  the  British  Museum. 
Hia  works  are  volimiiuous,  the  most  valu- 
able being  those  which  treat  of  extinct 
animals.  His  discoveries  are  summarised 
in  his  Palceontology  (1861). 

Owen,  Robert  {b.  1771,  d.  1858),  the  foun- 
der of  Socialism  in  England,  was  bom  of 
poor  parents  at  Newtown,  Montgomery- 
shire. In  1800  he  became  owner  of  the 
New  Lanark  Cotton  Factory,  where  he 
proceeded  to  put  in  practice  his  theories  of 
a  new  system  of  society.  He  afterwards 
made  umsuccessful  attempts  to  establish 
Communistic  settlements  at  New  Harmony 
in  America  (1825),  and  Harmony  Hall  in 
Hampshire  (1844).  To  his  efforts  may  be 
traced  the  first  factory  legislation,  the  co- 
operative movement,  and  the  establishment 
of  infant  schools. 


Owen.  William,  R.A.  {b.  1769,  d.  1825), 
studied  under  Catton  and  Reynolds.  He 
excelled  as  a  portrait-painter. 

Oxenden,  Right  Rev.  Ashton  (b.  1808,  d. 
1892),  was  Bishop  of  Montreal  and  primate 
of  Canada  1869-78.  He  published  many 
religious  works. 

Oxenford,  John  {b.  1812,  d.  1877),  trans- 
lated Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit  and 
Conversations  with  Eckermann,  and  wrote 
The  Dice  of  Death  and  other  plays. 

Oxenstiema,  Axel,  Count  {b.  1583,  d. 
1654),  Swedish  statesman,  was  made  chan- 
cellor by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1611  ;  suc- 
ceeded him  as  leader  of  the  Protestant 
party  in  Germany  (1632-5)  ;  acted  as  regent 
throughout  the  miuority  of  Christina,  and 
became  her  chief  minister  when  she  assumed 
the  government  (1644). 

Oxford,  Robert  Harley,  Earl  of  (6.  1661, 
d.  1724),  English  statesman,  in  1704  was 
made  Secretary  of  State,  but  was  compelled 
to  resign  by  Marlborough.  He  soou  re- 
turned with  the  Tories  to  office,  being  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  and  the  Queen 
created  him  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer 
and  Lord  High  Treasurer.  Anne  finally 
dismissed  him  from  his  offices,  and  on  the 
accession  of  George  I.  he  was  impeached  by 
the  Whigs  but  acquitted. 

Ozanam,  Jacques  (6. 1640,  d.  1717), French 
mathematician  ;  wrote  Dictionnaire  des  Ma- 
thhnatiques,  Cours  des  Mathematiques,  etc. 

Ozell,  John  (d.  1743),  English  miscel- 
laneous writer,  satirised  by  Pope  in  the 
Dunciad. 

Ozerofif,  Vladislas  Alexandrovich  {b.  1770, 
d.  1816),  Russian  poet ;  served  in  the  army, 
and  afterwards  held  a  civil  appointment. 
He  wrote  Fingal,  (Edipiis,  and  other  tra- 
gedies, also  some  lyrical  poems. 


Paaw,  Pieter  (*.  1664,  d.  1617),  Dutch 
physician,  professor  of  anatomy  at  Ley- 
den,  where  he  founded  the  botanic  gar- 
den. 

Facca,  Bartolommeo,  Cardinal  {b.  1756,  d, 
1844),  Italian  statesman,  friend  of  Pius  VII. 
when  an  exile  in  France  ;  became  his  secre- 
tary on  his  restoration  in  1814,  and  wrote 
Memorie  (translated  by  Sir  G.  Head). 

Pacchiarotto,  Jacopo  {b.  1474),  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Siena,   where  he  took  an 


active  part  in  affairs.  Most  of  his  works  are 
there,  but  a  Madonna  and  Child  by  him  is  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

PaccMerotti,  Gaspare  {b.  1744,  d.  1821), 
singer  ;  visited  London  in  1778  and  1790. 

Pace,  Richard  {d.  1532),  English  diplo- 
matist, successively  Dean  of  Exeter  and  St. 
Paul's  :  became  Secretary  of  State  in  1516, 
but,  having  offended  Wolsey,  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower,  and  lost  both  kii 
preferments  and  his  reason. 


Fac 


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Pag 


Pache,  Jean  Nicolas  (b.  1746,  d.  1823), 
French  revolutionist ;  minister  of  war 
1792-3,  when  the  Girondists  were  in  power; 
afterwards  joined  the  Mountain. 

Facheco,  Francesco  (*.  1571,  d.  1654), 
Spanish  portrait-painter,  father-in-law  of 
Velasquez,  most  of  his  pictures  being  at 
Seville  ;  published  Arte  de  la  Tinlura. 

Paclimann,  Vladimir  de  (d.  1848),  Russian 
pianist ;  tirst  appeared  in  London  in  May, 
1882,  and  performed  both  previously  and 
subsequently  in  all  the  European  capitals, 
being  esteemed  especially  as  an  exponent  of 
Chopin  and  Beethoven. 

Pachymera,  George  (6.  1242,  d.  1315), 
Greek  writer ;  author  of  a  History  of 
Michael  Palceologus  and  Androniais,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  a  contemporary  eye- 
witness. 

Paciaudi,  Paolo  Maria  (b.  1710,  d.  1785), 
Italian  antiquary  ;  preached  as  a  Theatine 
for  ten  years,  but  afterwards  settled  at 
Borne,  and  published  Memoirs  of  the  Grand 
Masters  of  the  Order  of  St.  John,  etc. 

Pacini,  Luigi  {d.  1837),  Italian  singer ; 
made  his  di-but  at  Milan  in  1806  as  Buffo 
Comico,  and  in  1818  took  the  part  of 
Brand  in  II  Barorte  di  Dolsheim,  com- 
posed by  his  son,  Giovanni. 

Pacuvius,  Marcus  {d.  132  B.C.),  Eoman 
poet  and  painter,  much  esteemed  by  Cicero 
and  Lselius ;  fragments  of  his  work  in  the 
Corpus  Pottarum  are  all  that  remain. 

Padilla,  Francisco  de  {b.  1527,  b.  1607), 
Spanish  writer ;  author  of  Sistoria  Eccle- 
giastica  de  Espana. 

Padilla,  Don  Juan  de  (d.  1521),  was  put  to 
death  by  Charles  V.  for  having  headed  a 
constitutional  movement  in  Spain. 

Padilla,  Lorenzo  de  {d.  circa  1540), 
Spanish  writer ;  author  of  Anteguedades  de 
Espana,  etc. 

Padshah  Beebee  (17th  century),  Princess 
of  Beejapoor,  the  last  of  her  race ;  married 
Sultan  Manzum,  son  of  Aurungzebe. 

Paer,  Ferdinando  {b.  1771,  d.  1839),  Italian 
composer,  kapellmeister  to  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  and,  after  Jena,  imperial  composer 
to  Napoleon,  who  made  him  director  of  the 
Italian  Opera ;  composed  Griselda  and  other 
operas. 

Pagan,  Blaise,  Comte  de  (*.  1604,  d.  1665), 
French  military  engineer.  Having  lost  his 
sight  in  active  service,  published  in  1645  his 
Traite  de  Eortifcation. 

Paganel,  Pierre  (*.  1745,  d.  1826),  French 
revolutionist ;  author  of  Essai  Critique  et 
Historique    sur    la    Revolution    Eratt^aise, 


which  was  seized  by  the  police  in  1810,  its 
author  being  banished  in  1816  as  a  regicide. 

Paganini,  Niccolo  (*.  1784,  d.  1840), 
Itahan  violinist,  bom  at  Genoa  ;  first  ap- 
peared at  Lucca  (1805),  where  he  was 
patronised  by  the  Princess  Baciocchi, 
sister  of  Napoleon.  Having  visited  the  chief 
German  capitals,  he  came  to  France  and 
England  in  1831,  and  made  immense  sums. 
His  performance  on  a  single  string  and  his 
mysterious  personality  created  for  hiin  a 
world-wide  reputation. 

Pagano,  Mario  (J.  1748,  d.  1799),  Nea- 
politan jurist;  author  of  Saggi  Politici,  etc. 
Having  been  a  prominent  supporter  of  the 
Parthenopean  Republic,  was  put  to  death  on 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson  {b.  1853),  American 
writer ;  author  of  stories  in  the  negro 
dialect.  In  the  Virginia,  Befo'  de  War,  etc. 

Pag^s.    [See  Gamier-Pages.] 

Pag^s,  Pierre  Marie,  Vicomte  de  {p.  1748, 
d.  1793),  French  navigator ;  sailed  in  Ker- 
guelen's  expedition  to  the  South  Pole,  and 
afterwards  went  as  far  as  81°  30'  north  ;  was 
murdered  by  negroes  on  his  estate  in  San 
Domingo,  after  having  served  in  the  Ameri- 
can war. 

Paget,  Sir  Augustus,  G.C.B.  (b.  1823), 
English  diplomatist.  After  a  long  course 
of  home  and  foreign  service,  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  Italy  in  1876,  and  sworn 
of  the  Privy  Coxmcil,  and  was  transferred  to 
Vienna  in  1884. 

Paget,  Right  Hon.  Lord  Clarence,  K.C.B. 
{b.  1811),  naval  officer;  saw  active  service 
in  the  Baltic  in  1854-5,  and  afterwards 
several  times  commanded  the  Mediterranean 
squadron.  He  also  sat  in  Parliament  as  a 
Liberal  for  some  years,  and  was  secretary  to 
the  Admiralty  from  1859  to  1866. 

Paget,  Sir  George  Edward,  K.C.B.,F.R.S. 

{b.  1809,  d.  1892),  physician.  Having  been 
eighth  wrangler  in  1831,  became  fellow  of 
Caius  College,  and  was  subsequently  presi- 
dent of  the  British  Medical  Association 
(1864),  and  of  the  General  Medical  Council 
of  the  United  Kingdom  (1869-74),  and 
Regius  professor  of  medicine  at  Cambridge 
(1872). 

Paget,  Sir  James,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  D.C.L. 

{b.  1814),  sui'geon,  brother  of  the  above,  was 
bom  at  Grreat  Yarmouth ;  became  F.R.C.S. 
in  1836,  and  president  in  1875,  and  published 
Report  on  the  Results  of  the  Use  of  the  Micro- 
scope (1842),  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology, 
and  other  works.  He  received  a  baronetcy  in 
1871,  and  served  on  the  royal  commission  of 
1881  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the 
London  hospitals. 


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Fal 


Paget,  Lord  William  {b.  1506,  d.  1563), 
statesman;  served  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
successors  both  at  home  and  abroad ;  was 
imprisoned  as  a  supporter  of  Somerset,  but 
released  by  Queen  Mary. 

Paggi,  Giambattista  {b.  1554,  d.  1627), 
Italian  painter,  whose  chief  pictures  are  at 
Florence  and  Genoa. 

Pagi,  Antoine  (b.  1624,  d.  1690),  Italian 
cordelier ;  wrote  a  critique  on  the  Annals 
of  Baronius,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his 
nephew,  Francois  {d.  1721),  who  also  com- 
piled a  History  of  the  Popes. 

Pahlen,  Pieter,  Count  (Jb.  1760,  d.  1828), 
Russian  statesman,  who,  when  military 
governor  of  St.  Petersburg,  conspired 
agaiust  the  Tsar  Paul,  and  caused  him  to 
be  strangled  (1801),  but  took  little  fiu-ther 
part  in  affairs. 

Pallleron,  fidouard  {b.  1834),  French 
dramatist ;  author  of  Les  Faux  Menages 
(1869),  Helene  (1872),  Le  Monde  oh  Von 
s" amuse  (1868),  and  Le  Monde  ou  Von 
s'ennuie,  produced  at  the  Comedie  Fran- 
^aise  in  1883,  the  latter  chiefly  contributing 
to  his  subsequent  election  to  the  Aca- 
demy. 

Paine,  Thomas  (*.  1737,  d.  1809),  English 
writer,  born  at  Thetford,  Norfolk  ;  went  to 
America  by  advice  of  Franklin  in  1774,  and 
soon  after  published  his  pamphlet,  Common 
Sense,  for  which  he  received  £500  from  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania.  Having  served  in 
the  American  war,  he  came  to  England  in 
1787,  but,  having  been  prosecuted  for  his 
Rights  of  Man  in  1792,  went  to  France, 
where  he  became  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention, but  was  imprisoned  by  Robespierre. 
His  Age  of  Reason  appeared  between  1792 
and  1795,  its  author  afterwards  dying  at 
New  York. 

Painter,  William  {b.  circa  1525,  d.  circa 
1594),  author  of  The  Falaee  of  Pleasure,  a 
collection  of  novels. 

Paisiello,  Giovanni  {b.  1741,  d.  1816), 
musician  of  the  Neapolitan  school;  pa- 
tronised by  Catherine  II.,  Napoleon,  and 
other  sovereigns.  His  chief  opera  was 
Nina. 

Pajol,  Claude  Pierre  (Jb.  1772,  d.  1844), 
French  soldier ;  served  with  distinction 
under  the  first  Republic  and  Empire,  re- 
captured Montereau  in  1814,  and  in  1830 
led  the  attack  upon  Rambouillet. 

PaMngton,  Sir  John  (A.  1799,  d.  1880), 
politician;  represented  Droitwich  as  a  Con- 
servative from  1837  to  1874,  when  he  was 
created  Baron  Hampton.  He  was  made 
Colonial  Secretary  in  1852,  and  became 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiialty  in   1858,  and 


again    in     1866, 
1866-8. 


being    Secretary-at-War 


Palacky,  Franz  (i.  1798,  d.  1876),  Bo- 
hemian historian,  fnend  of  Kollar,  the  poet, 
and  author  of  the  History  of  Bohemia 
(1836-54),  and  several  similar  works  ;  was 
named  a  life-member  of  the  Upper  House 
of  the  Reichsrath  in  1861. 

Palafox  y  Melzi,  Don  Jose  {b.  1780,  d. 
1847),  Spanish  general;  successfully  de« 
fended  Saragossa  against  the  French  in 
1808,  but  was  obliged  to  surrender  after  a 
second  siege,  and  was  for  five  years  a 
prisoner  in  France.  He  supported  the  con- 
stitution in  1823,  and  declared  for  Isabella 
in  1835. 

Paleario,  Aonio  [Antonio  della  PagUa] 
(Jb.  1500,  d.  1570),  Italian  scholar,  was  put 
to  death  at  Rome  by  the  Inquisition  on 
account  of  his  religious  opinions. 

Palestrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da  (b.  1524, 
d.  1594),  musician,  whose  chief  works  were 
sacred,  the  mass  of  Pope  Marcellus  being 
the  best  known.  He  was  many  years 
chapel-master  to  JuUus  III.,  and  saved 
music  from  proscription  by  the  Catholic 
Church. 

Paley,  William  (b.  1743,  d.  1805),  English 
theologian,  professor  of  divinity  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  Ai'chdeacon  of  Carlisle ;  wrote 
Horce  Paulines,  Natural  Theuloyy,  Evidences 
of  Christianity,  etc. 

Palgrave,  Sir  Francis  (b.  1788,  d.  1861), 
historian,  of  Jewish  extraction,  his  name 
having  originally  been  Cohen ;  was  knighted 
for  his  historical  works,  the  chief  of  which 
were  The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English 
Commonwealth  and  History  of  Normandy 
and  England.  He  was  deputy-keeper  of 
the  records  from  1838. 

Palgrave,  Francis  Turner  (*.  1824),  his 
eldest  son,  poet  and  critic.  Having  been 
fellow  of  Exeter  College  and  vice-principal  of 
Kneller  Hall  (training  college)  and  assistant- 
secretary  in  the  Education  Department,  was 
elected  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in 
1886.  His  chief  works  are  Essays  on  Art 
(1866),  Lyrical  Poems  (1871),  and  the  com- 
pilation entitled  Golden  Treasury  of  English 
Songs. 

Palgrave,  Reginald  (i.  1829),  historical 
writer,  fourth  son  of  Sir  F.  Palgrave ;  be- 
came clerk  to  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1886,  and  pubUshed  Cromwell  and  other 
works. 

Palgrave,  William  Gifford  (*.  1826,  d. 
1888),  Arabic  scholar,  brother  of  the  above ; 
educated  at  Oxford ;  served  for  a  time  in 
the  Indian  army ;  became  a  Jesuit ;  ex- 
plored Arabia,  and  was  employed  by  the 


Pal 


(606) 


Pal 


English  Government  in  Abyssinia  and  else- 
where. His  chief  work  is  Narrative  of  a 
Tear's  Journey  through  Central  and  Eastern 
Arabia.  In  1880  he  was  appointed  consul- 
general  in  Siam.  Another  brother,  Eobeet 
iNGLis  {b.  1827),  was  elected  F.E.S.  in  1882, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  royal  commission 
on  depression  of  trade  (1885). 

Palissot  de  Beauvols,  Ambrose,  Baron 
de  (*.  1752,  d.  1820),  French  botanist; 
travelled  in  Africa  and  America,  and  wrote 
Flore  d'Oware  et  de  Benin  and  other  works. 

Palissot  de  Montenoye,  Charles  {h.  1730, 
d.  1814),  poet,  author  of  the  comedy,  Le 
Cercle  (1755),  ridiculing  Rousseau,  etc. 

Palissy,  Bernard  {d.  1589),  potter  and 
enameller ;  was  imprisoned  as  a  Huguenot 
in  his  seventy-sixth  year,  and  died  in  the 
BastiUe ;  made  the  ware  which  is  known  by 
his  name. 

Palladio,  Andrea  {b.  1518,  d.  1580),  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Vicenza,  where  he  rebuilt 
the  Palazzo  della  Razione.  He  afterwards 
built  the  churches  of  St.  George  and  the 
Redeemer  at  Venice. 

Pallas,  Roman  freedman  (<f.  63),  who, 
with  Agrippina,  poisoned  the  Emperor 
Claudius  (54),  but  was  afterwards  him- 
self poisoned  by  Nero. 

Pallas,  Peter  Simon  (J>.  1741,  d.  1811)^ 
German  traveller  ;  author  of  Voyages  a 
Travers  Pb(sie>irs  Provinces  de  VEmpire 
Jtiisse,  Zoographia  Rosso- Asiatica,  etc. 

Pallavlcino,  Sforza,  Cardinal  {b.  1607,  d. 
1667),  Italian  writer ;  author  of  Istoria  del 
Concilio  di  Trento. 

Palles,  Right  Hon.  Christopher,  LL.D. 
{b.  1831),  Irish  judge  ;  made  a  reputation 
at  the  Chancery  bar,  particularly  in  the  case 
Croker  v.  Croker,  and  was  Solicitor-  and 
Attorney -General  for  Ireland  in  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's first  ministry,  becoming  Chief  Baron 
of  the  Irish  Exchequer  in  1874. 

Palliser,  Sir  Hugh  {b.  1721,  d.  1796), 
English  admiral ;  was  censured  by  court- 
martial  for  his  conduct  in  the  action  off 
Ushantin  July,  1778,  his  part  being  taken 
by  the  Opposition  as  against  Keppel,  his 
superior  officer. 

PaUiser,  Sir  William  {b.  1830,  d.  1882), 
inventor  of  the  Palliser  shot ;  served  in  the 
army  till  1871,  and  represented  Taunton  for 
two  years ;  invented  also  a  method  for  con- 
verting smooth-bore  cast-iron  guns  into 
rifled  guns. 

Palm,  Johann  Philipp  (*.  1768,  d.  1806), 
bookseller  of  Niimberg,  whose  arbitrary 
arrest  and  execution  by  order  of  Napo- 
leon, on  a  charge  of  selling  the  pamphlet, 


Oermany  in   her  Deepest   Sumiliation,   did 
much  to  kindle  the  war  of  Liberation. 

Palma,  Jacopo,  "II  Vecchio"  {d.  circa 
1548),  Italian  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
whose  Annunzio  del  Pastore  is  in  the  Louvre. 
His  great-nephew  of  the  same  name  (d. 
1628)  is  known  as  "II  Giovine." 

Palmblad,  Vilhebn  Fredrik  (*.  1788,  d. 
1852),  Swedish  writer;  author  of  a  Swedish 
biographical  dictionary  and  founder  of  the 
"  Phosphorist  "  school  of  criticism. 

Palmella,  Souza,  Dugue  de  {l>.  1781,  d. 
1850) ,  Portuguese  statesman ;  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  affairs  of  his  country  for  twenty- 
five  years,  and  was  thrice  minister  ia  Eng- 
land. 

Palmer,  Sir  A.  H.,  K.C.M.G.  {b.  1819), 
colonial  statesman,  born  in  Ireland ;  became 
colonial  secretary  of  Queensland  in  1867, 
and  was  premier  from  1870  to  1875,  when 
he  became  president  of  the  Legislative 
Council. 

Palmer,  Rev.  Charles  Ferrars  [Father 
Raymund]  {b.  1819),  antiquary ;  author  of 
History  q/  the  Town  and  Castle  of  Tamworth, 
where  he  practised  some  years  as  a  surgeon, 
but  joined  the  Dominicans  in  1853,  and  sub- 
sequently published  several  works  relating 
to  the  order. 

Palmer,  Sir  Charles  Mark,  Bart.  (*.  1822), 
coal-owner  and  ship-builder ;  first  employed 
steam  colliers  instead  of  sailing  brigs  and 
introduced  rolled  plates  for  men-of-war ; 
represented  Durham  county  as  a  Liberal 
from  1874. 

Palmer,  Edward  Henry  (fi.  1840,  d.  1882), 
English  Orientalist ;  went  on  an  expedi- 
tion to  Mount  Sinai  in  1868-9,  and  in 
1871  became  Lord  Almoner's  Reader  of 
Arabic  at  Cambridge  ;  was  assassinated  in 
Upper  Egypt  eleven  years  later.  He  was 
author  of  Oriental  Mysticism,  an  Arabic 
grammar,  and  a  Persian  dictionary,  etc. 

Palmer,  Edwin,  D.D.  (b.  1824),  divine, 
brother  of  Lord  Selbome.  Having  been 
fellow  of  Balliol  for  twenty  years,  was 
appointed  Corpus  professor  of  Latin  at 
Oxford  in  1870,  from  which  oflfice  he  retired 
when  he  became  Archdeacon  of  Oxford  in 
1878. 

Palmer,  John  {d.  1818),  a  Bath  brewer; 
first  suggested  mail  coaches,  and  was  made 
comptroller-general  of  the  Post-office. 

Palmer,  John  {d.  1798),  actor;  died  on 
the  stage  at  Liverpool  when  playing  in 
Kotzebue's  Stranger. 

Palmer.     {See  Selbome.] 

Palmerston,  Henry  John  Temple.  Vis- 
count {b.  1784,  d.  I860),  statesman;  having 


Pal 


'(  607  ) 


Par 


succeeded  tis  father  as  Irish  peer  in  1802, 
entered  Parliament  as  Tory  member  for 
Newport  in  1807,  and  waa  a  lord  of  the 
Admiralty  from  that  year  until  1809,  when 
he  became  Secretary  at  War.  After  the 
death  of  Canning  he  becEime  a  Whig,  and 
was  Foreign  Secretary  in  Earl  Grey's  Re- 
form Ministry  (1830-34),  holding  the  same 
office  again  under  Lord  Melbourne  (1835-41) 
and  Lord  John  Russell  (1846-51),  the  lat- 
ter term  of  ofB.ce  being  marked  by  the 
support  given  to  the  Queen  of  Portugal 
against  Dom  Miguel  and  to  Turkey  in  the 
matter  of  the  Hungarian  and  Polish  re- 
fugees, as  well  as  by  the  affair  of  Don 
Pacifico.  After  having  been  Home  Secre- 
tary in  the  coaUtion  ministry  of  1852-55, 
he  became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  in  the 
latter  year,  and  held  office  till  March,  1857, 
when,  after  the  vote  of  censure  on  the  con- 
duct of  the  China  war,  he  dissolved,  resign- 
ing in  the  following  year  on  the  Foreign 
Conspiracy  Bill.  Palmerston  was  again 
Premier  from  June,  1859,  till  his  death,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Palmieri,  Luigi  {b.  1807),  meteorologist, 
became  in  1854  director  of  the  Vesuvius 
Observatory.  Besides  describing  the 
eruptions  of  the  volcano,  he  constructed 
an  electrometer,  a  pluviometer,  and  a  seis- 
mometer. 

Palmieri,  Matteo  (6. 1405,  d.  1475),  Floren- 
tine historian ;  author  of  Vita  Civile  (printed 
in  1529)  and  Crojiaca  Generals. 

Palsgrave,  John  (b.  1480,  d.  1554),  Eng- 
lish scholar,  tutor  to  Mary,  sister  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  author  of  L' Eelaircissement  de  la 
Langue  Franqaise,  the  first  attempt  at  a 
French  grammar. 

PampMlus  {b.  409  b.o.),  a  Greek,  intro- 
duced the  rules  of  perspective  and  propor- 
tion into  painting. 

Pamphilus  (/;.  240,  d.  309),  Syrian  writer, 
friend  of  Eusebius  a.nd  biographer  of  Origen, 
bequeathed  a  lending  library  to  Csesarea; 
was  put  to  death  under  Diocletian. 

Pansenus  {fl.  5th  century  B.C.),  an 
Athenian,  executed  a  series  of  paintings  of 
the  battle  of  Marathon. 

PansBtius  {h.  190  b.c.  d.  100  B.C.), 
Athenian  philosopher :  taught  at  Rome,  and 
left  works,  on  one  of  which  Cicero's  Be 
Offlciis  is  said  to  be  foimded. 

^Panckoucke,  Charles  Joseph  (*.  1736,  d. 
1798),  French  joumaUst  and  publisher; 
founded  Le  Monitrur. 

Panicale,  Masolino  da  (*.  1378,  d.  1415), 
Florentine  painter,  some  of  whose  frescoes 
are  in  the  Del  Carmine  church. 

Panin,  Ivanowitch,  Comte  de  {b.  1718,  d. 


1783),  Russian  statesman  of  Italian  origin; 
helped  Catheiine  II.  against  the  Tsar,  and 
attempted  to  introduce  liberal  ideas  into 
Russia. 

Panizzi,  Sir  Antony,  K.C.B.  (J.  1797,  d. 
1879),  Italian  bibliographer,  compelled  to 
leave  Italy  on  accoimt  of  his  liberalism ; 
was  principal  Ubrarian  of  the  British  Musexma 
from  1856  to  1866,  having  previously  been 
keeper  of  printed  books  for  nearly  twenty 
years.  He  collected  the  first  four  editions  of 
the  Divina  Commedla,  and  edited  Ariosto's 
Orlando  Furioso. 

Pamnure,  Fox  Maule  Ramsey,  Lord  (b. 
1801,  d.  1874),  British  statesman;  became 
Lord  Panmure  in  1852,  and  succeeded  to 
the  earldom  of  Dalhousie  in  1860  ;  was  Sec- 
retary-at-War  1846-52,  and  again  1855-8, 
being  also  for  a  short  time  President  of  the 
Board  of  Control  in  1852. 

Pannini,  Giampaolo  (b.  1691,  d.  1764), 
Itahan  painter,  whose  representation  of  the 
monuments  of  Rome  are  in  the  Louvre,  aa 
are  those  of  his  son,  Fbancesco. 

Panormita,  pseudonym  of  Antonio  Bec- 
CADELLi  {d.  1471),  whose  works  (historical 
and  poetical)  were  denoimced  for  their 
licentiousness  and  pubhcly  burnt. 

Panzer,  Georg  Wolfgang  (J.  1729,  d.  1804), 
Lutheran  minister  and  bibliographer;  author 
of  Annales  Typographici. 

Paoli,  Pasquale  de'  {jb.  1726,  d.  1807), 
Corsican  patriot;  headed  the  struggle  for 
independence  against  Genoa,  but  when  the 
island  was  transferred  to  France  came  to 
England,  where  he  died. 

Paolo  Veronese.     {See  Veronese.] 

Papi,  Lazzaro  (b.  1763,  d.  1834),  Italian 
scholar ;  served  in  the  British  army  in  India 
for  several  years,  and  afterwards  published 
Lettere  sulle  Indie  Orientale,  I  Commentarii 
della  Rivoluzione  Francese,  etc. 

Papias  [d.  169),  Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  and 
according  to  Irensus,  a  disciple  of  St.  John; 
wrote  Expositions  of  the  Lord's  Sayings, 
which  is  quoted  by  fiusebius. 

Papin,  Denis  (b.  1647,  d.  1714),  French 
physician ;  published,  while  in  England,  an 
account  of  a  machine  he  had  invented  called 
the  "New  Digester"  (1681),  and  became  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Papinianus  {b.  142,  d.  212),  Roman  jurist 
of  great  repute ;  was  beheaded  by  order  of 
Caracalla. 

Papirius  Cursor,  Roman  hero ;  was  twice 
dictator  (32.5  B.C.  and  272),  and  carried  on 
successful  war  against  the  Samnites. 

Paracelsus,  Theophrastus  [b.  1493.  d.  1641), 


Par 


(608) 


Par 


Swiss  empiric;  rejected  the  authority  of  the 
old  physicians,  aud  possessed  some  skill  in 
cheuiistry;  obtaiued  a  gi-eat  reputation  from 
his  claim  to  have  discovered  the  elixir  vita 
aud  by  some  cures  he  eii'ected. 

Pardies,  Iguace  [b.  1636,  d.  1673),  French 
m:ithematician,  held  a  controversy  with 
Newton  on  the  theory  of  light  aud  colours. 

Pardee,  Julia  (b.  1806,  d.  1862),  English 
writer  ;  lived  some  time  in  Constantinople, 
and  published  The  City  of  the  Sultan  (1837), 
A  Romance  of  the  Maretn,  etc. 

Par^,  Ambrose  {b.  1509,  d.  1590),  surgeon 
to  Henri  II.  of  France  and  his  sons ;  was 
protected  by  Charles  IX.  dirring  the  mass- 
acre of  St.  Bartholomew,  the  order  for  its 
discontinuance  being  probably  attributable 
to  his  influence. 

Parades.     [See  Garcia.] 

Pareja,  Juan  de  {b.  1606,  d.  1670),  Spanish 
painter ;  attracted  the  notice  of  Philip  IV. 
while  a  hack  in  the  studio  of  Velasquez. 

Parfait,  Fran9ois  {b.  1698,  d.  1753),  French 
writer,  whose  chief  work  was  Histoire 
Generale  du  TheAtre  Frangais  (1734-49). 

Paxini,  Giuseppe  (6.  1729,  d.  1799), 
Milanese  poet  of  humble  birth,  his  chief 
works  being  II  Giorno,  a  satire,  and  Le  Odi. 

Paris.     {See  Matthew  Paris.] 

Paris,  Francois  [the  "Abbe"]  (b.  1690,  d. 
1727),  Jansenist  priest,  to  whose  tomb  in 
St.  Medard,  Paris,  crowds  resorted  in  the 
belief  that  miracles  were  worked  there. 

Paris, Gaston  (i.  1839),  philologist;  author 
of  Etude  sur  le  rble  de  V Accent  Latin  dans  la 
langue  Franqaise  (1862),  Histoire  Foetique  de 
Charlemagne  (1866),  and  other  works. 

Paris,  Louis  Philippe  d'Orleans,  Count  of 
(i.  1834),  grandson  of  King  Louis  Philippe, 
was  born  at  Paris,  and  in  1861  went  with 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Chartres,  to  America, 
aud  served  on  M'Clellan's  staff  till  June, 
1862,  when  both  returned  to  Europe.  In 
1871  he  became  a  member  of  the  National 
Assembly,  which  soon  after  voted  the  re- 
stitution of  the  Orleans  property.  On 
August  5,  1873,  the  Count  of  Paris  recog- 
nised the  Count  of  Chambord  as  head  of 
the  royal  house,  and  on  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  1883  was  himself  acknowledged  as 
his  successor.  In  1886  he  left  France  for 
England  in  consequence  of  the  Expulsion 
Bill,  having  previously  published  several 
works,  the  chief  of  which  were  Tlie  Trades 
Unions  of  England  (translated  by  N.  J. 
Senior,  1869),  and  Histoire  de  la  Guerre 
Civile  en  Amerique  (1874-83). 


Parish,  Eli   (b.    1806,   d.   1846),    English     whom  he  maintained  to  have  been  "Junius. 


musician,  well  known  as  a  performer  on  the 
harp,  for  which  he  wrote  several  concertos. 

Park,  Edward  Amasa,  D.D.  Q>.  1808), 
American  theologian,  born  in  Rhode  Island, 
was  professor  of  mental  and  moral  philo- 
sophy at  Amherst  1834-6,  and  from  1847  to 
1861  held  the  chair  of  Christian  theology  at 
Andover.  Among  his  works  are  Theology  of 
the  Intellect  and  of  the  Feelings, a,nA.Discourses 
on  Some  Theological  Doctrines  as  Related  to  the 
Religious  Character. 

Park,  Mungo  {b.  1771,  d.  1805),  Scotch 
traveller,  born  at  Selkirk;  while  engaged 
in  exploring  the  sources  of  the  Niger  was 
di-owned,  his  boat  having  been  sucked  into 
a  rapid  during  a  skirmish  with  the  natives. 

Parke,  Thomas  Heazle,  F.R.C.S.I.,  etc. 
(J).  1857),  armysm'geon,  born  in  Roscommon 
county ;  published  a  report  on  the  Egyptian 
cholera  epidemic  (1883),  and,  having  been 
present  at  Abu  Klea  and  other  actions  in 
the  Soudan,  crossed  Africa  with  Stanley  in 
1887-9. 

Parke.     \_See  Wensleydale,  Lord.] 

Parker,  Joseph  {b.  1830),  preacher,  opened 
the  City  Temple,  London,  in  1874.  Has 
published  a  number  of  theological  works. 

Parker,  Matthew  {b.  1504,  d.  1575),  divine, 
was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  1559.  Under  the  supervision  of  Elizabeth 
he  consolidated  the  reformation,  and  super- 
intended the  issue  of  The  Bishop'' s  Bible  ; 
he  left  a  valuable  collection  of  books  and 
MSS.  to  Cambridge  University,  of  which 
he  had  been  vice-chancellor. 

Parker,  Richard  {d.  1797),  sailor,  headed 
the  mutiny  at  the  Nore,  at  the  end  of  which 
he  was  hung. 

Parker,  Theodore  (4.  1810,  d.  1860), 
American  minister,  son  of  a  farmer  at 
Lexington;  ejected  by  the  Unitarians  for 
his  writings,  became  leader  of  a  society  of 
freethinkers  ;  was  also  an  active  abolitionist. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in 
1863. 

Parkes,  Hon.  Sir  Henry,  G.C.M.G.    (*. 

1815),  Australian  statesman,  bom  in  War- 
wickshire ;  emigrated  in  1839  to  New  South 
"Wales,  where  he  was  engaged  in  journalism 
and  politics,  and,  having  been  colonial  sec- 
retary and  educa.tion  minister,  was  premier 
from  1872  to  1875,  in  1877,  from  1878  to  1883, 
and  from  1887  to  the  autumn  of  1891.  He 
supported  both  imperial  and  Australasian 
federation,  and  attempted  to  conciliate  the 
Laboiu'  party. 

Parkes,  Joseph  (A.  1796,  d.  1865),  English 
lawyer  ;  author  of  a  History  o/"  the  Court  of 
Chancery  and  Memoirs  of  Sir  Philip  Francis. 


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Paxkinson,  John  (i.  1567, <^.  1641), botanist, 
apothecary  to  James  I.,  and  author  of  Thea- 
trum  Botanicum;  was  named  '"Botanicus 
Regius  Primarius  "  by  Charles  I. 

Paxkman,  Francis  {b.  1S23),  American 
writer,  bom  at  Boston ;  lived  some  time 
among  the  Indians  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  wrote  The  Conspiracy  of  Fontiac  (1851), 
The  Old  Regime  in  Canada,  Count  Front enao 
and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV.,  and 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (1884) ,  etc. 

Parmenides,  Greek  Eleatic  philosopher, 
flourislied  about  500  B.C. 

Parmenio  (d.  330  b.o.),  general  of  Philip 
of  Macedon  and  Alexander  the  Great ;  was 
put  to  death  by  the  latter  on  suspicion  of 
conspiracy. 

Parmentier,  Jacques  (b.  1658,  d.  1730), 
French  painter,  employed  by  "William  III. 
of  England.  Several  of  his  pictures  are  in 
churches  at  Leeds  and  Hull. 

Parmiglano  [Francesco  Mazzola]  {b. 
1503,  d.  1540),  Italian  painter  ;  executed  for 
Pope  Clement  VII.  his  Madonna  and  Child 
with  St.  John  (now  at  Florence),  and  the 
Madonna  della  Rosa  (Dresden  Gallery).  His 
Cupid  is  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery,  Vienna, 
and  the  National  Gallery  has  an  unfinished 
Madonna  from  his  hand.  He  ruined  himself 
in  the  study  of  alchemy. 

PameU,  Charles  Stewart  Q).  1846,  d.  1891), 
Irish  politician,  descended  from  the  poet, 
was  bom  at  Avondale,  Co.  Wicklow,  and 
educated  at  Cambridge.  He  entered  public 
life  as  member  for  Meath  in  1875,  and 
two  years  later  became  conspicuous  by 
the  ' '  obstruction ' '  with  which  he  met  the 
Prisons  Bill.  He  gradually  ousted  Mr.  Butt 
from  the  leadership  of  the  Home  Rule 
Party,  and  in  1880  became  leader  of  the 
Irish  Party  and  entered  upon  the  land  agita- 
tion. At  the  general  election  he  was  elected 
for  three  constituencies,  but  chose  Cork,  and 
as  the  head  of  the  Land  League  was  prose- 
cuted in  1880  ly  the  Gladstone  Government, 
the  result  being  a  disagreement  of  the 
jury.  In  the  following  session  he,  with  the 
majority  of  his  followers,  was  removed  by 
the  sergeant -at -arms  for  obstruction,  and 
in  October  was  imprisoned  in  Kilmainham 
under  the  Coercion  Bill.  He  was  released 
in  April,  1882,  but  the  "No  rent"  mani- 
festo had  meanwhile  been  issued,  and  in 
1883  the  National  League  took  the  place 
of  the  suppressed  Land  League.  At  the 
general  election  of  1S85  he  nominated  every 
Home  Rule  candidate,  and  subsequently 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  followers 
of  Mr.  Gladstone.  In  the  next  Parliament 
he  proposed  a  bill  to  suspend  evictions  and 
reduce  rent,  after  the  rejection  of  which  the 
agitation    continued.      In    1388    a    special 

N  N 


commission  was  appointed  to  examine  the 
charges  made  against  Mr.  ParneU  and 
others  by  the  Times,  the  result  being  his 
acquittal  on  the  greatest,  but  condemnation 
on  many  others.  In  consequence  of  the 
result  of  the  O'Shea  divorce  case  in  1890 
he  was  deposed  by  the  majority  of  his 
party,  but  continued  to  lead  the  minority 
and  to  carry  on  an  active  campaign  until 
his  death. 

Panxell,  Sir  Henry  (*.  1776,  d.  1841),  poli- 
tician ;  for  forty  years  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  wrote  an  Essay 
on  Financial  Reform;  was  created  Lord 
Cougleton  on  resigning  the  office  of  pay- 
master-general. His  lather,  Sie  John,  was 
Irish  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  but  re- 
fused to  support  the  Act  of  Union. 

ParneU,  Thomas  (b.  1679,  d.  1717),  Irish 
poet  and  Archdeacon  of  Clogher,  intimate 
with  Swift  and  Boiingbroke  ;  was  author 
of  The  Hermit  and  other  works. 

Parr,  Catherine,     \_See  Catherine  Parr.] 

Parr,  Louisa  (Mrs.),  novelist;  author  of 
Mow  It  All  Happened  (1868),  Dorothy  Fox, 
Adam  and  Eve,  Loyalty  George  (1888),  etc. 

Parr,  Thomas  {b.  possibly  1483,  d.  1635), 
is  said  to  have  laboured  as  a  husbandman 
after  attaining  his  130th  year.  His  body, 
examined  by  Dr.  Harvey,  showed  no  signs 
of  internal  decay. 

Parrhasius  (Jl.  circa  400),  Greek  painter, 
contemporary  with  Socrates  ;  highly  com- 
mended by  Pliny,  but  very  vain. 

Parry,  Charles  Hubert  Hastings,  Mus.  Doc. 
{b.  1848),  English  composer,  whose  chief 
productions  are  Judith,  Ode  for  St.  Cecilia's 
Day,  and  settings  of  the  Birds  and  Pro- 
metheus Unbound.  He  also  published  Studies 
of  Great  Composers,  and  contributed  to  the 
Dictionary  of  Music. 

FaXTj,  John  {d.  1782),  blind  harper.  His 
son,  William  {d.  1791),  was  elected  A.R.A. 
in  1776. 

Parry,  John  Orlando  {b.  1810,  d.  1879), 
comic  singer,  son  of  a  Welsh  musician, 
originated  the  "  musical  sketch,"  his  words 
being  generally  written  by  Albert  Smith. 
From  1860  till  1869  he  appeared  in  the 
German  Reed  Company. 

Parry,  Sir  William  Edward,  Rear-admiral, 
F.R.S.  (h.  1790,  d.  1855),  Arctic  explorer, 
son  of  Caleb  Hillier  Parry,  a  Bath  physician. 
After  serving  some  years  on  the  North  Ame- 
rican station,  sailed  with  Captain  Ross  to 
discover  the  north-west  passage.  In  a  subse- 
quent voyage  (in  1819)  he  penetrated  farther 
west  than  had  hitherto  been  reached,  and 
in  1821-3  and  1824-5  he  again  went  north. 


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In  1827  he  attempted  to  reach  the  North  Pole 
in  a  sledge,  an  aceouut  of  this  voyage  appear- 
in  «•  with  the  others  in  1833,  In  1853  he 
became  governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital 
His  son  (rf.  1890)  was  Bishop  of  Dover. 

Parsons,  Alfred  WilUam,  R.I.  {b.  1847), 
landscape-painter  ;  left  the  Civil  Service  in 
18(57  to  study  from  nature,  and  first  ex- 
hibited at  the  Academy  in  1871.  Among 
his  pictures  are  Fallen,  The  Ending  of 
Summer, emd  When  Nature  I'alnted all  Things 
Gay,  exhibited  at  the  Academy  (the  last 
being  bought  under  the  Chantrey  Bequest 
in  1887)  In  a  Cider  Country  (1866),  etc. 
(Grosvenor  Gallery),  and  some  water-colours 
and  oils,  which  gained  gold  and  silver  medals 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1889. 

Parsons,  Eobert  {b.  1546,  d.  1610),  Jesuit 
priest ;  was  head  of  the  Catholic  rmssion  of 
1579,  and  wrote  several  works. 

Parton,  James  {b.  1822,  d.  1891),  American 
writer  ;  bom  at  Canterbm-y,  but  was  taken 
to  America  when  a  child,  and  wrote  many 
works,  the  chief  of  which  were  Life  of 
Horace  Greely  (1855),  General  Butler  in  New 
Orleans,  Life  and  Times  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, and  Life  of  Jefferson.  He  married,  in 
1856,  "Fanny  Fern,"  we  Willis,  writer  of 
children's  books. 

Paruta,  Paolo  {b.  1540,  d.  1598),  ItaUan 
writer,  author  of  Storia  Veneziana  (1605). 

Pascal,  Blaise  (fi.  1623,  d.  1662),  French 
philosopher  and  mathematician ;  wrote  a 
treatise  on  conic  sections  at  sixteen,  and 
soon  after  invented  a  calculating  machine  ; 
strongly  opposed  the  Jesuits  in  his  Lettres 
Frovinciales,  his  Fensees  being  published 
after  his  death. 

Paschal  I.  {d.  824)  was  elected  pope  in 
817,  and  maintained  an  unsuccessful  contest 
with  two  of  the  emperors  about  the  imperial 
right  to  confirm  papal  elections. 

Paschalll.  {d.  1118)  was  elected  in  1099, 
and  made  a  compromise  with  the  kings  of 
England  and  France  on  the  Investiture 
question.  His  convention  with  the  emperor 
was  annulled  by  the  Lateran  Synod  in  1112. 

Paschal  III.  {d.  1168),  anti-pope;  set  up 
in  1164  against  Alexander  III.  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  I. 

Paskevitch,  Ivan  Feodorivitch  (h.  1782,  d. 
1856),  Eussiau  general;  conducted  the  war 
against  Persia  in  1826,  and,  after  defeating 
the  Turks,  was  sent  to  put  down  the  Polish 
rebellion,  after  which  he  was  governor  of 
Poland  till  the  Crimean  war,  when  he  com- 
manded at  the  siege  of  Silistria. 

Pasquier,  Etienne  Denis,  Due  (b.  1767,  d. 
1862),  French  statesman;    was  prefect   of 


police  imder  the  first  Empire  (1810-14), 
foreign  minister  under  Louis  XVIII. 
(1819-21),  and  president  of  the  Chambredes 
Pairs  from  1830  to  1848,  being  created  duke 
in  1844. 

Passaglia,  Carlo  Abbe  (*.  1812,  d.  1887), 
Italian  priest ;  author  of  a  pamphlet  calling 
on    the    pope    to    relinquish   his   temporal 

EDwer;    was  a  leader  of  the  independent 
iberal  party  in  the  Italian  parliament. 

Passemant,  Claude  Simeon  {b.  1702,  d. 
1769),  French  optician  ;  author  of  a  treatise 
on  the  construction  of  telescopes.  He  made 
and  presented  to  Louis  XV.  an  astronomical 
pendulum. 

Passignano  [Domenico  Cresti]  (d.  1638), 
ItaUan  painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  most 
of  whose  pictures  are  at  Florence, 

Passy.Hippolyte  (b.  1793,  d  1880),  French 
statesman,  minister  of  commerce  in  1836, 
and  of  tinance  1839-40  and  1848-9. 

Pasta,  Giuditta  (*.  1798,  d.  1865),  Italian 
operatic  feiuger  of  Jewish  descent ;  made  her 
first  successful  appearance  in  1820,  and  re- 
tired in  1840. 

Pasteur,  Louis  {b.  1822),  French  chemist, 
born  at  Dole ;  was  appointed  in  1863  pro- 
fessor of  geology,  physics,  and  chemistry  at 
the  fecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  having  been 
awarded  in  1856  the  Rumford  Medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  for  his  researches  on  the 
polarisation  of  light.  In  1874  he  was 
awarded  by  the  National  Assembly  an 
annuity  of  12,000  francs  for  his  iuvestiga- 
tions  on  fermentation,  and  succeeded  to  the 
chair  of  Littre  in  the  Academic  in  1882.  He 
afterwards  devoted  himself  to  the  cure  of 
hydrophobia  by  inoculation,  and  treated 
patients  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Pastoret,  Claude,  Marquis  de  [b.  1756,  d. 
1840),  politician  and  laveyer ;  was  procureur- 
general  in  1791,  and  became  president  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly ;  as  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Himdred  opposed  the 
Directory,  and  after  the  restoration  became 
minister  of  state,  and  was  ennobled.  He 
was  author  of  numerous  works. 

Patel,  Pierre  {b.  1654,  d.  1703),  landscape- 
painter,  the  Claude  of  Prance ;  was  killed  in 
a  duel. 

Pater,  Walter  (6.  1839),  English  writer; 
became  fellow  of  Brasenose  in  1865,  and 
published  The  Renaissance,  Marius  the 
Epicurean  (1885),  Imaginary  Portraits, 
and  Appreciations,  with  an  essay  on  Styh 
(1889). 

PatercTilus.     [See  VeUeius,] 

Paterson,  WilHam  {b.  1658,  d.  1719), 
Scotch  speculator,  projector  of  the  Darien 


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scheme  (1794),  in  the  same  yeax  propounded 
a  scheme  for  the  establishment  of  a  National 
Bank. 

Patey,  Janet  Monach,  Madame  {b.  1842), 
EngUsh  contralto  (nee  Whytock),  made  her 
dSbut  at  Birmingham,  and  joined  the  Leslie 
choir ;  was  presented  with  a  medal  for  her 
rendering  of  0  Best  in  the  Lord,  by  the 
Paris  Conservatoire  in  1875.  She  also  made 
successful  tours  ia  America  and  Austraha. 

Patin,  Gui  (b.  1602,  d.  1672),  French 
physician,  whose  published  letters  are 
valuable  as  a  picture  of  the  times. 

Patmore,  Coventry  Kearsey  Deighton  {b, 
lS2o),  poet;  was  assistant- librarian  at  the 
British  Museum  from  1846  to  18G8.  His 
chief  works  are  Tlie  Atigel  in  the  House  and 
The  Unknown  Eros. 

Paton,  Sir  Joseph  Noel,  K.S.A.  (jb.  1821), 
artist,  bom  at  Dunfermline ;  first  exhibited 
at  the  Scottish  Academy  in  1844,  and  won 
prizes  at  the  Westminster  cartoon  exhibitions 
in  the  following  years.  The  Quarrel  of 
Oberon  and  Titania  was  bought  for  the 
Scottish  National  Gallery,  as  was  also  its 
companion  picture.  The  Mecomiliation,  and 
the  chief  of  his  other  pictures  are  The 
Fursuit  of  Pleasure  (1855),  Daum :  Luther 
at  Erfurt  (1861),  and  Faith  and  Reason 
(1871). 

Paton,  Walter  Hugh,  R.S.A.,  R.S.W.  (b. 
1828),  Pre-RaphaeUte  painter,  his  chief 
pictures  being  Slochd-a-Chrommain  (a  scene 
in  Arran),  Rome  from  the  Pincian  Hill,  and 
Holyrood  Falace  and  Edinburgh  from  the 
Queen'' s  Fark  (by  royal  command). 

Patrick,  Saint  {b.  374,  d.  464),  patron 
saint  of  Ireland,  whither  he  came  from 
Scotland,  where  he  was  bom,  in  433. 

Patriii,Eugfene  Melchior  (b.  1742,  d.  1815), 
French  geologist ;  investigated  the  structure 
of  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  published 
Histoire  Naturelle  des  Mineraux. 

Patrizzi,  Francesco  (*.  1529,  d.  1597), 
Italian  philosopher;  author  of  La  Kuova 
Filosojia  delle  cose  Universe. 

Patteson,  Sir  John  {b.  1790,  d.  1861), 
English  judge  ;  after  being  fellow  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1821,  and  practised  on  the  northern  circuit. 
He  was  appointed  judge  of  the  King's 
Bench  in  1830,  and  retired  in  1852  on  account 
of  his  deafness. 

Patteson,  John  Coleridge  {b.  1827,  (f.l871), 
missionary.  After  being  fellow  of  Merton, 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Melanesia  in  1861, 
but  ten  years  later  was  murdered  by  the 
natives. 

Patti,  Adelina  (d.  1843),  operatic  singer, 
NH  2 


was  bom  at  Madrid,  appeared  at  New  York 
as  Lucia  in  1859,  and  at  Covent  Garden  in 
1861  in  that  and  other  parts.  In  1864  she 
sang  as  Margherita,  and  in  1867  as 
Juliet,  and  subsequently  took  part  in  suc- 
cessive Handel  festivals,  and  appeared  in 
Continental  cities.  She  married  Signer 
Niccolini  in  1886,  having  been  divorced  from 
the  Marquis  de  Caux.  Her  sister,  Cae- 
LOTTA,  died  in  1889. 

Pattison,  Mark  {b.  1813,  d.  1884),  scholar 
and  divine;  became  fellow  of  Lincoln 
College,  Oxford,  in  1839,  and  rector  m  1861. 
He  was  at  first  a  follower  of  Newman,  but 
afterwards  contributed  to  Essays  and  Re  vietvs, 
and  became  an  active  imiversity  reformer. 
His  chief  works  were  Life  of  Casaubon  (1875), 
Milton  in  "  The  Men  of  Letters  "  series,  and 
an  edition  of  Pope's  works. 

Patton,  Francis  Landey,  D.D.  {jb.  1843), 
American  Presbyterian  divine,  born  in  Ber- 
muda; while  professor  at  Chicago  prose- 
cuted Professor  David  Swing  for  heterodoxy, 
and  afterwards  held  the  Stuart  professorship 
of  the  relation  of  philosophy  and  science 
to  Christianity,  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey, 
becoming  president  of  the  college  in  1888. 
He  is  author  of  A  Summary  of  Christian 
Doctrine,  and  other  works. 

Paul     {See  Vincent  de  Paul.] 

Pavd,  the  Tsar  {b.  1754,  d.  1801),  succeeded 
Catherine  II.  in  1796,  joined  the  con- 
federacy of  sovereigns  against  the  French 
republic,  but  afterwards  became  deranged, 
and,  having  committed  many  cruel  acts,  was 
assassinated. 

Paul,  Saint,  was  beheaded  at  Rome  about 
the  year  64. 

Paul  of  the  Cross,  Saint  [Francesco  Danei] 
(i.  1694,  d.  1775),  founded  the  Passionist 
order  in  1741. 

Paul  the  Silentiaxy,  wrote  a  poem,  On  the 
Fythian  Baths,  in  the  reign  of  Justinian. 

Paul  I.  {d.  767)  was  elected  Pope  of  Rome 
in  757. 

Paul  II.  {b.  1418,  d.  1471)  was  elected  in 
1464,  and  preached  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks.  Printing  was  introduced  at  Rome 
during  his  pontificate. 

Paul  IIL     [See  Alessandro  Famese.] 

PaiU  IV.  [Caraffa]  (J.  1476,  d.  1559), 
elected  in  1555 ;  opposed  the  Spanish,  but 
was  coerced  into  alUance  by  the  Duke  of 
Alva. 

Paul  V.  [Borghesel  (b.  1552,  d.  1621), 
elected  in  1605  ;  quarrelled  with  Venice  about 
criminal  jurisdiction  over  the  clergy,  but  wae 
a  munificent  patron. 


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Paula,  Saiut  {b.  347,  d.  404),  Roman  lady, 
founded  the  monastery  of  Bethlehem. 

Paulding,  James  Kirke  {b.  1779,  rf.  1860), 
Ainericau  writer,  friend  of  Washington 
Irving,  with  whom  he  published  Salmagundi; 
also  wrote  The  Dutchman's  Ivresiae,  and 
other  novels. 

Paulet.     \_See  Winchester,  Marquis  of.] 

Pauli,  Reinhold  (b.  1823,  d.  1S82),  German 
historian ;  came  to  England  in  1S47  as 
secretary  to  Bimsen,  and  afterwards  held 
professorships  in  Gottingen  and  other 
universities ;  wrote  Life  oj  King  Alfred^  a 
monograph  on  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  a 
continuation  of  Lappenberg's  History  of 
England,  etc. 

Paulinus,  Saint  {d.  644),  accompanied 
Edwin  to  Northimibria  and  converted  him ; 
was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  York  in  622. 

Paiilus  iEg^ineta  (4th  century),  Greek 
physician,  an  edition  of  whose  works  was 
printed  at  Venice  in  1553. 

Paulus,  ^milius,  Roman  consul ;  was  de» 
feated  and  slain  at  Cannae  (216  B.C.),  by 
Hannibal. 

PatQus,  .aEmilius  {d.  160  B.C.),  Ms  son, 
conquered  Macedonia  (168  B.C.). 

Pausanias  {d.  467  b.c),  Lacedaemonian 
leader  ;  commanded  the  Greeks  at  Plataea, 
but  afterwards  intrigued  with  Xerxes,  and 
died  of  hunger  in  the  sanctuary  to  which  he 
had  fled. 

Pausanias  (Jl.  174),  Greek  geographer; 
author  of  Accurata  Grceci<e  Lescriptio,  which 
was  printed  in  1516. 

Pausias  of  Sicyon  (/.  350  b.o.),  Greek 
painter,  many  of  whose  pictures  were  col- 
lected at  Rome. 

PautWer,  Jean  Guillaume  (b.  1801,  d. 
1873),  French  Orientalist;  author  of  Beg 
Quatres  Livres  de  Philosophie  Morale  et 
Politique  des  Chinois  (1841),  and  editions  of 
Confucius  and  Marco  Polo's  Travels  (1865). 

Pauw,  Cornelius  de  (J).  1739,  d.  1799), 
Dutch  writer,  Canon  of  Cleves,  whose  chief 
work  was  Becherches  Philosgphiques  sur  les 
Grecs,  les  Americains,  les  Egyptiens,  et  les 

Chinois, 

_  Paxton,  Sir  Joseph  {b.  1803,  d.  1865),  Eng- 
lish  horticulturist  and  architect,  designed  the 
building  for  the  Exhibition  of  18.51,  after- 
wards the  Crystal  Palace.  He  represented 
Coventry  from  1854  till  his  death. 

Payn,  James  {b.  1830),  novelist:  edited 
for  some  years  Chambers'' s  Journal,  in  which 
appeared  Lost  Sir  Massingberd.  He  after- 
Wards   edited  the   Cornhill  Magazine,  and 


published  numerous  novels,  among  which 
were  The  Glyffards  of  Clyffe,  By  Proxy  (1878), 
The  Luck  ot  the  Barrells,  The  Heir  of  the 
Ages,  The  Burnt  Million,  etc. 

Payne,  John  Howard  {b.  1792,  d.  1852), 
American  actor  and  dramatist ;  wrote  for 
the  press  at  thirteen,  and  appeared  on  the 
stage  at  sixteen  ;  made  his  debut  at  Drury 
Lane  in  1812  when  twenty,  and  composed 
a  number  of  pieces,  in  one  of  which  the  air 
Home,  Sweet  Home  was  first  heard.  He  (iied 
as  consul  at  Tmiis. 

Pazzi,  The,  a  Florentine  family,  were  the 
rivals  of  the  Medici,  against  whom  they 
formed  the  conspiracy  of  1478. 

Peabody,  George  {b.  1795,  d.  1869),  philan- 
thropist ;  having  made  a  fortune  as  a  dry- 
goodsman  in  America,  came  to  England  and 
established  a  banking  business  in  London  in 
1843.  Besides  giving  half-a-million  to  be 
invested  for  the  London  poor,  he  assisted 
with  funds  Dr.  Kane's  Arctic  expedition, 
and  founded  and  endowed  many  institutions 
at  Baltimore  and  other  places  in  the  United 
States. 

Peacock,  Sir  Barnes  (i.  1810,  d.  1890), 
judge ;  became  Queen's  Coimsel  in  1850, 
and  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Calcutta  in  1859,  on  his  resignation  of 
which  post  he  was  sworn  of  the  Privy 
Council,  and  in  1872  became  a  member  of 
the  judicial  committee. 

Peacock,  Edward,  F.S.A.  (b.  1831),  an- 
tiquary; author  of  Ralph  SJcirlaugh,  and 
other  works,  and  editor  of  Army  List  of 
Rmmdheads  and  Cavaliers,  and  several 
similar  publications. 

Peacock,  Thomas  Love  (b.  1785,  d.  1866), 
novelist  and  poet,  friend  of  Shelley,  and 
author  of  Headlong  Hall,  and  other  novels, 
Rhododaphne,  and  other  volumes  of  verse, 
etc. 

Pearce,  Zachary  {b.  1690,  d.  1774),  divine. 
Dean  of  Winchester,  Bishop  of  Bangor  and 
Rochester  successively  ;  published  an  edition 
of  Longinus,  and  left  a  donation  to  the 
Bromley  Widows  of  Clergy  College. 

Pears,  Edwin  (b.  1835),  barrister ;  while 
practising  at  the  Constantinople  bar,  first 
called  attention  in  the  Daily  News  to  the 
Bulgarian  atrocities  of  1876. 

Pearse,  Mark  Guy  (6.  1842),  Wesleyaq 
minister ;  published  in  1874  Dan'l  Quorm 
and  his  Religious  Notions. 

Pearson,  Sir  Charles  John  (b.  1843),  law- 
yer; was  called  to  the  bar  in  1870,  became 
Solicitor- General  for  Scotland,  and  member 
of  Parliament  for  Edinburgh  and  St. 
Andrews  in  1890,  and  Lord  Advocate  in  189L 


Fea 


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Pee 


Pearson,  John,  D.D.  (b.  1612,  d.  1686), 
became  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1673,  having 
previously  been  master  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  His  Exposition  of  the  Creed 
appeared  in  1659. 

Pearson,  John  Loughborough,  E.A., 
architect,  designed  Truro  cathedral,  Bris- 
bane cathedral.  Holy  Trinity  church,  "West- 
minster, and  restored  several  ecclesiastical 
and  collegiate  buildings. 

Pecchia,  Carlo  (A.  1715,  d.  178-1),  Italian 
writer  ;  author  of  Storia  Civile  e  Folitica  del 
Regno  di  Napoli. 

Peck,  Rev.  Francis  {b.  1692,  d.  1743), 
English  antiquary ;  author  of  Desiderata 
Curiosa,  Memoirs  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  etc. 

Peckham,  John,  D.D.  {b.  1292),  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  (1278-92) ;  reformed 
abuses  and  encouraged  learning,  but  per- 
secuted the  Jews. 

Pecock,  Reginald  {d.  1460),  divine.  Bishop 
successively  of  St.  Asaph  and  Chichester ; 
was  deprived  and  imprisoned  for  a  book 
denying  the  Real  Presence. 

Pecquet,  Jean  (c?.1674),  French  physician; 
author  of  Experimenta  Nova  Atiatomica; 
discovered  the  thoracic  duct  and  the  re- 
ceptacle of  the  chyle. 

Pedro  the  Cruel  {b.  1334,  d.  1369),  King 
of  Castile;  succeeded  Alfonso  XI.,  and 
governed  with  great  cruelty.  He  was  sup- 
ported by  the  Black  Prince  against  his 
brother,  Henry  of  Trastamare,  by  whom  he 
was  eventually  slain. 

Pedro  m.,  of  Aragon  {b.  1239,  d.  1285) ; 
claimed  Sicily  in  right  of  his  wife,  and  ex- 
cited the  conspiracy  against  the  adherents 
of  Charles  of  Aragon.  which  led  to  the 
massacre  called  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (1282). 

Pedro  IV.  {b.  1317,  d.  1387),  defeated  the 
Moors  and  Genoese,  and  founded  the  Uni- 
versity of  Huesca. 

Pedro  L,  "the  Severe,"  King  of  Portugal 
{b.  1320,  d.  1367),  succeeded  Alfonso  IV.  in 
1257,  and  married  Inez  de  Castro. 

Pedro  II.  {b.  1648,  d.  1706),  became 
regent  in  1668  and  king  in  1683  in  suc- 
cession to  Alfonso  VI. 

Pedro  III.  {d.  1786)  succeeded  with  Maria 

Isabella  in  1777. 

Pedro  IV.  {h.  1798,  d.  1834),  succeeded 
John  VI.  in  1826,  but  abdicated  two  months 
later  in  favour  of  his  daughter,  Dona  Maria 
da  Gloria.  He  was  Emperor  of  Brazil  from 
1822  till  1831,  when  he  abdicated  in  con- 
sequence of  a  revolution. 

Pedro  V.  {h.  1837,  d.  1861)  succeeded  Dona 
Maria  in  1853. 


Pedro  I.,  Emperor  of  Brazil.  [See  Pedro 
rV.  of  Portugal.] 

Pedro  II.  {b.  1825)  assumed  the  govern- 
ment in  1840,  and  was  crowned  in  the 
following  year ;  commanded  the  army  in 
the  war  with  Paraguay  in  1865-70,  issued 
decrees  against  the  slave  trade  in  1850  and 
1871,  and  encoiu'aged  European  colonisa- 
tion, but  after  his  return  from  a  visit  to 
Europe  in  1887  was  deposed,  and  retired  to 
France. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  Bart.  (*.  1750,  d.  1830), 
cotton  manufacturer ;  supported  Pitt  in 
Parliament,  and  was  created  a  baronet  in 
1801.  His  son,  Generax  Jonathan  Peel 
(6.  1799,  d.  1879),  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  many  years,  was  Secretary-at-War 
under  Lord  Derby  1858-9,  and  again  in 
1866-7. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  Bart.  (6.  1788,  d.  1850), 
statesman,  eldest  son  of  the  first  baronet ; 
was  named  under-secretary  for  the  Colonies 
immediately  on  his  entering  Parliament  in 
1811,  and  was  Irish  Secretary  from  1812  to 
1818.  In  the  following  year  he  was  chair- 
man of  the  Bank  Committee,  and  in  1822 
was  appointed  to  the  Home  Oifice,  becoming 
leader  in  the  Commons  on  the  death  of 
Canning  (1827).  As  such  he  introduced 
the  Catholic  Emancipation  and  Police  Bills, 
and  lost  his  seat  for  Oxford  University  in 
consequence  of  the  former.  After  the  Re- 
form Bill  he  reconstructed  his  party,  modem 
Conservatism  dating  from  his  Tamworth 
Manifesto  (1834).  He  now  held  office  a  few 
months,  and  was  finally  Prime  Minister  from 
1841  to  1846,  when  his  desertion  of  Pro- 
tection cost  him  the  support  of  the  majority 
of  his  followers.  He  died  from  the  con- 
sequences of  a  fall  from  his  horse  on  Con- 
stitution Hill. 

Peel,  Right  Hon.  Sir  Robert,  G.C.B.  {b. 
1822),  third  baronet;  retired  from  the 
diplomatic  service  in  1850,  and  having  en- 
tered Parliament,  was  a  lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty from  1855  to  1857,  and  Chief  Sec- 
retary for  Ireland  from  1861  till  1865.  He 
sat  for  Tamworth  from  1850  till  1880,  for 
Huntingdon  in  1884-5,  and  for  Blackburn 
in  1885-6.  He  was  an  unsuccessful  Home 
Rule  candidate  at  the  general  election  of 
1886,  and  in  October,  1888. 

Peel,  Right  Hon.  Arthur  Wellesley,  D.C.L. 
{b.  1829),  youngest  brother  of  the  last-named, 
was  elected  as  a  Liberal  for  Warwick  in 
1865,  became  secretary  to  the  Poor  Law 
Board  in  1868,  secretary  to  the  Board  of 
Trade  in  1871,  secretary  to  the  Treasury  in 
1873,  and  under-secretary  for  the  Home 
Department  in  1880.  In  1884  he  was  elected 
Speaker. 


Pee 


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Fern 


Peel,  Eight  Hou.  Sir  Frederick,  K.C.M.G. 
(b.  1823),  another  brother  ;  was  called  to 
the  bar,  and  elected  as  a  Liberal  for  Leo- 
minster in  1849,  and  sat  for  Buiy  from  1852 
to  1357  and  from  1859  to  1865.  He  was 
luider-secretary  for  the  Colonies  1851-2, 
and  again  in  the  Coalition  Ministry,  under- 
secretary for  war  1856-7,  and  secretary  to 
the  Treasury  1860-5.  He  was  president  of 
the  Railway  Commission  first  appointed  in 
1873. 

Peel,  Sir  WUUam  (b.  1824,  d.  1858), 
another  brother  ;  served  in  the  Naval 
Brigade  at  Sebastopol,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  the  rehef  of  Lucknow,  soon 
after  which  he  died. 

Peele,  George  (J.  drea  1558,  d.  1598), 
poet;  wrote  David  and  Bethsabe,  and 
several  other  plays,  as  well  as  a  Chronicle 
of  Edward  I. 

PeUe,  John,  Litt.  D.  {b.  1838),  philologist ; 
senior  classic  and  Chancellor's  medallist  at 
Cambridge,  was  elected  fellow  of  Christ's 
College  in  1860,  and  became  master  of  the 
College  in  1887.  In  1884  he  was  named 
reader  in  philology,  having  brought  out  a 
primer  of  that  science  in  1875. 

Peisistratus  (*.  612  B.C.,  d.  527),  Tyrant 
of  Athens,  was  twice  expelled,  but  regained 
and  transmitted  his  power,  ruling  well,  and 
encouraging  public  works. 

Pekah,  King  of  Israel,  reigned  b.o. 
759-739. 

Fekaliiall,  King  of  Israel,  reigned  B.C. 
761-759. 

Felagius  (5th  century),  British  monk, 
whose  name  was  Moegan,  opposed  the 
Augustinian  doctrine  of  original  sin,  and 
founded  a  sect  at  Rome. 

Pelagius  I.,  Pope  (d.  560),  was  elected  in 
655. 

Pelagius  IL  (d.  590),  elected  in  578. 

Pelet,  Jean  Germain,  Baron  de  (}.  1779, 
d.  1858),  French  general  and  writer,  author 
of  several  military  works,  served  in  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  and  in  1848  was  made 
president  of  the  Committee  of  National 
IDefence. 

Pemam.    [See  Newcastle.] 

Pelham,  Henir  (6.  1696, «?.  1754),  English 
statesman  ;  was  Secretary-at-War  under  Sir 
R.  Walpole  (1724-30),  but  afterwards  in- 
trigued against  him;  was  Prime  Minister 
from  1744  till  his  death,  and  reduced  the 
interest  on  the  National  Debt. 

Pelliam,  Henry  Francis  {b.  1846),  his- 
torian, eldest  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Norwich ; 
became  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  in 


1869  ;   reader  in  ancient  history  1887  ;  and 
Camden  professor  in  1889. 

Pelissier,  Amable  Jean,  Due  de  Malakoff 
(J).  1794,  d.  1864),  Marshal  of  France; 
served  in  Spain,  the  Morea,  and  Algeria, 
and  gained  notoriety  by  his  having  ordered 
the  suffocation  of  500  Arabs  iu  a  cave  in 
1846.  In  May,  1855,  he  succeeded  to  the 
command  of  the  French  forces  in  the  Crimea, 
and  took  the  Malakoff  tower.  He  was 
afterwards  govenior  of  Algeria. 

PeU,  John  (6.  1610,  d.  1685),  EngUsh 
mathematician  and  divine,  friend  of  New- 
ton ;  wrote  several  mathematical  works,  and 
left  a  number  of  manuscripts  now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

PeUegrini,  Carlo  (*.  1838,  d.  1889),  cari- 
caturist, drew  as  "Ape"  for  Vanity  Fair. 

Pellegrino.     \_See  Tibaldi.] 

PeUerin,  Joseph  {b.  1684,  d.  1782),  French 
numismatist,  whose  collection  of  medals  was 
bought  by  Louis  XVI.  for  £12,000. 

Pellew.     [See  Exmouth,  Lord.] 

Pellico,  SQvio  {b.  1788,  d.  1854),  Italian 
writer,  author  of  some  tragedies  ;  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  Austrian  government  from 
1820  to  1830,  and  wrote  Le  niie  Prigioni 
(1832),  an  account  of  his  Ufe  in  the  prison 
of  Spielberg. 

Pellison-Fontanier  (*.  1624,  d.  1693), 
French  historian ;  author  of  Histoire  de 
VAcademie  Frangaise,  to  which  he  was 
elected,  though  there  was  no  vacancy, 
Histoire  de  Louis  XIV.  and  other  works. 

Pelly,  Lieutenant-General  Sir  Lewis, 
K.C.B.  {b.  1825,  d.  1892),  English  adminis- 
trator ;  served  with  Jacob  as  political  secre- 
tary and  interpreter  in  the  Persian  expedition 
of  1857,  and  was  entrusted  with  several  mis- 
sions to  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan, 
and  Arabia,  finally  becoming  envoy-extra- 
ordinary and  plenipotentiary  for  foreign 
affairs.  He  published  several  pamphlets, 
and  entered  Parliament  as  a  Conservative 
for  Hackney  in  1885. 

Pelopidas  {d.  364  B.C.),  Theban  general, 
expelled  the  Spartans  from  his  city  in  379 
B.C.,  shared  in  the  victories  of  Epaminondaa 
and  was  killed  after  his  victory  at  Cyno- 
cephalae. 

Peltier,  Jean  Gabriel  {d.  1825),  French 
journalist ;  published  Actes  des  Apdtres 
(1789-91),  and  having  taken  refuge  in 
England  was  in  1803  convicted  of  libel 
against  Bonaparte,  his  counsel  being  Sir  J. 
Mackintosh. 

Pemberton,  Sir  Francis  (b.  1625,  d.  1697), 
English  judge;  was  appointed  judge  of  tna 


fern 


(615) 


Pep 


King's  Bench  in  1679,  but  removed  soon 
after.  In  1681  he  became  Lord  Chief  Justice, 
and  as  such  condemned  Fitzharris  and  Arch- 
bishop Plunket,  but  was  two  years  later 
transferred  for  political  reasons  to  the  Com- 
mon Pleas.  He  presided  at  the  trial  of 
Russell  and  Sydney,  but  was  dismissed  for 
his  moderation,  and  was  afterwards  counsel 
for  the  seven  bishops  and  for  Sir  John 
Fenwick. 

Pem'oerton,  Henry  (b.  1694,  d.  1771), 
physician ;  pupU  of  Boerhaave,  and  pro- 
fessor at  Gresham  College.  His  chief  work 
was  A  View  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Phi- 
losophy. 

Pembroke,  Richard  de  Clare,  Earl  of 
[Strongbow]  (d.  1176),  assisted  Dermot 
IklacMurrough  to  regain  Leinster,  and  after 
taking  Dublin  succeeded  him.  In  1171  he 
surrendered  his  kingdom  to  Henry  II.,  re- 
ceiving it  back  in  fee,  and  accompanied  biTn 
to  Ireland. 

Pembroke,  Thomas  Herbert,  Earl  of  (d. 
1733),  was  Lord  Privy  Seal,  president  of 
the  Council  twice,  and  seven  times  Lord 
Justice  imder  William  III.,  besides  having 
been  plenipotentiary  at  Ryswick  and  a  com- 
missioner for  the  union  with  Scotland.  He 
was  also  the  friend  and  protector  of  Locke. 

Pembroke,  "William  Herbert,  Earl  of  (ji. 
1570),  married  a  sister  of  Catherine  Parr, 
and  was  one  of  the  executors  of  Henry  VIII.; 
was  created  earl  by  Edward  VI.  as  a  zealous 
Protestant ;  supported  Northimiberland,  but 
afterwards  joined  Queen  Mary,  and  com- 
manded the  English  at  St.  Quentin ;  was 
banished  by  Elizabeth  for  implication  in  the 
schemes  of  Norfolk  and  Arundel. 

Pembroke,  William  Marshall,  Earl  of 
{d.  1219),  married  the  daughter  of  Strong- 
bow  ;  supported  King  John,  and  as  regent 
during  the  minority  of  Henry  III.  defeated 
Louis  of  Frituce. 

Penda  |<f.  655),  King  of  Mercia,  the  last 
supporter  of  paganism  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  ;  defeated  and  slew  Eadwine  at 
Heathfield  (633),  and  Oswald  at  Maserfeld 
(644>,  but  was  himself  killed  in  battle  with 
Oswi  at  Winwoed. 

Penn,  William  (b.  1644,  d.  1718),  founder 
of  Pennsylvania,  was  son  of  Sir  W.  Peiui, 
who,  with  Venables,  took  Jamaica.  He  be- 
came a  Quaker  while  at  Oxford,  and  was 
several  times  imprisoned  for  his  writings. 
In  1682  he  embarked  for  the  colony  of  the 
New  Netherlands,  which  had  been  granted 
him  by  Charles  II.,  and  founded  Phila- 
delphia, but  died  in  England,  having  been 
in  great  favour  at  court  under  James  II. 

Pennant,  Thomas  (h.  1726,  d.  1798), 
naturalist  and  antiquary ;  was  friend  and 


correspondent  of  White  of  Selbome,  and 
author  of  A  Sistory  of  Quadrupeds,  Sistory 
of  London,  a  series  of  Tours,  etc. 

PemieU,  Hemy  Cholmondeley  (fi.  1838), 
ichthyologist  and  writer,  son  of  Sir  Charles 
Pennell,  who  originated  the  present  system 
of  manning  the  navy ;  was  appointed  in- 
spector of  fisheries  in  1866,  and  was  after- 
wards director-general  of  commerce  in 
Egj-pt.  Among  his  works  are  The  Modern 
Fractical  Angler,  Salmon  and  Trout,  etc., 
and  Puck  on  Pegasus  (1861),  and  other 
poetical  works. 

Penni,  Gian  Francesco,  "  II  Fattore  "  (b. 
1488,  d.  1528),  Florentine  painter ;  originally 
steward  [fattore)  of  Raffaelle,  afterwards 
assisted  him  in  painting,  and,  as  co-heir 
with  Giulio  Romano,  finished  some  of  his 
works. 

Penry,  John  {b.  1559,  d.  1593),  Puritan 
writer,  author  of  the  Martin  Marprelate 
tracts,  was  executed  for  sedition  in  1593. 

Penzance,  Right  Hon.  James  Wilde,  Lord 
(6.  1816),  judge;  was  called  to  the  bar  and 
went  the  northern  circuit,  became  Queen's 
Counsel  in  1855,  Baron  of  the  Exchequer  in 
1860,  and  was  a  judge  of  the  Probate  and 
Divorce  Court  from  1863  to  1872.  He  waa 
created  a  peer  in  1869,  and  in  1875  was  ap- 
pointed Dean  of  Arches  under  the  PubUc 
Worship  Regulation  Act. 

Pepagomenus,  Demetrius  (/?.  circa  1280), 
Greek  writer,  author  of  a  work  on  gout. 

Pepe,  GuglieUmo,  Baron  (b.  1783,  d.  1855), 
Neapolitan  general ;  extorted  a  constitution 
from  Ferdinand  of  Naples  in  1820,  but  was 
expelled  the  country  by  the  Austrians,  and 
lived  in  England  and  Spain  imtil  1848,  when 
he  commanded  the  Neapolitan  coutiagent 
which  helped  to  defend  Venice.  After  the 
capitulation  he  lived  chiefly  in  Paris,  and 
wrote  his  Memoirs.  His  brother,  Floeestan 
{d.  1851),  commanded  the  Italian  Legion 
xmder  Napoleon,  and  for  a  time  held  Naples 
against  Ferdinand. 

Pepin  d'Heristal  (d.  714),  father  of 
Charles  Martel,  became  King  of  Austrasia 
in  687,  and  as  Mayor  of  the  Palace  rmder 
the  Merwings  ruled  the  Franks  from  687  to 
his  death. 

Pepin  le  Bref  [b.  714,  d.  768),  King  of  the 
Franks  and  father  of  Charlemagne,  deposed 
ChildericIII.,  and  founded  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty  (7-^2),  and  afterwards,  by  helping 
Stephen  III.  against  the  Lombards,  founded 
the  temporal  power  of  the  popes. 

Pepper,  John  Henry  (b.  1821),  analytical 
chemist,  was  for  several  years  public  analyst 
at  Brisbane;  improved  Henry  Dirck's  rou^ 


Pep 


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Per 


model,  which  became  known  as  "Pepper's 
Ghost." 

Pepusch,  Johann  Christoph  {d.  1752), 
German  musician,  author  of  a  Treatise  on 
Harmony ;  came  to  England,  where  he  took 
the  degree  of  Mus.Doc.  at  Oxford,  and  be- 
came organist  to  the  Charterhouse. 

Pepys,  Sir  W.     [See  Cottenham.] 

Pepys,  Samuel  [b.  1632,  d.  1703),  secretary 
to  the  Admiralty  under  Charles  II.,  and 
author  of  an  extremely  interesting  and 
valuable  Diary,  which  was  published  by 
Lord  Braybrooke  in  1825  from  the  MS.  at 
Magdalen  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
president  of  the  itoyal  Society. 

Peranda,  Santo  {b.  1566,  d.  1638),  Vene- 
tian painter,  whose  chief  work,  The  Descent 
from  tJie  Cross,  is  in  the  church  of  San 
Procolo. 

Perceval,  Right  Hon.  Spencer  {b.  1762.  d. 
1812),  English  statesman,  second  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Egmont;  was  Attorney-General 
under  Addington  and  in  Pitt's  last  ministry, 
and,  in  consequence  of  a  speech  he  delivered 
against  Lord  Grenville's  proposal  to  allow 
Romanists  to  hold  commissions  in  the  Eng- 
lish army,  was  appointed  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  in  the  Portland  ministry.  In 
1809  he  became  Premier,  and  carried  the 
Regency  Bill  in  1811,  but  next  year  was 
shot  by  a  Liverpool  broker  named  Belling- 
ham  in  the  lobby. 

Percival,  Rev.  John,  LL.D.  (b.  circa 
1835),  educationalist;  was  fellow  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  from  1858  to  1862,  pre- 
sident of  Trinity  from  1878  to  1887,  when 
he  became  head-master  of  Rugby,  having 
also  been  first  head  of  Clifton  College 
(1862-78).  He  took  chief  part  in  the  foun- 
dation of  University  College,  Bristol,  and 
published  llie  Co/mection  of  the  Universities 
with  the  Gnat  Toivns,  etc. 

Percival,  Thomas,  M.D.  [b.  1740,  d.  1804), 
physician,  author  of  Medical  Ethics,  etc., 
and  founder  of  the  Manchester  Philosophical 
Society. 

Percy,  Sii-  Henry  {b.  1364,  d.  1403),  son 
of  tlie  first  Earl  of  Northumberland,  was 
called  HoTSPUE,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Shrewsbury.  [^See  Northumber- 
land, Earls  of.] 

Percy,  Thomas  (*.  1729,  d.  1811),  divine, 
successively  Dean  of  Carlisle  and  Bishop  of 
Dromore,  collected  and  published  Reliques 
of  Ancient  Poetry. 

Perdiccas  {d.  321  b.c),  Macedonian 
general,  heutenant  of  Alexander,  and  regent 
for  his  successor ;  was  assassinated  by  his 
Boldiers. 

Per^fixe,  Hardouin  de  Beaumont  de  {b. 


1605,  d.  1670),  Archbishop  of  Paris  and 
tutor  of  Louis  XIV. ;  published  Hutoire  du 
Boy  Henri  le  Grand,  and  other  works. 

Pereira,  or  Pereire,  Jacob  Rodriguez  (i. 
1716.  d.  1780),  Spanish  Jew,  who  opened  a 
school  for  deaf  mutes  at  Rochelle ;  was 
pensioned  by  Louis  XV. ,  and  elected  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Society.  His  grandsons, 
Jacob  Emile  {d.  1875)  and  Isaac,  estab- 
lished the  Credit  Mobilier  in  1852. 

Pereira,  Nmlo  Alvarez  (i.  1360,  d.  1431), 
"  the  Portuguese  Cid  " ;  as  constable  under 
Joao  I.  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  1385,  and 
died  in  the  Carmelite  Convent  at  Lisbon. 

Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  Antonio  {b.  1725, 
d.  1797),  theologian ;  author  of  Doctrina 
veteris  EcclesicB  de  Suprema  Regis  etiam  m 
Clericos  Potestate  (1765). 

Perez,  Antonio  (i.  1539,  d.  1611),  Spanish 
statesman,  for  many  years  secretary  of  state 
under  Philip  II. ,  intrigued  with  his  mistress, 
the  Princess  d'Eboh,  and,  having  been 
condemned  to  death,  escaped  to  England 
in  1591. 

Perez  Galdos,  Benito  {b.  1845),  novelist, 
born  at  Las  Palmas  in  the  Canaries,  his 
chief  works  being  La  Fontana  de  Oro  (1871), 
El  Terror  de  1824  (1877),  Dona  Perfecta, 
Gloria,  etc.,  the  last  two  of  which  have 
been  translatet^  into  English.  In  1890  he 
published  La  Incognita  and  Prealidad. 

Pergolese,  Giambattista  (b.  1710,  d.  1736), 
Italian  composer,  whose  best  works  were 
his  Stabat  Mater,  and  the  opera  La  Serva 
Padrona. 

Peri,  Giacomo  (16th  century),  Florentine 
composer,  whose  chief  works  were  Dafne 
(1594),  and  LaMorte  di  Euridice  (1600). 

Periander  {h.  665  b.c,  d.  585),  succeeded 
Cypselus  as  Tyrant  of  Corinth. 

Pericles  {b.  499  b.c,  d.  429),  Athenian 
statesman  ;  made  important  modifications  in 
the  constitution  in  the  democratic  direction 
about  460  b.c.  ;  fortified  the  city,  and  beauti- 
fied it  with  the  Parthenon,  the  Odeon,  and 
the  Propylaca ;  patronised  Sophocles,  Eu- 
ripides, and  Pheidias,  and  planned  an 
Athenian  empire  by  making  the  allies  sub- 
jects, the  result  being  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  in  the  third  year  of  which  he  died  of 
the  plague. 

P6rier,  Casimir.    [See  Casimir  Perier.] 

Peringskjold,  Johan  {b.  1654,  d.  1720), 
Swedish  historian,  author  of  Heimskringlay 
sive  Historiae  Reguni  Septentrionaliiim,  etc. 

Perizonius,  Jacobus  (6.  1651,  d.  1715), 
Dutch  philologist,  author  of  Origines  Rabjf- 
loniea:  et  JEgyptiacce,  etc. 


Per 


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Pet 


Perian,  WilUam  Henry,  Ph.D.,    F.E.S. 

(b.  1838),  English  chemist;  after  acting  as 
assistant  to  Hofmann,  discovered  "  aniline 
purple,"  or  mauve,  and  established  with  his 
father  a  manufactory  at  Greenford  Green, 
Middlesex,  where  it  was  "first  made  in  1857. 
He  made  several  other  chemical  discoveries 
and  improvements,  and  was  president  of  the 
Chemical  Society  in  1883. 

Perkiiis,  Elisha  {d.  1799),  American  phy- 
sician :  believed  that  he  could  cure  gout  and 
other  diseases  by  metallic  tractors,  but  tried 
the  remedy  on  himself  vrith  fatal  conse- 
quences. 

Peron,  Franqois  {b.  1775,  d.  1810),  French 
naturalist,  whose  Voyage  de  Decouvertes  aux 
Terres  Australes pejidant  lesAnnees  1800-1804 
was  published  after  his  death. 

Perouse.     [See  La  Perouse,] 

Perovme,  John  James  Stewart,  D.D.  (b. 
1824),  English  divine,  was  bom  in  Bengal, 
and,  after  a  distinguished  career  at  Cam- 
bridge, was  elected  fellow  of  Corpus  Chiisti 
College  in  1849.  He  was  vice-principal  of 
St.  David's,  Lampeter,  from  1862  to  1872, 
and  was  elected  Hulsean  professor  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1875.  Having  previously  been 
Canon  of  LlandafP,  he  became  Dean  of 
Peterborough  in  1878,  and  in  1890  Bishop  of 
Worcester.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old 
Testament  Revision  Company,  and  also  of 
the  commission  on  Ecclesiastical  Courts,  and 
published  Critical  Translations  of  the  Psalms 
and  other  works. 

Perrault,  Charles  (b.  1628,  d.  1703), 
French  writer,  whose  Parallels  des  Anciens 
et  des  Modernes  (1698)  gave  rise  to  a  famous 
literary  controversy;  also  wrote  Contcs 
des  Fees,  etc.  His  brother,  Claude  {b. 
1613,  d,  1688),  bxiilt  the  colonnade  of  the 
Louvre. 

Perrenet  de  Granvelle,  Antoine  de  (6. 

1517,  d.  1586),  Spanish  statesman,  of  French 
birth  ;  became  Bishop  of  Arras  in  1538,  and 
in  1540  succeeded  his  father  as  chief  minister 
of  Charles  V.,  the  marriage  of  whose  son 
with  Mary  of  England  he  negotiated  ;  was 
created  Archbishop  of  Mechlin  in  1560,  and 
cardinal  in  1561,  and  was  the  chief  adviser 
of  Margaret  of  Parma  in  the  Netherlands 
till  compelled  by  the  Gueux  to  retire.  His 
Fapiers  d'Etat  were  published  in  1841. 

Perrot,  Sir  John  {d.  1592),  probably  a 
natural  son  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  imprisoned 
by  Mary  for  harbouring  Protestants :  was 
sent  to  Ireland  as  president  of  Munster  in 
1572,  and  became  lord  deputy  in  1583,  but 
was  tried  for  high  treason  on  his  return, 
and  died  in  the  Tower. 

Perry,  James  \b.  1756,  d.  1821),  journalist, 
friend  of  Campbell  and  Lamb,  edited  the 


Morning  Chronicle,  for  an  article  in  which 
he  was  tried  for  libel  but  acquitted. 

Perry,  John  [d.  1733),  engineer,  emploved 
by  Peter  the  Great ;  published  The  State  of 
Russia  under  the  Present  Czar. 

Perry,  John,  D.Sc,  F.E.S.  (b.  1850),  elec- 
trician, professor  of  mechanical  engineering 
at  the  Finsbm-y  Technical  College,  was  bom 
in  Ireland,  and  graduated  at  the  Queen's 
University ;  was  in  Japan  as  joint  professor 
of  engineering  from  1875  to  1879,  and  gained 
the  silver  medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  for 
his  lecture  on  The  Future  Development  of 
Electrical  Appliances.  With  Professor 
Ayrton  he  published  papers  on  Electroli/tic 
Polarisation  and  other  subj  ects.  Has  written 
also  a  manual  of  Practical  Mechanics. 

Persia,  Nasr-ed-Deen,  Shah  of  (b.  1829), 
succeeded  Muhammad  Shah  in  1848,  but 
not  without  bloodshed;  after  the  war  of 
1856-7  became  friendly  to  England,  which 
he  visited  in  1873  and  1889,  and  introduced 
into  his  country  many  European  improve- 
ments. 

Persigny,  Jean  Gilbert  Victor  Fialin,  Duo 
de  {b.  1808,  d.  1872),  French  statesman, 
prominent  in  the  coup  d''  etdt,  was  twice 
minister  of  the  interior  under  Napoleon  III., 
but  resigned  in  1863  on  account  of  the  mea- 
sures against  the  press ;  was  also  ambassador 
in  England  between  1855  and  1860. 

Persius  Flaccus  (6.  34,  d.  62),  Eoman 
satiric  poet,  friend  of  Lucan  and  Seneca. 

Pertinax,  Helvius  (*.  126,  d.  193),  was 
made  Emperor  of  Rome  in  193,  but  assas- 
sinated two  months  after. 

Perugino  [Pietro  Vannucci]  (h.  1446,  d. 
1524),  Italian  painter  of  the  Umbrian  school, 
kept  a  school  at  Perugia,  and  had  Eaffaelle 
as  a  pupil. 

Peruzzi,  Baldassare  {b.  1481,  d.  1536), 
painter  and  architect  of  Sienna;  invented 
and  executed  scenic  paintings,  helped 
RafFaelle  with  the  Famesina,  and  designed 
the  Palazzo  Massimi. 

Pestalozzi,  Johann  Heinrich  {b.  1745,  d. 
1827),  Swiss  educationist;  established  an 
institution  for  deserted  children  at  Neuhof 
in  1798,  and  afterwards  as  a  schoolmaster  at 
Burgdorf  and  Yverdun  practised  his  "in- 
tuitive "  system.  His  chief  works  were 
How  Gertrude  Instructs  her  Children  (1801) 
and  his  Mother's  Book  (1803). 

Petavlus  [Denis  Petau]  {h.  1583,  d.  1652), 
French  Jesuit,  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Bourges  and  of  theology  at  Paris :  was 
author  of  Opus  de  Theologieis  Dogmatibus. 

Peter.     [See  Pedro.] 

Peter,  the  wild  boy,  was  discovered  in  the 


Pet 


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Fet 


forest  of  Hertswold,  Hanover,  in  1725,  and 
died  sixty  years  later. 

Peter,  King  of  the  Bulgarians,  led  a 
revolt  of  the  Slavs  against  the  Emperor 
Isaac  Angeliis,  but  was  assassinated  ten 
years  after  (1196). 

Peter,  Saint,  was  crucified  at  Kome  in  the 
y«ar  65  or  67. 

Peter  of  Blois  {d.  circa  1200),  Archdeacon 
of  London  ;  was  employed  as  a  diplomatist 
by  Henry  II.,  his  works  being  published  in 

1519. 

Peter  the  Hermit  {d.  1115),  French  monk, 
who  preached  the  iirst  cnisade  in  1095,  and 
led  the  crusaders  to  Palestine. 

Peter  the  Lombard  {d.  1164),  Bishop  of 
Paris,  whose  Book  of  Sentences  was  a  stan- 
dard scholastic  work  during  the  middle 
ages. 

Peter  I.,  Tsar  of  Eussia  [^Peter  the  Great] 
{b.  1672,  d.  1725),  was  joint  ruler  with 
Ivan  V.  from  1682  tiU  1689,  when  he  be- 
came sole  sovereign,  visited  Holland  and 
England  to  learn  ship-building,  and  on  his 
return  suppressed  the  conspiracy  of  the 
Stretlitz  (1698)  ;  founded  St.  Petersburg  in 
1703,  and,  after  a  defeat  at  Narva,  won  the 
■victory  of  Pultowa  over  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  in  1709.  He  added  to  his  dominions 
Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  part  of  Finland,  and 
again  visited  western  Europe  in  1716-17. 

Peter  IL  (b.  1715,  d.  1739),  gi-andson  of 
preceding,  succeeded  Catherine  I.  in  1727. 

Peter  IIL  (*.  1728,  d.  1762),  succeeded 
the  Tsarina  Elizabeth  in  1761 ,  but,  having 
offended  both  the  clergy  and  the  imperial 
guards,  was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and  a 
week  after  was  strangled,  his  wife,  Cathe- 
rine, being  at  the  head  of  the  conspiracy. 

Peterborough,  Charles  Mordaunt,  Earl  of 
(J),  circa  1658,  d.  1735),  soldier  and  diploma- 
tist, distinguished  himself  in  Spain  in  the 
Succession  War,  compelling  the  French  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Barcelona  (1706),  and  was 
afterwards  employed  as  a  diplomatist. 

Peters,  Hugh  (*.  1599,  d.  1660),  Puritan 
preacher,  chaplain  to  Cromwell ;  was  hanged 
as  a  regicide  after  the  Restoration. 

Petion,  Alexander  {b.  1770,  d.  1818),  a 
mulatto,  who,  after  being  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  rising  of  1791,  became  first  president 
of  the  republic  of  Hayti. 

_Petion  de  Villeneuve,  Jer6me  (6.  1753,  d. 
1793),  French  revolutionist ;  acted  with 
Eobespierre  in  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
and  was  elected  mayor  of  Paris  in  Novem- 
ber, 1791,  but  soon  lost  his  popularity,  and, 
having  joined  the  Girondins,  was  compelled 


to  escape  from  Paris,  and  was  found  with 
Buzot  half -devoured  by  wolves  at  St.  Emi- 
lion. 

Petit,  Hon.  Sir  Dinshaw  Manockjee  {b. 
1823),  Parsee  philanthropist.  Having  a  large 
fortune  partly  inherited  and  partly  made 
in  the  cotton  industry,  he  founded  a  leper 
hospital  at  Bombay  amongst  other  charities, 
and  was  knighted  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Queen's  jubilee. 

Petit,  Jean  Louis  {b.  1674,  d.  1750),  French 
surgeon ;  author  of  Traite  des  Maladies  des 
Os,  and  inventor  of  several  surgical  instru- 
ments. 

Petitot,  Jean  {b.  1607,  d.  1691),  Genevese 
enamel  painter,  employed  by  Charles  I.  and 
Charles  II.  and  by  Louis  XIV. ;  was  impri- 
soned after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes. 

Petofy,  Sandor  {b.  1823,  d.  1849),  Hun- 
garian poet,  whose  poems  were  published  ia 
1847 ;  was  killed  in  a  revolutionary  combat 
in  the  following  year. 

Petrarca,  Francesco  {b.  1304,  d.  1374), 
Italian  poet,  bom  at  Arezzo,  lived  chiefly  at 
Avignon,  but  passed  his  later  years  at 
Milan,  Venice,  and  Padua,  and  died  at 
Arqu^ ;  with  Boccaccio  took  an  active  part 
in  the  revival  of  learning,  and  was  crowned 
as  laureate  in  the  Capitol  by  Eling  Robert  of 
Anjou  in  1341,  His  chief  works  are  Son- 
netti,  Oanzoni  et  Trionfi  (in  praise  of  Laura, 
a  married  lady  whom  he  met  at  Avignon  in 
1327),  and  some  Latin  treatises. 

Petre,  Edward  {b.  1631,  d.  1699),  Jesuit 
priest,  confessor  to  James  II.,  exercised 
much  poUtical  influence. 

Petre,  Sir  George  Glynn,  K.C.M.G.,  en- 
tered the  diplomatic  service  in  1846,  was 
plenipotentiary  to  the  Argentine  repubUc 
1881-2,  to  Paraguay  in  the  following  year, 
and  to  Portugal  in  1884. 

Petrie,  George  (*.  1790,  d.  1866),  archae- 
ologist, directed  the  ordnance  survey  of 
Ireland  in  1833,  and  wrote  treatises  on 
The  Origin  and  Uses  of  the  Hound  Towers, 
Tara  Rill,  etc. 

Petrie,  W.  M.  Flinders  (*.  1853),  Egypt- 
ologist, measured  and  surveyed  the  pyramids 
and  temples  of  Ghizeh  in  1881-2,  excavated 
for  the  Egyptian  Exploration  Fxmd  the 
mounds  of  San  (Zoan)  in  1884,  and  in  the 
following  year  discovered  the  lost  city  of 
Naukratis.  He  also  made  further  dis- 
coveries, and  published,  among  other  works. 
Historical  Lata  of  the  XI.  Dynasty,  Ma- 
wara,  Brahmu,  and  Arsinoe  (1889),  and  a 
book  on  Stonehenge. 

Petronius  Arbiter,  Caius  {d.  66  B.a), 
Roman  writer,  author  of  Satyricon, 


Fet 


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FM 


Pettie,  John,  E.A.  {b.  1839),  EngUsh 
painter,  born  at  Edinburgh ;  exhibited  at 
first  in  the  Scottish  Academy  (The  Prison 
Fet,  etc.),  but  came  to  London  in  1862,  and, 
having  been  elected  A. R.  A.  in  1864,  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy  The  Rehearsal,  The 
Death  Warrant,  The  Yigil  (1884),  etc.,  the 
last  of  which  was  purchased  for  the  Chantrey 
Bequest 

Pettigrew,  James  Bell,  F.R.S.,  F.R.C.P., 
etc.,  medical  writer ;  born  at  Eoxhill, 
Lanarkshire,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at 
Edinburgh  in  1861,  and  in  1875  became 
Chandos  professor  of  medicine  and  anatomy 
at  St.  Andrews.  His  best  known  work  is 
Animal  Locomotion:  or,  Walking,  Swimming, 
and  Flying. 

Pettigrew,  Thomas  Joseph,  M.D.  {b.  1790, 
d.  1865),  antiquary,  author  of  History  of 
Egyptian  Mummies,  Bibliotheca  Sussexiana, 
etc. 

Pettitt,  Henry,  dramatist,  whose  chief 
plays  are  The  Black  Flag,  In  the  Ranks 
fwith  Or.  R.  Sims),  The  Bells  of  Saslemere 
(with  Grundy),  A  Million  of  Motley  (with 
Harris).     ^See  Sims,  G.  R.] 

Petty.     {See  Lansdowne  and  Shelbume.] 

Petty,  Sir  "William  {b.  1623,  d.  1687), 
politician  and  writer ;  siurveyed  for  Henry 
Cromwell  the  forfeited  Irish  estates,  was  one 
of  the  early  members  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  wrote  Folitical  Arithmetic,  The  Political 
Anatomy  of  Ireland,  etc. 

Peyrfere,  Isaac  la  {b.  1594,  d.  1676),  French 
writer  ;  was  imprisoned  for  maintaining,  in 
Prce-Adamitce,  the  existence  of  a  race 
anterior  to  Adam. 

Peyxonnet,  Charles,  Comte  de  {b.  1778,  d. 
1834),  statesman,  minister  of  justice  from 
1821  to  1828 :  as  minister  of  the  interior 
signed  the  ordinances  which  led  to  the  revo- 
lution of  1830,  and  was  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  life,  but  liberated  in  1836. 

Pezza.     {See  Fra  Diavolo.] 

Pfeiffer,  Ida  {b.  1795,  d.  1858),  Austrian 
lady,  made  and  described  two  voyages 
round  the  world  (1846-48  and  I851-o4).  Her 
Voyiiges  were  translated  into  EngUsh. 

Phsedon  {Jl_.  circa  400  B.C.),  Greek  phi- 
losopher, disciple  of  Socrates,  and  founder 
of  the  Elian  school. 

Phsedrus  {Jl.  circa  14  a.d.),  Latin  writer, 
whose  Fabulce  were  first  printed  in  1596. 

Phalaris,  Tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  which 
city  he  took  about  570  B.C.  His  name  is 
kniiwn  on  account  of  his  cruelty,  and  also 
for  the  controversy  between  Bentley  and 
Boyle  as  to  the  genuineness  of  some  letters 
attributed  to  him. 


Phamabazus  (/.  412-333  b.c.)  Satrap  of 
the  Persian  Hellespontine  provinces ;  re- 
ceived Alcibiades  after  .^gospotami,  but  on 
the  Spartan  demand  gave  the  order  for  his 
assassination ;  was  captured  by  the  Mace- 
donians after  the  battle  of  lesus. 

Phamaces  IL,  King  of  Pontus  {d.  circa 
46  B.C.),  son  of  Mithridates,  after  whose 
death  he  revolted  against  the  Romans,  his 
defeat  by  Julius  Caesar  (47  b.c.)  being  the 
occasion  of  the  despatch,  "  Veni,  vidi,  viel." 

Pheidias  (5th  century  b.c),  Athenian 
sculptor,  whose  chief  work  was  seen  in  the 
Parthenon. 

Phelps,  Samuel  (fi.  1804,  d.  1878),  English 
actor ;  bom  at  Devonport,  made  his  debut 
at  Wakefield  in  1827,  and  having  been  asso- 
ciated with  Macready  at  the  Haymarket, 
became  the  head  of  the  stage  on  his  retire- 
ment in  1 851 .  As  manager  of  Sadler's  Wells 
(1844-62),  he  revived  the  classical  drama, 
and  afterwards  acted  at  Drury  Lane  and  the 
Lyceum,  his  best  parts  being  Sir  Peter 
Teazle,  Justice  Shallow,  and  Bottom. 

Phelps,  Hon.  William  Walter  (b.  1839), 
American  statesman  ;  entered  Congress  in 
1873,  was  minister  at  Vienna  1881-2,  and 
after  being  in  Congress  till  1889  was  then 
appointed  ambassador  at  BerUn,  where  he 
took  part  in  the  Samoan  Convention  of  that 
year. 

Pherecydes  {b.  600  e.g.),  Greek  philo- 
sopher, master  of  Pythagoras,  is  said  to  have 
invented  prosody.  Another  Pherecydes,  who 
lived  earlier,  wrote  a  History  of  Athens. 

Philemon  (b.  320  b.c),  Greek  comic  poet, 
is  said  to  have  died  of  laughter. 

Philip  of  Hohenstaufen  (d.  1208),  son 
of  Frederick  Barbarossa ;  when  Duke  of 
Suabia  was  chosen  king  of  Germany  in  1198, 
but  ten  years  later  was  assassinated  by  Otto 
of  Wittelsbach. 

Philip  Neri,  Saint  {b.  1515).    [See  Neri.] 

Philip  IL,  King  of  Macedon  {d.  336  B.c), 
ascended  the  throne  in  360  B.C.  ;  instituted 
the  phalanx,  made  Thrace  and  Thessaly  tri- 
butary, defeated  the  Athenians  at  Ghaeronea 
(338),  but  was  assassinated  at  Mgdd  two 
years  later. 

Philip  III.  [Arrhidaeus],  his  natural  son, 
succeeded  Alexander  in  323  B.C.,  but  was 
murdered  in  317. 

Philip  V.  {d.  178  B.C.),  began  to  reign  in 
221  B.C.  ;  joined  the  Achaean  League,  and 
allied  himself  with  Hannibal,  but  was  after- 
wards defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Cynoce- 
phalae  (197  B.C.). 

Philip  L,   "the  Arabian,"   Emperor  of 


Phi 


(620) 


Phi 


Rome.  244-249,  when  he  was  assassinated 
near  Verona.  His  son,  Philip  II.,  was  asso- 
ciated with  him,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
shortly  after  his  father's  death. 

Philip  L,  King  of  France  {b.  1052,  d. 
II OS),  was  crowned  at  Rheims  in  1059,  and 
succeeded  Henri  I.  next  year ;  was  excom- 
municated for  divorcing  Bertha  and  marry- 
ing Bertrade  de  Montfort  (1092). 

Philip  II.  [Phihp  Augustus]  {b.  1165,  d. 
1214),  son  of  Louis  VII. ,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1180,  joined  Richard  I.  on  crusade  (1190), 
and  after  his  return  made  war  on  him  ;  won 
the  victory  of  Bouvines  over  the  Germans 
in  1214. 

Philip  III.,  "the  Hardy"  (*.  1245,  d. 
1285),  succeeded  Louis  IX.  in  1270. 

Philip  IV.,  "the  Fair"  (b.  1268,  d.  1314), 
succeeded  Philip  III.,  married  Jane  of 
Navarre,  quarrelled  with  the  pope  and 
Edwaxd  I.,  and  suppressed  the  Templars. 

Philip  v.,  "the  Long"  (b.  1294,  d.  1322), 
succeeded  John  I.  in  1316.  During  this  reign 
the  Salic  law  was  established. 

Philip  VI,  [Philip  of  Valois]  (b.  1293,  d. 
1350),  succeeded  Charles  in  1328,  carried  on 
war  with  Edward  III.,  who  defeated  him  at 
Cre9y  and  took  Calais. 

Philip  I.,  King  of  Spain  (*.  1478,  d.  1506), 
son  of  Mary  of  Burgundy,  married  Joanna, 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and 
succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Spain  on  the 
death  of  the  latter  (1504). 

Philip  n.  {b.  1527,  d.  1598),  succeeded 
upon  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  in  1555. 
He  married  (1)  Isabella  of  Portugal,  (2) 
Mary  of  England,  (3)  Aime  of  Austria, 
His  reign  was  marked  by  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands,  the  annexation  of  Portugal 
(1580),  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  at  Lepanto 
(1571),  and  the  loss  of  the  Armada  (1588). 

PhUip  III.  (6.  1578,  d.  1621),  son  of  the 
above  by  his  third  wife.  During  his  reign 
peace  was  made  with  the  Netherlands  (1609), 
and  the  Moors  were  expelled  from  Granada. 

Philip  IV.  {b.  1605,  d.  1665),  succeeded 
Philip  III. ;  carried  on  wax  with  France,  and 
lost  Portugal  in  1660. 

Philip  V.  (*.  1683,  d.  1746),  grandson  of 
Louis  XIV.,  who  supported  his  claims 
contrary  to  treaty,  and  thus  produced  the 
Spanish  Succession  war,  which  broke  out  in 
1702,  and  was  terminated  by  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht.  Philip  retained  Spain  and  the 
Indies,  but  lost  other  parts  of  his  dominions. 

Philip  I.,  "  the  Bold,"  Duke  of  Burgundy 
(*.  1342,  d.  1404),  made  duke  by  his  brother, 
Kmg  John  of  France,  with  whom  he  was 


captured  at  Portiers ;  acquired  great  part  of 
the  Netherlands  by  marriage,  and  became 
one  of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  his 
time. 

PhUip  II.,  "the  Good"  {b.  1396,  d.  1467), 
grandson  of  the  preceding;  alUed  himself 
with  Henry  V.  against  France,  but  after- 
wards deserted  the  EngHsh  alliance  and 
besieged  Calais  in  1436. 

PMlippa  of  Hainault  (d.  1369),  married 
Edward  III.  in  1328,  defeated  the  Scots  at 
Neville's  Cross,  and  interceded  for  the  men 
of  Calais. 

Philips,  Ambrose  (b.  1671,  d.  1749),  Eng- 
lish poet,  friend  of  Addison  and  Steele, 
published  in  1710  Pastorals,  Epistles,  Odes^ 
and  other  Original  Poems. 

Philips,  John  {b.  1676,  d.  1708),  poet, 
whose  chief  works  were  The  Splendid  Shil- 
ling  (1703),  and  Cider  (1706). 

Phillidor  [Andre  Danican],  French  chess- 
player and  musician,  travelled  all  over 
Europe,  and  published  in  England  his 
Analysis  of  Chess. 

Phillimore,  Sir  Robert  Joseph,  Bart, 
D.C.L.  {b.  1810,  d.  1885),  ecclesiastical 
lawyer,  son  of  Dr.  Joseph  Phillimore, 
Regius  professor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1841,  and  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  Cinque  Ports  in 
1885.  As  judge  of  the  Court  of  Arches 
(1867-75)  he  heard  Martin  v.  Mackonochie 
and  other  celebrated  cases.  He  was  judge 
of  the  Admiralty  Court  till  1883,  and  pub- 
lished Commentaries  on  International  Law. 

Phillip,  John,  R.A.  (6.  1817,  d.  1867), 
painter,  whose  chief  subjects  were  drawn 
from  Spanish  life. 

Phillips,  George,  D.D.  (S.  1804),  Syriac 
scholar ;  was  eighth  wrangler  in  1829, 
and  in  1857  became  president  of  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge.  His  chief  works  are 
A  Syriac  Grammar,  Brief  Treatise  on  the 
Use  of  a  Case  of  Instruments,  and  editions  of 
several  Syriac  texts. 

PhiUips,  John,  F.R.S.  (5.  1800,  d.  1874), 
geologist,  nephew  of  William  Smith  ;  became 
professor  at  Dublin  in  1844  and  at  Oxford  in 
1856,  his  chief  work  having  been  Falceozoie 
Fossils  of  Cornwall  and  West  Somerset. 

Phillips,  Lawrence  Bamett,  F.R.A.S.  (Jb. 

1842),  retired  from  the  watch-making  busi- 
ness in  1882,  and  afterwards  pubhshed  a 
Dictionary  of  Biographical  Reference,  and 
exhibited  etchings  at  the  Royal  Academy. 

Phillips,  Wendell  {b.  1811,  d.  1884), 
American  abohtionist ;  made  many  speeches 
in  the  anti-slavery  agitation,  notably  one 
over  the  grave  of  Brown  at  Harper's  Ferry 


Phi 


(621) 


Pic 


in  1859,  and  succeeded  Lloyd  Garrison  as 
president  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society.  He 
was  also  active  in  the  cause  of  temperance 
and  the  rights  of  women. 

PMlo  Judaeus  (1st  century),  Alexandrian 
Jew,  Platoiiic  philosopher  and  writer. 

PMlolaus  (5th  century  B.C.),  Greek 
philosopher,  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  is  said 
to  have  heen  the  first  to  propound  the 
Copemican  hypothesis. 

Philopoemen  {b.  252  b.c,  d.  183),  Achaean 
general,  the  ''  last  of  the  Greeks ;  "  took 
Sparta,  and  compelled  the  abohtiou  of  the 
laws  of  Lycurgus ;  was  captured  and 
poisoned  by  the  Messenians. 

Philpott,  Henry,  D.D.  {b.  1807,  d.  1891), 
English  divine,  senior  wrangler  in  1828, 
became  master  of  St.  Catherine's  College 
in  1845,  and  Bishop  of  Worcester  in  18(31. 
He  resigned  in  1890. 

PhUlpotts,  Henry,  D.D.  {b.  1778,  d.  1869), 
divine  ;  became  Dean  of  Chester  in  1828,  and 
was  Bishop  of  Exeter  from  1830  till  his 
death,  being  conspicuous  as  a  High  Church- 
man, especially  in  his  proceedings  in  the 
Gorham  case  and  Catholic  Emancipation. 

Pliipps,  Constantino.  [_See  Normanby, 
Marquis  of.] 

Phiz.     \_See  Browne.] 

Phocas,  Emperor  of  the  East  (d.  610), 
slew  the  Emperor  Mauricius  and  his  sons, 
and  was  himself  finally  dethroned  and 
beheaded. 

Phocion  {d.  317  b.c),  Athenian  states- 
man ;  as  head  of  the  peace  party  opposed 
Demosthenes,  but  commanded  against  PhiUp 
of  Macedon ;  was  compelled  to  drink  hem- 
lock when  Polysperchon  took  the  city. 

Phormion,  as  Athenian  admiral  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  won  two  naval  victories 
in  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  in  429  B.C. 

Photius  {d.  891),  Byzantine  scholar; 
several  times  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
excommunicated  the  pope  in  867,  but  was 
finally  deposed  in  886.  His  chief  work  is 
MyriobiblwH  seu  Bibliotheca,  consisting  of 
extracts  from  many  ancient  writers,  with 
critical  remarks. 

Phranza,  Georgius  (J.  1401),  Byzantine 
historian,  chamberlain  to  several  of  the 
Palaeologi ;  after  the  taking  of  Constanti- 
nople, became  a  monk  at  Corfu,  His 
Chrotiion  extends  from  1260  to  1477. 

Phrynichus  {d.  411  B.c),  Athenian  gene- 
ral :  opposed  the  return  of  Alcibiades,  but 
afterwards  joined  the  Oligarchic  faction,  and 
was  assassinated  after  an  unsuccessful  em- 
bassy to  Sparta. 


Phryniclius  (6th  century),  Athenian 
dramatist,  whose  works  have  perished. 

Piatti,  Alfredo  (b.  1822),  Italian  violon- 
celhst  and  composer ;  made  his  first  appear- 
ance in  London  in  1844,  when  he  played 
before  the  Philharmonic  Society. 

Piazzi,  Giuseppe,  E.R.S.  {b.  1746,  d.  1826), 
Italian  astronomer,  boru  in  the  Valteline  ; 
became  director  of  the  Palermo  observatory 
iu  1787,  and  discovered  "  Ceres  Ferdi- 
nandea,"  the  first  known  of  the  asteroids, 
besides  making  two  catalogues  of  stars 
(1803  and  1814). 

Picard,  Jean  (*.  1620),  French  mathema- 
tician ;  succeeded  Gassendi  in  the  chair  of 
astronomy  at  the  College  de  la  France,  wrote 
Le  Mesure  de  la  Terre,  etc.,  and  originated 
La  Gonnaissance  des  Temps. 

Piccini,  Niccolo  {b.  1728,  d.  1800),  Italian 
composer,  whose  rivalry  with  Gluck  at  Paris 
became  historical.  His  chief  works  were 
La  Gecehina  and  Olimpiade. 

Piccoloimni,  .^neas  Silvius.  [See  Pius  11.] 

Piccolomini,  Ottavio  (b.  1599,  d.  1656), 
Italian  general,  who  served  Austria  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  war.  After  his  defeat  at 
Breitenfeld  he  became  Spanish  general-in- 
chief  in  the  Netherlands. 

Pichegru,  Charles  (b.  1761,  d.  1804), 
French  general ;  rose  from  the  ranks  to  be 
general  vmder  the  Republic,  for  which  he 
defeated  the  English  and  conquered  Holland. 
When  president  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Himdred  he  was  sent  to  Cayenne  for  op- 

Eosition  to  the  Directory,  but  escaped,  and 
aving  conspired  against  Bonaparte,  put  an 
end  to  his  life  ia  the  Temple  prison. 

Pickard-Cambridge,  Octavius,  F.R.S.  (J. 
1828),  entomologist ;  author  of  Spiders  of 
Dorset,  Araneidce  {Scientific  Results  of  Yar- 
kand  Mission),  and  Arachnida  of  Kerguelen 
Island  {Report  of  Transit  of  Venus  Ex- 
pedition) (1877). 

Pickering,  Edward  Charles  {b.  1846), 
American  astronomer ;  was  professor  of 
physics  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  from  1868  to  1877,  and  became 
director  of  the  Harvard  Observatory  and 

Srofessor  of  astronomy  in  1876.     He  pub- 
shed   Elements  of   Physical  Manipulation 
(1873-76),  and  numerous  papers. 

Pickering,  Percival  Umfraville,  F.R.S. 
{b.  1858),  English  chemist;  took  honours  in 
natural  science  at  Oxford,  being  Bracken- 
bury  scholar  of  Balliol.  Among  his  works 
are  Action  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on  Gopper,  The 
Molecular  iFeiffhts  of  Solids  and  Liquids, 
The  Principles  of  Thermo-Ghemistry ,  Law  of 
the  Freezing  Point  of  Solutions,  etc.,  etc. 

Pico  della  Mirandola,  Giovanni  {b.  1463, 


Pic 


(622  ) 


Pip 


i,  1494),  Italian  scholar,  of  extraordinary 
acquii'ements ;  oifered  to  discuss  uiue  hun- 
dred theses  in  a  variety  of  subjects  against 
all  comers,  but  some  of  them  having  been 
condemned  as  heretical,  devoted  the  rest  of 
his  life  to  theology.  His  chief  works  were 
Concliiswnes  Fhtlosophtcce  (I486),  and  an 
Apologia  (1489).  His  nephew  {d.  1533) 
wrote  a  Life  of  Savonarola, 

Picton,  Sir  Thomas  Q>.  1758,  d.  1815), 
British  soldier ;  having  been  governor  of 
Trinidad  and  Tobago,  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Peninsula  by  the  capture  of  Badajoz 
(1811),  and  was  killed  at  Waterloo  when  in 
command  of  the  5th  division. 

Pierce,  Franklin  {b.  1804,  d.  1869),  Presi- 
dent (fourteenth)  of  the  United  States  ;  was 
elected  as  the  Democratic  candidate  in  1853, 
and  held  office  till  1857.  He  was  a  supporter 
of  the  continuance  of  slavery,  and  during 
his  term  of  office  the  "  Ostend  Manifesto  " 
(1854),  by  which  force  was  threatened 
against  Spain  if  she  did  not  sell  Cuba,  was 
issued.  His  life  was  written  by  his  friend, 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

Pierino  del  Vaga  [Pietro  Buonacorsi]  (b. 
1500,  d.  1547),  Florentine  painter  ;  gained  his 
surname  from  the  master  who  brought  him 
to  Eome,  where  he  worked  with  Raffaelle  in 
the  Vatican,  and  left  paintings  of  aU  kinds. 

Pierola,  Nicolas  de  {b.  1839),  Peruvian 
general ;  was  impeached  at  the  close  of  his 
term  of  office  as  minister  of  finance,  and 
went  into  exile,  making  expeditions  against 
Peru  in  1874  and  1877.  In  1879  he  returned 
and  during  the  Chilian  war  was  provisional 
president  for  some  months.  He  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  in  1890,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  organising  a  riot 

Piero  della  Francesca.     {See  Francesca.] 

Pietro  Abano.     [^See  Abano.] 

Pigalle,  Jean  Baptiste  (b.  1714,  d.  1785), 
French  sculptor,  whose  chief  works  were  the 
mausoleum  of  Marshal  Saxe  at  Strasburg, 
and  a  statue  of  Voltaire  at  the  Institut  de 
Paris. 

Pignotti,  Lorenzo  [b.  1739,  d.  1812),  Italian 
writer  ;  author  of  a  History  of  Tuscany  and 

Fables. 

Pilate  {d.  39)  waa  appointed  governor  of 
Judaea  in  27  ;  suppressed  with  great  severity 
a  rising  of  the  Samaritans  consequent  on  his 
having  taken  silver  from  the  sacred  treasury 
to  construct  an  aqueduct. 

Pilpay,  or  Bidpay,  wrote  in  Sanscrit 
(probably  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.)  a  collec- 
tion of  fables  called  Pantcha-  Tantra,  which 
were  subsequently  translated  into  Persian, 
Latin,  FrMicb,  and  English. 


Pinchbeck,  Thomas  {d.  1783),  English 
mechanician,  gave  his  name  to  an  alloy 
of  zinc  and  copper  which  he  brought  into 
use. 

Pindar  {d.  circa  442  B.C.),  Theban  poet, 

whose  Odes  were  first  printed  in  1513. 

Pine,  John  [b.  1690,  d.  1756),  engraver; 
executed  plates  of  the  tapestry  hangings  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  remuneration  for  which 
was  guaranteed  him  by  Parliament,  and 
also  engraved  the  text  of  Horace. 

Pinel,  PhiUppe  (b.  1745,  d.  1826),  French 
physician;  introduced  the  modem  system 
of  treatment  of  lunatics,  and  wrote  several 
works. 

Pinero,  Arthur  Wing  (b.  1855),  English 
dramatist  and  actor ;  made  his  dibtit  at 
Edinburgh  in  1874,  and  subsequently  played 
under  Irving  and  the  Bancrofts.  His  chief 
plays  are  The  Squire,  The  Magistrate,  The 
Schoolmistress,  Sweet  Lavender,  The  Frojii- 
gate.  The  Times,  etc. 

Pinkerton,  John  {b.  1758,  d.  1827),  Scotch 
writer,  whose  chief  work  was  his  Collection 
oj  royages  and  Travels. 

Pintelli,  Baccio  (15th  century),  Italian 
architect,  designed  the  Sistine  chapel  and 
the  Vatican  library. 

Pinto,  Alexandre  da  Rocha  Serpa,  Major 
{b,  1846),  Portuguese  traveller,  served  in 
the  army  during  the  Zambesi  war,  and  in 
1877-9  crossed  Africa  from  Benguela  to 
Durban,  describing  his  journey  in  How  1 
Crossed  Africa  (London,  1881). 

Pinturiocio  [Bernardino  di  Betti],  Italian 
painter,  whose  chef-d'oeuvre  is  the  series  of 
frescoes  in  the  Piccoloraini  library  at  Sienna. 
In  the  National  Gallery,  London,  there  is  a 
Madonna  and  Child  by  him. 

Pinzon,  Martino  Alonzo  {d.  1493),  Portu- 
guese navigator ;  accompanied  Columbus  on 
his  first  voyage,  and  afterwards  claimed  to 
have  discovered  the  New  World.  Vicente 
Yanez,  his  brother,  was  also  with  Columbus, 
and  having  afterwards  explored  Guiana  and 
Mexico  was  ennobled. 

Piombo,  Sebastiano  del  (b.  1485,  d.  1547), 
Venetian  painter,  whose  chief  work.  The 
Raising  of  Lazarus,  is  in  the  National  Gal- 
lery, London. 

Piozzi,  Esther  [Mrs.]  (5.  1739,  d.  1547), 
English  lady,  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  married 
first  Mr.  Thrale,  and  then  Signor  Piozzi ; 
her  Autobiography,  Letters,  etc.,  were  pub- 
lished in  1861.  She  wrote  Anecdotes  of  Dr. 
Johnson  (1786),  and  other  works. 

Piper,  Karl,  Count  {b.  1660,  d.  1716), 
Swedish  statesman,  chief  minister  of  Chaxles 


Pip 


(623) 


Pla 


XII.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Bussia; 
was  imprisoned  for  life  after  the  battle  of 
Pultowa. 

PippL     [See  Romano,  Giulio.] 

Piraoiesi,  Giovanni  Battista  (cL  1778), 
Italian  engraver ;  executed  numerous  prints 
of  ancient  and  modem  buildings  and  works 
of  art,  his  sons  and  daughter  following  the 
same  profession. 

Piron,  Alexis  (b.  1689,  d.  1773),  French 
diamatist  and  wit,  his  chief  play  being 
Metromanie  (1738). 

Pisano,  Andrea.     [See  Andrea  Pisano.] 

Pisano,  Niccola  {b.  circa  1206,  d.  1278), 
Itahan  sculptor,  whose  chief  works  are  at 
Piea,  Bologna,  and  Siena. 

Pisistratus.     [See  Peisistratus.] 

Pitman,  Isaac  {b.  1813),  inventor  of  pho- 
netic shorthand,  published  in  1837  his  Steno- 
graphic Suundkand.  From  1843,  when  the 
Phonetic  Society  was  estabhshed,  he  gave 
his  whole  attention  to  the  system,  the  head- 
quarters of  which  are  at  Bath. 

Pitt,  Thomas  (J.  1653,  d.  1727),  Indian 
administrator ;  made  a  large  f  ortxm.e  by  the 
Bale  of  the  Pitt  diamond  and  other  means, 
and  on  his  return  sat  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons for  several  years.  He  was  grandfather 
of  Lord  Chatham. 

Pitt,  William.     [See  Chatham,] 

Pitt,  William  (b.  1759,  d.  1806),  statesman, 
second  son  of  Lord  Chatham ;  was  returned 
for  Appleby  in  1780  as  a  follower  of  Shel- 
bume,  whose  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
he  became  two  years  later.  After  the  de- 
feat of  the  Coalition  Ministry,  Pitt  became 
Prime  Minister,  at  first  in  a  minority.  After 
the  dissolution  of  1786,  however,  he  had  a 
majority,  with  which  he  passed  his  India 
BUI,  and  carried  on  the  war  with  revolu- 
tionary France.  In  1801  he  resigned  on 
account  of  the  king's  opposition  to  the 
removal  of  Catholic  disabilities,  with  which 
Pitt  had  hoped  to  accompany  the  Act  of 
Union.  From  1804  till  his  death  Pitt  was 
again  in  office,  and  continued  to  direct  the 
s&uggle  against  France. 

PittacuB  {d.  570  b.o.),  one  of  the  "Seven 
Sages ; "  ruled  Melanchrus  in  Lesbos  for 
twenty  years. 

Piua  L  was  elected  pope  in  142,  and  put  to 

death  in  157. 

Pius  IL  [Piccolomini]  (J.  1405,  d.  1464), 
elected  in  1458 ;  called  a  council  at  Mantua 
to  arrange  a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  and 
had  a  dispute  with  Louis  XI.  concerning 
appeals  to  a  council ;  left  several  works. 


Pius  IIL  [Francesco  Piccolomini]  (i. 
1439),  was  elected  in  1503,  and  died  the 
next  month. 

Pius  IV.  [Medici]  (i.  1499,  d.  1565), 
elected  in  1559,  issued  a  bill  confirming  the 
Council  of  Trent. 

Pius  y.  [GhisUeri]  {b.  1504,  d.  1572), 
elected  in  1566,  having  previously  been 
inquisitor-general ;  excommimicated  Queen 
Elizabeth  and  suppressed  heresy,  but  also 
carried  out  reforms,  and  encouraged  Spain 
and  Venice  in  their  war  against  the  Turks. 

Pius  VL  [Braschi]  {b.  1717,  d.  1799), 
elected  in  1775  ;  was  dethroned  and  expelled 
from  Rome  by  the  French  in  1798,  and  died 
at  Valence. 

Pius  yiL  [Chiaramonti]  {b.  1742,  d.  1823), 
elected  in  1800,  concluded  a  concordat  wim 
France  (1801)  and  crowned  Napoleon,  but 
excommunicated  him  in  1809  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Rome.  He  was  reinstated  in  1814, 
in  which  year  he  restored  the  Jesuits. 

Pius  Vm.  [Castiglioni]  {b.  1761,  d.  1830), 

was  elected  in  March,  1829. 

Pius  IX.  [Giovanni  Mastai-Ferretti]  (i. 
1792,  d.  1878),  was  elected  in  1846,  and  im- 
mediately granted  a  constitution,  but  re- 
fused to  declare  war  against  Austria.  After 
the  insurrection  at  Rome  (1848)  he  fled  to 
Gaeta,  but  was  restored  by  French  aid  two 
years  later.  The  same  year  he  established 
a  Catholic  hierarchy  in  England,  and  in  1854 
defined  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception. In  1859-60  he  lost  the  greater  part 
of  his  dominions,  but  was  maintained  in 
Rome  by  a  French  garrison.  In  1870  the 
Infallibility  dogma  was  promulgated  by  the 
oecumenical  council  held  at  Rome.  In  that 
year,  when  the  French  left  the  city,  it  was 
declared  the  capital  of  Italy,  and  occupied 
by  the  troops  of  Victor  Emmanuel. 

Pizaxro,  Francisco  {d.  1541),  Spanish  con- 
queror of  Peru ;  embarked  for  America  in 
1510,  and  in  1530  first  visited  Peru.  The 
next  year  he  returned,  and,  taking  advan- 
tage of  a  civil  war,  got  possession  of  the 
country,  founding  Lima  in  1535.  Six  years 
later  he  was  assassinated  by  the  friends  of 
Almagro,  a  rival  whom  he  had  caused  to  be 
executed.  His  brother,  GoxZAio,  who  had 
accompanied  him,  was  put  to  death  in  1548 
for  a  revolt  against  the  Spanish  viceroy. 

Placidia,  Galla  {d.  450),  Roman  Empress, 
husband  of  Constantino,  and  mother  of 
Valentinian  III. 

Planch^,  James  Robinson  {b.  1796,  d. 
1880),  antiquarian  and  dramatist  of  Hu- 
guenot descent,  became  Somerset  herald 
m  1864,  and  wrote  a  History  of  British 
Costume   (1834),   and  numerous  plays  and 


Pla 


(624) 


Foe 


burlesques,  besides  composing  the  libretto 
for  Weber's  Oberon  and  for  Bishop's  Maid 
Marian. 

Planquette,  Robert  (Jb.  1850),  French 
composer,  whose  chief  productions  are  Les 
Cloches  des  Corneville  (1877),  Rip  Van 
Winkle  (1882),  and  Paul  Jones  (1889). 

Flanta,  Joseph,  a  member  of  a  well-known 
Orisons  family  {b.  1744,  d.  1827),  first  lib- 
rarian of  the  British  Museum,  was  appointed 
in  1 799  ;  was  also  for  twenty  years  secretary 
to  the  Royal  Society.  Joseph,  son  (d.  1846), 
member  'for  Hastings,  Secretary  to  the 
Treasury,  and  under-secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs. 

Plantagenet,  Geoffrey.     \_See  Geoffrey.] 

Plato  (J).  429  B.O.,  d.  347),  Greek  philoso- 
pher, whose  birth  name  was  Aristocles,  be- 
came a  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  after  his 
death  returned  from  a  course  of  travel, 
and  taught  gratuitously  in  the  Academia 
at  Athens.  His  chief  works  are  Dialogues 
and  The  Republic  (translated  by  Jowett  in 
1871). 

Plautus,  Titus  Maccius  {d.  184  b.o.), 
Roman  dramatist,  twenty  of  whose  comedies 
are  extant,  based  chiefly  on  Greek  models. 

Playfair,  Right  Hon.  Sir  Lyon,  K;.C.B., 
F.R.S.,  {b.  1819),  chemist  and  statesman, 
son  of  Dr.  George  Playfair:  was  a  pupil 
of  Graham  and  Liebig,  and  was  profes- 
sor of  chemistry  at  Edinburgh  from  1856 
to  1369.  He  edited  (with  W.  Gregory) 
Liebig's  Chemistry  in  its  Applications  to 
Agriculttcre  and  Physiology.  In  1868  he 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  for  Edin- 
burgh and  St.  Andrew's  Universities,  and 
in  18S5  was  returned  for  South  Leeds.  He 
was  Postmaster-General  in  1873-4,  Deputy- 
Speaker  1880-83,  and  Vice-President  of  the 
Education  Committee  in  1886.  He  also 
presided  over  the  Civil  Service  Commission 
of  1874,  and  was  president  of  the  British 
Association  in  1885.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1892. 

Plimsoll,  Samuel  (b.  1824),  politician; 
represented  Derby  from  1868  to  1880,  during 
which  time  he  succeeded  in  getting  passed 
several  amendments  of  the  Shipping  Laws. 

Plinius  SecunduB  [Plinjr],  Cains,  "the 
Elder"  (6.  23,  d.  79),  Latin  writer,  whose 
great  work  is  his  Natural  History.  He  was 
procurator  of  Spain,  and  while  commander 
of  the  Misenian  fleet  lost  his  life  through 
suffocation  in  the  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
which  he  had  approached  in  order  to  ob- 
serve a  cloud. 

Plinius  Secundus,  Cains.  "  the  Younger  " 

{b.  62),  his  nephew,  author  of  Epistles ; 
was  made  consul  by  Trajan,  to  whom,  when 


he  was  proconsul  in  Bithynla,  he  wrote  an 
account  of  the  Christians. 

Plotinus  {b.  203,  d.  270),  Greek  philoso- 
pher ;  founder  of  the  Neo -Platonic  school. 

Plowden,  Edmund  {b.  1517,  d.  1585), 
jurist,  author  of  Commentaries  or  Reports. 

Plnmptre,  Edward  Hayes,  D.D.  {b.  1821, 
d.  1891),  divine.  After  having  been  fellow  of 
Brasenose  and  chaplain  of  King's  College, 
London,  was  named  Dean  of  Wells  in  1881. 
He  was  one  of  the  revisers  of  the  Bible,  and 
wrote  some  poems,  translations  of  Sophocles, 
Dante,  and  a  Life  of  Bishop  Ken  (1888). 

Plunket,  William  Conyngham,  first  Baron 
(b.  1764,  d.  1854),  Irish  judge ;  was  a  pro- 
minent opponent  of  the  union  in  Grattan's 
parUament;  prosecuted  Emmett  in  1803, 
and  became  Solicitor- General  for  Ireland  the 
same  year,  and  Attorney-General  in  1805, 
an  oifice  he  again  held  under  Lord  Liver- 
pool. In  1827  he  became  a  peer  and  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  and  from  1830 
till  1841  was  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland. 

Plunket,  WilHam,  Lord  (Jb.  1828),  grand- 
son of  the  above,  was  Bishop  of  Meath 
from  1876  to  1884,  in  which  year  he  became 
Archbishop  of  Dublin. 

Plunket,  Right  Hon.  David  Robert,  Q.O. 
(J).  1838),  brother  of  the  last-named ;  haa 
been  returned  for  Dublin  University  in  1870, 
and  was  Solicitor- General  for  Ireland  from 
1874  to  1877.  In  both  administrations  of 
Lord  Salisbury  he  held  the  office  of  Chief 
Commissioner  of  Works. 

Plutarch  (d.  after  120),  Greek  writer; 
author  of  Parallel  Lives  of  Greeks  and 
Romans  and  Moralia. 

Pococke,  Richard  {b.  1704,  d.  1765),  Bishop 
successively  of  Ossory  and  Meath,  and  author 
of  Description  of  t)ie  East  and  Some  Other 
Countries  (1743-5). 

Podiebrad,  Georg  von  (Jb.  1420,  d.  1471), 
King  of  Bohemia;  was  twice  excommuni- 
cated as  a  Hussite,  set  free  Matthias  Cor- 
vinus  (q.v.),  and  delivered  the  emperor  when 
besieged  by  his  subjects  at  Vienna. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan  {b.  1809,  d.  1849), 
American  writer,  shortened  his  life  by  in- 
temperance. His  chief  works  are  The  Raven 
and  other  poems,  and  Tales  of  Mystery, 
Imagination  and  Humour.  A  monument 
was  erected  to  him  in  Baltimore  in  1875. 

Poelemberg,  Komelis  (*.  1586,  d.  1667), 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  bom  at  Utrecht; 
was  encouraged  by  Rubens  and  employed 
by  Charles  I.     His  works  are  rare. 

Poerio,  Carlo  {b.  1803,  d.  1867),  Neapoli- 
tan patriot ;  after  imprisonment  for  ten  years 
for  his  part  in  the  Avellino  conspiracy,  he 
became   minister    of    public    instruction  in 


Pogf 


(  625 ) 


Pol 


1848.  Next  year  he  was  again  imprisoned, 
but  in  1859,  when  being  sliipped  to  South 
America,  he  and  his  companions  mastered 
the  crew  and  escaped.  In  1860  he  became 
vice-president  of  the  Italian  Parliament. 

Poggendorf,  Johann  Christian  (b.  1796,  d. 
1877),  physicist ;  edited  for  more  than  half  a 
■century  Annalen  der  Fhijsik  und  Chimie,  and 
held  a  professorship  at  Berlin  and  Leipzig. 

Poggio  Bracciolini,  Gian  Francesco  {b. 
1380,  d.  1459),  Italian  scholar,  secretary  to 
seven  popes ;  wrote  History  of  Florence, 
Funeral  Orations,  etc.,  and  discovered  manu- 
scripts of  Lucretius,  the  institutions  of  Quin- 
tiUan,  and  some  of  Cicero's  Orations. 

Pogson,  N.  R.  {b.  1829),  Indian  civil  ser- 
vant, was  appointed  astronomer  at  Madras 
in  1861,  and  discovered  ten  minor  planets, 
four  of  them  while  in  the  Eadcliife  obser- 
vatory, Oxford. 

Pole,  Reginald,  Cardinal  {b.  1500,  d.  1558), 
divine,  descended  from  George,  Duke  of 
Clarence  ;  was  employed  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
1529  to  procure  a  favourable  opinion  from 
the  University  of  Paris  on  the  divorce 
question,  but  afterwards  became  the  deter- 
mined enemy  of  the  king,  publishing  in 
1536  his  I)e  Unitate  Ecolesiasticd  against  the 
separation  from  Rome.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  returned  to  England  as  legate, 
became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  re- 
ceived the  nation  back  into  commimion. 

Pole,  WiUiam,  Mus.  Doc,  F.R.S.  (b. 
1814),  civil  engineer  and  musician ;  was 
professor  of  civil  engineering  at  Elphinstone 
College,  Bombay  (1844-7),  and  at  Uni- 
versity College  (1859-67),  was  secretary  to 
the  Railway  Commission  (1865-7),  that  on 
water  supply  (1867-9)  and  others,  and  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  the  steam  engine,  and  a 
Life  of  Siemens  (1888),  as  well  as  The  Story 
of  MozarVs  Requiem  (1879),  and  a  well- 
known  scientific  book  on  whist. 

Polignac,  Jules,  Prince  de  {b.  1780,  d. 
1847),  French  statesman.  After  being  am- 
bassador in  London  (1825,-9)  was  nominated 
president  of  the  council  by  Charles  X.  in 
1829,  and  by  his  reactionary  measures  pro- 
duced the  revolution  of  July,  after  which 
he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life, 
but  was  liberated  in  1836. 

Poliziano  [Politian],  Angelo  {b.  1454,  d. 
1494),  Italian  scholar;  tutor  to  the  children 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici ;  gained  much  re- 
putation by  his  classical  attainments,  and 
wrote  Miscellanea,  comments  on  the  classics, 
Giostra,  a  poem,  and  Orfeo,  a  musical 
drama.  He  quarrelled  with  Michelangelo, 
Merula  and  Scala. 

Polk,   James    Knox    (h.    1705,    d.    1849), 
President  (11th)  of  the  United  States  ;  was 
O  0 


speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
(1835-8)  and  governor  of  Tennessee(1839-41), 
and  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  to  the 
presidency  in  1844.  He  obtained  the  an- 
nexation of  Texas  and  the  cession  of  Upper 
Cahxomia  and  New  Mexico  by  Mexico, 
as  well  as  the  settlement  of  the  Oregon 
boundary 

Pollajuolo,  Antonio  (fi.  1429,  d.  1496), 
ItaUan  painter  and  sculptor,  whose  Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Sebastian  is  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London ;  was  the  first  who  made 
dissections  for  the  purposes  of  art. 

Pollio,  Caius  Asinius  (6.  76  B.O.,  d.  a.d. 
4),  Roman  orator  and  writer,  whose  works 
are  lost ;  was  a  partisan  of  Csesar,  and  after- 
wards reconciled  Augustus  and  Antony,  and 
became  the  friend  of  Virgil  and  Horace. 

PoUock,  Sir  Frederick,  Bart.  {b.  1783,  d. 
1870),  English  judge  ;  was  senior  wrangler, 
and,  having  been  called  to  the  bar  in  1807, 
went  the  northern  circuit,  becoming  King's 
Counsel  in  1827.  He  entered  Parliament  as 
a  Tory  in  1831,  and  was  Attorney-General 
imder  Peel  in  1834  and  1841.  From  1844 
to  1865  he  was  Chief  Baron  of  the  Ex- 
chequer. 

Pollock,  Sir  George,  Bart.,  G.C.B.,  Field- 
Marshal  {b.  1786,  d.  187-'),  brother  of  the 
above ;  served  under  Lake,  and  in  the 
Ghoorkha  and  Burmese  campaigns,  and  in 
1841  commanded  the  Afghan  expedition  in 
reUef  of  Sale  and  the  prisoners  at  Cabul. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1846,  received  a 
pension  from  the  East  India  Company,  and 
became  subsequently  field -marshal  and 
constable  of  the  Tower,  being  buried  in 
"Westminster  Abbey. 

PoUock,  Hon.  Sir  Charles  (b.  1823),  son 
of  Sir  Frederick  and  nephew  of  Sir  George  ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1847,  became 
Queen's  Counsel  in  186(5,  and  was  appointed 
Baron  of  the  Exchequer  in  1873.  He  pub- 
hshed  several  legal  text-books. 

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick,  Bart.  {b.  1845), 
grandson  of  Sir  F.  Pollock,  educated  at 
Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  was  fellow  ;  was  called  to  tlie  bar 
in  1871,  became  professor  of  jurisprudence 
at  University  College,  London,  in  1882,  and 
at  Oxford  in  1883.  His  works  include 
The  Land  Laws  ("  English  Citizen'^  series). 
Essays  in  Jurisprudence  and  Ethics,  and 
Introduction  to  Political  Science,  Spinoza,  etc. 

Pollock,  Walter  Herries  {b.  1850),  younger 
brother  of  last-named ;  became  editor  of 
the  Saturday  Review  in  1SS4,  and  pubUshed 
I^ectures  on  French  Poets,  translations  from 
De  Musset,  etc.,  and,  in  collaboration  with 
Besnnt,  The  Ballad- Monger,  a  play. 

PoUok.  Robert  {p.  1799,  d.  1827),  Scotch 


Pol 


626  ) 


Poo 


self-educated  writer,  son  of  a  farmer  in 
EenfreTTshire  ;  wrote  Tne  Course  of  Tune,  a 
poem  in  blank  verse. 

Polo,  Marco  (b.  12-54,  d.  1324),  Venetian 
traveller  ;  went  to  Tartary  with  his  father 
and  uncle,  returning  in  129-5  much  enriched, 
^larco  was  afterwards  made  prisoner  by  the 
'  Tenoese,  and  wrote  the  history  of  his  tra- 
vels in  Asia  while  in  confinement.  Colonel 
Yule's  edition,  published  in  1871,  is  the  best. 

Polybius  {h.  circa  204  B.C.,  d.  circa  122 
B.C.;,  Greek  historian,  whose  chief  work  is 
a  history  of  Greece  and  Home  from  220  B.C. 
to  146  B.C. ;  was  taken  to  Italy  in  168  and 
became  the  friend  of  Scipio,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Carthage.  Only  five  of  the 
forty  books  of  the  history  are  extant. 

Polycarp,  Saint  («?.  «»-ca  1-5-5),  was  by  tra- 
dition a  disciple  of  St.  John,  who  appointed 
him  Bishop  of  Smyrna.  He  sufiered  mar- 
tyrdom under  ilarcus  Aurelius,  and  his 
Episth  to  the  Fkilippians  is  preserved. 

Polycletus  (Jl.  circa  430  b.c),  Greek 
sculptor,  whose  most  famous  productions 
were  27ie  Dori/pAoreus,  which  has  been 
taken  as  a  model  for  proportion  in  the 
human  figure,  and  the  colossal  statue  of 
Hera. 

Polycrates  (d.  .522  b.c),  tyrant  of  Samos. 
for  which  he  built  a  large  fleet ;  was 
treacherously  taken  and  crucified  by  order 
of  Orcetes,  Satrap  of  Sardis. 

PolygnottlS  (J.  circa  4-50  B.C.),  Greek 
painter  :  came  from  Thasos  to  Athens,  where 
he  became  the  friend  of  Cimon.  and  left 
specimens  of  his  work  in  the  Propylaea  and 
in  the  temple  of  Thesus. 

Pombal,  Sebastian  Joseph  de  Carvalhoe 
Mello,  Marquis  de  {b.  1699,  d.  17S2^.  Portu- 
guese statesman  ;  after  having  been  am- 
bassador in  London  (1739-4-5)  and  Vienna, 
became  foreign  secretary  in  17-50  and 
premier  six  years  later.  He  did  good  service 
to  his  king  and  country,  and  was  the  first  to 
expel  the  Jesuits,  but  in  1777,  on  a  change 
of  sovereign,  was  exiled. 

Pompadour,  Jeanne  Antoinette  Poisson, 
Marquise  de  (b.  1721,  d.  17&4),  mistress  of 
Louis  XV. :  was  the  daughter  of  an  equerry, 
and,  having  attracted  the  king's  notice  while 
hunting,  appeared  at  court  in  174-5.  and  ruled 
France  until  her  death. 

Pompeius,  Cneius  [Pompey  the  Great]  {b. 
106  B.C.,  d.  4S  B.C.),  Eoman  general :  was  in 
ms  youth  a  partisan  of  SuUa  :  gained  great 
victories  over  the  pirates  and  Mithridates. 
and  conquered  Syria  and  Judaea  :  joined 
C^sar  and  Crassus  in  the  first  tadumvirate 
(60).  but  afterwards  attached  himself  to  the 
aristocratic  party  and  quarrelled  with  Csesar, 


by  whom  he  was  defeated  at  Pharsalia,  being 
murdered  in  Egj-pt  soon  after. 

Ponce  de  Leon.     [5^*  Leon.] 

PoniatowsM,  Josef  Anton,  Prince  (J.  1762, 
d.  1613),  Polish  noble,  who  became  marshal 
of  France,  and  was  made  war  minister  by 
Xapoleon  in  1S06,  was  wounded  at  Leipzig 
and  drowned  soon  after. 

Ponsard,  Francois  (S.  1S14,  d.  1867), 
French  dramatist,  whose  chief  plays  were 
LucrSce  (1843),  in  which  Rachel  appeared, 
VHonneur  et  VArgtrit  (1853),  and  Le  Lion 
Amouretix  (1867).  He  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  in  18-55. 

Ponsonby,  Sir  Frederick  Cavendish, 
Major-General  (^>.  1783,  d.  1837),  British 
general,  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Bess- 
borough  ;  distinguished  himself  as  a  cavalry 
officer  in  the  Pemnstila  war,  and  received 
seven  wounds  at  Waterloo. 

Ponsonby,  General,  the  Eight  Hon.  Sir 
Henry,  K.C.B.  {b.  1S2-5),  son  oi  the  above  ; 
entered  the  army  in  1842,  spent  some  years 
in  Ireland  as  aide-de-camp  and  private 
secretary  to  several  viceroys,  served  with 
the  Grenadier  Guards  at  Sebastopol  and 
in  Canada,  and  in  1878  became  private  sec- 
retary to  the  Queen. 

Pontianus,  Saint  {^d.  235),  was  elected 
pope  in  230. 

Pontius,    Cains    {d.    292    B.C.).   Samnite 
general,  celebrated  for  his  victor  over  the 
j  Eomans  at  the  Caudine  Forks  :  was  after- 
wards captured  and  put  to  death. 

Ponz,  Antonio  {b.  1725,  d.  1792).  Spanish 
painter  and  writer  on  art :  executed  por- 
traits of  Spanish  writers  for  the  Escurial, 
and  wrote  Viage  de  Espana. 

Poole,  John  (*.  1792,  d.  1879).  dramatic 
writer,  author  of  Paul  Pry,  I)eaf  as  a 
Post,  etc. 

Poole,  Paul  Falconer.  E.A.  (b.  1810,  d. 
1879).  English  painter,  self-taught :  began 
to  exhibit  at  the  Academy  in  18-30.  and  was 
elected  A. E.A.  for  his  Surrender  of  Suon 
House  (1846).  Among  his  other  works  were 
■Solomon  Eaglets  Exhortation  to  Pepentance. 
Th-e  Goths  in  Italy,  and  ITie  Escape  of 
Glaucusand  lone  (1860). 

Poole,  Eeginald  Stuart.  LL.D.  (b.  1832), 
numismatist  and  Orientalist :  entered  the 
British  Museum  in  1852,  and  was  appointed 
keeper  of  coins  in  1870.  In  1889  he  became 
professor  of  archaeology  at  University  Col- 
lege. Among  his  works  "are  Official  Cctiahgues 
of  Coins,  Catalogtte  of  Stciss  Coins,  Cities  of 
Egypt,  etc. 

Poomea  {d.  circa  1811),  minister  of  My- 
sore under  Hyder  Ali  and  Tippoo  Sultan , 


Pop 


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Pot 


continued  to  govern  in  conjunction  with  the 
British  during  the  minority  of  the  next 
rajah,  who,  on  assiuning  power,  dismissed 
him. 

Pope,  Alexander  {b.  1688,  d.  1744),  English 
poet,  son  of  a  linendraper ;  was  bom  in 
London,  and  began  as  a  child  to  write 
verses.  He  made  his  reputation  by  the 
Essay  on  Criticism  (1711),  and  soon  became 
the  friend  of  Swift  and  other  leading  writers, 
and  produced  The  Rape  of  the  Lock,  verse 
translatious  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  The 
Dunciad  (1828),  and  the  £ssay  on  Man, 
besides  taking  part  in  Miscellanies  with 
Swift,  Arbutlmot  and  others. 

Pope,  General  John  {b.  1822),  American 
soldier ;  gained  several  victories  for  the 
Federals  m  1862,  but  was  afterwards  de- 
feated at  Bull's  Run  and  other  places  by 
Lee  and  Jackson. 

Pope,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1508,  d.  1550), 
founder  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  a 
friend  of  Sir  Thomas  More. 

Porlier,  Juan  Diaz  {d.  1815),  Spanish 
general ;  served  as  a  midshipman  at  Tra- 
falgar, but  afterwards  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Peninsula  war,  particularly  in 
the  retreat  from  Santander.  He  was  shot 
for  an  attempt  to  restore  the  constitu- 
tion. 

PorpliyTius  {b.  233),  Greek  philosopher; 
pupil  of  Plotinus,  whose  life  he  wrote,  as  also 
that  of  Pythagoras  and  Questions  on  Homer, 
etc. 

Porphyrogenitus.  [See  Constantine  VII.] 

Porpora,Niccola  (b.  1686,  rf.  1766 or  1767), 
Neapolitan  musician,  founder  of  the  modem 
school  of  singing  ;  visited  London  among 
other  cities. 

Person,  Richard  (i.  1759,  d.  1808),  English 
scholar,  son  of  a  parish  clerk  at  East  Ruston, 
Norfolk  :  was  sent  by  the  vicar  to  Eton,  and, 
having  gained  a  fellowship  in  1782,  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1793. 
He  published  editions  of  ^schylus,  several 
plays  of  Euripides,  and  the  Lexicon  of 
jPhotius. 

Porta,  Giovanni  della  (J.  1543,  d.  1615), 
Neapolitan  physicist ;  invented  the  camera 
obscura,  and  wrote  De  Humand  Fhysio- 
gnomonia,  Magia  Naturalis,  etc. 

Portalis,  Jean  fitienne  (*.  1746,  (^.  1807), 
French  politician ;  was  imprisoned  during 
the  Reign  of  Terror,  and  proscribed  by  the 
Directory  when  president  of  the  Council  of 
Ancients,  but  was  afterwards  Minister  of 
Religion  under  Napoleon. 

Porteous,  Captain  John   {d.   1736),   was 
hanged  by  the  people  of  Edinburgh  (when 
00  2 


reprieved  by  the  Government)  for  firing  on 
the  mob  who  interfered  with  the  execution 
of  the  smuggler  Wilson. 

Porter,  David  Dixon  {b.  1813),  American 
admiral ;  captured  New  Orleans  in  1862, 
and  assisted  Grant  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg, 
published  Memoirs  of  Commodore  David 
Forter,  his  father,  and  other  works. 

Porter,  Jane  (i.  1776,  d.  1850),  English 
writer  ;  author  of  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,  and 
The  Scottish  Chiefs.  Her  sister,  Anna  Maeia 
{d.  1832),  wrote  The  Hungarian  Brother, 
and  other  tales. 

Porter,  Noah,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (b.  1811,  d. 
1892),  American  philosopher;  became  pro- 
fessor of  metaphysics  and  moral  philosophy 
at  Yale  in  1846,  and  president  in  1871,  resign- 
ing in  1886.  Among  his  works  are  The 
Human  Intellect  (1868),  Elements  of  In- 
tellectual Philosophy  (^\87l).  Elements  of  Moral 
Science  (1875),  etc.,  and  he  edited  the  reissues 
of  Webster^s  Dictionary  in  1864  and  1880. 

Porter,  Sir  Robert  Ker  (b.  1780,  d.  1842), 
soldier,  traveller  and  writer;  brother  of 
Jane  ;  married  a  Russian  princess  whom  he 
had  met  while  historical  painter  to  the  Tsar ; 
was  with  Sir  John  Moore  in  Spain,  and 
afterwards  travelled  in  the  East,  and  was 
consul  at  Venezuela  from  1826  till  his  death. 
He  wrote  Letters  from  Fortugal  and  Spain 
and  accoimts  of  ms  travels. 

Portland.     \^See  Bentinck.] 

Portland,  William  Cavendish-Bentinck, 
third  Duke  of  {b.  1738,  d.  1809) :  was  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  from  1782  till  his 
appointment  as  nominal  head  of  the  Coalition 
Ministry.  He  afterwards  served  under  Pitt 
as  Home  Secretary  and  president  of  the 
Council,  and  from  1807  till  his  death  was 
again  Prime  Minister. 

Portsmoutli,  Louise  Penhoet  Kerouailles, 
Duchess  of  {b.  1652,  d.  \12b),  French 
mistress  of  Charles  LI. 

Posidonius  (6.  135  B.C.,  d.  51  b.c).  Stoic 
philosopher  ;  foimded  a  school  at  Rhodes, 
and  had  Cicero  and  Pompey  among  his 
pupils. 

Potemkin,  Gregory  Alexandrovitch  {b. 
1736,  d.  1791),  favourite  of  the  Tsarina 
Catherine  II.,  who  made  him  prime  minister 
and  created  him  prince.  He  greatly  im- 
proved the  Russian  army,  and  took  the 
Crimea  from  Turkey,  but  lost  the  favour  of 
Catherine  in  later  years  when  the  peace  of 
Jassy  was  made  against  his  will. 

PotMer,  Robert  Joseph  {b.  1699,  d.  1772'), 
French  jurist ;  author  of  a  J^ew  Digest  of  the 
Pandects  of  Justinian,  which  formed  th« 
basis  of  the  Code  NapoUon. 


Pot 


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PotocM,  Claudia  {b.  1802,  d.  1836),  Polish 
countess,  who  distinguished  herself  during 
the  rising  of  1830-3,  and  after  its  failure 
pledged  her  jewels  and  dresses  for  the  aid 
of  the  refugees. 

Potocki,  Ignatius,  Count  {b.  1741,  d. 
1809),  assisted  Kosciusko,  after  whose  fall 
he  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Russia. 

Potocki,  Count  John  (b.  1769,  d.  1815), 
historian  and  diplomatist;  author  of  Sai-- 
matian  Researches,  History  of  the  Primitive 
Russians,  etc. 

Potocki,  Coimt  Stanislaus  (b.  1757,  d. 
1821),  statesman  and  writer  ;  author  of  The 
Journey  to  Ciemnogrod,  etc. ;  was  one  of  the 
leaders  who  established  the  constitution  of 
1791,  and  afterwards  became  president  of 
the  Senate. 

Potter,  Cipriani  (Jb.  1792,  d.  1871),  musi- 
cian ;  pupil  of  Attwood  and  Crotch,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  principal  of  the  Academy  of 
Music,  where  he  had  Stemdale  Bennett  and 
the  Macfarrens  among  his  pupils ;  composed 
several  symphonies  and  overtures,  and  did 
much  to  make  Beethoven  known  in.  England, 

Potter,  George  (J).  1832),  trades  unionist ; 
conducted  the  strike  in  the  building  trade  in 
1859,  and  in  1868  presided  over  the  first 
Trades  Union  Congress.  He  took  part  in 
many  movements,  established  the  Industrial 
Review,  and  wrote  Tracts  for  the  People, 
but  was  twice  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
a  seat  in  Parliament. 

Potter,  John  (6.  1674,  d.  1747),  divine; 
successively  Bishop  of  Oxford  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  (1737) ;  author  of 
Archceologia  Grceca,  etc. 

Potter,  Paul  {b.  1625,  d.  1654),  Dutch 
painter  of  cattle  and  landscapes.  His  Bull 
IS  at  the  Hague,  and  Alderney  Bull,  Cow,  and 
Galfva  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Pottlnger,  Sir  Henry,  Bart.,  G.C.B.  (b. 
1789,  d.  1856),  soldier  and  diplomatist ; 
served  in  India  many  years,  and  became 
major-general ;  was  envoy-extraordinary  to 
China  in  1811,  Governor  of  Hong-Kong 
1843-4,  of  the  Cape  1846-7,  and  of  Madras, 
1850-4.    In  1843  he  became  Privy  Councillor. 

Pouchet,  Felix  Archimfede  {b.  1800,  d. 
1872),  French  physiologist,  director  of  the 
Rouen  Natural  History  museum  and  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  ;  maintained,  in  opposition 
to  Pasteur,  the  doctrine  of  "spontaneous 
generation,"  his  chief  works  bemg  Hitero- 
geneiti  (1859),  and  Theorie  Positive  de 
r  Ovulation  Spontanee  et  de  la  Fecondation 
(1847). 

Poulton,  Edward  Bagnall,  F.E.S.,  etc. 
(i.    1856),   English  zoologist,    one    of    the 


editors  of  Weismanu's  Essays  on  Heredity^ 
and  author  of  The  Colours  of  Animals  :  their 
Meaning  and  Use  (18'J0),  in  addition  to  many 
monographs  on  this  and  kindred  subjects. 

Poussin,  Gaspar  [Dughet]  {b.  1613,  d. 
1675),  French  landscape  painter,  pupil  and 
brother-in-law  of  Nicholas,  whose  name  he 
adopted.  Several  of  his  works  are  ia  the 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Poussin,  Nicholas  (*.  1594,  d.  1665), 
painter ;  was  given  rooms  in  the  Louvre, 
and  pensioned  by  Louis  XIII.,  but  returned 
to  Rome.  Many  of  his  works  (of  which  The 
iSeven  ISacranientsiath&chef-d^atuvre)  are  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  and  at  Windsor. 

Pouyer  -  Quertier,  Augustin  (J>.  1820), 
statesman  and  manufacturer,  conspicuous  as 
an  opponent  of  Free  Trade  ;  as  minister  of 
fiuauce  imder  Thiers  conducted  the  nego- 
tiations with  Germany  respecting  the  war 
indemnity.  He  was  re-elected  senator  ia 
1882. 

Powderly,  Terence  (6.  1849),  American 
labour  agitator;  became,  in  1879,  general- 
master-workman  of  the  Knights  of  Labour, 
which  organisation  greatly  advanced  under 
his  management.  In  1883  he  opened  the 
Irish  Land  League  Convention  in  America. 

PoweU,  Baden,  F.R.S.  (Jb.  1796,  d.  1860), 
English  natural  philosopher ;  was  Savilian 
professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford  from  1827 
till  his  death,  and  wrote  View  of  the  Undu- 
latory  Theory  of  Light,  and  other  works, 
besides  contributing  to  Essays  and  Reviews. 

Powell,  Sir  John,  Bart.  {d.  1696),  was 
deprived  of  his  judgeship  by  James  II.  for 
refusing  to  take  part  against  the  seven 
bishops,  the  great  seal  being  offered  him  if 
he  proved  tractable.  He  was  reinstated  at 
the  Revolution. 

PoweU,  Major  John  Wesley,  Ph.D., 
LL.D.  {b.  1834),  American  geologist  and 
ethnologist ;  lost  an  arm  in  the  Civil  war, 
became  president  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in 
1887,  and  is  the  author  of  several  geological 
monographs,  and  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Indian  Languages. 

Powers,  Hiram  (b.  1805,  d.  1873),  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  son  of  a  farmer  at  Vermont ; 
lived  at  Florence  from  1837  till  his  death, 
his  chief  productions  being  The  Greek  Slave 
(1839),  The  Fisher  Boy,  Proserpine,  and 
The  Indian  Girl. 

Posmings,  Sir  Edward  {d.  about  1610), 
went  to  Ireland  as  Lord-Deputy  in  1494,  and 
procured  from  the  Parliament  of  Drogbeda 
(1495)  the  statute  called  "Poynings'  Act." 

Poynter,  Edward  John,  R.A.   {b.  1836), 


Foz 


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Pri 


artist;  first  exhibited  in  1862,  and  made  a 
name  by  his  Israel  in  Egypt  (1868),  the  year 
after  which  he  became  A.E.A.  He  was 
Slade  professor  of  art  at  University  College 
1871-6,  and  director  at  South  Kensington 
1875-81.  Among  his  other  pictures  are 
Atalanta's  Race  (1876),  and  A  Vmit  to 
uEsculapius  (1880),  which  was  bought  for 
the  Chantrey  Bequest. 

Pozzo  di  Borgo,  Carlo  Andrea,  Conte  (i. 
1764,  d.  1842),  diplomatist,  bom  in  Corsica  ; 
was  employed  by  Russia  and  Austria  in  or- 
ganising coalitions  against  Napoleon,  and 
came  to  England  in  1814,  being  afterwards 
Russian  ambassador  there. 

Fraed,  Mrs.  Campbell  Mackworth  {b. 
1852),  Enghsh  novehst,  whose  husband  was 
nephew  of  the  poet ;  was  bom  in  AustraUa, 
and  came  to  England  in  1876.  She  col- 
laborated with  Justin  McCarthy  in  The 
Right  Honourable  and  other  works,  and 
wrote  alone  An  Atistralian  Heroine,  The 
Bond  of  Wedlock  (dramatised  as  Ariane), 
etc. 

Praed,  Winthrop  Mackworth  (*.  1802,  d. 
1839),  poet ;  published  some  verses  when  at 
Eton  in  the  Etonian,  and  at  Cambridge  took 
the  Chancellor's  medal  for  English  verse.  He 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Tory  in  1830,  and 
^as  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Control  in 
1834-5,  but  soon  died  of  consumption.  A 
collection  of  his  poems  appeared  in  1864. 

Pratt.     [See  Camden.] 

Praxiteles  {Jl.  ciira  350  B.C.),  Greek 
sculptor,  a  list  of  whose  works  is  given  by 
Pliny.  There  is  a  copy  of  Apollo  the  Lizard- 
Slayer  in  the  Vatican. 

Preece,  William  Henry,  F.R.S.  (J.  1834), 
English  electrician ;  was  appointed  chief 
electrician  in  1877.  He  patented  many 
improvements  in  telegraphy,  and  introduced 
the  telephone  aud  phonograph  into  England, 
besides  taking  part  with  Mr.  Sivewright  in 
a  Text-Book  of  Telegraphy,  and  with  Dr. 
Maier  in  a  work  on  the  telephone. 

Preller,  Ernst  Christian  Friedrich  {b.  1804, 
d.  1878),  German  artist,  intimate  with 
Goethe  at  Weimar,  where  are  his  illus- 
trations of  the  Odyssey  executed  for  the 
Grand  Duke,  and  the  designs  for  Wieland's 
Oberon. 

Prendergast,  Sir  Harry  North,  V.C., 
K.C.B.  {b.  1S34),  English  general;  was 
wounded  at  Mundisore  (where  he  gained  the 
Victoria  Cross)  in  1858,  and  at  Jhansi,  in 
the  Central  Indian  campaign.  He  also 
held  a  command  in  the  Abyssinian  war, 
and  commanded  the  Burmese  expedition 
in  1885. 

Prescott,  WiUiam  Hickling   (A.  1796,  d. 


1859),  American  historian,  bom  at  Salem ; 
in  spite  of  verj'  bad  eyesight,  devoted  him- 
self to  literature,  and  wrote  History  of  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  (1837),  The  Conquest  of 
Mexico  (1843),  Conquest  of  Feru  (1847),  and 
History  of  Fhilip  II.  (imfinished).  He  was 
made  D.C.L.  at  Oxford  in  1850. 

Pressense,  Edmond  de,  D.D.  (*.  1824, 
<^.  189 1 ) ,  French  Protestant  minister,  author  of 
The  Religions  Before  Christ,  Jesus  Christ:  His 
life.  Times,  and  Work,  and  other  works, 
translations  of  which  have  been  published. 
His  wife  wrote  children's  books  and  poems, 
aud  afterwards  devoted  herself  to  philan- 
thropic work. 

Prester  John,  a  mythical  personage  who 
was  supposed  in  the  12th  century  to  be 
ruling  a  Christian  kingdom  as  king  and 
priest.  His  habitat  was  supposed  at  first 
to  be  Asia,  but  was  afterwards  placed  ia 
Africa. 

Preston,  Thomas  {d.  1598),  master  of 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  whose  Life  of  Canv- 
byses,  King  of  Fersia,  a  tragedy,  was  ridi- 
culed by  Shakespeare  in  Henry  IV. 

Prestwich,  Joseph,    D.C.L. ,    F.R.S.    (*. 

1812),  geologist;  was  the  first  to  establish 
the  fact  that  man  was  contemporary  with 
the  extinct  mammalia.  He  was  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  1870-71,  and 
became  professor  of  geology  at  Oxford  in 
1875,  being  also  in  1888  elected  president 
of  the  Congres  Geologique  International. 
Besides  contributions  to  Transactions,  his 
works  include  The  Water-Bearim  Strata  of 
the  Country  Round  London,  and  The  Fast  and 
Future  of  Geology  (1875). 

Pretorius,  Andries  (d.  1853),  founder  of 
the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal 
Republic ;  began  life  as  a  farmer  at  Graaf 
Reinet.  The  town  of  Pretoria  is  named 
after  him.  His  son,  Maetintjs  Peetorius 
{b.  circa  1830),  attempted  to  unite  the  two 
republics,  was  president  of  the  Transvaal 
1869-72,  and  in  1880  was  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  Boer  war  of  Independence. 

Prevost  d'Exiles,  Antoine,  Abbe  (A.  1697, 
1763),  French  writer,  among  whose  numerous 
works  was  Memories  d'un  Homme  de  Qualite, 
and  Desgrieux  et  de  Manon  Lescaut. 

Pr6vost-Paradol,  Lucien  (A.  1829,  d.  1870), 
journalist  and  wiiter,  was  imprisoned  for 
his  And  ens  Fartis  in  I860;  was  admitted  to 
the  Academy  in  1865,  and  committed  suicide 
five  years  later,  when  ambassador  at  Wash- 
ington. 

Price,  Rev.  Bartholomew,  F.R.S.  (*.  1818), 
natural  philosopher;  After  being  elected 
fellow  of  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  became 
in  1853  Savilian  professor  of  natural  phi- 
losophy.    His  chief  publication  is  a  work  on 


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the  infiuitesimal  calculus.     In  1892  he  be- 
came Master  of  his  College. 

Price,  Bonamy  {b.  1807,  d.  1888),  econo- 
mist ;  was  appointed  professor  of  political 
economy  at  Oxford  iu  1868,  and  published 
Fractical  Fulitieal  Economy  (1878),  and  some 
works  on  currency. 

Price,  Hugh  (d.  1574),  founded  Jesus 
College,  Oxford,  for  Welshmen. 

Price,  Eichard  {b.  1723,  d.  1791),  Non- 
conformist writer ;  was  consulted  by  Pitt  on 
the  best  mode  of  liquidating  the  National 
Debt,  and  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  chief  works  were  Observations  on  Civil 
Liberty  and  On  Civil  Government — against 
the  American  war.  A  sermon  he  preached 
on  the  French  revolution  was  attacked  by 
Burke  in  his  Reflections. 

Pricliard,  James  Cowles,  M.D.  {b.  1786,  d. 
1848),  anthropologist;  was  appointed  com- 
missioner in  lunacy  in  1845.  His  chief  work. 
Researches  into  the  Physical  History  of  Man 
(1813),  was  translated  into  most  of  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe. 

Prideaux,  Humphrey  (b,  1648,  d.  1724), 
divine  ;  became  Dean  of  Norwich  in  1702. 
His  chief  work  was  The  Connection  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  (1716-17). 

Priessnltz,  Vincent  (jb.  1799,  d.  1851), 
German  doctor,  son  of  a  Silesian  farmer; 
originated  the  water  cure,  which  was  first 
tried  on  himself ;  established  baths  at 
Grafenburg,  which  were  much  resorted  to. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  F.R.S.  {b.  1733,  d. 
1804),  Unitarian  natural  philosopher ;  gained 
the  Copley  medal  in  1772  for  his  discoveries 
concerning  the  properties  of  fixed  air,  and 
was  librarian  to  Lord  Shelbume  for  seven 
years.  He  also  made  important  observations 
on  respiration.  In  17'Jl  his  house  at  Bir- 
mingham was  wrecked  by  a  mob  who  dis- 
approved his  sympathy  with  the  French 
revolution,  and  three  years  after  he  went  to 
the  Uulted  States,  where  he  died.  Besides 
his  scientific  works,  he  wrote  a  History  of 
Early  Opinions  Concerning  the  Person  of 
Christ,  and  several  similar  books. 

Prim,  Juan  {b.  1814,  d.  1870),  Spanish 
general;  supported  Christina  in  1834, 
became  governor  of  Madrid  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Espartero  in  1843  ;  distinguished 
himself  as  a  soldier  in  Morocco  in  1859  (after 
which  he  was  made  Marquis  de  los  Cas- 
tillejos),  and  in  Mexico  (1862),  and,  having 
aided  in  the  overthrow  of  Isabella  in  1868, 
became  minister  of  war,  and  practical  dic- 
tator. In  1870,  when  he  had  procured  the 
election  of  the  Duke  of  Aosta  to  the  throne, 
he  was  killed  by  Carlist  assassins. 

Primaticcio,  Francesco  (jb.  1504,  d.  1670), 


Italian  painter  ;  assisted  Romano  at  Mantua, 
and,  having  come  to  Paris,  was  employed  by 
Francis  I.  and  Henri  11.  to  decorate  the 
palace  of  Foutainebleau,  but  his  frescoes 
there  were  destroyed  in  1738. 

Pringle,  Sir  John,  Bart.  {b.  1707,  d.  1782), 
English  physician.  After  being  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh,  and  phy- 
sician-general to  the  forces,  obtained  the 
Copley  medal  for  his  Experiments  of  Septic 
and  Antiseptic  Substances,  and  was  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  from  1772  to  1778. 

Prior,  Sir  James  {b.  1790,  d.  1869), 
physician,  author  of  lives  of  Burke,  Gold- 
smith, and  Malone. 

Prior,  Matthew  (ft.  1664,  d.  1721),  poet 
and  diplomatist,  son  of  a  London  pubUcan  ; 
was  sent  to  Cambridge  by  the  Earl  of  Dor- 
set, and  wrote,  with  Charles  Montague,  The 
City  Mouse  and  the  Country  Mouse  (1687). 
He  was  secretary  to  the  embassy  at  the 
negotiation  of  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  (1697), 
and,  after  being  under-secretary  of  state, 
was  employed  to  negotiate  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht.  His  poems  were  published  by 
subscription,  and  he  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Priscianus  (5th  century),  Latin  gram- 
marian, author  of  Be  Arte  Grammatica. 

PrisciUianua  (4th  century),  Spanish  theo- 
logian, whose  opinions  were  condemned  in 
380  by  the  Council  of  Saragossa. 

Pritchard,  Charles,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  etc.  (b. 
circa  1808),  astronomer  and  divine;  was  fourth 
wrangler  in  1830,  and  became  fellow  of  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was 
Hulsean  lecturer  in  1867,  but  in  1870  became 
Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford. 
He  caused  the  erection  of  the  observatory 
by  that  imiversity,  and  published  in  1890, 
Occasional  Thoughts  of  an  Astronomer  on 
nature  and  Revelation, 

Probus,  Marcus  Valerius  {d.  282),  Roman 
Emperor  ;  elected  by  the  army  of  the  East 
in  276,  gained  some  victories  over  the  bar- 
barians, but  was  killed  in  a  mutiny. 

Procaccini,    Camillo    (b.   1546,  d.   1626), 

Eainter  of  the  Bolognese  school.  His 
rother,  GrcTLio  (b.  1548),  was  a  follower  of 
Correggio,  and  Caelo  was  a  fruit  and 
flower-painter. 

Procida,  Giovanni  da  (d.  circa  1303),  a 
Sicilian  who  promoted  the  "  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers," having  previously  been  the  friend  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  and  his  sons, 
whom  he  assisted  against  Charles  of  Anjou. 

Procopius  (d.  565),  Greek  historian ;  ac- 
companied Belisarius  as  his  secretary  in  all 
hu  campaigns,  and  wrote  histories  of  the 


Pro 


(  631) 


Pug 


Persians,  Vandals,  and  Goths,  and  Arcana 
Imperia. 

Procter,  Adelaide  Ann  (6.  1835,  d.  1864), 
EngHsh  poet,  daughter  of  "  Barry  Corn- 
wall ; "  author  of  Legends  and  Lyrics 
(1858-61),  and  A  Chaplet  of  Verses  (1862). 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller.  [_See  Cornwall, 
Barry.] 

Proctor,  Redfield  {b.  1831),  American 
statesman ;  practised  as  an  advocate  before 
and  after  the  Civil  war  ;  became  governor  of 
Vermont  in  1878,  and  was  appointed  secretary 
for  war  by  President  Hari'ison  in  1889. 

Proctor,  Richard  Anthony  {b.  1834,  d. 
1888),  astronomer  and  popular  scientific 
writer,  author  of  Other  (Vorlds  than  Ours 
(1870),  Old  and  New  Astronomy,  etc.,  ajid 
editor  of  Knowledge. 

Prodicus  (Jl.  circa  400  B.C.),  Greek  sophist, 
teacher  of  Socrates  ;  was  author  of  the  fable 
of  the  Choice  of  Hercules. 

Propertius,  Sextus  {d.  circa  14  B.C.) ,  Roman 
poet,  friend  of  Ovid  and  Virgil,  and  author  of 
Elegies,  of  which  there  are  several  transla- 
tions. 

Protagoras  {b.  circa  490  B.C.),  Greek 
sophist ;  was  banished  from  Athens  on  a 
charge  of  Atheism.  None  of  his  works  are 
extant. 

Protogenes   {Jl.  circa   330   B.C.),  Greek 

Eainter,  for  whose  pictures  Apelles  gave 
igh  prices  ;  part  of  Rhodes,  where  he  Uved, 
is  said  to  have  been  spared  for  his  sake 
during  the  siege. 

Proudhon,  Pierre  Joseph  (fi.  1809,  d.  1865), 
French  writer,  son  of  a  Besancon  cooper ; 
author  Qu''est-ce  que  la  Propriete  )  Avertisse- 
inent  aux  Proprietaires,  and  similar  works  of 
anarchic  tendency,  for  which  he  was  prose- 
cuted. 

Prout,  Samuel  {b.  1783,  d.  1852),  English 
artist ;  was  elected  to  the  Water-Coloiu- 
Society  in  1815,  having  become  known  for 
his  country  scenes.  TTia  best  picture  is, 
perhaps,  the  Indiaman  Ashore  (1819),  but 
his  Views  of  Northern  England  (1821)  and 
sketches  in  Continental  countries  are  highly 
esteemed. 

Prudentius,  Marcus  AureUus  Clemens  (J>. 
348),  Roman  Christian  poet,  was  bom  in 
Spain  ;  author  of  a  large  number  of  hymns 
and  lyrical  pieces. 

Prudhomme,  Louis  Marie  (*.  1752,  d. 
1830),  French  revolutionary  journalist,  editor 
of  Le  Journal  des  Revolutions  de  Paris,  and 
author  of  a  work  on  the  crimes  of  the  revo- 
lution ;  was  imprisoned  under  the  Terror 
for  a  short  time. 


Prynne,  "William  (i.  1600,  d.  1669),  Puritan 
lawyer  and  writer ;  was  imprisoned,  fined, 
and  pilloried  by  the  Star  Chamber  for  his 
Histno-Mastix,  containing  reflections  on 
Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  in  1632,  and  was 
further  punished  for  writing  while  in  prison. 
He  was  released  in  1640,  was  elected  to  the 
Long  Parliament,  and  subsequently  im- 
prisoned by  Cromwell,  becoming  keeper  of 
the  Tower  records  after  the  Restoration. 

Psalmanaazaar,  George  {b.  probably  1679, 
d.  1763),  literary  impostor,  born  in  France  ; 
pretended  to  be  a  native  of  Formosa,  and 
invented  a  language  of  that  island,  besides 
pubUshing  a  mstory  of  it,  which  deceived 
many  of  the  learned. 

Ptolemseus  Claudius  (/.  circa  139), 
Alexandrian  writer,  author  of  the  Almagest 
or  Syntax  of  Astronotny,  the  theories  of 
which  were  accepted  till  the  discoveries  of 
Copernicus.  He  also  wrote  a  Geography, 
which  was  for  thirteen  centuries  the  leading 
authority. 

Ptolemseus  Soter,  King  of  Egypt  {d.  283 
B.C.),  obtained  Egypt  as  his  share  of  the 
dominions  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  323 
B.C. ;  was  engaged  in  continual  wars  with 
Perdiccas  and  Antigonus  (q.v.),  and  gained 
his  surname  by  saving  Rhodes  when  be- 
sieged by  Demetrius. 

Ptolemseus  Philadelphus  {b.  311  b.c,  d. 

247),  youngest  son  and  successor  of  Soter  ; 
had  a  long  and  peaceful  reign,  during  which 
the  Alexandrian  library  was  finished,  and 
the  Septuagint  version  made. 

Ptolemseus  Epiphanes  {b.  210  b.c,  d. 
181),  great-grandson  of  preceding,  and  son 
of  Ptolemy  Philopatee  (222-205  b.c)  ;  ob- 
tained the  help  of  the  Romans  against  Syria 
and  Macedonia,  but  lost  the  greater  part  of 
his  foreign  dominions. 

Ptolemseus  Philometor  {d.  146  b.c),  son 
and  successor  of  preceding ;  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  his 
younger  brother  being  set  up  as  king  with 
him.  After  being  driven  out,  he  was 
restored  by  the  Romans,  but  was  killed  in 
battle  near  Antioch. 

Puffendorff,  Samuel,  Baron  von  {b.  1632, 
d.  1694),  Gei-man  jurist  and  historian,  author 
of  Be  Jure  Naturce  et  Gentium,  Life  of  Gtts- 
tavus  of  Sweden,  etc. 

PugatscheflF,  Jemeljan  (3.  1726,  d.  1775), 
a  Cossack  who  pretended  to  be  the  Tsar 
Peter  III.  (lately  murdered),  and  after 
several  victories  over  the  imperial  troops 
was  betrayed  and  executed. 

Puget,  Pierre  {b.  1622,  d.  1694),  French 
sculptor  and  architect,  whose  Milo  group 
and  Andromeda  are  at  Versailles. 


Tug 


(632) 


Pym 


Pughe,  William  Owen  {b.  1759,  d.  183.5), 
Welsh  writer ;  he  edited  for  the  iiecord 
Commissiou  Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of 
Wales,  compiled  a  Welsh  and  English  dic- 
tionary, and  made  a  Welsh  version  of  Para- 
dtse  Lost, 

Pugin,  Augustus  Welby  {b.  1812,  rf.  1852), 
architect,  sou  of  a  French  emigrant,  who 
wrote  on  architectural  subjects;  became  a 
Eomanist  in  1834,  and  built  St.  George's, 
Southwark,  and  many  other  churches  for 
his  co-religionists.  He  was  the  chief  pro- 
moter of  the  Gothic  revival,  and  published 
The  True  Principles  of  Pointed  or  Christian 
Architecture  (1841),  Contrasts  (1836),  a  com- 
parison of  Roman  and  Anglican  chui-ches, 
and  many  other  works. 

Puisaye,  Joseph,  Comte  de  (d.  1827), 
French  royalist  leader ;  sat  in  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  but  was  proscribed  by 
the  Convention ;  organised  the  Chouan 
rising  in  Brittany,  and  was  aided  by 
England  in  1794.  After  the  disaster  at 
Quiberou,  he  went  to  Canada,  and  thence 
to  England,  where  he  died. 

Pul,  King  of  Assyria,  reigned  759-742  b.o. 

Piilclieria,  MUa,  Empress  of  the  East  (b. 
399,  d.  453),  reigned  for  her  brother,  Theo- 
dosius  II.,  and  succeeded  him  in  450. 

Pulci,  Luigi  (b.  1432,  d.  1484  or  1487), 
Italian  poet,  friend  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici, 
and  author  of  Morgante  Maygiore,  which  was 
translated  by  Lord  Byron  in  The  Liberal. 
His  brothers,  Beenaedo  and  Luca,  were 
also  poets. 

Pulleine,  John  James,  D.D.  {b.  1841), 
divine ;  was  appointed  in  1888  Suffragan - 
Bishop  of  Ripon,  his  title  being  changed  in 
1889  from  Bishop  of  Penrith  to  that  of 
Richmond. 

Pulteney,  William,  Earl  of  Bath  {b.  1682, 
d.  1 764) ,  statesman  and  orator ;  was  appointed 
Secretary-at- War  on  the  accession  of  George 
I.,  but  in  1717  resigned  and  joined  the  Op- 
position, becoming  one  of  the  ablest  op- 
ponents of  Walpole.  He  was  created  Earl 
of  Bath  in  1742,  and  was  Prime  Minister  in 
1746,  but  held  office  only  two  days. 

Purcell,  Henry  (b.  1658,  d.  1695),  com- 
poser ;  was  appointed  organist  at  West- 
minster Abbey  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and 
was  buried  there.  His  works  include  Or- 
pheus Bntannicus  (a  collection  of  songs), 
fifty  anthems,  and  many  operas,  glees,  can- 
tatas, etc. 

Purchas,  John  (Jb.  1823,  d.  1872),  Ritualist, 
author  of  Directormm  Anglicanum ;  was 
suspended  for  refusing  to  obey  the  judgment 
of  the  Court  of  Arches  in  the  case  Hibbert  v. 
Purchas. 


Purchas, Samuel  {b.  1577,  d.  1626),  divine; 
compiled  histories  and  travels  under  the 
titles  of  Purchas,  his  Pilgrimage  (1613),  and 
Purchas,  his  Pilgrimmes  (1625),  and  was 
chaplain  to  Archbishop  Abbot. 

Pureshram  Rao,  "the  Bhow"  (d.  1799), 
Mahratta  leader  ;  served  against  the  British 
in  1781,  but  in  1790  cooperated  with  them 
against  Tippoo  Sultan.  He  opposed  Nana 
Furnavees  (q.v.),  but  became  reconciled  to 
him,  and  was  defeated  and  slain  when 
employed  against  the  rebel,  Chitoor  Singh. 

Pusclildn,  Alexander  Sergeivitch  (b.  1799, 
d.  1837),  Russian  poet ;  was  sent  to  Bess- 
arabia for  political  offences,  but  afterwards 
allowed  to  return.  His  chief  works  are  The 
Gipsies  (1824),  Boris  Godunof  (1825),  Pul- 
tava  and  Eugene  Onegin  (1832),  a  satire  on 
the  model  of  Don  Juan.  He  was  killed  in  a 
duel. 

Pusey,  Edward  Bouverie,  D.D.  (*.  1800, 
d.  18C2),  theologian,  son  of  Hon.  Philip 
Bouverie ;  became  fellow  of  Oriel  in  1824, 
and  on  his  return  from  Germany  was  made 
Regius  professor  of  Hebrew.  He  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  Oxford  movement,  pub- 
lishing Scriptural  Views  of  Holy  Baptism  in 
1835-6,  and  was  several  times  inhibited  from 
preiching.  In  1866  appeared  his  Eirenicon, 
and  among  his  other  works  were  Library  of 
the  Fathers,  a  work  dealing  with  the  German 
Rationalist  theology,  and  a  reply  to  Farrar's 
Eternal  Hope. 

PuviB  de  Caavannes,  Pierre  (J.  1824), 
French  painter ;  exhibited  La  Paix  and  La 
Guerre  m  the  Salon  of  1861,  among  his  other 
pictures  being  La  Niiit  (1866),  Scenes  de  la 
Vie  de  Ste. -Genevieve  (1873-8),  executed  for 
the  Pantheon,  and  Pro  Patrie  Ludus  (1882). 

Pyat,  Felix  {b.  1810,  d.  1889),  French 
writer ;  author  of  Mathilde  and  other 
dramas,  and  Lroit  du  Travail,  Loisir  d'un 
Proscrit,  etc. 

Pye,  Henry  James  {b.  1745,  d.  1813),  poet ; 
was  appointed  laureate  in  1790,  his  Poems 
being  published  in  1787. 

Pye,  John  {b.  1782,  d.  1874),  engraver; 
executed  for  Turner  Pope's  Villa,  The 
Temple  of  Jupiter  in  JEyina,  and  other 
plates,  and  attacked  the  Royal  Academy  in 
The  Patronage  of  British  Art,  which  ap- 
peared in  1845. 

Pym,  John  {b.  1584,  d.  1643),  lawyer  and 
politician  ;  took  a  leading  part  in  the  im- 
peachment of  Buckingham  and  the  attack 
on  Dr.  Mainwaring  ;  was  an  active  member 
of  the  Short  Parliament,  and  conducted  the 
proceedings  against  Strafford  in  the  Long 
Parliament.  He  was  one  of  the  "Five 
Members,"  and  was  known  among  the 
Royalists  as  "Kin^Pym,"  and  was  buried 


Pyn 


(693) 


Que 


in  Westminster  Abbey,  the  whole  House  of 
Commons  attending  the  funeral. 

Pyne,  Louisa  Bodda  [Mrs.]  {b.  1832), 
singer ;  made  her  first  appearance  in  1842, 
and,  after  a  tour  in  the  United  States,  took 
a  joint  lease  of  the  Lyceum  and  Drury 
Lane,  and  afterwards  of  Covent  Garden 
(1858-62). 

Pynson,  or  Pinson,  Eichard  {d.  circa 
1529),  priater ;  introduced  the  Roman  letter 
into  England. 

Pjrrrlio,  Greek  philosopher  of  the  4th 
century ;  'founder  of  the  Sceptics,  or  Pyrr- 
honists,  went  to  India  with  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  obtained  an  extensive  knowledge 
of  Eastern  lore. 

PyiTlius,  King  of  Epirus  (b.  circa  318  B.C., 
d.  272),  came  to  the  throne  in  306  B.C. ;  was 
expelled  a  few  years  later,  but  restored  by 
the  help  of  Ptolemy  Soter  in  296  ;  held  the 
kingdom  of  Macedonia  for  a  short  time,  and 


in  281  went  to  Italy  to  help  Tarentum 
against  the  Eomans.  He  was  at  first  suc- 
cessful (through  his  elephants  and  the 
phalanx),  but  was  finally  defeated  in  275. 
After  this  he  again  mastered  Macedonia,  but 
was  killed  by  a  tile  in  a  night  attack  on 
Argos. 

Pythagoras  (d.  circa  470  b.c),  Greek 
philosopher,  bom  in  Samos,  which  he  left 
for  Crotona,  in  Southern  Italy,  where  he 
exercised  so  much  influence  as  an  opponent 
of  democracy  that  his  followers  were  ex- 
posed to  persecution  and  exile.  He  left  no 
writings,  but  his  doctrines  of  the  Kosmos, 
Metempsychosis,  and  the  Music  of  the 
Spheres  are  well  known,  the  first  being  the 
beginning  of  physical  science. 

Pytheas  (Jl.  circa  300  B.C.),  traveller, 
bom  at  MassOia  (Marseilles)  ;  made  several 
voyages  of  exploration,  and  is  said  to  have 
reached  Northern  Britain  ( Ultima  Thule). 


Quadrio,  Francesco  Saverio  yO.   1695,  d. 
;.j6),  Italian  ecclesiastic;  wrote  a  General 
ulistory  of  Foetry,  etc. 

Qiiaglio,  the  name  of  a  family  of  painters, 
originally  Italian,  who  settled  at  Munich. 
The  most  distinguished  was  Domenico  {h. 
1786,  d.  1837).  Most  of  his  pictures  repre- 
sent Gothic  buildings. 

Quain,  Jones  {b.  1796,  d.  1865),  physician, 
born  at  Mallow  in  Ireland ;  was  professor  of 
anatomy  and  physiology  at  London  Uni- 
versity (now  University  College)  from  1831 
to  1836.  ^QTj^\ihMs\ied  Elements  of  Anatomy 
(1828),  etc. 

Quain,  Eichard,  Sir,  Bart.,  E.R.S.  {b.  1816, 
d.  1887),  a  well-known  medical  practitioner, 
edited  the  Dictionary  of  Medicine  (1882),  for 
which  he  wrote  some  valuable  articles. 

Quarles,  Francis  {b.  1592,  d.  1644),  poet, 
bom  in  Essex,  educated  at  Cambridge,  be- 
came secretary  to  Archbishop  Usher  in 
Ireland ;  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war 
joined  the  Eoyalist  party.  His  chief  work  is 
Emblems,  consisting  of  poems  accompanied 
by  allegorical  designs,  which  they  interpret. 

Quatrefages  de  Breau,  Jean  Louis  Ar- 
mandde  {h.  1810),  French  naturalist ;  became 
professor  of  anthropology  in  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  at  Paris  in  1855.  He  has 
published  nimicrous  works,  including  In- 
troduction d  VJ^lude  dea  Maces  Humaines 
(1889). 


Quatrem  re  de  Qulncy,  Antoine  Chrysos- 
tom  {b.  1758,  d.  1849),  French  writer  on  art, 
was  imprisoned  as  a  royalist  during  the 
Eeign  of  Terror ;  in  1816  became  secretary 
to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  His  works 
include  lives  of  Eaphael  (1824)  and  Michel- 
angelo (1835),  and  a  Dictionary  of  Archi- 
tecture (1833). 

Queiros,  or  Quires,  Pedro  Fernandez  de 
{b.  circa  1560,  d.  1614).  a  Portuguese  navi- 
gator, who  entered  the  service  of  Spain.  He 
died  at  Panama. 

Querini,  or  Quirini,  Angelo  Maria  {b. 
1680,  d.  1755),  a  learned  Italian  cardinal, 
visited  England  in  1710;  became  Bishop  of 
Corfu  in  1723,  and  of  Brescia  in  1727  ;  was 
afterwards  librarian  to  the  Vatican.  He 
wrote  OJficinm  Quadragesimale  Grcecormn, 
Primordia  Corey rce,  Specimen  Litteraturce 
Brixiance,  etc. 

Quesnay,  Francois  {b.  1694,  d.  1774), 
French  physician  and  economist ;  settled  m 
Paris,  and  became  surgeon  to  Louis  XV. 
In  his  Physiocratie  (1768)  he  advances  the 
theory  that,  as  the  means  of  subsistence  are 
derived  from  the  land,  agriculture  is  the 
only  productive  industry. 

Quesnel,  Pasquier  {b.  1634,  d.  1719), 
French  theologian,  bom  in  Paris ;  was  ac- 
cused of  holding  Jansenist  views,  and  forced 
to  withdraw  to  Brussels,  and  afterwards  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  died.  In  1675  ap- 
peared the  first  edition   of    the   Ileflexioni 


Que 


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Rac 


Morales  sur  le  Nouveau  Testament,  which 
was  finally  condemned  by  the  bull  Uui- 
genitus  (1713). 

Quesnoy,  Fran(;ois  du  {b.  1594,  d.  1646), 
a  sculptor,  bom  at  Brussels.  His  works  are 
chiefly  bas-reliefs  representing  children, 
Cupids,  etc.    He  died  at  Leghorn. 

Quevedo  Villegas,  Francisco  Gomez  de 
{b.  1580,  d.  164.5),  a  Spanish  writer,  who 
excelled  in  satire.  He  was  imprisoned  for 
three  years  (1641-3)  for  an  attack  on  the 
government  of  Count  d'Olivarez.  His  chief 
work  is  his  Visioyu.  He  also  wrote  lyrical 
poems,  dissertations,  etc. 

Quick,  John  {b.  1748,  d.  1831),  comedian; 
appeared  at  the  Haymaiket  in  1769,  and 
afterwards  played  at  Coveut  Garden. 

Quin,  James  {b.  1693,  d.  1760),  actor;  was 
recognised  as  the  greatest  living  tragedian, 
till  Garrick  became  his  rival.  He  was  a 
friend  of  the  poet  Thomson. 

Quincy,  Josiah  {b.  1744,  d.  1775),  Ameri- 
can patriot ;  in  1774  published  Observations 
on  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  and  came  to  Eng- 
land to  further  the  interest  of  the  colonists. 
He  died  on  the  journey  back  to  America. 
His  son,  Josiah  (i.  1772,  d.  1864),  was  a 


member  of  Congress  1805-13,  and  president 
of  Harvard  College  1829-45. 

Quinet,  Edgar  (6.  1803,  d.  1875),  French 
vsrriter  ;  became  professor  of  foreign  litera- 
tiu-e  at  Paris  in  1841.  He  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1848.  Among  his  works  are 
Ahasuerus,  an  allegory  (1833),  Les  Revolu- 
tions d'ltalie  (1852),  and  La  Genie  des  Reli- 
I  gions  (1842),  La  Creation  (1870),  etc. 

i  Quintana,  Manuel  Jose  {p.  1772,  d.  1857), 
a  Spanish  lyrical  poet,  whose  warlike 
verses  exercised  great  influence  over  his 
countrymen.  He  was  a  leading  spirit  in  the 
opposition  to  Godw,  attacked  the  French 
in  his  Semanario  Jratriotico,  and  was  im- 
prisoned after  the  return  of  Ferdinand 
(1813-20).  His  Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards 
were  published  1807-34. 

Qulntilianus,  Marcus  Fabius  (J.  circa  35, 

d.  circa  96),  rhetorician,  bom  at  Calagurris 
in  Spain ;  during  the  reign  of  Galba  settled 
in  Borne,  where  he  became  a  teacher  of 
eloquence.  Among  his  pupils  was  the 
younger  Pliny.  His  chief  work  is  i)e/«s<i- 
tutione  Oratoria. 

Quintus  Curtius  Rufus,  a  Eoman  historian 
of  unknown  date.  He  wrote  De  Rebus  A.leX' 
andri  Magni  Regis  Macedonum. 


Rabaut  Saint  itienne,  Jean  Paul  (b.  1743, 
d.  1793),  French  Protestant  minister;  was 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  voted 
against  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  was 
guillotined.  He  wrote  an  Historical  Precis 
of  the  French  Revolution,  etc. 

Rabelais,  Francois  (b.  circa  1483,  d.  1553), 
French  hiunorist,  bom  at  Chinon;  was  at 
first  a  friar,  but  afterwards  studied  medi- 
cine at  Montpellier,  where  he  practised  with 
success ;  accompanied  Cardinal  du  Bellay  to 
Eome  1536-7 ;  afterwards  became  cure  of 
Meudon,  near  Paris.  The  first  book  of  the 
History  of  Gargantua  appeared  in  1533. 

_^Rabener,  GottHeb  Wilhelm  {b.  1714,  d. 
1771),  German  satirical  poet,  bom  near 
Leipzig,  became  acquainted  with  Gellert, 
and  wrote  for  the  Bremische  Beitriige  ;  held 
appointments  in  connection  with  the  excise 
at  Leipzig  (1741-53)  and  Dresden  (1753-71). 

Rabutin,  Roger  de,  Comte  de  Bussy  {b. 
1618,  </.  1693),  French  satirist,  bom  at  Epiry, 
in  Xivemais ;  in  consequence  of  his  His- 
toire  Atnoureuse  des  Gaules  (1665)  was  im- 
priaoned  it  the  Bastille  (1665-6),  afterwards 


exiled  to  his  estates  in  Burgundy.    He  alao 

published  Memoires,  Lettres,  etc. 

Rachel  [filisa  Eachel  Felix]  {b.  1820,  d. 
1856),  actress,  of  Jewish  descent,  bom  at 
Munf,  in  Switzerland.  As  a  child  she  sang 
for  bread  in  the  streets  of  Lyons.  In  1838 
she  appeared  in  Paris  as  Camille  in  Cor- 
neille's  Les  Horaces,  and  was  henceforward 
the  unrivalled  exponent  of  the  classical 
school,  her  great  part  being  Fhedre. 

Racine,  Jean  (b.  1639,  d.  1699),  the 
greatest  French  dramatist  of  the  classical 
school,  was  bom  at  La  Forte-Milon,  and 
educated  at  Port  Royal.  His  ode  on  the 
marriage  of  Louis  XIV.  (,1660)  was  re- 
warded by  a  pension  from  the  king.  He 
first  exhibited  his  genius  in  Andromaque 
(1667),  which  was  followed  by  a  brilliant 
series  of  tragedies,  closing  with  Phedre 
(1677).  His  single  comedy,  Les  Plaideurs, 
appeared  in  1668.  In  1677  he  was  led  by 
religious  motives  to  cease  writing  for  the 
stage,  but  in  1691  he  published  a  sacred 
drama,  Athalie,  which  is  by  many  con- 
sidered his  masterpiece.  His  son,  Louia 
(b.  1692,  d.  1763),  wrote  a  life  of  his  father, 


Bad 


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Bai 


La  Grace  (a  poem),  Reflexions  sur  la  Poesie, 
odes,  epistles,  etc. 

Radcliflfe,  Ann  (*.  1764,  d.  1823),  novelist, 
daughter  of  a  London  tradesman  named 
Ward;  about  1787  married  Mr.  WiUiam 
Radcliffe,  a  journalist.  She  wrote  several 
wild  romances,  of  which  the  Mysteries  of 
Udolpho  (1794)  is  the  most  celebrated. 

Radcliffe,  John  {b.  1650,  d.  1714),  born  at 
Waketield,  educated  at  Oxford,  settled  in 
London  (1684),  and  became  physician  to  the 
Princess  Anne,  afterwards  queen  (1686),  but 
subsequently  lost  her  favour.  He  left 
£40,000  for  building  the  Library  at  Oxford 
which  bears  his  name. 

Radet,  Etienne,  Baron  (*.  1762,  d.  1825), 
French  general ;  served  under  Napoleon,  and 
conducted  Pius  VH.  from  Rome  to  Florence 
in  1809. 

Radetzky,  Johann  Joseph  Wenzel,  Count 
of  Radetz  t^b.  1766,  d.  1858),  Austrian  field- 
marshal  ;  suppressed  the  insurrection  in 
Lombardy  1848-9,  finally  defeating  Charles 
Albert  of  Sardinia  at  Noveira  in  the  latter 
year;  ruled  Lombardy  and  Venice  as 
governor-general  1850-7. 

Radowitz,  Joseph  von  {b.  1797,  d.  1853), 
Prussian  statesman,  of  Hungarian  origin, 
became  leader  of  the  Conservative  party.  In 
the  National  Assembly  at  Frankfort  he  pro- 
posed the  union  of  Germany  under  Prussia, 
and  entered  the  Prussian  cabinet  to  carry 
out  his  schemes  (1850),  but  was  dismissed  by 
Frederick  William  IV.  owing  to  the  armed 
opposition  of  Austria. 

Radziwill,  the  name  of  a  distinguished 
Lithuanian  family.  Geoeqe  {b.  1480,  d. 
1541)  distinguished  himself  in  wars  against 
the  Russians  and  Tartars.  Nicholas  {b. 
1515,  d.  1565)  supported  the  Lutherans,  and 
superintended  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  Polish  (1563).  Cheistophee  (J).  1585, 
d.  1640)  withstood  an  invasion  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus  (1620-5),  and  was  afterwards  vic- 
torious over  the  Russians  (1632-4). 

Rae,  John  {b.  1813),  Arctic  explorer ;  in 
1846-7  discovered  700  miles  of  coast  between 
Boothia  and  Fury  and  Hecla  Strait:  was 
second  in  command  under  Sir  John  Richard- 
son (1848),  and  commanded  another  expedi- 
tion in  search  of  Franklin  in  1849  ;  made 
further  discoveries  in  1853-4. 

Raebum,  Sir  Henry,  R.A.  {b.  1756,  d. 
1823),  Scottish  portrait-painter:  after  study- 
ing in  Italy,  settled  in  Edinburgh  in  1787. 
Among  his  best  portraits  are  those  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  Lord  Eldon,  and  Francis 
Jeffrey. 

Raff,  Joachim  (Jb.  1822,  d.  1882),  German 
musical  composer;  after  living  for  some 
years    with   Liszt   at   Weimar,    settled   at 


Wiesbaden  (1856),  whence  he  removed  to 
Frankfort  in  1877.  He  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Schumann.  His  best  works  are 
his  symphonies. 

Raffles,  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  (b.  1781,  d. 
1826),  naturalist  and  administrator,  entered 
the  East  India  House  as  a  clerk  in  1795  ; 
advised  the  attack  on  Java  (1811),  and  was 
made  governor  on  its  annexation  ;  was  re- 
called in  1816,  and  in  1817  sent  out  to 
govern  Bencoolen,  in  Sumatra,  where  he 
remained  till  1824.  In  1819  he  established 
the  British  station  of  Singapore.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  and  first  president  of  the 
Royal  Zoological  Society. 

Rafn,  Karl  Christian  {b.  1796,  d.  1864), 
Icelandic  antiquary,  born  in  the  Isle  of 
Fiinen ;  aided  iu  founding  the  Society  of 
Northern  Antiquities,  and  took  part  in  the 
publication  of  Heroic  Tales  of  the  North 
(1825-30),  Antiquitates  Americana  (1837), 
etc. 

Raglan,  Fitzroy  James  Henry  Somerset, 
Baron  (4.  1788,  d.  1855),  field-marshal,  was 
the  eighth  son  of  the  fifth  Duke  of  Beaufort. 
He  accompanied  Wellington  to  the  Penin- 
sula as  his  aide-de-camp,  and  in  1812  be- 
came his  military  secretary,  attending  him 
in  that  capacity  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
He  was  again  military  secretary  to  Wel- 
lington from  1819  to  1852,  when  he  suc- 
ceeded him  as  master-general  of  the  ord- 
nance. On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean 
war  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
English  forces,  and  displayed  great  personal 
bravery  at  the  Alma.  The  accusations  un- 
justly brought  against  him  in  connection 
with  the  disasters  of  the  campaign  are 
believed  to  have  hastened  has  death, 
which  took  place  during  the  siege  of 
Sebastopol. 

Ragona,  Domenico  (J.  1820),  astronomer, 
bom  in  Palermo ;  became  director  of  the 
royal  observatory  of  Modena  in  1860. 

Raibolini,  Francesco,  called  II  Francia 
{b.  1450,  d.  1518),  Bologuese  painter. 

Raikes,  Henry  CecH  (A.  1838,  d.  1891), 
bom  in  Flintshire,  educated  at  Cambridge  ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1863,  and  entered 
Parliament  in  1868.  He  was  postmaster- 
general  from  1886  to  his  death. 

Raikes,  Robert  (6. 1735,  d.  1811),  a  printer 
of  Gloucester,  who  devoted  his  means  to 
philanthropical  purposes.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  Mr.  Stock,  he  established  the  first 
Simday-schools  (1781). 

Raimbach,  Abraham  (i.  1776,  d.  1843), 
engraver,  bom  in  London  ;  was  apprenticed 
to  Hall,  and  afterwards  studied  at  tho  Royal 
Academy.  He  formed  a  fi'iendship  with 
Wilkie,  many  of  whose  pictures  he  engraved. 


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Ran 


Raimondi,  Marc  Antouio  (i.  circa  1487, 
d.  after  lo39),  Italian  eugraver,  born  at 
Bologna  ;  went  to  Venice,  where  he  copied 
the  works  of  Diirer  with  so  much  accuracy 
that  they  were  mistaken  for  the  originals ; 
removed  to  Rome,  and  was  there  employed 
by  Raphael  to  engrave  his  paintings,  and 
afterwards  by  Giulio  Romano ;  lost  all  his 
possessions  when  the  city  was  sacked  in 
1527,  and  returned  to  Bologna. 

Rainald  (d.  1151)  became  abbot  of  Ci- 
teaux  in  1113;  effected  a  reconciliation 
between  Abelard  and  St.  Bernard.  Frag- 
ments of  his  writings  remain. 

Rainaldi,  Girolamo  (b.  1570,  d.  1655), 
architect,  bom  at  Rome,  bmlt  the  Palazzo 
del  Commune  at  Parma.  His  son,  Caelo 
(6.  1611,  d.  1691),  erected  Santa  Maria  di 
Miracoli  and  other  churches  at  Rome. 

Rainolds,  John  {b.  1549,  d.  1607),  divine, 
bom  near  Exeter ;  became  lecturer  in 
divinity  at  Oxford  in  1586,  and  president  of 
Corpus  Christi  College  in  1598.  He  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  Puritan  party, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference  (1604),  and  was  one  of  the  trans- 
lators of  the  Authorised  Version  of  the 
Bible. 

Rakoczy,  Franz  Leopold,  Prince  of  Tran- 
sylvania {b.  1676,  d.  1735) ;  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Hungarian  insurgents  in 
1703,  but  was  finally  defeated  in  1708.  He 
died  in  exile. 

Ralegh,  or  Raleigh,  Sir  Walter  (ft.  1552, 
d.  1618),  statesman,  navigator,  and  author, 
bom  near  Budleigh,  studied  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford;  fought  in  support  of  the  Protes- 
tants in  France  (1569) ;  distinguished  himself 
against  the  rebels  in  Ireland  1580-1 ;  rose 
rapidly  in  Elizabeth's  favour  ;  in  1585  des- 
patched an  expedition  to  America,  which  dis- 
covered Virginia,  so  named  in  honour  of  the 
queen ;  took  part  in  the  repulse  of  the 
Spanish  Armada  (1588) ;  in  1595  went  to 
Guiana  in  search  of  gold,  and  sailed  some 
distance  up  the  Orinoco ;  held  a  command 
in  the  attack  on  Cadiz  (1596).  After  the 
accession  of  James  I.  he  was  accused  of 
complicity  in  the  plot  to  raise  Arabella  Stuart 
to  the  throne,  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
for  thirteen  years  (1603-16),  during  which 
he  wrote  his  History  of  the  World.  In  1616 
he  was  permitted  to  lead  an  expedition  to 
Guiana  against  the  Spaniards,  but  his  pardon 
was  made  dependent  on  his  success,  and,  as 
the  attempt  was  a  failure,  he  was  executed 
on  his  return. 

Rameau,  Jean  Philippe  {b.  1683,  d.  1764), 
French  musician,  bom  at  Dijon ;  wrote 
Demonstration  du  Principe  de  I' Marmonie  and 
other  works  on  the  theory  of  music,  and 
composed  many  operas. 


Ramler,  Karl  Wilhelm  (ft.  1725,  d.  1798), 
a  German  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer. 

Rammohuii  -  Roy,  Rajah  (ft.  1772,  d. 
1833),  was  bom  at  Eurdwar,  in  Bengal,  and 
educated  by  his  fatlier,  a  learned  Brahman. 
Onreaching  manhood  he  determined  to  study 
the  vaiious  religions  of  the  world,  and  with 
this  view  learnt  several  languages,  ancient 
and  modem.  After  the  death  of  his  father 
(1803)  he  renounced  Brahmanism.  From 
the  date  of  his  removal  to  Calcutta  (1814), 
where  he  obtained  a  post  as  tax-collector, 
he  was  much  influenced  by  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity.  He  came  to  England  in  1831, 
and  died  at  Bristol. 

Ramsay,  Allan  (ft.  1686,  d.  1758),  Scotch 
poet,  born  at  Leadbills,  in  Lanarkshire;  was 
apprenticed  to  a  wig- maker  in  Edinburgh, 
where  he  afterwards  estabhshed  himself  as 
a  bookseller.  In  1721  he  publislied  a  col- 
lection of  his  own  poems,  and  he  was  the 
author  of  some  of  the  songs  in  the  Tea- 
Table  Miscellany  (1724-40).  In  1724  ap- 
peared the  Evergreen,  a  collection  of  old 
Scotch  poetry.  His  pastoral  drama,  The 
Gentle  Shepherd,  was  published  in  1725. 

Ramsay,  Sir  Andrew  Crombie  (ft.  1814, 
d.  1891),  was  president  of  the  Geological 
Society  in  1862  and  1863,  and  director  of  the 
geological  survey  of  the  United  Kingdom 
1872-81.  He  pubhshed  several  works  on 
geology. 

Ramsay,  Edward  Bannerman  Burnett  (ft. 

1793,  d.  1876)  ;  became  Dean  of  Edinburgh 
in  1846.  He  wrote  Reminiscences  of  Scotch 
Life  and  Character  (1857),  etc. 

Ramsay,  William  (ft.  1852),  was  bora  and 
educated  at  Glasgow  ;  afterwards  studied  at 
Tubingen  ;  became  professor  of  chemistry 
at  University  College,  London,  in  1887. 

Ramus,  Peter  [Pierre  de  la  Ram^e]  (ft. 
1515,  d.  1572),  French  philosopher,  bom 
in  Picardy ;  was  educated  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Navarre.  His  attacks  on  the  Aris- 
totelians subjected  him  to  much  persecution. 
In  1551  he  was  appointed  professor  of  elo- 
quence and  philosophy  in  the  College  de 
France.  He  became  a  Protestant  about 
1561,  and  perished  in  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew. 

Ranee,  Armand  Jean  le  Bouthillier  de 
(ft.  1626,  d.  1700)  ;  was  in  youth  distin- 
guished as  a  scholar  and  man  of  fashion, 
but  afterwards  adopted  austere  views,  and 
restored  the  severe  discipline  of  the  monas- 
tery of  La  Trappe,  of  which  he  was  abbot. 

Randolph,  John,  of  Roanoke  (ft.  1773,  d. 
1833),  American  orator  ;  was  in  1799  elected 
as  a  Democrat  to  Congress,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himseH  by  his  powers  of  sarcasm. 
In  1830  he  was  appomted  minister  to  Russia, 


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Bandolph,  Sir  Thomas  (5.  1523,  d.  1590), 
statesman  and  diplomatist ;  was  sent  by 
Elizabeth  as  ambassador  to  Scotland,  France, 
and  Russia.  Many  of  his  letters  are  pre- 
served, and  there  is  an  account  of  his  em- 
bassy to  Russia  in  Hakluyt's  colleraon. 

Bandolph,  Thomas  {h.  1605,  d.  1635), 
English  poet,  born  in  Northamptonshire, 
educated  at  Cambridge  ;  wrote  The  Muses' 
Looking-  Glass,  and  other  dramas. 

Eanke,  Leopold  von  {b.  \12b,^d.  1886), 
German  historian,  born  in  Thuriiigia,  edu- 
cated at  Leipzig,  was  appointed  extraor- 
dinary professor  at  BerUn  in  1825,  ordinary 
professor  in  1834,  and  in  1841  became  royal 
historiographer.  Among  his  chief  works  are 
the  History  of  the  Fopes  (1834-7),  the  His- 
tory of  Germany  during  the  Reformation 
(1839-47),  and  the  History  of  England: 
Chiefly  in  the  Seventeenth  Centwy  (1659-74). 

Ransome,  Arthur,  M.D.  {b.  1834),  has 
rendered  great  services  to  the  cause  of  sani- 
tary reform.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to 
advocate  periodical  returns  of  sickness,  and, 
owing  to  his  representations  in  1875,  dip- 
lomas in  public  health  are  now  awarded  in 
the  various  imiversities  of  Great  Britain. 

Rantzau,  Josias,  Comte  de  {b.  1609,  d. 
1650),  general,  bom  in  Holstein;  after  serv- 
ing in  the  Swedish  army  entered  that  of 
Louis  XIII.  (1635).  In  1645  he  renounced 
the  Protestant  religion,  and  was  made 
marshal  of  France. 

Raphael  [Raffaello  Santi,  or  Sanzio]  {b. 
1483,  d.  1520),  son  of  Giovanni  Santi,  a 
painter,  studied  under  Pietro  Perugino  ;  in 
1504  went  to  Florence,  where  he  attached 
himself  to  Fra  Bartolomeo,  and  was  much 
influenced  by  the  works  of  the  Florentine 
school ;  in  1508  was  summoned  to  Rome  by 
Julius  II.  to  adorn  with  frescoes  the  walls 
of  the  Vatican,  which  occupied  him  till 
1514.  He  was  much  employed  by  Leo  X., 
who  succeeded  Julius  in  1 5 1 3.  To  this  period 
belong  the  cartoons  at  Hampton  Court. 
Raphael  also  displayed  genius  as  an  archi- 
tect, and  after  the  death  of  Bramante  (1514) 
superintended  the  building  of  the  new 
cathedral  of  St.  Peter's. 

Rapin,  Nicholas  (J>.  circa  1535,  d.  circa 
1609),  French  poet,  bom  in  Pojtou,  was  one 
of  the  authors  of  the  Satire  Menippee,  and 
wrote  Latin  elegies  and  epigrams,  as  well 
as  odes  and  other  lyrics  in  French,  in  "which 
he  imitated  classical  authors. 

Rapin  de  Thoyras,  Paul  de  {b.  1661,  d. 
1725),  historian,  bom  in  Languedoc,  was 
descended  from  a  noble  Savoyard  family, 
which  professed  the  Protestant  faith.  Having 
withdrawn  to  Holland  after  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantea  (1686),  he  accompanied 


William  III.  to  England,  and  subsequently 
served  under  him  in  Ireland.  He  died  at 
Wesel.  His  Histoire  d' Angleterre,  which 
extends  to  the  death  of  Charles  I.,  was 
translated  by  Nicholas  Tindal. 

Rapp,  Jean  Comte  (b.  1772,  d.  1821), 
French  general,  distinguished  himself  at 
Austerlitz  ;  after  bravely  defending  Dantzic 
against  the  Russians  was  forced  to  suiTCuder, 
and  remained  a  prisoner  till  1815. 

Rask,  Rasmus  Chiistian  {b.  1787,  d.  1832), 
philologist,  bom  in  the  Isle  of  Fiinen ;  be- 
came professor  of  Uterary  history  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1825,  and  of  Oriental  languages  in 
1828.  His  works  include  Researches  con- 
cerning the  Origin  of  the  Icelandic  Language 
(1818),  and  an  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar  {\^\T) 
translated  by  Thorpe. 

Raspail,  Francois  Vincent  (b.  1794,  d. 
1878),  French  chemist  and  revolutionist, 
published  Systeme  de  Chimie  Orgamque 
(1833),  etc.     He  was  frequently  imprisoned. 

Rassam,  Hormuzd  il).  1826),  bom  at 
Mosoul,  in  Mesopotamia,  assisted  Layard 
in  his  Assyrian  explorations ;  became 
his  successor  and  discovered  the  palace 
of  Sardanapalus ;  in  1864  was  sent  by  the 
British  Government  to  Abyssinia  to  demand 
the  release  of  Consul  Cameron,  but  impri- 
soned by  King  Theodore  till  the  arrival  of 
the  British  force  under  Sir  Robert  Napier 
(1808). 

Rattazzl,  Urbano  {b.  1808,  d.  1873), 
Italian  statesman,  bom  in  Piedmont ;  in 
1848  was  returned  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties at  Turin,  and  became  leader  of  the 
democratic  party ;  became  minister  of  jus- 
tice under  Cavour  (1854),  but  retired  in 
1857  ;  was  prime  minister  in  1862,  but  was 
compelled  to  resign  in  consequence  of  his 
opposition  to  Garibaldi's  expedition  against 
Rome. 

Ranch,  Christian  Daniel  {h.  Yill,  d.  1857), 
German  sculptor,  studied  at  Dresden,  and 
afterwards  under  Thorwaldsen  and  Canova 
at  Rome.  His  masterpiece  is  the  equestrian 
statue  of  Frederick  the  Great  in  Berlin. 

Raumer,  Friedrich  Ludwig  Georg  von  (i. 
1781,  d.  1873),  German  historian,  educated 
at  Halle  and  Gottingen,  was  professor  at 
Berlin  1819-53.  His  chief  work  is  a  His- 
tory of  the  Hohenstaufen  and  their  Titnes 
(1823-5). 

Ravaillac,  Franqois  (d.  1578,  d.  1610), 
French  fanatic ;  conceived  a  hatred  against 
Henri  IV.  as  enemy  of  the  Church  and 
assassinated  him  in  his  carriage.  He  waa 
torn  to  pieces  by  horses. 

Rawlinson,  George  (b.  1815),  Canon  of 
Canterbury,  historian  and  Orientalist,  waa 


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educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  appointed 
Camdeu  professor  of  ancient  history  in  1861. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  his  version  of 
Herodotus  (1858-62),  and  histories  of  The 
Fire  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern 
World  (1862-7)  and  Ancient  Egypt  (1881). 

Rawlinson,  Major-General  Sir  Henry 
Creswicke,  Bart.  (6.1810),  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, entered  the  Bombay  army  in  1827  ; 
served  in  the  Persian  army  1833-9 ;  was 
political  agent  at  Candahar  1840-2,  and  in 
Turkish  Arabia  1843-55 ;  was  the  vice- 
president  of  the  Council  of  India  in  1876. 
He  has  published  several  works  on  cunei- 
form inscriptions. 

Rawlinson,  Sir  Robert  (i.  1810),  civil 
engineer,  was  appointed  a  superintendent 
inspector  under  the  Public  Health  Act  in 
1848 ;  introduced  important  reforms  in 
sanitary  science.  During  the  Crimean  war 
he  rendered  great  services  as  engineering 
sanitary  coromissioner  to  the  British  army. 

Rawson,  Sir  Eawson  {b.  1812),  after  hold- 
ing various  colonial  appointments,  became 
governor  of  the  Bahamas  in  1864,  and  of 
the  Windward  Islands  in  1869.  He  has 
written  numerous  papers  on  statistics  and 
physical  science,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
West  Indies. 

Ray,  or  Wray,  John  {b.  1628,  d.  1705), 
naturalist,  was  the  son  of  a  blacksmith  at 
Black  Notley  in  Essex.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  obtained  a  fellowship  at 
Trinity  College,  of  which  he  was  deprived 
after  the  Restoration  owing  to  his  refusal  to 
sign  the  Act  of  Conformity.  In  1663-6  he 
travelled  on  the  Continent  with  his  friend 
WUloughby,  and  in  1673  published  an  ac- 
count of  the  expedition.  In  1679  he  settled 
in  his  native  place.  His  chief  works  are 
Methodus  Plantarum  Nova  (1682),  Historia 
Plantarum,  Synopsis  Methodica  Stirpium 
Britannicarum  (1690),  and  The  Wisdom  of 
God  in  Creation  (1691). 

Rayleigh,  John  "William  Strutt,  Lord  {b. 
1842),  physicist ;  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution  in  1887. 
He  has  published  a  treatise  on  The  Theory 
of  Sound  (1877-8),  etc. 

Raymond,  Robert,  Lord  {b.  1673,  d.  1732), 
judge ;  was  Solicitor- General  in  the  reign 
of  Anne,  and  became  Attorney-General  and 
afterwards  Chief  Justice  of  the  King's 
Bench  imder  George  I. 

Raymond  VL,  Count  of  Toulouse  (*. 
1156,  d.  1222),  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Albigenses,  and  was  excommunicated  in 
1208  and  1211.  In  1213  he  was  defeated  by 
Simon  de  Montfort,  and  forced  to  retire  to 
Aragon,  but  he  afterwards  recovered  most 
of  his  possessions.  His  son,  Raymond  VII. 
(b.  1197,  d.  1242),  was  at  first  successful 
against  Amaury  de  Montfort,   but  in  1229 


was  forced  to  yield  his  dominions,  which 
were  then  incorporated  in  the  French 
kingdom. 

Rayual,  Guillaume  Thomas  Fran9ois  (Jb. 
1713,  d.  1796),  French  historian,  born  at 
Saint  Geniez,  in  the  Rouergue  ;  became  a 
Jesuit,  but  left  the  order  in  1747,  and  had 
recourse  to  literature  as  a  means  of  subsist- 
ence. His  chief  work  is  Histoire  des  Etab- 
lissements  et  du  Couimerce  des  Europeens  dans 
les  Deux  hides  (1770). 

Raynouard,  Fran9ois  Juste  Marie  {b. 
1761,  d.  183C),  French  philologist  and  dra- 
matist, was  imprisoned  during  the  Reign  of 
Terror.  His  tragedy,  Les  Templiers  (1805), 
was  highly  successful.  His  philological 
works  include  Elements  de  la  Grammaire 
Eomane  (1816),  Choix  de  Poesies  Originales  des 
Troubadours  (1816-21),  and  Lexique  Roman 
(1833-44). 

Read,  Clare  Sewell  {b,  1826),  an  eminent 
English  agriculturist. 

Reade,  Charles  {b.  1814,  d.  1884'),  novelist 
and  di-amatist,  bom  in  Oxfordshire  ;  was 
educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  fellow.  Among  his  novels, 
most  of  which  were  intended  to  expose  some 
social  abuse,  were  Pe(j  Jfojinyton  (lSb2),  It 
is  Never  Too  Late  to  Mend  (1856),  The  Clois- 
ter and  the  Hearth  (1861),  and  Griffith 
Gaunt  (1866). 

Reaney,  Mrs.  Isabel,  has  done  much  work 
among  the  poor  in  Warrington,  Reading, 
and  the  East  of  London. 

Reaumur,  Rene  Antoine  Ferchault  de  (b. 
1683,  d.  1757),  French  naturalist,  bom  at 
La  Rochelle  ;  was  the  first  to  reduce  ther- 
mometers to  a  common  standard,  and  made 
use  of  chemical  processes  in  the  manufacture 
of  porcelain  and  steel.  His  chief  work  is  a 
Hintory  of  Insects. 

Reay,  Lord,  Sir  Donald  James  Mackay 
{b.  1839),  born  in  Holland,  son  of  Baron 
Mackay  Ophemert,  was  in  the  Netherlands 
India  Office  1865-69.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  Bombay  in  1885. 

Reboul,  Jean  (b.  1796,  d.  1864),  French 
poet,  born  at  Nimes,  at  first  a  baker  in  his 
native  town  ;  published  L^Ange  et  V Enfant 
(1828),  Poesies  (1836),  etc. 

R^camier,  Jeanne  Fran^oise  Bernard  (J. 
1777,  d.  1849),  bom  in  Paris;  married  M. 
Recamier,  a  Paris  banker,  in  1792.  Between 
the  Bourbon  restoration  and  her  death  her 
salon  at  Abbaye-aux-Bois  was  the  resort  of 
men  of  rank  and  genius.  Chateaubriand 
was  greatly  fascinated  by  her. 

Reccared  {d.  601),  Visigoth  King  of  Spain, 
succeeded  his  father,  Leovigild,  in  586.  He 
became  a  convert  to  Catholicism,  which  took 
the  place  of  Arianism  in  Spain. 


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Sedus,  Jean  Jacques  Elisee  {b.  1830), 
French  geographer ;  studied  under  Bitter 
at  Berlin.  He  has  published  La  Terre, 
Geographie  Universelle  (1875-90),  etc. 

Recorde,  Robert  {b.  circa  1500,  d.  1558), 
physician  and  mathematician,  bom  at  Tenby, 
educated  at  Oxford ;  introduced  the  Coper- 
nicau  system  into  England. 

Redesdale,  John  Freeman  Mitford,  Baron 

(b.  1748,  d.  1830),  lawyer,  educated  at 
Oxford;  became  Solicitor- General  in  1793, 
Attorney-General  in  1799,  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1801,  and  Lord  Chan- 
cellor of  Ireland  in  1802. 

Redesdale,  John  Thomas  Freeman  Mit- 
ford, Earl  of  {ib.  1805,  d.  1886),  son  of  the 
preceding ;  was  chosen  Chairman  of  Com- 
mittees in  1851,  and  exercised  much  influence 
on  the  private  bill  legislation  of  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  published  Reflections  on  the 
Doctrine  of  Regeneration  (1849),  etc. 

Redgrave,  Richard,  R.A.  (b.  1804,  «?.1888), 
artist,  bom  in  London  ;  became  an  academi- 
cian in  1851.  He  was  inspector-general  of 
art  schools,  aided  Sir  Henry  Cole  in  found- 
ing the  museum  of  art  at  South  Kensington, 
and  took  part  in  the  arrangement  of  various 
international  exhibitions,  especially  that  of 
1862.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Mr. 
S.  Redgeave,  he  wrote  A  Century  of  Painters 
(1860). 

Redhonse,  Sir  James  William  (*.  1811, 
d.  1892),  after  holding  several  appointments 
under  the  Turkish  government,  became 
Oriental  translator  to  the  Foreign  Office  in 
1854.  He  published  a  Turkish  Grammar, 
and  other  works. 

Reed,  Andrew  {b.  1787,  d.  1862),  Noncon- 
formist minister,  educated  at  Hackney  Col- 
lege ;  was  in  1834  sent  by  the  Congregational 
Union  to  visit  the  American  churches.  He 
founded  the  Orphan  Asylum  at  Clapton 
(1825),  the  Asylum  for  Idiots  at  Earlswood 
(1847),  the  Hospital  for  Incurables  (1854), 
and  other  philanthropic  institutions.  In 
1819  he  published  a  novel  entitled  No 
Fiction. 

Reed,  Sir  Edward  James  (6.  1830) ;  was 
chief  constructor  of  the  navy  1863-70 ;  sat 
in  Parliament  as  Liberal  member  for  Pem- 
broke boroughs  1874-80,  since  which  he  has 
represented  Cardiff.  He  has  written  several 
works  on  shipbuilding,  also  Japan  :  its  His- 
tory, Traditions,  and  Religions  (1880). 

Reed,  Isaac  {b.  1742,  d.  1807) ;  wrote  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica  (1782),  and  published 
editions  of  Bodsley's  Old  Plays  (1780), 
Shakespeare  (1785-1803),  etc. 

Rees,  Abraham  (J.  1743,  d.  1825),  Dis- 
Benting    minister;     he     edited     Chambers'' s 


Cyclopcedia  1776-86,  and  between  1802  and 
1820  published  in  forty -five  voliunes  the 
CyclopcBdia  which  bears  his  name. 

_  Reeves,  John  Sims  {b.  1822) ,  English  tenor 
singer;  joined  Macready's  company  at  Drury 
Lane  in  1841 ;  afterwards  studied  in  Paris 
under  Bordogni,  and  at  Milan  under  Maz- 
zucato  ;  in  1847  returned  to  England,  where 
his  success  was  instantaneous. 

Reeve,  Clara  (4.  1725,  d.  1803),  novelist, 
wrote  The  Old  English  Baron,  etc. 

Regnard,  Jean  Fran9ois  {b.  1650.  d.  1709), 
French  comic  poet ;  ranks  nest  to  Moli^re, 
and  is  also  noted  for  his  adventurous  career. 
While  journeying  by  sea  from  Italy  to 
France,  he  was  captured  by  Algerian  pirates, 
but  ransomed  by  the  French  consul.  In 
1681-3  he  travelled  in  Holland,  Sweden, 
Lapland,  and  other  countries. 

Regnaiilt,  Henri  Victor  {b.  1810,  d. 
1878),  French  chemist,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor at  the  College  de  France  in  1841. 
His  most  valuable  experiments  relate  to 
the  specifie  heat  of  gases. 

Regnault,  Jean  Baptiste,  Baron  (b.  1754, 
d.  1829),  a  French  painter,  bom  in  Paris. 
His  Education  of  Achilles  (1783)  is  now  in 
the  Louvre. 

Regnlus,  Marcus  Atilius  {d.  251  B.C.), 
Roman  general ;  was  sent  against  Carthage, 
and  gained  some  successes,  but  was  after- 
wards taken  prisoner.  The  Carthaginians 
sent  him  to  Rome  to  propose  peace,  and  he 
swore  to  return  if  unsuccessful.  He  dis- 
suaded his  countrymen  from  accepting  the 
offer,  and  on  his  return  to  Carthage  was  put 
to  death. 

Reichel,  Charles  Parsons,  became  Bishop 
of  Meath  in  1885.  He  has  published  Sermom 
on  the  Lord's  Prayer,  etc. 

Reichstadt,  Napoleon  Franqois  Charles 
Joseph,  Due  de.     \^See  Napoleon  11.] 

Reid,  Captain  Mayne  {b.  1819,  d.  1883), 
novelist ;  after  roaming  about  Missouri  as  a 
trapper,  entered  the  United  States  army,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  war,  at 
the  close  of  which  he  returned  to  Europe. 
He  wrote  numerous  tales  of  adventure,  in- 
cluding The  Scalp  Hunters  (1847),  The  Rifle 
Rangers  (1850),  The  Headless  Horseman 
(1865),  etc. 

Reid,  Thomas  (J>.  1710,  d.  1796),  Scotch 
metaphysician,  bom  in  Kincardineshire, 
educated  at  the  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen ;  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Glas- 
gow 1763-96.  His  chief  work  is  his  Lnquiry 
into  the  Human  Mind  on  the  Principles  of 
Common  Sense  (1764). 

Reid,  Thomas  Wemyss  (*.  1842),  edited 


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the  Leeds  Mercury  1870-87,  and  became 
editor  of  the  Speaker  xa  1890.  He  has  pub- 
lished Charlotte  Bronte  (1877),  lives  of 
"W.  E.  Forster  (1888),  and  Lord  Houghton 
(1391),  and  other  works. 

Reid,  Whitelaw  (b.  1837),  American  jour- 
nalist ;  became  editor  of  the  New  York 
Tribune  in  1872 ;  in  1889  was  appointed 
United  States  minister  to  France. 

Reid,  Sir  William  {b.  1791,  d.  1858), 
general ;  in  1838  published  An  Attempt  to 
Develop  the  Law  of  Storms.  He  pursued 
his  investigations  in  the  Windward  Islands, 
of  which  he  was  governor  1846-8,  and  in 
1  .  19  published  The  Progress  of  the  Develop- 
ment of  the  Law  of  Storms. 

Reimarus,  Hermann  Samuel  {b.  1694,  d. 
ITtii),  (jerman  philologist  and  philosopher  ; 
was  professor  at  Hamburg  1727-65.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  JFolfenbiittel  Fragments, 
which  were  pubUshed  anonymously  by  Lea- 
sing, and  supposed  to  be  his  work. 

Reineck.  Reiner  {b.  1541,  d.  1595),  German 
historian ;  was  a  disciple  of  Melanchthon. 
He  wrote  Historia  Julia,  etc. 

Relnhold,  Erasmus  (b.  1511,  d.  1553), 
astronomer,  born  in  Thuringia ;  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Wittemberg  1536- 
53,  and  became  a  disciple  of  Copernicus. 

Reinkens,  Joseph  Hubert  (b.  1821),  Ger- 
man theologian ;  is  a  leader  of  the  "  Old 
Catholic"  party. 

Reinold,  Arnold  William,  F.R.S.  {b.  1843), 
became  professor  of  physics  in  the  Royal 
Naval  College,  Green^vich,  in  1873.  He 
has  contributed  to  the  Fhilosophical  Maga- 
zine, and  other  publications. 

Retake,  Johann  Jakob  (b.  1716,  d.  1774), 
Arabic  scholar,  born  at  Zorbig,  in  Saxony, 
studied  at  Leipzig  ;  resided  for  some  time  at 
Leyden,  in  order  to  consult  the  Arabic  works 
in  the  library  ;  returned  to  Leipzig,  and, 
after  a  long  period  of  poverty,  became  rector 
of  the  College  of  St.  Nicholas  in  1758.  He 
edited  the  Annals  of  Abulfeda,  and  the  Be 
Ceremoniis  of  Constautiue  Porphyrogenitus, 
and  wrote  De  Principibiis  Muhamedanis,  etc. 

Reland,  Adrian  {b.  1676,  d.  1718),  Dutch 
Orientalist ;  was  professor  in  the  university 
of  Utrecht.  He  published  De  Religione 
Mohammedicd,  Palestina  ex  Veteribus  Monu- 

mentis  Illustrata,  etc. 

Rembrandt  van  Ryn  (Jb.  1607,  d.  1669),  an 
eminent  painter  and  engraver ;  was  the  son 
of  a  miller  near  Leyden.  He  studied  for  three 
years  under  Jacob  von  Zwanenburg,  and  was 
afterwards  the  pupil  of  Peter  Lastman  at  Am- 
sterdam, and  of  Jacob  Pinas  at  Haarlem.  In 
1630  he  settled  in  Amsterdam,  where  he  died. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  The  Anatomical 
Lesson  (1632)  and  The  Night  Watch  (1642). 


Remusat,  Claire  Elisabeth  de  Vergennes, 

Comtesse  de  {b.  1780,  d.  1821),  a  lady  in  the 
service  of  the  Empress  Josephine.  Her 
Meinou-es  (1879)  and  Letters  (1881)  give  a 
lively  picture  of  the  court  of  the  First  Em- 
pii-e.  Her  son,  Chaeues,  Comte  de  Remusat 
{b.  1797,  d.  1875),  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  under  M.  Thiers,  and  published 
L'Angleterre  au  'XVIII.  Siecle  (1856),  etc. 

Remusat,  Jean  Pierre  Abel  (Jb.  1788,  d. 
1832),  French  Orientalist;  was  the  first 
professor  of  Chinese  at  the  College  ds 
France  (1814),  and  in  1829  became  president 
of  the  Societe  Asiatique.  He  published  His- 
toire  dii  Bouddhisme  (1836),  etc. 

Renan,  Joseph  Ernest  {b.  1823,  d.  1892), 
Orientalist,  historian,  and  essayist,  bom  at 
Trt'guier,  in  Brittany.  In  1842  he  entered 
the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  but  three  years 
later  gave  up  the  idea  of  becoming  a  priest. 
His  first  important  work,  Arerroes  et  V 
Averrdisme,  appeared  in  1852.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  in  the  Institute  of  France 
1861-2,  and  was  reappointed  in  1870.  The 
Vie  de  Jesus  (1863),  which  gave  rise  to  much 
discussion,  was  afterwards  expanded  into 
Ilistoire  des  Origines  dii  Christianisme.  He 
also  published  Le  Judaisme  (1883),  and 
numerous  other  works. 

Renaudot,  Eusfebe  {b.  1646,  d.  1720), 
French  Orientalist;  wrote  Historia  Pat- 
riarcharum  Alexandrinorum  Jacobitarttm, 
Liturgiarum  OrientaUum  Collectio,  etc. 

Rendel,  Sir  Alexander  Meadows  {b.  1829), 
civil  engineer ;  has  constructed  the  Royal 
Albert  Dock,  the  Albert  and  Edinburgh 
docks  at  Leith,  etc. 

Rendel,  George  Whitwick,  brother  of  the 
preceding ;  has  introduced  great  improve- 
ments in  connection  with  guns  and  the  con- 
struction of  ironclads.  He  was  civil  lord  of 
the  Admiralty  1882-5. 

Rendel,  Stuart  (b.  1834),  brother  of  the 
preceding ;  has  represented  Montgomery 
county  since  1880.  He  is  well-known  as 
an  advocate  of  Welsh  interests. 

Reni,  Guido  {b.  1574,  d.  1642),  Bolognese 
painter,  whose  best  work  is  seen  at  Rome 
and  Genoa. 

Rennel,  James  (*.  1742,  d.  1830),  geo- 
graphical writer  ;  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  became  surveyor- 
general  of  Bengal.  His  chief  work  is  The 
Geographical  System  of  Herodotus  (18001. 

Rennie,  .John  [b.  1761,  d.  1821),  engineer ; 
constructed  Waterloo,  Southwark,  and  new 
London  bridges,  the  Lancaster  and  Avon 
canals,  and  other  public  works. 

Rennie,  Sir  John  (6.  1794,  d.  1874),  was 
son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded 


Ren 


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Rey 


as  engineer  to  the  Admiralty.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  the  Whitehaven  docks  and 
a  portion  of  the  Cardiff  docks.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  the  Theory,  Formation,  and  Con- 
struction of  British  and  Foreign  Harbours. 
In  many  of  his  enterprises  he  was  associated 
with  his  brother  Geoege  {b.  1791,  d.  1866), 
who  was  also  a  distinguished  engineer. 

Renouf,  Peter  le  Page  {b.  1824),  Orien- 
talist, bom  in  Guernsey ;  from  1864  to  1886 
was  an  inspector  of  schools  ;  has  published 
many  works  on  the  language  and  religion 
of  Egypt,  and  kindred  subjects. 

Reschid  Pacha  {b.  1802,  d.  1858),  Turkish 
statesman ;  took  part  in  the  negotiations 
with  Russia  at  Adxianople  in  1829.  On  the 
accession  of  Abd-el-Medjid  (1839)  he  be- 
came his  chief  adviser,  and  was  six  times 
grand  vizier. 

Retz,  Jean  Fran9oi8  Paul  de  Gondi,  Car- 
dinal de  (b.  1614,  d.  1679),  son  of  the  general 
of  the  French  galleys,  was  bom  at  Mont- 
mirail,  and  educated  by  Vincent  de  St.  Paul. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  plots  against 
Mazarin,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of 
the  Fronde  (1648)  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  insurgents.  In  1651  Retz  was  bought 
over  by  the  gift  of  a  cardinal's  hat,  but  he 
was  nevertheless  imprisoned  tUl  1654,  when 
he  escaped  to  Spain.  After  visiting  Rome, 
he  returned  to  France  on  the  death  of 
Mazarin,  and  Hved  there  quietly  till  his 
death.  His  Jlemoires  give  a  valuable  ac- 
count of  the  chief  political  characters  of  the 
period. 

Retzsch,  Friedrich  August  Moritz  (J.  1779, 
d.  1857),  German  artist,  bom  at  Dresden; 
was  appointed  professor  of  painting  in  his 
native  town  in  1824.  He  owes  his  celebrity 
to  his  sldll  as  a  designer  in  outline.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  his  illustrations  to 
Goethe's  Faust  and  Schiller's  Song  of  the  Bell. 

Reuchlin,  Johann  (b.  1455,  d.  1522),  Ger- 
man scholar,  bom  at  Pforzheim,  studied  at 
Basle  and  elsewhere ;  about  1481  went  to 
Stuttgart ;  accompanied  Eberhard,  Count 
of  Wiirtemberg,  to  Italy  (1482),  and  was 
well  received  at  the  court  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici;  after  Eberhard's  death  (1496),  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  elector-palatine,  by 
whom  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Alex- 
ander VI.  (1498)  ;  was  summoned  before  an 
ecclesiastical  tribunal  for  resisting  Pfefifec- 
kom's  attempt  to  biim  all  Jewish  books ; 
appealed  to  the  pope  (1513),  who  left  the  case 
undecided.     His  writings  were  volxuninous. 

Reuter,  Heinrich  Ludwig  Christian  Fried- 
rich  [Fritz]  (b.  1810,  d.  1874),  German 
humorist,  bom  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
educated  at  Rostock  and  .Jena :  was  im- 
prisoned owing  to  his  liberal  views  1833-40. 
In  1853  appeared  Lauschen  un  Rimels,  a 
PP 


volume  of  poems  in  Low  German.  The  first 
part  of  the  Olle  Kamellen,  a  series  of  prose 
tales,  was  published  in  1859. 

Reuter,  Baron  Paul  Julius  {h.  1821),  born 
at  Cassel;  in  1849  established  an  office  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  for  supplying  news  by  tele- 
graph, and  thereby  revolutionised  the  press 
of  Europe.  In  1851  he  transferred  his 
business  to  London. 

Revett,  Nicholas  {b.  1721,  d.  1804),  archi- 
tect; in  1748-53  visited  Greece  with  James 
Stuart,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  wrote 
Antiquities  of  Athens  (1762) ;  was  the  com- 
panion of  Chandler  in  his  expedition  to  Asia 
Minor,  and  assisted  him  iu  Ionian  Anti- 
quities (1769-1804), 

R^vlUe,  Albert  (b.  1826),  French  Pro- 
testant divine,  bom  at  Dieppe ;  in  1851 
became  pastor  of  the  Walloon  church  at 
Rotterdam;  in  1880  was  appointed  titular 
professor  of  the  history  of  religions  in  the 
College  de  France. 

Rewbell,  Jean  Frangois  {b.  1747,  d.  1807), 
French  revolutionist ;  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention  and  Directory.  He  retired  from 
public  life  in  1799. 

Rey,  Jean  {d.  1645),  a  French  physician 
and  chemist,  whose  discoveries  to  some  ex- 
tent anticipated  those  of  Lavoisier. 

Reynolds,  Henry  Robert  {b.  1825),  Con- 
gregationaUst  divine,  edited  the  British 
Quarterly  Review  1866-74 ;  has  published 
John  the  Baptist  (1888),  etc. 

Reynolds,  James  Emerson  {b.  1844) ;  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  Dublin 
in  1875.  He  has  made  several  discoveries, 
and  is  author  of  General  Experimental 
Chemistry  (1880),  etc. 

Reynolds,  James  Russell,  M.D.  {b.  1828), 
Emeritus  professor  of  medicine  in  University 
College,  London ;  has  published  numerous 
medical  works. 

Reynolds,  John  Hamilton  (6.  1796,  d. 
1852),  poet  and  man  of  letters ;  published 
Safie,  an  eastern  tale  in  verse  (1814),  etc. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua  {b.  1723,  d.  1792), 
painter,  bom  at  Plympton,  in  Devonshire, 
studied  under  the  portrait-painter  Hudsou ; 
removed  to  London  in  1746;  travelled  in 
Italy  1749-52 ;  on  his  return  to  London 
was  immediately  recognised  as  the  greatest 
portrait  painter  of  the  day.  He  was  the 
first  president  of  the  Royal  Academy  (1768- 
92),  and  in  1784  was  appointed  painter  to 
the  king.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were 
Johnson,  Burke,  Goldsmith,  and  other 
eminent  literary  men.  His  fifteen  Bis- 
courses  on  Painting  were  delivered  before 
the  Royal  Academy  between  1769  and  1790. 


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Rhazes,  or  Ar-Razi  (d.  circa  932),  Arabian 
physician,  boru  in  Irak  Ajemi ;  was  super- 
intendent of  the  hospital  at  Bagdad.  His 
works  include  a  treatise  on  the  small-pox. 

Rbodes,  Cecil  J.  {b.  1853),  became  prime 
minister  of  the  Cape  in  1890. 

Rhys,  John  (b.  1840),  became  professor 
of  Celtic  at  Oxford  in  1877.  He  has  pub- 
lished Celtic  Britain  (1882),  etc. 

Ribalta,  Francisco  {b.  1551,  d.  1628), 
Spanish  painter;  after  studying  at  Eome, 
settled  in  Valencia,  where  he  died.  His 
works  show  the  influence  of  Sebastiano  del 
Piombo. 

Ricardo,  David  {b.  1772,  d.  1823),  political 
economist,  son  of  a  Jewish  broker ;  entered 
Parliament  in  1819.  His  Principles  of  Poli- 
tical Economy  and  Taxation,  containing  his 
famous  theory  of  rent,  was  published  in 
1817. 

Ricasoli,  Bettino,  Count  {b.  1809,  d.  1880), 
Italian  statesman;  after  the  flight  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Leopold  became  dictator  of 
Tuscany,  and  co-operated  with  Victor  Em- 
manuel in  the  war  of  Italian  Liberation ;  was 
prime  minister  of  Italy  1861-2,  and  1866-7. 

Ricaut,  or  Rycaut,  Sir  Paul  {d.  1700), 
EngHsh  diplomatist  and  historian ;  was 
secretary  to  the  embassy  at  Constantinople 
1661-9,  and  afterwards  English  consul  at 
Smyrna.  His  works  include  a  continuation 
of  KnoUes's  History  of  the  Turks. 

RicH,  Claudius  James  (J.  1786,  d.  1821), 
Orientalist,  bom  near  Dijon,  educated  at 
Bristol ;  became  Resident  at  Bagdad  in  1808, 
and  explored  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  His 
Memoirs  of  Ancient  Babylon  appeared  in 
1815. 

Richard,  Loxiis  Claude  Marie  {b.  1754,  d. 
1821),  French  botanist,  bom  at  Versailles  ; 
in  1781  undertook  a  journey  to  the  Antilles 
and  French  Guiana  under  the  auspices  of 
Louis  XVI.,  and  in  1789  returned  with  la*ge 
collections  of  plants  and  animals.  He  afti-T- 
wards  became  professor  of  botany  in  the 
School  of  Medicine  at  Paris. 

Richard  Plantagenet  {d.  1272),  Earl  of 
Cornwall,  was  the  son  of  John,  King  of 
England.  In  1256  he  was  elected  King  of 
the  Romans.  He  at  first  showed  some  sym- 
pathy with  De  Montfort's  aims,  but  after- 
wards aided  Henry  III.  against  him,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Lewes  (1264).  He 
was  released  in  the  following  year. 

Richard  of  Cirencester  (d.  circa  1401), 
an  English  chronicler  ;  entered  the  Benedic- 
tine monastery  of  St.  Peter  at  Westminster 
in  1350. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor  {d.  1173),  mystic, 


bom  in  Scotland ;  became  prior  of  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Victor  at  Paris  about  1164.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament, 
etc. 

Richard  I.,  "the  Fearless,"  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy {d.  996)  ;  succeeded  his  father,  Wil- 
Ham  Lougsword,  in  942.  He  became  the 
vassal  of  Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  Paris, 
in  946,  and  was  iustrimiental  in  raising 
Hugh  Capet  to  the  French  throne  (987). 

Richard  II.,  "the  Good""  {d.  1026),  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Richard  I.,  in  996.  He 
maintained  friendly  relations  with  Robert  I. 
of  France. 

Richard  IIL  id.  1028),  succeeded  his 
father,  Richard  II.,  in  1026.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  poisoned  by  his  brother,  Robert  I. 

Richard  I.,  King  of  England  {b.  1157,  d. 
1199),  was  the  thii-d  sou  of  Henry  II.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1 1 89 .  He  immediately  j  oined 
the  third  Crusade,  in  company  with  Philip 
Augustus  of  France.  After  marshalUng 
their  hosts  at  Vezelai,  the  two  kings  pro- 
ceeded by  separate  routes  to  Sicily.  Here 
Richard  remained  till  April,  1191,  when  he 
sailed  to  Palestine,  halting  during  the 
journey  at  Cyprus,  which  he  conquered. 
His  anival  at  Acre  in  June  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  fall  of  that  fortress.  During 
the  ensuing  war  Richard  displayed  great 
prowess,  but  the  want  of  union  among  the 
Crusaders,  sickness,  and  other  causes  obliged 
them  to  abandon  the  project  of  taking  Jeru- 
salem, and  in  October,  1191,  Richard  set  sail 
for  England.  On  the  way  he  fell  into  th« 
hands  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  who  con- 
fined him  in  a  castle  on  the  Danube,  and  re- 
leased him  only  on  the  payment  of  a  heavy 
ransom  (1194).  For  the  rest  of  his  life  he 
was  engaged  in  wars  with  PhiUp  of  France. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  whilst  besieging 
the  castle  of  Chaluz. 

Richard  II.  {b.  1366,  d.  1399),  son  of 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  succeeded  his 
grandfather,  Edward  III.,  in  1377.  The 
government  was  entrusted  to  a  council  of 
regency,  but  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  soon 
gained  the  entire  control  of  affairs.  In. 
1381  a  rising  of  the  peasantry  took  place,  the 
immediate  cause  of  which  was  an  excessive 
poll-tax.  The  king's  fondness  for  favourites 
excited  the  resentment  of  the  leading  barons, 
who  defeated  the  royal  forces  in  1387,  and 
in  1388  De  Vere  and  Suffolk  were  impeached 
and  put  to  death.  In  1389  Richard  assumed 
the  government,  and  for  eight  years  ruled 
well,  but  in  1397  those  who  had  formerly 
taken  up  arms  against  him  were  _  suddenly 
executed  or  imprisoned,  and  the  king's  sub- 
sequent proceedings  showed  that  he_  aimed 
at  making  his  power  absolute.  During  his 
absence  in  Ireland,  Henry,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, son  of  John  of  Gaunt,   landed  ia 


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Yorkshire.  Richard,  on  his  retiim,  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Flint,  and  carried  to  London, 
■where  he  resigned  the  crown  in  favour  of 
Henry.  He  is  said  to  have  teen  murdered 
soon  afterwards. 

Eichard  III.  {b.  1450,  d.  14S5)  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Eichard,  Duke  of  York. 
He  fought  at  Barnet  and  Tewkeshuiy 
(1471),  and  in  1482  led  an  expedition  agaiast 
Scotland.  After  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Edward  IV.,  he  was  proclaimed  protector 
(May,  1483).  He  soon  afterwards  fonned 
a  plot,  ia  concert  with  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, which  led  to  the  execution  of  Lord 
Hastings,  and  the  imprisonment  of  the 
king's  nephews,  Edward  V.  and  his  brother, 
in  lie  Tower.  In  June  he  declared  himself 
king.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year  the 
young  princes  disappeared,  and  Bucking- 
ham, who  had  excited  a  rising  in  favour 
of  Edward  V.,  was  executed.  In  August, 
1485,  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  landed  at 
Milford  Haven,  and  marched  to  Bosworth 
in  Leicestershire,  where  Richard  was  de- 
feated and  slaia. 

Richards,  Admiral  Sir  George  Henry  (i. 
1820),  has  superintended  nautical  sxu-veys 
of  China,  Australia,  and  other  countries, 
and  was  hydrographer  of  the  Admiralty 
1863-74. 

Richaids,  Henry  Brinley  (J.  1819,  d.  1885), 
a  popular  pianist  and  composer,  bom  at  Car- 
marthen. 

Richardson,  Benjamin  "Ward,  M.D., 
F.R.S.  {b.  1828),  man  of  science;  has  pub- 
lished Alcohol :  its  Action  and  its  Use  (1869), 
Hygeia  (1876),  etc. 

Richardson,  Sir  James  {b.  1787,  d.  1865), 
bom  at  Dumfries,  entered  the  navy  as 
assistant-surgeon  in  1807;  accompanied 
Franklin  in  his  Arctic  voyages  in  1819  and 
1825  ;  was  physician  of  Haslar  Hospital 
1838-55.  He  published  Fauna  Boreali- 
Americana  (1829-37),  The  Arctic  Searching 
Expedition  (1852),  etc. 

Richardson,  Jonathan  {h.  circa  1665,  d. 
1745),  an  English  artist,  who  succeeded 
Kneller  as  the  fashionable  portrait-painter 
of  the  day.  He  wrote  an  Essay  on  me  Art 
of  Criticism  in  Painting,  etc. 

Richardson,  Samuel  {b.  1689,  d.  1761), 
novelist,  bom  in  Derbyshire  ;  apprenticed  to 
a  printer  in  London  (1706);  in  1719  estab- 
lished a  business  of  his  own,  and  became 
printer  to  the  House  of  Commons.  His 
novels  are  Pamela  (1740),  Clarissa  Harlowe 
(1748),  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison  (1753). 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Plessis,  Due 

de  {b.  1585,  d.  1642),  French  cardinal  and 

statesman,  bom  in  Paris,  became  Bishop  of 

Lu9on  in  1607  ;  in  1615  entered  the  service 

1^2 


of  the  Queen-mother,  Marie  de'  Medici,  and 
in  1016  became  secretary  of  state  for  war 
and  foreign  affairs.  He  followed  Marie 
de'  Medici  to  Blois  (1616),  and  was  exiled  to 
Avignon  (1618),  but  was  soon  afterwards 
recalled,  and  effected  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  king  and  queen,  receiving  as  his 
reward  a  cardinal's  hat.  In  1624  he  became 
chief  minister,  an  of&ce  which  he  retained 
till  his  death.  During  this  period  he  estab- 
lished the  absolute  power  of  the  king,  and 
crushed  the  Calvinist  party,  although  he  was 
led  by  political  motives  to  support  the  Pro» 
testants  in  Germany. 

Richelieu,  Louis  Fran9oi3  Armand  du 
Plessis,  Due  de  (b.  1696,  d.  1788),  French 
marshal,  belonged  to  the  same  family  as  the 
preceding.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Emmanuel  du  Plessis, 
Due  de  (b.  1776,  d.  1822),  grandson  of  the 
preceding  ;  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution 
entered  the  Russian  service,  fought  against 
the  Tiu-ks,  and  in  1803  became  governor  of 
Odessa.  He  returned  on  the  accession  of 
Louis  XVIII. ,  and  was  chief  minister  in 
1815-18,  and  again  in  1820. 

Richmond,  George,  R.A.  {b.  1809),  Eng- 
lish artist ;  in  1837  went  to  Italy,  and 
resided  for  some  years  in  Rome;  after 
his  return  achieved  distinction  as  a  portrait- 
painter  in  oils. 

Richmond,  Legh  {b.  1772,  d.  1827),  rector 
of  Turvey,  in  Bedfordshire,  1805-27 ;  author 
of  several  religious  tales,  published  imder  the 
title  of  Annals  of  the  Poor,  the  best  known 
of  which  is  The  Dairyman's  Daughter. 

Richmond,  William  Blake  {b.  1842),  por- 
trait-painter, son  of  George  Richmond ;  was 
Slade  professor  at  Oxford  1880-3.  Among 
his  chief  portraits  are  those  of  Darwin 
(1880),  Gladstone,  and  Browning  (1882). 

Richmond  and  Gordon,  Charles  Henry 
Gordon-Lennox,  sixth  Diike  of  {b.  1818), 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Conservative  m 
1841 ;  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in  1860;  was 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  1867-8; 
fed  the  Government  in  the  House  of  Lords 
1874-6 ;  was  secretai-y  for  Scotland  imder 
Lord  Salisbury  1885-6. 

Richter,  Adrian  Ludwig  (i.  1803,  d. 
1884),  artist,  bom  at  Dresden,  studied  in 
France  and  Italy;  became  professor  of 
landscape-painting  at  Dresden  in  1836. 
Later  in  life  he  earned  fame  by  his  draw- 
ings illustrating  German  village  life  and 
the  ways  of  children. 

Richter,  Gustav  Karl  Ludwig  {b.  1823), 
artist,  bom  at  Berlin,  studied  under  Coignet 
at  Paris,  and  afterwards  at  Rome  (1847-9). 
His  chief  work  is   his  portrait  of    Queen 


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Louise  of  Prussia  (1879),  now  in  the  Cologne 
Museum. 

Eichter,  Hans  (b.  1843),  conductor  of 
orchestral  concerts,  horn  at  Eaab  in  Hun- 
gary ;  became  kapellmeister  at  Vienna  in 
1878.  His  first  orchestral  concert  in  London 
took  place  in  1879. 

Richter,  Jean  Paul  Friedrich  {b.  1763,  d. 
1825),  German  mystic  and  humorist,  son  of 
a  poor  pastor  and  schoolmaster  at  Baii-euth, 
studied  at  Leipzig  University ;  after  leaving 
it  remained  with  his  widowed  mother  at 
Hof  till  her  death  in  1798,  when  he  removed 
to  Weimar.  His  first  original  work.  The 
Invisible  Lodge  (1792),  was  followed  by 
Hesperus  (1792-4),  Quintus  Fixlein,  Sie- 
benkds  (179o),_and  Titan  (1799-1802).  After 
living  at  Berhn,  Meiningen  and  Coburg  he 
settled  at  Baireuth  in  1804.  Flegeljahre 
appeared  in  1803 ;  Levana,  a  treatise  on 
education,  in  1806.  The  fragment  of  his 
Autobiography  was  written  in  1S18. 

Ricimer  (d.  472),  a  Sueve,  who  com- 
manded the  barbarians  in  the  Roman  army. 
After  the  death  of  Valentinian  III.  he  set  up 
and  deposed  several  emperors  in  succession 
viz.  Avitus  (455),  Majorian  (457),  Severus 
(457-461),  Anthemius  (467),  who  was  nomi- 
nated by  the  Eastern  Emperor  Leo  I.,  and 
Olybrius  (472). 

Rickman,  Thomas  {b.  1776,  d.  1841), 
architect,  bom  at  Maidenhead  ;  in  1808  be- 
came clerk  in  an  insurance  office  in  Liver- 
pool, and  there  studied  architecture,  which 
he  adopted  as  a  profession,  settHng  in  BLr- 
mingham.  Among  his  works  are  the  new 
buildings  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
He  was  the  first  to  classify  the  different 
periods  of  Gothic  architecture. 

Riddell,  Charlotte  Eliza  Lawson  (b.  circa 
1837),  novelist;  has  pubhshed  City  and 
Suburb  (1861),  George  Geith  (1864),  etc. 

Ridley,  Nicholas  {d.  1555),  English  re- 
former, bom  in  Northmnberland,  studied  at 
Cambridge,  Paris,  and  Louvain  ;  returned  to 
Cambridge  in  1529 ;  became  chaplain  to 
Cranmer  in  1537,  and,  about  1540,  master  of 
Pembroke  Hall ;  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Rochester  in  1547,  and  of  London  in  1550  ; 
^ook  a  leading  part  in  composing  the 
liturgy  and  drawing  up  the  forty-two 
articles;  favoured  the  attempt  to  place 
Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne,  and  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower;  was  condemned 
to  death  for  heresy,  and  burnt,  with 
Latimer,  at  Oxford  in  October,  1565. 

Ridolfl,  Carlo  {b.  1594,  d.  1658),  Italian 
painter  and  writer  on  art ;  belonged  to  the 
Venetian  school.  He  wrote  lives  of  IUhs- 
tnous  Venetian  Painters  (1648). 

Rienzi,  Cola  di  (b.  1313,  d.  1354),  Roman 


citizen  ;  was  sent  in  1343  to  Clement  VI.  at 
Avignon  to  remonstrate  with  him  on  his 
absence  from  Rome,  and  was  appointed 
apostolic  notary.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he 
began  to  scheme  for  a  revival  of  the  ancient 
republic,  incited  the  people  against  the 
uobihty,  and  was  in  1347  proclaimed  tri- 
bune, his  authority  being  acknowledged  by 
Clement.  In  December  of  the  same  year  ha 
was  forced  to  leave  Rome,  and  in  1350  went 
to  Prague,  whence  he  was  despatched  to 
Avignon,  and  remained  for  some  time  a 
prisoner  in  the  hands  of  Clement.  On  the 
election  of  Innocent  VI.  (1353)  he  was 
released  and  sent  to  Rome  as  governor,  but 
the  difficulty  of  his  position  drove  him  to 
commit  cruelties,  which  caused  him  to  be 
assassinated  in  1354. 

Ries,  Ferdinand  {b.  1783,  d.  1838),  pianist 
and  composer,  bom  at  Bonn ;  resided  in 
England  1813-24 ;  died  at  Frankfort. 

Rigg,  James  Harrison  (jb.  1821),  has  been 
principal  of  the  Wesleyan  Training  College 
since  1868,  and  was  president  of  the  Wes- 
leyan Conference  in  1878.  He  is  editor  of 
the  London  Quarterly  Review. 

RUey,  Henry  Thomas  {b.  1818,  d.  1878), 
Eughsh  antiquary  ;  published  Memorials  of 
London  (1858),  etc. 

RUey,  John  (jb.  1646,  d.  1691),  portrait 
painter,  studied  under  Zoust ;  became  painter 
to  Charles  II.  after  the  death  of  Lely  (1680). 

Rintoul,  Robert  Stephen  {b.  1787,  d.  1858), 
joumaUst ;  started  the  Spectator  in  1828. 

Rinuccini,  Ottavio  {d.  1621),  poet;  ac- 
companied Marie  de'  Medici  to  France  in 
1600.  He  wrote  Daphne,  and  other  lyrical 
dramas. 

Ripley,  George  (i.  1S02,  d.  1880),  Ameri- 
can man  of  letters  ;  published  Discourses  on 
the  Philosophy  of  Religion  (1839),  etc. 

Ripon,  Frederick  James  Robinson,  Earl  of 
{b.  1782,  d.  1859),  son  of  the  second  Earl 
Grantham ;  entered  Parliament  as  a  mode- 
rate Tory  in  1806  ;  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  in  1823  ;  was  created  Viscount 
Goderich  in  1827  ;  was  Prime  Minister 
1827-8,  Colonial  Secretary  under  Earl  Grey 
1830-3,  and  Lord  Privy  Seal  1833-4. 

Ripon,  George  Frederick  Samuel  Robin- 
son, Marquis  of  (Earl  de  Grey  and  Ripon) 
{h.  1827)  ;  entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal 
in  1850;  was  Secretary  for  War  1859-61 ;  for 
India  1863  :  for  War  f 863-6  ;  for  India  1866, 
and  Lord  President  of  the  Council  1866-73. 
He  was  Viceroy  of  India  1880-4,  and  in  1886 
was  appointed  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty, 
and  again  Colonial  Secretary  in  1892. 

Ripperda,  Jan  Wilhelm,    Baron   de  (J. 


Bis 


(645) 


Kob 


1690,  d.  1737),  a  political  adventurer,  of 
Dutch  origin  ;  went  on  a  political  mission  to 
Spain  in  1715 ;  became  chief  minister  of 
Philip  v.,  but  fell  from  power  in  1726 ;  sub- 
sequently entered  the  service  of  the  Emperor 
of  Morocco,  when  he  invented  a  new  re- 
ligion, and  was  forced  to  flee  to  Tetuan, 
where  he  died. 

Rishaaiger,  William  (b.  1250),  English 
chronicler  ;  was  a  Benedictine  monk  at  St. 
Albans. 

Ristich,  Johannes  {b.  1831),  Servian  states- 
man ;  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  (1876) 
brought  about  the  war  with  Turkey,  and, 
after  the  Congress  of  Berhn,  became  vir- 
tually dictator,  but  was  forced  to  resign  in 
1880.  In  1889  he  was  appointed  regent  dur- 
ing the  minority  of  King  Alexander. 

Ristori,  Adelaide  (b.  1821),  Italian  actress, 
the  child  of  strolling  players  ;  married,  in 
1847,  the  Marquis  Capranica  del  Grillo,  but 
afterwards  returned  to  the  stage.  Having 
established  her  reputation  in  Italy,  she 
visited  Paris  (1855),  London  (1858),  and 
other  European  capitals,  as  well  as  the 
United  States  and  South  America.  She  re- 
visited England  in  1873  and  1884. 

Ritchie,  Charles  Thomson  {b.  1838),  en- 
tered Parliament  as  a  Conservative  in  1874  ; 
president  of  the  Local  Government  Board 
1886-1892. 

Ritcllie,  Mrs.  Richmond,  daughter  of 
W.  M.  Thackeray  ;  has  published  Old  Ken- 
sington, The  Story  of  Elizabeth,  and  other 
tales. 

Ritson,  Joseph  (*.  1752,  d.  1803),  English 
lawyer  and  antiquary ;  published  a  col- 
lection of  ancient  songs  and  ballads,  and 
other  works. 

Ritter,  Carl  (Jb.  1779,  d.  1859),  geographer, 
bom  in  Prussia  ;  was  appointed  professor  at 
Berlin  in  1820.  His  chief  work  is  Geof/raphy 
in  its  Relation  to  Nature  and  the  History  of 
Man  (1822-54). 

Riviere,  Briton,  R.A.  (*.  1840),  artist, 
bom  in  London;  has  exhibited  at  the 
Academy  many  works  depicting  animal 
life. 

Rizzio,  David  {b.  1540,  d.  1566),  son  of  a 
dancing-master ;  was  born  in  Turin,  and 
passed  his  youth  in  France.  In  1564  he 
came  to  Scotland  in  the  train  of  the  am- 
bassador from  Savoy.  His  gift  for  music 
and  other  accomplishments  recommended 
him  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  whose  favourite 
he  became.  His  influence  with  her  excited 
jealousy,  and  he  was  murdered  by  Damley 
and  others  in  her  presence. 

Robbia,    Lucca    della    {b.  circa  1399,  d. 


1463),    an    Italian    sculptor;    famous  for 

his  work    in    enamelled  terra-cotta.  TTi« 

nephew,  Andeea  {b.   1444,    d.  1527),  ex- 
celled in  the  same  art. 

Robert,  King  of  the  "West  Franks  {d.  923), 
was  chosen  king  in  place  of  Charles  the 
Simple  in  922,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Soissons  in  the  following  year. 

Robert,  King  of  France  (b.  circa  970,  d. 
1031),  succeeded  his  father,  Hugh  Capet,  in 
996.  From  1003  to  1015  he  was  engaged  in 
a  war  with  Otho,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  from 
whom  he  finally  wrested  the  dukedom, 

Robert,  Emperor  of  Germany  {b.  1352,  d. 
1410),  succeeded  his  father,  Robert,  as 
elector  palatine  in  1398.  He  was  chosen 
Emperor  in  1400  after  the  deposition  of 
Wenceslaus. 

Robert,  Louis  Leopold  {jb.  1794,  d.  1835), 
artist,  bom  in  Switzerland ;  studied  en- 
graving under  Girardet  in  Paris ;  in  1818 
settled  at  Rome,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  painting.  The  Fishermen  and  The  Reapers 
are  among  his  chief  works. 

Robert  Bruce,  King  of  Scotland  {b.  1274, 
d.  1329),  was  the  grandson  of  Balliol's  rival 
in  1292.  In  1306  he  murdered  the  regent, 
Comyn,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone,  but  was 
defeated  by  Edward  I.  the  same  year.  After 
many  years  of  hardship  and  ill-fortune,  he 
gained  a  final  victory  over  Edward  II.  at 
Baunockbum  in  lol4.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Northampton  (1328)  the  complete  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland  was  recognised. 

Robert  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples  (5. 
circa  1279,  d.  1343),  succeeded  his  father, 
Charles  II.,  in  1309  ;  became  Lord  of  Genoa 
(1318)  and  Brescia  (1319) ;  made  several 
tmsuccessful  attempts  to  conquer  Sicily. 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  chronicler  of  the 
13th  century,  is  believed  to  have  been  a 
monk  at  Gloucester.  His  Chronicle^  which 
is  written  in  English  verse,  includes  the 
period  of  the  Barons'  war. 

Robert  of  Jumi6ges  {d.  1070),  a  Norman 
prelate  ;  was  made  Bishop  of  London  by 
Edward  the  Confessor  in  1044,  and  after- 
wards Archbishop  of  Ca»terbviry,  but  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  country  on  the  return  of 
Godwin  in  1052.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Stigand. 

Robert  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  "  the 
Magnificent "  {d.  1035),  succeeded  his 
brother,  Richard  III.,  in  1028 ;  assisted 
Henri  I.  of  France  to  regain  his  throne; 
unsuccessfully  invaded  England  on  behalf 
of  Alfred  and  Edward,  sons  of  Ethelred  the 
Unready ;  died  in  BithjTiia,  whilst  re- 
turning from  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land. 


Bob 


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Bob 


Robert  IL  (d.  1135)  became  Duke  of 
Nonnaudy  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
William  the  Conqueror,  in  1087  ;  pledged 
Normandy  to  liis  brother,  William  Rufus, 
and  joined  the  tirst  Crusade;  invaded  Eng- 
land in  1101,  but  came  to  teims  with  Henry 
I.,  and  resigned  his  claim  to  the  English 
throne  ;  was  defeated  by  Henry  at  Tenche- 
brai  (1106),  and  imprisoned  in  Cardiff  Castle, 
where  he  died. 

Eobert  IL  (b.  1316,W.  1390),  King  of  Scot- 
laud,  was  the  son  of  Walter  Stuart  and  Mar- 
jory, daughter  of  Robert  Bruce.  He  acted  as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  David  Bruce, 
and  again  dming  his  captivity  in  England 
1346-57,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  in 
1370,  was  chosen  king.  His  reign  was  mai'ked 
by  a  large  number  of  border  forays,  the  most 
famous  being  that  which  resulted  in  the 
battle  of  Otterbume,  or  Chevy  Chase  (1388). 

Robert  III.  (6.  circa  1340,  d.  1406),  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Robert  II.,  in  1390.  The 
government  was  virtually  carried  on  by  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Albany.  In  1402  a 
Scotch  army  invaded  England,  but  was 
defeated  at  Homildon  Hill.  Robert  died  of 
grief  at  the  capture  of  his  son,  James,  by  the 
English. 

Roberts,  David,  R.A.  (b.  1796,  d.  1864), 
artist,  son  of  an  Edinburgh  shoemaker ;  was 
apprenticed  to  a  house -painter,  and  subse- 
quently became  a  scene-painter.  He  fol- 
lowed this  trade  for  some  time  after  settUng 
in  London  (1822),  but  in  1827  devoted  him- 
Belf  entirely  to  architectural  painting.  After 
a  journey  abroad,  he  published  an  illus- 
trated work,  entitled  The  Holy  Land^  Syria, 
Idumaea,  Egypt,  and  Nubia  (1842). 

Roberts,  Lord  [Sir  Frederick  Sleigh]  (b. 
1832) ;  distinguished  himself  during  the 
Indian  Mutiny  and  the  Afghan  campaign  of 
1878-9 ;  on  the  renewal  of  hostilities  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief,  and,  after  a 
brilliant  march  to  relieve  Candahar,  gained 
a  victory  which  brought  the  war  to  a  close 
(1880).  He  became  commander-in-chief  in 
India  in  1885,  and  in  Burmah  in  1886. 

Roberts,  Isaac  (*.  1829),  a  man  of  science, 
whose  photographs  of  the  stars  have  aided 
the  advance  of  astronomical  knowledge. 

Roberts-Austen,  W.  Chandler,  F.R.S.  {b. 
1843) ;  became  the  Queen's  assay-master  in 
1882.  ^ 

Robertson,  Frederick  William  (i.  1816, 
d.  iSoo),  became  minister  of  Trinity  chapel, 
Brighton,  in  1847.  His  sermons  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  and  attained  a  wide 
popularity. 

Robertson,  George  Groom  {b.  1842),  bom 
in  Aberdeen  ;  became  professor  of  philo- 
sophy of    mind    and    logic   at   University 


College,  London,  in  1866,  resigned  1892. 
He  has  edited  Mind  since  1876. 

Robertson,  James  Patrick  Bannerman  {b. 

1845) ;  became  Lord  Advocate  for  Scotland 
in  1888,  and  Lord  Justice  General  of  Scot- 
land in  1891. 

Robertson,  Thomas  {b.  1829,  d.  1871), 
English  di-amatist,  vsrrote  David  Garrick 
(1864),  ISociety  (1865),  Ours  (1866),  Caste 
(1867),  School  (1869),  Home  (1869),  etc. 

Robertson,  WilHam  {b.  1721,  d.  1793),  his- 
torian, educated  at  Edinbm-gh  ;  entered  the 
Presbyterian  ministry  (1741),  and  in  1743 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Gladsmuir,  in 
East  Lothian.  In  1758  he  was  appointed  to 
a  church  in  Edinburgh,  became  principal  of 
the  university  in  1762,  and  in  1764  was 
made  royal  historiographer  for  Scotland. 
His  chief  works  are  histories  of  Scotland 
(1759),  Charles  V.  (1769),  and  America 
(1777). 

Roberval,  Gilles  Personne  de  {b.  1602,  d. 
1675),  became  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  College  Royale  about  1633. 

Robespierre,  Maximilien  Marie  Isidore  (b. 
1758,  d.  1794),  French  revolutionist,  born  at 
Arras ;  was  returned  to  the  States-General 
as  member  for  the  Tiers-Etat  (1789) ;  re- 
presented Palis  in  the  National  Convention 
which  met  in  1792,  and  became  a  leader  of 
the  party  of  the  Mountain,  which  finally 
triumphed  over  that  of  the  Girondists 
(May,  1793).  The  fall  of  Brissot  and  his 
colleagues  was  followed  by  the  Reign  of 
Terror.  Robespierre  exercised  the  power  of 
a  dictator,  and  a  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
was  established,  which  proscribed  all  who 
fell  under  his  suspicion,  till  at  last  his 
tyranny  excited  a  party  against  him  in  the 
Convention  itself,  and  he  was  guillotined. 

Robins,  Benjamin  {b.  1707,  d.  1751), 
mathematician ;  published  New  Principles 
of  Gunnery  (1742),  and  was  the  real  author 
of  Lord  Anson's  Voyage  Round  the  World 
(1748). 

Robinson,  Edward  (b.  1794,  d.  1813),  an 
American  philologist  and  Biblical  scholar. 

Robinson,  Henry  Crabb  (*.  1775,  d.  1867), 
man  of  letters ;  was  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  the  leading  literary  men  of  his  time. 
His  Diary,  Reminiscences,  and  Correspondence 
appeared  in  1869. 

Robinson,  Sir  Hercules  George  Robert, 
Bart.  (^.1824),  became  successively  governor 
of  Hong  Kong  (1859),  Ceylon  (1865),  and 
New  South  Wales  (1872),  and  as  high  com- 
missioner for  the  latter  colony  annexed  the 
Fiji  Islands  in  1874.  He  was  governor  of 
New  Zealand  from  1876  to  1880,  when  he 
was  appointed    governor  of    the  Cape  of 


Rob 


(647) 


Koff 


Good    Hope     and    high    commissioner    of 
South  Africa. 

Robinson,  Sir  John  Charles  (b.  1834), 
was  art-superintendent  of  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum  from  1853  to  1869,  when 
he  became  crown  surveyor  of  pictures. 

Robinson,  John  Eichard  {b.  1828),  jour- 
nalist ;  in  1868  became  manager,  and  in 
1887  editor,  of  the  Daily  News. 

Robison,  John  {b.  1739,  d.  1805),  mathe- 
matician ;  was  appelated  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  at  Edinburgh  in  1774. 

Robson,  Frederick  {b.  1821,  d,  1864),  a 
popular  low  comedian. 

Roby,  Henry  John,  M.P.  (5. 1830),  scholar, 
educated  at  Cambridge  ;  is  the  author  of  a 
well-known  Latin  Cxrammar  (1871-4),  and 
edited  Justinian. 

Rochambeau,  Jean  Baptiste  Douatien  de 
Vimeur,  Comte  de  {b.  1725,  d.  1807),  marshal 
of  France ;  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war  and  the  American  war 
of  Independence;  in  1790  became  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  north,  but  re- 
signed in  1792,  and  narrowly  escaped 
execution  during  the  Eeign  of  Terror. 

Rochefort-Lugay,  Victor  Henri,  Comte 
de  {b.  1830),  French  politician  ;  became  pro- 
minent through  his  attacks  on  the  second 
Empire,  both  in  the  Figaro,  the  Lanterne, 
and  the  Marseillaise,  and  as  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  (1869-70).  He  at 
first  supported  the  Commune,  but  after- 
wards tied  from  Paris,  was  arrested,  and 
deported  to  New  Caledonia,  whence  he 
escaped  in  1874.  He  started  the  Intran- 
sigeant  in  1880,  and  subsequently  became  a 
supporter  of  General  Boulanger. 

Rocbester,  John  Wilmot,  Earl  of  (*.  1647, 
d.  1680),  a  dissipated  favourite  of  Charles 
II.  His  songs  and  satires  were  witty,  but 
obscene. 

Roddngham,  Charles  Watson  Weut- 
worth.  Marquis  of  {b.  1730,  d.  1782),  was 
prime  minister  and  First  Lord  of  the  Trea- 
sury 1765-6,  and  repealed  the  Stamp  Act  in 
the  latter  year.  He  afterwards  opposed  the 
Administration  of  Lord  North,  and  again 
became  Premier  in  1782. 

Rodbertus,  Carl  Johann  (fi.  1805,  d.  1875), 
the  founder  of  scientific  socialism ;  was 
elected  to  the  Prussian  National  Assembly  in 
1848,  and  in  1849  represented  Berlin  in  the 
Chamber.  His  chief  contribution  to  eco- 
nomic science  is  his  development  of  the 
Eicardian  theory  of  value. 

Roderic  {d.  711),  last  Visigoth  King  of 
Spain ;  usurped  the  throne  of  Witiza  in 
709.    In  711  a  Saracen  army  crossed  over 


from  Africa,  and  defeated  Eoderic  at  Xeres, 
on  the  Guadalete.     His  fate  is  unknown. 

Roebuck,  John  Arthur  {b.  1801,  d.  1879), 
pohtician,  broughtupin  Canada,  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1824  ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1832, 
andenteredParliament  thesameyear;  joined 
O'ConneU  in  resisting  coercion  in  Ireland, 
and  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  ballot 
and  other  radical  measures  ;  overthrew  the 
Aberdeen  Ministry  by  his  motion  for  an  in- 
quiry into  the  condition  of  the  army  in  the 
Ciiinea.  His  views  afterwards  underwent 
a  great  change,  in  which  he  was  not  fol- 
lowed by  many  of  his  Liberal  supporters. 

Roemer,  Olaus  (J.  1644,  «?.  1710),  Danish 
astronomer;  became  professor  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1681.  His  chief  discovery  was 
that  of  the  velocity  of  Light. 

Roger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury  (d.  1139) ;  be- 
came steward  and  chaplain  to  Henry  I., 
and  in  1107  was  made  justiciar;  organised 
the  Curia  Eegis,  and  founded  the  Court  of 
Exchequer.  His  imprisonment  by  Stephen 
in  1139  was  one  cause  of  the  war  between 
that  king  and  Matilda. 

Roger  of  Wendover  {d.  1237),  English 
chronicler ;  was  a  monk  in  St.  Albans 
abbey.  Matthew  Paris  made  much  use  of 
his  Flores  Historiarum. 

Roger  I.,  Count  of  Sicily  (b.  1031,  d.  1100), 
youngest  son  of  Tancred  of  Hauteville ;  in 
1058  went  to  Italy  to  join  his  brothers,  and 
aided  them  in  completing  the  conquest  of 
Calabria ;  in  1060  crossed  over  to  Sicily, 
and,  after  thirty  years'  warfare,  obtained 
possession  of  the  whole  island. 

Roger  XL,  King  of  Sicily  (jb.  1097,  d.  1154), 
was  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  coimt.  He  gained  some  territory 
from  his  cousin  Wilham  of  Apulia,  after 
whose  death,  in  1127,  he  was  acknowledged 
as  Duke  of  Apulia,  Calabria,  and  Naples, 
receiving  his  investiture  from  Pope  Houorius 
II.  (1128).  Soon  afterwards  the  Prince  of 
Capua  did  homage  to  him  as  his  over-lord. 
In  1129  he  received  from  the  anti-pope 
Anacletus  the  title  of  King  of  SicOy. 

Rogers,  John  {d.  1555),  the  protomartyr 
in  the  Marian  persecution  ;  became  chaplain 
to  the  company  of  Merchant  Adventurers  at 
Antwerp,  and  was  associated  with  Tj-ndale 
and  Coverdale  in  their  labours  on  the  Bible ; 
after  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  was  made 
prebendary  of  St.  Paul's.  He  was  burnt  at 
Smithfield. 

Rogers,  Samuel  {b.  1763,  d.  1855),  poet; 
was  the  son  of  a  London  banker,  and  entered 
his  father's  business.  His  chief  work  was 
The  Pleasures  of  Memory  (1792).  He  is  now 
better  remembered  as  a  leader  of  society  and 
a  patron  of  art  and  literature  than  as  a  poet. 


Rog 


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Horn 


Rogers,  Woods  {d.  1732),  navigator;  com- 
ma uded  an  expedition  to  the  South  Sea  in 
1708,  and  rescued  Alexander  Selkirk  from 
the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez. 

Rohan,  Louis  Eone  Edouard,  Prince  de, 
Cai-diual  {l>.  1734,  d.  180-J),  Bishop  of  Stras- 
burg ;  iu  liis  efforts  to  obtain  the  favour 
of  Marie  Antoinette,  became  the  dupe  of 
Madame  Lamotte  in  the  att'air  of  the  Dia- 
mond Necklace,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastille  (1785),  but  acquitted  in  1786.  In 
1801  he  resigned  his  bishopric. 

Roland  de  la  Platiere,  Jean  Marie  (i. 
1734,  d.  17i:lo),  French  revolutionist;  was 
inspector-general  of  manufactories  at  Lyons 
when  the  revolution  broke  out ;  was  minister 
of  the  interior  from  March  to  Jiuie,  17!i2, 
and  was  recalled  after  August  10th,  but 
lost  influence  with  the  Girondins,  and  re- 
signed in  January,  1793.  Proscribed  in 
June,  he  fled  from  Paris,  and  iu  November 
committed  suicide  near  Rouen. 

Roland,  Marie  Jeanne  Phlipon  (J.  1754, 
d.  1793),  wife  of  the  preceding ;  was 
daughter  of  an  engraver  at  Paris,  and 
married  Roland  in  1780.  She  sympathised 
with  his  revolutionary  ideas,  and  exercised 
much  influence  over  the  policy  of  the 
Girondist  party.  On  the  proscription  of 
the  Girondists  she  was  confined  in  the 
Abbaye,  and,  after  five  months'  imprison- 
ment, put  to  death.  Her  Memoires  were 
written  during  her  confinement. 

Rolleston,  George,  M.D.  {b.  1829,  d.  1881), 
man  of  science  ;  became  Linacre  professor  of 
anatomy  and  physiology  at  Oxford  in  1860. 
He  published  Forms  of  Animal  Life  (1870), 
etc. 

Rollin,  Charles  {b.  1661,  d.  1741),  French 
historian  ;  twice  became  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris.  He  wrote  an  Ancient  His- 
tory, etc. 

RoUo,  or  Rolf,  Duke  of  Normandy  {d. 
932),  was  exiled  from  Norway  by  Harald 
Harfagr ;  in  876  ascended  the  Seine,  and 
gained  possession  of  Rouen  ;  continued  his 
devastations  till  911,  when  Charles  the 
Simple  ceded  to  him  Neustria  and  Brittany. 
For  these  lands,  which  became  known  as  the 
duchy  of  Normandy,  Rollo  did  homage  to 
the  French  king,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
baptised  at  Rouen. 

Romanes,  George  John  {b.  1848),  man  of 
science,  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  has  pub- 
lished The  Star-fish,  Jelly-fish,  and  Sea- 
Urchins  (1885),  Mental  Evolution  in  Animals 
(1883),  etc. 

Romano,  GiuUo  [Pippi]  (fi.  1492,  d.  1546), 
painter  and  architect,  born  at  Rome  ;  was  a 
oisciple  of  Raphael.  His  works  are  chiefly 
frescoes.    He  died  at  Mantua. 


Romanus  I.,  "  Lecapenus,"  Emperor  of 
the  East  (d.  948),  became  the  associate  of 
Constantine  VII.,  with  the  title  of  Caesar,  in 
919,  and  gained  complete  control  over  the 
government.  In  944  he  was  dethroned  by 
his  son,  Stephen,  and  forced  to  enter  a 
monastery. 

Romanus  II.  {b.  939,  d.  963),  ascended 
the  throne  in  959,  after  poisoning  his  father, 
Constantine  VII. 

Romanus  III.,  "Argyrus"  (J.  968,  d. 
10o4),  succeeded  Constantine  VIII.  in  1028. 

Romanus  IV.,  "Diogenes"  {d.  1101); 
became  emperor  in  1067,  on  his  marriage 
with  Eudoxia,  widow  of  Constantine  X.  He 
was  successful  in  three  campaigns  against 
the  Tui-ks,  but  in  1071  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Alp-Arslan  at  Manzikert. 
On  his  return  to  Constantinople  he  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  Michael 
VII.,  by  whom  he  was  deprived  of  his 
sight. 

Romanzoff,  Peter  Alexandrovitch,  Count 
(l).  circa  1730,  d.  1796),  Russian  general ; 
distinguished  himself  as  commander-in-chief 
against  the  Txirks,  whom  he  forced  to  accede 
to  the  Treaty  of  Kainardji  (1774).  In  1787 
he  retired  from  court  owing  to  his  jealousy 
of  Potemkin. 

RomanzofiF,  Nicholas,  Count  {b.  1753,  d. 
1826),  statesman  and  diplomatist,  son  of  the 
preceding  ;  promoted  the  interests  of  edu- 
cation and  commerce,  and  bore  the  expenses 
of  Kotzebue's  scientific  expedition. 

RomiUy,  John,  Baron  {b.  1802,  d.  1874), 
son  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  ;  was  called  to 
the  bar  ia  1827  ;  became  Solicitor- General 
in  1848,  Attorney- General  in  1850,  and 
Master  of  the  RoUs  in  1851.  In  1866  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage. 

Romilly,  Sir  Samuel  (6.  1757,  d.  1818), 
English  lawyer,  descended  from  a  French 
Huguenot  who  came  to  England  on  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes ;  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1783  ;  in  1806  entered 
Parliament,  and  was  appointed  Solicitor- 
General.  The  state  of  the  criminal  law 
had  long  been  his  special  study,  and  he 
was  now  enabled  to  effect  some  important 
reforms. 

Romney,  George  {b.  1734,  d,  1802), 
painter,  born  at  Dalton,  in  Lancashire ; 
after  receiving  some  lessons  from  a  country 
artist,  came  to  London  in  1 762 ;  visited 
France  in  1764,  and  Italy  1773-5  ;  on  his 
return  became  the  rival  of  Reynolds  as  a 
portrait-painter  ;  also  gained  distinction  as  a 
painter  of  historical  pictures. 

Romulus,  a  mythical  King  of  Rome,  said 
to  have  foimded  the  city  in  753  B.C. 


Son 


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Kos 


Eonsaxd,  Pierre  de  {b.  1524,  d.  1585),  a 
celebrated  French  poet.  His  works  consist 
chiefly  of  odes,  elegies,  and  epigrams. 

Rooke,  Sir  George  {b.  1650,  d.  1709),  Eng- 
lish admiral ;  burnt  the  French  fleet  at  La 
Hogue  (1692) ;  in  1702  destroyed  the  plate 
fleet,  with  its  French  convoy,  in  the  harbour 
of  Vigo ;  took  part  with  Sir  Cloudesley 
Shovel,  in  the  capture  of  Gibraltar  (1704). 

Roon,  Albrecht  Theodor  Emil,  General 
Field-Marshal  Count  von  {b.  lfc.03,  d.  1879), 
bom  in  Pomerania  ;  became  minister  of  war 
in  18-59,  and  reorganised  the  Prussian  anny. 
In  1871  he  retired  fi-om  public  Life.  His 
Principles  of  Fhymcal,  National,  and  Folitical 
Geography  were  published  in  1832. 

Rosa,  Salvator  {b.  IQlo,  d.  1673),  painter, 
born  near  Naples  ;  studied  under  Francan- 
zani,  but  learnt  more  duiing  his  wanderings 
among  the  Apennines,  the  wild  scenery  of 
which  he  reproduced  in  his  landscapes.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1634,  and  spent  his  time 
between  that  city  and  Naples  till  1647,  when 
his  share  in  MasaiiieUo's  revolution  com- 
pelled him  finally  to  quit  his  native  town. 
After  residing  at  Florence  1647-52,  he 
returned  to  Rome,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  Ufe. 

Roscher,  "Wilhelm  {b.  1817),  a  German 
economist ;  one  of  the  founders  of  the  his- 
torical school.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  political  economy  at  Leipzig  in  1848. 

Roscius,  Quintus  {d.  61  B.C.),  a  celebrated 
Boman  actor. 

Roscoe,  Henry  Enfield,  Sir,  M.P.  {b.  1833), 
grandson  of  William  Roscoe  ;  was  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Owens  College,  Manchester, 
1858-86.  He  is  joint  author,  with  Professor 
Bunsen  of  Heidelberg,  of  Gasometry  (1857), 
and  has  edited  Kirchhoil's  Researches  on  the 
Solar  Spectrum  (1862). 

Roscoe,  William  {b.  1753,  d.  1831),  his- 
torical biographer,  bom  in  Livei-pool ;  was 
admitted  an  attorney  of  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench  in  1774.  He  published  The  Life  of 
Lorenzo  de''  Medici  (1796),  and  the  Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  (1805),  etc. 

Rose,  George  {b.  1744,  d.  1818),  was 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  xmder  Pitt 
and  Grenville. 

Rose,  Gustav  (*.  1798,  d.  1873),  German 
chemist ;  accompanied  Himiboldt  in  his 
Russian  expedition,  of  which  he  gave  an 
account  in  his  Journey  to  the  Ural,  the  Altai, 
and  the  Caspian  Sea  (1837-42).  He  also 
published  Eletnente  der  Krystallographie 
(1838),  etc. 

Rose,  Henr>'  John  (6. 1800,  d.  1873),  Arch- 
deacon of  Bedford  ;  edited  Neander's  Church 


Ilistory,  and  wrote  a  reply  to  Rowland  Wil- 
liams' paper  in  Essays  and  Reviews,  etc. 

Rose,  Hugh  James  (b.  1795,  d.  1838), 
brother  of  the  preceding  ;  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  advanced  section  of  the  High 
Church  pai-ty,  and  a  zealous  opponent  of 
German  rationalism.  He  was  appointed 
prmcipal  of  King's  College  in  1836. 

Rosebery,  Archibald  Philip  Primrose,  fifth 
Earl  of  {b.  1847) ;  was  First  Commissioner  of 
Works  1884,  and  was  Chairman  of  the  first 
Loudon  Coxmty  Council ;  became  Foreign  Sec- 
retary under  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1886  and  1892. 

Rosecrans,  WiUiam  Stark  {b.  1819), 
American  general ;  commanded  the  Union 
forces  in  West  Virginia  dm-ing  the  Civil 
war,  and  gained  an  important  victory  at 
Corinth  (October,  1862).  He  was  American 
minister  to  Mexico  in  1868. 

Rosellini,  IppoUto  {b.  1800,  d.  1843),  bom 
at  Pisa,  studied  Oriental  languages  under 
Mezzofanti  in  Bologna,  and  was  associated 
with  ChampolHon  in  an  expedition  to  Egypt, 
the  results  of  which  he  pubhshed  in  Monu- 
menti  delV  Egitto  e  delta  I^ubia. 

Rosen,  Friedrich  August  (J.  1805,  d.  1837), 
bom  in  Hanover ;  was  in  1836  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  University 
College,  London,  where  he  afterwards  be- 
came professor  of  Sanscrit. 

Rosenmiiller,  Ernst  Friedrich  Karl  {b. 
1768,  d.  ISoo),  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  the  university  of  Leipzig ;  pub- 
lished Scholia  in  Vettis  Testainentum,  etc. 

Ross,  Alexander  {b.  1699,  d.  1784),  poet, 
born  in  Aberdeenshire  ;  wrote  Helenore,  a 
pastoral  poem,  and  many  ballads  in  the 
Scotch  dialect. 

Ross,  Alexander  Milton  (Jb.  1832),  an 
eminent  physician,  bom  in  Canada  ;  also 
distinguished  as  a  naturalist. 

Ross,  Sir  James  Clark  (b.  1800,  d.  1862), 
admiral,  nephew  of  Sir  John  Ross ;  served 
in  the  naval  expeditions  for  the  discovery 
of  the  North-West  Passage  1818-33 ;  dis- 
covered the  north  magnetic  pole  in  1831  ; 
commanded  the  expedition  of  the  Erebus 
and  Terror  to  the  Antarctic  regions  1839-43. 

Ross,  Sir  John  {b.  1777,  d.  1856),  admiral; 
in  181 S  commanded  an  expedition  in  search 
of  a  North-West  Passage  ;  was  again  em- 
ployed on  an  Arctic  voyage  of  discovery 
1829-33  :  in  1850  vainly  endeavoured  to  find 
Sir  John  Franklin.  He  published  a  Life  of 
Admiral  Lord  de  Saumarez,  etc. 

Ross,  Sir  William  Charles  (*.  1794,  d. 
1860),  a  celebrated  miniature-painter. 

Rosse,  William  Parsons,  Earl  of  (b.  1800, 


BiOS 


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Ron 


d.  1S67),  a  distinguished  practical  as- 
tronomer and  constructor  of  redacting 
telescopes. 

Rossetti,  Gabriel  Charles  Dante  {b.  1828, 
d.  1882),  poet  and  painter  ;  was  the  son  of 
Gabriele  Kossetti,  an  Italian  refugee,  who 
settled  in  London  in  1824.  He  studied  at 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  under  Ford  Madox 
Brown,  and  became  the  leadiug  spirit  of  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood,  which  was 
founded  in  1848.  Among  his  chief  pictures 
is  Dante's  Vision,  the  property  of  the  Liver- 
pool Corporation.  His  chief  volumes  of 
original  poetry  are  Foems  (1870),  and  ^a^ 
lads  and  iSannets  (1881).  Dante  and  his  Circle 
(1874),  consists  of  translations  of  the  early 
Italian  poets.  His  elder  sister,  Maeia 
Feanoesca  {b.  1827,  d.  1876),  published  A 
Shadow  of  Dante  (1871),  etc.  William 
Michael  Rossetti  (b.  1829),  is  a  well- 
known  literary  and  art-critic.  Cheistina 
Geoegina  {b.  1830),  the  yovingest  member 
of  the  family,  has  published  Goblin  Market 
(1862),  Die  Frince's  Progress  (1866),  and 
other  volumes  of  poetry. 

Rossi,  John  Charles  Felix,  R.A.  (*.  1762, 
d.  1839),  an  English  sculptor. 

Rossi,  Pellegrino  (*.  1787,  _  d.  1848), 
Italian  statesman,  was  exiled  in  1815  for 
espousing  the  cause  of  Murat ;  escaped  to 
Geneva,  where  he  became  professor  of 
Eoman  law  (1819),  and  a  member  of  the 
Diet  (1832).  He  settled  in  France  in  1832, 
became  professor  of  political  economy  at 
the  College  de  France,  and  in  1845  went 
as  French  ambassador  to  Rome.  He  was 
called  to  the  first  ministry  of  Pius  IX.,  and 
schemed  for  an  Italian  confederacy,  with 
the  pope  as  president,  but  was  assassinated 
the  same  year. 

Rossini,  Gioachiao  Antonio  (b.  1792,  d. 
1868),  the  greatest  of  the  Italian  opera  com- 
posers ;  was  the  son  of  a  strolling  horn- 
player.  He  studied  music  xmder  Mattel  at 
the  lyceum  of  Bologna.  Among  his  chief 
operas  are  Tancredi  (1813),  II  Barbiere  di 
Seviglia  (1816),  and  Guglielmo  Tell  (1829). 
He  also  composed  a  Stabat  Mater  (1842), 
and  other  church  music.  From  1824  on- 
wards he  lived  chiefly  in  Paris. 

Rosslyn,  Alexander  Wedderbum,  Earl  of 
(b.  ll'i'6,  d.  1805),  lawyer  and  statesman  ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1757 ;  became 
Solicitor-General  tu  1771,  Attorney -General 
in  1778,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas 
in  1780,  and  was  Lord  Chancellor  1793- 
1801. 

Rost,  Reinhold  {b.  1822),  OrientaUst ;  has 
published  works  on  Burmese  law,  etc. 

Rothschild,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Jewish  family  of  bankers  and   financiers. 


Metee  Anselm  Rothschild  (5.  1743,  d^ 
1812),  bom  at  Frankfort,  was  designed  for 
the  priesthood,  but  showed  more  aptitude 
for  commercial  pursuits,  and  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  his  family's  fortune  by  his  success 
as  tlie  banker  of  the  Elector  of  Hesse - 
Cassel.  His  son,  Nathan  (i.  1777,  d.  1836), 
came  to  England  in  1800  as  agent  for  his 
father,  after  whose  death  he  greatly  ex- 
teuded  his  busiuess,  actiug  in  copartnership 
with  his  brothers,  who  resided  iu  various 
European  capitals.  His  eldest  son,  Lionel 
de  Rothschild  (i.  1808,  d.  1879),  was 
elected  Whig  member  for  the  City  of 
London  in  1847,  but  did  not  take  his  seat 
until  the  passing  of  the  Jewish  Disabilities 
Bill  (1858).  Nathaniel  Meyee  {b.  1840), 
eldest  son  of  Lionel,  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1885. 

Rotteck,  Carl  von  {b.  Yllb,  d.  1840),  was 
professor  of  history,  and  of  politics,  at  Frei- 
burg.    He  published  a  Universal  Ristory. 

Roubillac,  Louis  Francois  (6.  1695,  d. 
1762),  sculptor,  bom  at  Lyons  ;  settled  in 
England  about  1744. 

Rouget  de  Lisle.    \_See  Lisle.] 

Rouher,  Eugene  {b.  1814, «?.  1884),  French 
statesman,  was  Louis  Napoleon's  prime 
minister  1849-51  ;  became  minister  of  agri- 
culture and  commerce  in  1856,  and  nego- 
tiated the  Cobden  Treatjr  (1860)  ;  was 
appointed  minister  of  state  in  1863  ;  on  the 
fall  of  the  Empire  fied  to  England,  but 
represented  a  Corsican  constitueucy  in  the 
General  Assembly  1871-9. 

Roumania,  Alexander  John  I.,  Prince  of 
[John  Couza]  {b.  1820,  d.  1873),  at  the 
close  of  the  Crimean  war  became  ruler  over 
the  united  principalities  of  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia,  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Porte. 
He  was  at  first  popular,  but  having  at- 
tempted to  make  himself  absolute  was 
forced  to  abdicate  iu  1866. 

Roumania,  Charles  I.,  King  of  [b.  1839), 
second  son  of  Prince  Charles  Anton  of 
Hohenzollem  -  Sigmaringen,  was  chosen 
Prince  of  Roumania  in  1866.  He  aided  the 
Russians  against  the  Turks  in  the  war  of 
1877.  By  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  (1878) 
the  Roumanians  became  independent,  but 
were  forced  to  cede  Bessarabia  to  Russia  in 
exchange  for  the  Dobrudsha.  Elizabeth, 
Queen  of  Roumania  (jb.  1843),  daughter  of 
the  Prince  of  Wied,  has  published  several 
voliuues  of  poetry  under  the  pseudonym  of 
"  Carmen  Sylva." 

Rousseau,  Jean  Baptiste  [b.  1670,  d.  1741), 
French  lyrical  poet ;  was  exiled  in  1712  on 
the  charge  of  having  written  some  satirical 
verses.    He  died  at  Brussels. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques  {b.  1712,  d.  1778), 


Zlou 


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E>ud 


French  philosopher,  son  of  a  watchmaker  at 
Geneva  ;  was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver, 
but  made  his  escape  into  Savoy  (1728), 
where  he  was  foixud  by  a  priest,  who  en- 
trusted him  to  the  care  of  Madame  de 
Wareus  at  Annecy.  During  the  ensuing 
years  the  greater  part  of  his  time  was  spent 
in  her  house,  but  he  fiQally  quari'elled  with 
her  and  went  to  Paris  (,'l7-ll),  whence  iu 
17-i2  he  accompanied  the  French  ambassador 
to  Venice  as  secretary.  In  175U  he  gained  a 
prize,  offered  by  the  Academy  of  Dijon,  by 
an  essay  attacking  the  influence  of  the  arts 
and  sciences  on  society.  Of  his  subsequent 
writings  the  following  are  the  most  famous — 
Julie,  ou  la  Noiaelle  Heloise,  a  romance 
(1759),  I)u  Contrat  Social  (1762),  and  J^mile, 
a  philosophical  romance  treating  of  educa- 
tion (1762).  The  years  1766-7  he  spent  in 
England  as  the  guest  of  Hume,  but  quar- 
relled with  him,  and  returned  to  France. 

Rousseau,  Theodore  {b.  1812,  d.  1867),  a 
French  landscape-painter,  celebrated  for  his 
fidelitj'  to  natm-e. 

Routh,  Edward  John,  F.R.S.  (b.  1831), 
mathematician,  educated  at  Cambridge ; 
was  elected  to  a  fellowship  at  Peterhouse, 
and  has  become  famous  as  a  successful  tutor. 

Routb,  Martin  Joseph  (b.  1755,  d.  1854), 
scholar,  educated  at  Oxford  ;  became  presi- 
dent of  Magdalen  College  in  1791.  He 
published  Reliquice  Sacrce  (1814-8),  etc. 

Rowbotham,  John  Frederick  {b.  1854), 
has  published  a  History  of  Music  (1885), 
etc. 

Rowe,  Nicholas  (A.  1673,  d.  1718),  dra- 
matist ;  bom  in  Bedfordshire,  son  of  a 
barrister;  vrrote  Jane  S/iore,  T/te  Fair  Peni- 
tent, and  other  tragedies,  and  translated 
Lucan's  Fharsalia.  In  1715  he  became  poet 
laureate. 

Eowlandson,  Thomas  (fi.  1756,  d.  1827), 
Btudied  at  the  Eoyal  Academy  schools  and 
at  Paris.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  a 
powerful  caricaturist  and  for  his  illustrations 
to  JJoctor  Hi/ntax's  Three  Tours  (1813),  etc. 

Rowley,  William,  English  dramatist,  was 
a  contemporary  of  Shakespeare.  He  wrote 
the  Witch  of  Ed)nonton  (1658),  etc. 

Roxburgh.  William  (A.  1759,  d.  1815), 
physician  and  botanist ;  became  keeper  of 
the  botanical  mirdeus  at  Calcutta  in  1793. 
He  published  Flants  of  the  Coast  of  Coro- 
mandel  (1795-1819),  etc. 

Roy,  William  (d.  1790),  general,  originated 
the  first  geometrical  sun^ey  of  Great  Britain 
(1784).  He  wrote  The  Military  Antiquities 
of  the  EoDians  in  Xorth  Britain. 

Royer-CoUard,PierrePaul(6.1763,(i.l845), 


statesman  and  philosopher  ;  took  an  active 
part  iu  the  revolution  during  its  earlier 
stages,  but  withdi-ew  during  the  Terror, 
and,  except  for  a  short  interval  in  1797, 
when  he  sat  in  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
remained  in  retirement  till  1811.  He  was 
then  appointed  professor  of  the  history  of 
philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne.  Under  the 
Bourbons  he  became  chancellor  of  state,  and 
led  the  poUtical  party  called  "  Doctrin- 
aires." 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul  {b.  1577,  d.  1640),  a 
celebrated  Flemish  painter,  bom  at  Siegen, 
iu  Westphalia ;  after  studying  imder  Otto 
Van  Veen  and  others,  journeyed  into  Italy, 
whence  he  was  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Mantua 
on  a  joolitical  mission  to  Madrid;  in  1608 
settled  at  Antwerp,  at  the  invitation  of 
the  Archduke  Albert  and  the  Infanta  Isa- 
bella. In  1620  he  adorned  the  walls  of  the 
Luxembourg  vdth  pictures  illustrating 
scenes  iu  the  life  of  Marie  de'  Medici. 
He  subsequently  served  the  Infanta  Isa- 
bella as  a  diplomatist  in  Madrid  (1628) 
aud  England  (1629).  The  Descent  from 
the  Cross  at  Antwerp  is  considered  his 
masterpiece. 

Rubinstein,  Anton  Gregor  {b.  1830),  Eus- 
sian  pianist,  bom  near  Jassy ;  studied  under 
VUloing  at  Moscow,  under  Liszt  at  Paris, 
and  under  Dehn  at  Berlin  ;  in  1848  entered 
the  service  of  the  Grand  Duchess  Helen  of 
Russia  ;  became  principal  of  the  St.  Peters- 
burg Conservatoire  in  1862.  He  has  made 
several  European  tours,  and  visited  England 
on  eight  occasions. 

Riicker,  Ai'thur  William  {b.  1 848),  pro- 
fessor of  physics  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  South  Kensington ;  has  written 
numerous  papers  on  scientific  subjects. 

Riickert,  Friedrich  (A.  1788,  d.  1866),  poet 
and  OrientaUst :  was  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Erlaugeu  1826-41,  and  at 
Berlin  1841-8.  He  is  remembered  chiefly 
as  the  author  of  Liebesfriihling  (1821),  and 
other  volumes  of  Gennan  lyrics. 

Rudbeck,  Olaf  (b.  1630,  d.  1702),  Swedish 
physician  and  antiquary,  discovered  the 
lymphatic  vessels  in  1650  ;  became  professor 
of  botany  and  anatomy  at  Upsala  ;  wrote 
Atlantica  sire Manheim,  etc.  His  son,  Olaf 
(A.  1660,  d.  1740),  published  works  on  botany 
and  natural  history. 

Ruddiman,  Thomas  (b.  1674,  d.llol),  a 
Scotch  grammarian  and  critic  ;  in  1714  pub- 
lished liadunents  of  the  Latin  Tongue,  which 
is  still  a  text-book  in  Scotch  schools. 

Riidiger,  Feodor  Vasihevich,  Count  {b. 
1790,  d.  18)6),  a  Russian  general ;  setit  to 
assist  the  Austrians  against  the  Hungarian! 
in  1849. 


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E.US 


Rudolf,  or  Rodolf  I.,  King  of  Germany 
(b.  1218,  d.  12yi),  founder  of  the  Hapsburg 
a}Tiasty;  was  elected  Emperor  in  1273, 
and,  by  Ms  concessions  to  Gregory  XI.  at 
his  coronation,  ended  the  feud  with  the 
pope.  A  war  mth  Ottocar,  King  of 
Bohemia,  was  terminated  by  the  defeat  and 
death  of  the  latter  in  127S.  His  son,  Wen- 
ceslaus,  did  homage  to  Rudolf  for  Bohemia 
and  Moravia.  Rudolf  curbed  the  power  of 
the  nobles,  and  granted  charters  to  many 
towns. 

Rudolf  II.  (b.  1552,  d.  1612),  was  elected 
King  of  the  Romans  in  1575,  and  succeeded 
his  father,  MaximUian  II.,  as  emperor  in 
1576.  He  caused  great  discontent  by  im- 
posing heavy  taxes,  and  precluding  the 
Protestants  from  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion.  His  belief  in  astrology  induced 
him  to  patronise  Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe. 

Ruflnus  {b.  circa  350,  d.  circa  410),  Latin 
father,  became  a  priest  at  Aquileia,  but 
afterwards  attached  himself  to  St.  Jerome, 
and  followed  him  to  the  East,  where  he 
suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  the  Ariaus. 
He  afterwards  established  a  monastery  on 
Mount  Olivet.  His  version  of  Origen  gave 
rise  to  a  bitter  dispute  with  Jerome.  He 
died  in  SicUy. 

Rugendas,  Georg  Philip  {b.  1666,  d.  1742), 
a  German  painter  of  battle-scenes. 

RulimkorflF,  HeLnrich  Daniel  (*.  1803,  d. 
1877),  electrician,  bom  at  Hanover;  in- 
vented the  famous  "  Ruhmkorff  coil"  in 
1851. 

Ruhnken,  David  (b.  1723,  d.  1798),  phi- 
lologist ;  became  professor  of  eloquence  and 
history  at  Leyden  in  1761.  He  wrote  Uulo- 
ffiutn  T.  Semstcrhusii,  etc. 

Rumbold,  Sir  Horace,  Bart.  {b.  1829), 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1849  ;  was 
appointed  minister  to  Greece  in  1884,  and  to 
Holland  in  1888. 

Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count 
{b.  1753,  d.  1814),  man  of  science,  bom  in 
Massachusetts ;  fought  on  the  royalist  side 
during  the  war  of  Independence  ;  in  1784 
entered  the  Bavarian  service,  and  became 
minister  of  war  ;  in  1802  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  married  the  widow  of  Lavoisier. 

Runclman,  Alexander  {b.  1736,  d.  1785), 
an  eminent  Scotch  painter. 

Runeberg,  Johan  Ludwig  {b.  1804,  d. 
1877),  Swedish  poet,  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Abo ;  was  rector  of  the  college 
of  Borga  1847-50 ;  published  idylls,  lyrics, 
and  other  poems. 

Runjeet  Singh  {b.  1780,  d.  1839),  Maha- 
rajah  of  the  Punjaub  ;  was  the  son  of  one 


of  the  twelve  Sirdars  of  the  SLkhs.  After 
establishing  his  authority  over  the  territory 
west  of  the  Sutlej,  he  proclaimed  himself 
Rajah  of  the  Punjaub  (1812),  and  in  1819 
assumed  the  title  of  Maharajah.  He  after- 
wards annexed  Mooltan  (1818),  Cashmere 
(1819),  Peshawar  (lS2w),  and  other  places. 
He  maintained  peaceful  relations  with  the 
Eughsh. 

Rupert,  Prince  {b.  1619,  d.  1682),  was  the 
third  sou  of  Frederick,  King  of  Bohemia, 
and  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.  He 
served  in  the  Royalist  army  during  the  Civil 
war,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  im- 
petuous coui-age.  After  the  Restoration  he 
rendered  great  services  as  a  naval  com- 
mander against  the  Dutch.  His  later  years 
were  devoted  chiefly  to  scientific  pursuits. 

Ruric  {d.  879),  the  semi-mythical  founder 
of  the  Russian  empire  ;  is  said  to  have  been 
the  leader  of  a  body  of  Northmen  or 
"  Varangians,"  who  crossed  the  Baltic 
from  Scandinavia  at  the  invitation  of  the 
Slavonians,  or  Finns.  Ruric  conquered  the 
surroimdiug  tribes,  and  established  his 
capital  at  Novgorod. 

Rush,  Benjamin  {b.  1745,  d.  1813),  Ameri- 
can physician  and  politician,  born  at  Phila- 
delphia, studied  at  Edinburgh ;  was  re- 
turned to  Congress  in  1776,  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  ;  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Institute  of  Medicine  at 
Philadelphia  in  1791. 

Rushworth,  John  (*.  circa  1607,  d.  1690), 
became  assistant- clerk  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1640,  and  secretary  to  Fairfax 
in  1643.  He  was  in  the  habit  of  taking 
notes  of  all  public  transactions,  which  fur- 
nished the  material  of  his  Historical  Col- 
lections. These  were  pubKshed  in  four  parts 
(1659,  1689,  1692,  1701). 

Raskin,  John  {b.  1819)  was  bom  in 
London,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1843 
appeared  the  first  volume  of  Modern 
Painters,  which  created  a  revolution  in 
modem  art  and  the  estimation  of  artistic 
qualities.  The  remaining  volumes  were 
published  in  1846,  1856,  and  1860.  Of 
Ruskin's  other  works  on  art,  the  chief  are 
the  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture  (1849),  and 
Stones  of  Venice  (1851-3).  About  1860  he 
became  deeply  interested  in  the  social  prob- 
lems of  the  age,  and  published  Unto  this 
Last  (1862),  and  Munera  Pulveris  (1872). 
Among  his  later  works  are  Sesame  and 
Lilies  (1865),  The  Ethics  of  the  Bust,  and 
The  Croivn  of  Wild  Olives  (1866),  and  Fra- 
ierita,  a  charming  autobiography. 

RusseU,  Sir  Charles  (4.  1833),  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1859 ;  entered  Parliament 
in  1880,  and  became  Attorney- General  in 
1886  and  in  1892. 


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RusseU,  William  Clark  (A,  1844),  has 
published  The  Wreck  of  the  Grosvetwr,  and 
other  nautical  novels. 

Russell,  Henry  Chamberlaine,  became 
Government  astronomer  of  New  South 
Wales  in  lt)63. 

Russall,  John,  Earl  (b.  1792,  d.  1878), 
statesman,  third  son  of  the  sixth  Duke  of 
Bedford,  was  educated  at  Westminster  and 
Edinburgh  ;  entered  ParUameut  as  a  Whig 
in  1813 ;  became  an  advocate  of  parlia- 
mentary reform  ;  was  instrumental  in  the 
repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts 
(1828),  and  the  passing  of  the  Catholic 
ReUef  Act  (1829) ;  was  Paj-master-General 
under  Lord  Grey,  1830-4,  and  drew  up  the 
Government  Reform  Bill  (1832) ;  was  Home 
Secretary  (1835-9),  and  Colonial  Secretary 
(1839-41)  under  Lord  Melbourne  ;  led  the 
Opposition  1841-6;  was  Prime  Minister 
1846-52  ;  went  as  British  plenipotentiary  to 
the  Vienna  Conference  (1855)  ;  was  Foreign 
Secretary  under  Lord  Pabnerston  1859-65  ; 
again  became  Prime  Minister  in  1865,  but 
resigned  on  the  defeat  of  his  Reform  Bill  in 
1866.  Earl  Russell  published  an  Eisay  on 
the  History  of  the  English  Government  and 
Constitution  (1823),  and  numerous  other 
works. 

RusseU,  Michael  {b.  1781,  d.  1848),  be- 
came Bishop  of  Glasgow  in  1837.  His  works 
were  numerous. 

RusseU,  Lord  William  {b.  1639,  d.  1683), 
became  a  leader  of  the  Whig  Opposition  to 
Charles  n.,  and  favoured  the  Exclusion 
Bill.  Having  been  charged  with  complicity 
in  the  "  Rye  House  Plot,"  he  was  con- 
demned to  death,  and  executed  in  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields.  During  his  trial  he  was  nobly 
assisted  by  his  wife,  Lady  Rachel  Rttssell 
(b.  1636,  d.  1723),  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Southampton. 

RusseU,  William  (5. 1746,  d.  1794),  Scotch 
miscellaneous  writer.  After  serving  his 
apprenticeship  to  a  bookseller  in  Edinburgh, 
he  came  to  London  (1767),  where  he  found 
occupation  in  the  printing  trade.  His  chief 
work  was  his  History  of  Modern  Europe 
(1779-84).  "^    -^  ^ 

RusseU,  Wilham  Howard  {b.  1821),  be- 
came attached  to  the  Timea  in  1843,  and  in 
1854  went  to  the  Crimea  as  its  war  corre- 
spondent. His  letters  created  great  con- 
sternation in  Great  Britain,  and  caused  the 
fall  of  the  Aberdeen  ministry.  They  were 
republished  under  the  title  of  The  JFar 
(1855).  He  afterwards  represented  the 
TUnes  in  the  Mutiny,  the  American  Civil 
war,  the  Austro-Prussian  war,  and  the 
Franco -German  war. 


Rutherford,  Daniel  {b.  1749,  d.  1819), 
Scotch  physician ;  made  important  dis- 
coveries in  chemistry. 

Rutherford,  Samuel  {b.  circa  1600,  d. 
1661),  Scottish  preacher,  became  minister 
of  Anwoth  iu  1627.  In  1636  was  deprived 
of  his  oiitice  and  was  banished  to  Aberdeen, 
where  he  remained  till  1638.  In  1639  he 
became  professor  of  divinity  at  St.  Andrews, 
and  iu  1641  was  a  commissioner  at  the  West- 
minster Assembly.  His  Lex  Rex  led  to  his 
dismissal  from  all  his  offices,  and  his  death 
prevented  hie  trial  for  high  treason.  He 
wrote  Exercdationcs  de  Gratia,  Trial  and 
Triumph  of  Faith,  Letters,  etc. 

Rutland,  John  James  Robert  Manners, 
Duke  of  {b.  1818),  has,  since  his  first  en- 
trance into  Parliament  in  1841,  been  a 
leading  member  of  the  Conservative  party, 
distinguishing  himself  especially  by  his  zeal 
in  the  agricultural  interest.  He  was  Post- 
master-General 1874-80,  and  again  in  1885. 
In  1887  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage. 

Ruysbrock,  or  Rubruquis,  William  de  {b. 
circa  1225,  d.  after  1293),  a  Franciscan  friar  ; 
was  in  1253  sent,  with  two  companions,  by 
Louis  rX.  of  France,  to  visit  Sartach,  a 
Mongol  prince,  who  was  supposed  to  be  a 
Christian.  On  arriving  at  his  camp  they 
discovered  their  mistake,  but  continued  their 
journey  to  the  encampment  of  his  father, 
Batii  Khan,  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  and, 
after  spending  some  months  at  the  court  oi' 
Maugii  Khan,  the  Tartar  Emperor,  journeyed 
through  Anueuia,  Persia,  and  A^ia  Minor 
to  TripoU,  in  Syria.  Here  Ruysbrock  re- 
mained, in  compliance  with  an  order  from 
his  provincial,  and  compiled  an  account  of 
his  travels,  wldch  is  extant. 

Ruysch,  Frederic  (J.  1638,  d.  1731),  Dutch 
physician  ;  became  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Amsterdam  in  1666,  and  of  physic  in  1685. 

Ruyter.     {See  De  Ruyter.] 

Rydberg,  Viktor  {b.  1829)  Swedish  man 
of  letters  ;  has  published  Tlie  Last  Athenian, 
a  novel  (1859),  Ifayic  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(1864),  Teutonic  Mythology  (1886),  etc. 

Ryland,  William  Wynne  (J.  1732,  d. 
1783),  was  engraver  to  George  III.  He 
was  executed  for  forgery. 

Ryle,  John  Charles  {b.  1816),  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Liverpool  in  1880.  He 
has  published  Home  Truths,  etc. 

Rymer,  Thomas  {h.  1639,  d.  1714),  anti- 
quary ;  was  appointed  royal  historiographer 
iu  1692.  He  edited  Fwdera,  consisting  of 
the  steite  documents  concerning  the  relatione 
of  England  with  forei^  states. 


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Sad 


s 


Saad  ed  Deen  (rf.  1599),  Turkish  historian  ; 
author  of  Tadji-al-Towarik,  a  history  of  the 
Ottoman  empire  to  the  year  1520. 

Saadi  [MosU  Eddin]  {b.  1176,  d.  1291), 
Persian  poet,  whose  cmef  work  is  Gulistan, 
which  has  been  translated  into  most  of  the 
European  languages.  He  fought  against  the 
Brahmins,  Crusaders,  and  Turks,  and  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  last. 

Saavedra.     [See  Cervantes.] 

Saavedra-Faxardo,  Diego  da  {b.  1584,  d. 
1618),  a  distinguished  Spanish  diplomatist 
and  author. 

SaDatier,  Antoine  {b.  1742,  d.  1817), 
French  writer  ;  author  of  Les  Trois  Siecks 
de  la  Litterature  Frangaise,  Dietionnaire  de 
VAntiquite  Fatenne,  etc. 

Sabbatini,  Andre  [Andrea  di  Salerno]  {b. 
1480,  d.  1545),  Italian  painter,  pupil  of 
Eaffaelle.  His  pictures  are  at  Naples,  Gaeta, 
and  Salerno. 

Sabbatini,  Lorenzo  (d.  1577),  painter, 
whose  pictures  were  sometimes  mistaken  for 
those  of  his  namesake.  He  is  sometimes 
called  "Lorenzino  da  Bologna." 

Sabellius  (3rd  century),  African  theolo- 
gian, whose  opinions  on  the  Trinity  were 
condemned  by  Dionysius  of  Alexandria. 

Sabina,  Poppsea  (d.  65),  second  wife  of 
Nero,  having  been  his  mistress  when  mar- 
ried to  Otho ;  was  killed  by  a  kick  from  the 
tyrant. 

Sabine,  General  Sir  Edward  (*.  1788,  d. 
1883),  Enghsh  physicist;  made  several 
•voyages  to  the  Arctic  regions  for  scientific 
purposes,  and  published  The  Pendulum  and 
other  Experiments  (1825),  and  an  edition  of 
Himiboldt's  Cosmos;  was  elected  president 
of  the  Eoyal  Society  in  1861. 

Saccbetti,  Franco  (6.  circa  1335,  d.  circa 
1400),  Florentine  writer,  friend  of  Boccaccio, 
and  author  of  NovelU  and  Battaglia  delle 
Vecchi  e  delle  Fanciulle. 

SaccM,  Andrea  (A.  1591,  d.  1661),  Roman 
pamter,  patronised  by  Urban  VIII.,  and  a 
pupil  of  Albano. 

Sacchini,  Anton  Maria  (A.  1735,  d.  1786), 
Neapolitan  composer ;  was  invited  to  London 
by  Bumey,  and  afterwards  went  to  Paris. 


He  composed  Montezuma,  Fdipo  a  Coiono,  ana 
many  other  operas. 

Sacber-Masocb,  Leopold  von  (&.  1836), 
Austrian  novelist,  born  at  Lemberg,  whose 
works,  deaUng  chiefly  with  Galician  life,  in- 
clude Cain's  Inheritance,  Maria  Theresa  und 
die  Freimaurer,  Le  Cabinet  Noir  de  Lemberg, 
and  some  historical  and  dramatic  works. 

Sacbeverell,  Henry  {b.  1672,  d.  1724), 
Enghsh  clergyman,  who  was  impeached  in 
1710  for  some  High  Tory  sermons  preached 
at  Derby  and  St.  Paul's.  The  hghtness  of 
his  sentence  was  regarded  as  a  triumph  by 
hie  party. 

Sacbs,  Hans  {b.  1494,  d.  1578),  German 
meistersinger,  by  trade  a  shoemaker,  of 
Nuremberg;  composed  many  poems  of 
merit. 

Sacbs,  JuHus  {b.  1832),  German  botanist 
and  privy  councillor ;  having  previously 
held  chairs  at  Poppelsdorf  and  Freiburg, 
became  Austrian  professor-in-ordinary  of 
botany.  His  works  include  a  Compendium 
of  Botany,  a  History  of  Botany,  and  Lectures 
on  the  Fhysiology  of  Flants,  aU  of  which 
have  been  translated. 

Sackville,  Lord  (b.  1827),  English  diplo- 
matist ;  was  appointed  (as  Sir  Lionel  Sack- 
ville-West)  plenipotentiary  to  the  Argentine 
Republic  in  1873,  went  to  Madrid  in  1878, 
and  to  Washington  in  1881.  He  took  part 
iQ  the  Samoa  Convention  and  the  Fisheries 
Treaty  of  1888,  and  was  recalled  in  the 
following  year. 

Sackville,  Lord  George  (b.  1716,  d.  1785), 
soldier  and  statesman  ;  distinguished  himself 
at  Dettingen  and  Fontenoy,  but  was  dis- 
missed the  service  for  his  disobedience  to 
orders  at  Minden.  He  was  a  Secretary  of 
State  from  1775  to  1782.  He  took  the  name 
of  Germain,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1782. 

Sackville,  Thomas,  J  Earl  of  Dorset  (b. 
1536,  d.  1608),  wrote,  with  Thomas  Norton, 
Gorboduc,  or  Ferrex  and  Forrex  ;  his  other 
chief  work  is  Induction  to  a  Myrrour  for 
Magistrates  (1563). 

Sacy,  Antoine  Isaac,  Baron  Sylvestre  de 
{b.  1758,  d.  1838),  French  Orientalist,  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Societe  Asiatique  ; 
published  Frincipes  de  Grammaire  Generale, 
Expose  de  la  Religion  des  Druses,  etc. 

Sadeler,  GUles  (jb.  1570,  d.  1629),  Belgian 


Sad 


(  655  ) 


Sai 


engraver,  executed  many  works  for  the  Em- 
peror Budolph  at  Prague ;  was  educated  in 
his  art  by  his  xmcles  Hatjh  (ji.  1610)  and 
Raphael. 

Sadler,  or  Sadleir,  Sir  Ealph  {b.  1507,  d. 
1587),  English  statesman,  much  employed  in 
Scotland  under  Henry  VIII.  and  his  suc- 
cessors ;  owed  his  rise  to  Cromwell.  A 
memoir  of  him  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  ap- 
pended to  his  Letters  and  Negotiations  (180y). 

Saemund  Sigfusson  {d.  1135),  an  Ice- 
landic scholar,  to  whom  is  attributed  a 
Mistoi-y  of  the  Kings  of  Norway  and  the 
compilation  of  the  Edda. 

Sagasta,  Praxedes  Mateo  {b.  1827),Spanish 
statesman,  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country 
for  his  share  in  the  rising  of  1856,  and  again, 
ten  years  later,  to  seek  refuge  in  France. 
On  his  return  he  changed  his  views  and 
joined  General  Prim,  and  held  the  portfolio 
of  the  interior  for  several  years.  After  the 
accession  of  Alfonso  XII.,  he  formed  a 
Liberal-constitutionalist  party,  and  having 
in  1880  joined  a  new  Liberal  combination, 
formed  a  coalition  with  Campos,  which 
lasted  till  1883.  In  1887  Sagasta  again  be- 
came head  of  a  ministry. 

Sagredo,  Giovanni  {d.  circa  1700),  Vene- 
tian diplomatist  and  writer,  author  of  Mem- 
one  Storiche  dei  Monarche  Ottomani. 

Sahaffun,  Bernardino  de  {d.  1590),  Spanish 
historian  ;  went  to  Mexico  in  1529  as  a  Fran- 
ciscan missionary,  and  wrote  there  Historia 
Universal  de  Nueva  Espaiia. 

Sa'id.     [See  Zanzibar,  Sultan  of.] 

Sadd  Pasha  {b.  1822,  d.  1863),  became 
Viceroy  of  Egypt  in  1854,  and  dining  his 
period  of  rule  introduced  many  reforms,  and 
adopted  the  Suez  Canal  project. 

Saint  Amaud,  Jacques  Achille  Le  Roy  de 
{b.  1796,  d.  1854),  French  marshal,  having 
previously  distinguished  himself  in  Algeria, 
became  minister  of  war  in  1851,  and  carried 
out  the  coup-d'' etat  of  December.  He  com- 
manded the  French  at  the  opening  of  the 
Crimean  war,  but  died  on  his  way  home  a 
week  after  the  Alma. 

Saint-Cyr.     \See  Gouvion  Saint  Cyr.] 

Saint-Evremond,  Charles  de  St.  Denis  de 
{(I.  1613,  fif.  1703),  soldier  and  writer,  fought 
on  the  royalist  side  during  the  Fronde,  but 
spent  his  latter  days  in  England,  where  he 
wrote  Reflexions  sur  la  Tragedie  et  la 
Comedie. 

Saint  Gandens,  Augustus  {b.  1848), 
American  sculptor,  whose  most  important 
productions  are  Tlie  Puritan,  a  statue  of 
Lincoln  at  Chicago,  and  busts  of  T.  D. 
Woolsey  and  General  Sherman. 


Saint-Germain,  Claude  Louis,  Comte  de 
(6.  1707,  d.  177&),  general  and  administrator, 
served  in  the  French,  Danish,  and  other 
armies,  but  is  chiefly  memorable  for  his 
abortive  attempt  under  Turgot  to  reform  the 
French  army. 


Saint  - 
Hilaire.] 


Hilaire.       {See    GeofEroy    Saint 


St.  John,  Henry.     [See  BoUngbroke.] 

St.  John,  Oliver  {d.  1673),  English  lawyer, 
defended  Hampden  in  the  "Ship-money" 
case,  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  and  one  of  the  commissioners  at 
Uxbridge.  He  was  made  a  justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas  in  1648,  and  was  mainly  re- 
sponsible both  for  the  Nav-igation  Act  and 
the  draining  of  the  Bedford  Level. 

St.  John,  Sir  Spenser,  K.C.M.G.  {b.  1825), 
EngHsh  diplomatist ;  after  being  resident  in 
Borneo,  Hayti,  and  Lima,  negotiated  in  1883 
the  resumption  of  relations  with  Mexico,  to 
which  country  he  was  named  plenipotentiary 
in  1884.  He  wrote  Life  of  Sir  James  Brooke, 
Rajah  of  Sarau'ak  and  other  works. 

Saint-Just,  Antoine  (b.  1768,  d.  1794). 
French  revolutionist,  the  chief  supporter  of 
Robespierre  in  the  Comite  de  Saint  Public. 
He  was  notorious  for  his  severity  as  delegate 
to  the  army  in  Alsace,  and  was  guillotined 
after  the  revolution  of  Thermidor. 

Saint -Lambert,  Charles  Francois  de  (6. 
1717,  d.  ISOo),  poet  and  contributor  to  the 
Encyclopedie,  his  chief  works  being  Contes 
Orientates  and  Les  Saisons. 

St.  Leonards,  Edward  Sugden,  Viscount 
(b.  1781,  d.  1875),  English  lawyer,  son  of  a 
hairdresser ;  made  a  reputation  by  some 
legal  works,  and  gained  a  large  practice  at 
the  chancery  bar ;  was  Solicitor-General 
under  Wellington  in  1829,  and  Lord- 
ChanceUor  of  Ireland  under  Peel  in  1835 
and  1841-6.  He  was  also  for  a  short  time 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England  in  1852.  His 
Vendors  and  Furchasers  went  through  four- 
teen editions. 

Saint-Martin,  Louis  Claude  de  {b.  1743,  d. 
1803),  French  writer,  called  "  Le  PMlosophe 
Inconuu,"  friend  of  Lalande  and  Rousseau. 
His  chief  work  was  Des  Erreurs  et  de  la  Veriti 

Saint-Palaye,  Jean  de  la  Curne  (fi.  1697, 
d.  1781),  antiquary;  wrote  Memoires  sur 
rAnciennc  Chevalerie,  asid  left  a  large  col- 
lection of  manuscripts. 

Saint-Pierre,   Jacques  Bemardin  de   {b. 
1737,  d.  1814),  wrot-e  Raul  et  T'irginie  (1788) 
£tudes   de  La  Nature,   and  several  similar 
works. 

Saint  Saens,  Charles  Camille  Q).   1835), 


Sai 


(  656  ) 


Sal 


musical  composer  aud  critic  ;  became  organ- 
ist at  the  Madeline  in  1858,  gaining  the  prize 
at  the  International  Exhibition  ot  1867  vrith 
his  cantata  Les  Noces  de  Froniethee.  Among 
his  works  may  be  named  Samson  et  Balila, 
a  sacred  drama  (1877),  £tiemie  Marcel,  an 
opera  (1879),  aud  Rouet  d'' Omphale,  which  he 
conducted  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1879. 

Saiatstaury,  George  Bateman  (5.  1845), 
English  wi-iter ;  till  1876  was  occupied  ui 
teaching,  and  subsequently  published  A 
Primer  of  French  Literature,  A  iShort  History 
of  French  Literature,  Marlborough  {"English 
Worthies"  series),  etc. 

Saint -Simon,  Claude  Henri  de  Rouvroi, 

Comte  de  {b.  1760,  d.  182.3),  Socialist  wiiter, 
author  of  De  la  Reorganisation  de  la  Suciete 
Europeenne,  Catechisme  des  Industriels,  Le 
Nouveau  Christianisme,  and  several  similar 
works,  in  some  of  which  he  was  assisted  by 
Comte  and  Thierry.  He  attempted  to  put 
an  end  to  his  life  in  18'23. 

Saint-Simon,  Louis  de  Rouvroi,  Due  de  {b. 
1675,  d.  1755),  French  soldier  and  diplo- 
matist; was  a  member  of  the  council  of 
regency,  and  went  to  Spain  in  1721  to  nego- 
tiate a  marriage  between  Louis  XV.  and  the 
Infanta.  The  best  edition  of  his  Memoires 
is  that  of  1856-7,  edited  by  Cheruel. 

Saint-Vallier,  Charles,  Comte  de  {b.  1838), 
French  diplomatist ;  served  some  years 
under  Moustier  as  under-secretary  of  state, 
and  was  afterwards  ambassador  at  Stutt- 
gart and  Berlin. 

St.  Vincent,  John  Jervis,  Earl  (b.  1734, 

d.  182o),  British  admiiul,  who  gained  his  title 
from  his  victory  of  1797  over  the  French ; 
became  Fii-st  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1801, 
and  put  down  the  corruption  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  dockyards. 

Sainte-Beuve,  Chai-les  Augustin  (b.  1804, 
d.  1869),  French  critic  ;  after  having  been  a 
surgeon,  vrrote  verses  for  the  Revue  des  Deux 
Monies  and  other  periodicals,  and  in  1840 
became  Mazai-in  librarian.  In  1850  he 
joined  the  Constitutionnel,  in  which  appeared 
his  Gauseries  du  Lundi.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Dictionnaire  Sistorique  de  la 
Langue  Frangaise. 

Saintine,  nom  de  plume  of  Xavier  Boni- 
face {h.  1798,  d.  1865),  author  of  Picciola  and 
other  stories,  as  well  as  of  poems  and  some 
plays  written  in  collaboration  with  Scribe. 

Saisset,  Emile  (i.  1814,  d.  1863),  philoso- 
pher ;  author  of  ^nesideme  (a  history  of 
scepticism),  Essai  de  Philosophie  Religieuse 
(1860),  a  French  translation  of  Spinoza,  etc. 

Sala,  George  Augustus  Henry  (6.  1828), 
English  journalist ;  founded  and  edited  Tem- 
ple Btir,  was  war-oorrespondent  of  the  Daily 


Telegi-oph  in  the  United  States,  Algeria, 
France,  and  Russia,  and  wrote  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  Twice  Round  the 
Clock,  The  Strange  Adventures  of  Captain 
Dangerous,  etc. 

Salatout  Jung  {d.  1763),  Soubadar  of  the 
Deccan  ;  was  at  hrst  supported  by  Bussy, 
but  afterwards  favoured  the  English  alli- 
ance ;  was  deposed  by  Nizam  All,  and  put  to 
death,  though  his  title  had  been  couHrmed 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 

Saladin  [Salaheddin]  {b.  1137,  d.  1193), 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  was  of  Kurdish 
birth,  and  followed  his  uncle,  Noureddin,  to 
Egypt,  where  the  latter  became  all-powerful 
as  grand- vizier .  On  his  death  (1173),  Saladin 
was  proclaimed  sultan,  and,  after  conquering 
Syria,  invaded  Palestine  in  1187,  defeated 
the  Crusaders  at  Tiberias  and  took  Jeru- 
salem. After  a  thii'd  Crusade  aud  the  cap- 
ture of  Acre  a  truce  for  three  years  was 
agreed  to  in  1192,  soon  after  which  Saladin 
died. 

Salaman,  Charles  Kensington  {b.  1814), 
English  pianist  and  composer,  was  the  first 
to  set  the  odes  of  Horace  and  Anacreon,  and 
also  published  settings  of  modem  poems, 
anthems,  etc. 

Salar  Jung,  Sir  {d.  1883),  prime  minister 
of  Nizam  1853.  Supported  the  English 
during  the  Mutiny. 

Saldanha  Oliveira  e  Daun,  Joao  Carlos, 
Duke  of  {b.  1791,  d.  1876),  Portuguese  states- 
man, grandson  of  Pombal ;  became  foreign 
minister  in  1825,  and  as  governor  of  Oporto 
strongly  opposed  Don  Miguel.  After  hold- 
ing other  offices,  he  took  part  iil  the  Terceii'a 
insuiTection,  and  had  to  go  into  exile,  but 
afterwards  returned,  and  was  again  several 
times  minister.     He  died  in  England. 

Sale,  George  {h.  circa  1690,  d.  1736),  Eng- 
lish Orientalist;  author  of  a  translation 
of  the  Koran. 

Sale,  Sir  Robert  Henry  {b.  1782,  d.  1845), 
general ;  after  distinguished  services  in 
India  and  the  Mauritius,  was  appointed  in 
1838  to  the  commaiid  of  a  brigade  in  the 
Afghan  expedition,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Ghuznee.  In  1840  he  compelled 
the  sm-render  of  Dost  Mohammed,  and  next 
year,  after  storming  the  Khoord  Cabul  and 
JugduUuk  passes,  was  besieged  for  five 
months  in  Jellalabad  by  Akhbar  Khan.  Ha 
was  mortally  wounded  on  December  18, 
at  Moodkee,  when  quartermaster-general  to 
the  ai-my  of  the  Sutlej. 

Sales.     [See  Francis  de  Sales.] 

Salimbene,  Fra  (13th  century),  Italian 
Franciscan ;  author  of  a  contemporary 
Chronicle,  which  was  first  printed  in  1857. 


Sal 


(657) 


San 


Salisbury,  John  of  {d.  11S2),  English 
scholar,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  and  friend  of 
Becket,  of  whom  aud  of  Auselm  he  wrote 
lives,  as  also  Historia  Pontijicalis,  and  some 
philosophical  works. 

Salisbury,  Robert  Cecil,  Earl  of  {d.  1612), 
statesman,  son  of  Lord  Burghley,  to  whose 
position  he  succeeded,  and  retained  of&ce 
imder  James  I. 

Salisbury,  Eobert  Arthur  Talbot  Gas- 
coyne-Cecil,  Marquis  of.  K.G.  {b.  183U), 
statesman,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  represented  Stamford 
from  1853  till  1868,  when  he  succeeded 
to  the  title.  During  this  time  he  wrote 
much  for  periodicals,  aud  was  Secretary  for 
India  from  July,  1866,  to  the  following 
March,  when  he  resigned  on  the  Bef orm  Bill. 
From  1874  to  1878  he  wis  again  Secretary 
for  India,  and  ia  Novemoer,  1876,  was  sent 
as  special  ambassador  to  the  Constantinople 
Conference.  In  1878  he  succeeded  Lord 
Derby  as  Foreign  Miuister,  and  in  that  year 
accompanied  Lord  Beaconsfield  to  the  Ber- 
lin Conference.  After  the  death  of  the 
latter  he  became  Conservative  leader,  and 
as  such  joiaed  in  the  framing  of  the  Re- 
distribution Bill  of  1885.  In  June  of  that 
year  he  became  Premier,  and  held  office  till 
the  following  January,  and  from  1886-1892 
was  again  in  power.  After  the  resignation 
of  Lord  Iddesleigh  he  took  the  portfoho  of 
Foreign  AiEairs. 

Sallustius  Crispus,  Caius  [Sallust]  {b. 
86  B.C.,  d.  34  B.C.),  Roman  historian  ;  was 
excluded  from  the  Senate  for  his  immorality, 
but  afterwards  made  a  fortune  as  governor 
of  Numidia,  on  his  return  from  which  he 
wrote  in  retirement  his /w^wr^Aa  and  Gati- 
lina. 

Salmasius,  or  Claude  deSaumaise  {b.  1588, 
d.  1653),  French  scholar,  professor  of  history 
at  Leyden ;  author  of  Historic  Augustte 
Scriptores  Sex  and  Defensio  Regia  pro 
Carolo  I. ,  which  was  replied  to  by  Milton  in 
his  Defence  of  the  People  of  England. 

Salmon,  George,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  {h. 
1819),  Irish  divine  ;  was  Regius  professor  of 
diviuity  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  from  1868 
to  1888,  when  he  became  provost.  His 
works  include  Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  treatises  on  Conic  Sections,  The 
Geometry  of  Three  Dimensions,  TJie  Modern 
Higher  Algebra,  etc. ,  whidi  have  been  trans- 
lated into  most  European  languages. 

Salomons,  Sir  David,  Bart.  {b.  1797,  d. 
1873),  became  in  1855  the  first  Jewish  Lord 
Mayo/  of  London,  having  previously  been 
sheriff  under  a  special  Act.  He  was  elected 
as  a  Liberal  for  Greenwich  in  1851,  and 
raised  the  question  of  Jewish  disabilities, 
which  was  settled  by  the  act  of  1859.      His 


nephew,  SiE  David  (b.  1851),  has  written 
on  electrical  subjects  and  the  Woman's 
Rights  question. 

Salt,  Sir  Titus,  Bart.  (*.  1803,  d.  1876), 
philanthropist ;  acquired  a  large  fortune  as 
a  wool-spinner,  and  made  large  benefactions 
to  Bradford,  which  town  he  represented  for 
two  years.  He  built  the  village  of  Saltaire, 
with  model  dwellings  round  his  manu- 
factory. 

Salvator  Rosa.     \_See  Rosa.] 

SalvL     \_See  Sassoferrato.] 

Salvlni,  Tommaso  {b.  1830),  tragedian, 
whose  parents  were  actors  ;  was  iustructed 
by  Modena,  aud  made  a  reputation  in 
Edipo  and  Saul,  but  is  best  known  iu  Eng- 
land by  his  Othello,  which  was  seen  here  in 
1875,  1876,  and  1884,  when  he  also  played 
Hamlet.  With  Ristori,  Rossi,  and  Majeroue 
he  acted  in  1865  iu  Pellico's  Francesca  da 
Rimini,  and  created  an  extraordinary  im- 
pression in  Madrid  as  Conrad  in  1868. 

Sambourne,  Edward  Linley  {b.  1845), 
English  caricaturist ;  began  to  contribute  to 
Punch  ia  1867,  and  afterwards  illustrated 
Kingsley's  Water  Babies,  Andersen's  Fairy 
Tales,  and  other  works. 

Samson,  Joseph  Isidore  {b.  1793,  d.  1871), 
French  actor  ;  made  his  first  appearance  in 
1827,  and  retired  in  1863,  haviug  played 
with  distinction  in  MoUere  and  Marivaux. 
As  professor  at  the  Conservatoire  he  had 
Rachel  and  Sarah  Bernhardt  among  his 
pupils. 

Samuel,  Sir  Saul,  K.C.M.G.  {b.  1820), 
Australian  statesman ;  emigrated  in  1832, 
and  was  in  1S54  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Council  of  New  South  Wales.  In  1859  he 
became  colonial  treasurer,  which  office  he 
again  held  in  1865,  1868,  and  1869.  In  1880 
he  became  agent-general  for  New  South 
Wales  in  London. 

Sannazzaro,  Giacopo  [Actius  Syncerus] 
{b.  1458,  d.  1530),  Neapolitan  poet;  author 
of  Arcadia,  and  the  Latin  poem,  De  Partu 
Virginia,  by  the  composition  of  which  he 
gaLued  the  name  of  the  "  Christian  Virgil." 

Sancerre,  Louis  de  {b.  1342,  d.  1402), 
Constable  of  France,  and  friend  of  Bertrand 
DuguescKn,  whom  he  assisted  to  drive  the 
English  out  of  Guienue,  and  rendered  other 
distinguished  services. 

Sancroft,  William  (b.  1616,  d.  1693), 
English  divine.  After  having  been  master 
of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  Dean 
of  York  and  St.  Paul's,  became  iu  1677 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  headed  the 
bishops  in  their  refusal  to  read  the  Declara- 
tion of  Indulgence,  but  was  deprived  in  1691 
for  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  to  William  and 
Mary. 


San 


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San 


Sand,  Georges,  wow  de  guerre  of  Madame 
DUDEVANT  [b.  1804,  ^.  1876),  French 
novelist ;  separated  from  her  husband  in 
1831,  iu  which  year  was  published,  under  the 
pseudonym  "  Jules  Sand,"  a  novel  written 
in  collaboration  with  Saudeau.  Next  year 
she  began  to  write  under  the  well-known 
signature,  her  cliief  works  being  Consuelo 
(1842),  La  Gomtesse  de  Jiudolstadt,  Les  Sept 
Cordes  de  la  Lyre  (1840),  La  Fetite  Fadette 
(1848),  Elle  et  Lui  (1858),  Le  Marquis  de 
Villemer,  and  other  plays,  and  Impressions 
et  Souvenirs  (1873).  She  lived  at  various 
times  with  Alfred  de  Musset,  Pierre  Leroux, 
and  Chopin.  An  English  translation  of  her 
letters  appeared  in  1886. 

Sanday,  WUliam,  D.D.  {b.  1843),  English 
theologian ;  was  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  1866-73,  and  principal  of  Hatfield's 
Hall,  Durham,  1876-81,  when  he  became 
professor  of  Exegesis  at  Oxford.  His  works 
include  Authorship  and  Historical  Character 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  and  The  Gospels  in  the 
Second  Century. 

Sandeau,  Leonard  Sylvain  Jules  [b.  1811, 
d.  1883),  French  writer  ;  was  made  keeper  of 
the  Mazarin  library  in  1853,  and  Ubrarian  of 
St.  Cloud  in  1859.  Chief  among;  his  novels 
were  Mademoiselle  de  la  Seigliere  (1848), 
afterwards  dramatised,  Madeleine,  and  Sacs 
et  Farchemins ;  and  he  wrote  with  Augier 
Le  Gendre  de  M.  Foirier  (1854),  and  La 
Geinture  Doree  (1855),  and  other  plays. 

Sandeman,  Eobert  {b.  1723,  d.  1772), 
Scotch  divine  ;  married  a  daughter  of  John 
Glass  (q.v.),  and  founded  the  sect  called 
"  Sandemanians." 

Sanderson,  John  Scott  Burdon,  F.R.S. 
(J).  1828),  physiologist;  was  Jodrell  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  at  University  College 
1874-82,  and  was  elected  Wayntiete  pro- 
fessor at  Oxford  in  that  year.  He  was 
employed  by  the  Government  to  make  in- 
vestigations concerning  the  cattle  plague, 
the  health  of  miners,  and  the  epidemic  of 
meningitis  in  Germany,  and  has  made 
elaborate  researches  with  regard  to  electrical 
fish. 

Sanderson,  Robert  {b.  1587,  d.  1663),  in 
1631  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Charles  I., 
regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford 
1646-48,  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1660. 
Published  Xo^icte  ^rits  Compendium  (1615), 
De  Obligatione  Conscientice  Frtslectiones 
(1647),  etc. 

Sandhurst,  WiUiam  Mansfield,  Baron  (b. 
1819,  d.  1876),  general ;  was  aide-de-camp 
to  Lord  Gough  at  Sobraon,  and  took  part  in 
the  Punjaub  campaign,  and  afterwards  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Indian  Mutiny  as 
chief  of  the  staff  to  Sir  CoUn  Campbell.  He 
was  commander-in-chief  in  India  from  1865 
to  1870.  when  he  was  created  baron. 


Sandon,  Viscount.     [See  Harrowby.] 

Sandrart  (A.  1606,  d.  1688),  German 
painter  and  writer  on  art ;  employed  by 
Ferdinand  III.  and  the  Duke  of  Bavaria ; 
was  the  author  of  Teutsche  Academie,  and 
other  works. 

Sandwich,  Edward  Montagu,  Earl  of  (i. 
1625,  d.  1672),  English  admiral  ;  conveyed 
Charles  II.  to  England,  and  served  with 
distinction  against  the  Dutch  till,  in  the 
battle  of  Southwold  Bay,  his  ship  caught 
fire,  and  he  was  drowned. 

Sandys,  Edwin  {b.  1519,  d.  1588),  divine, 
successively  Bishop  of  Worcester  and  Lon- 
don, and  Archbishop  of  York ;  was  im- 
prisoned by  Mary  when  vice-chancellor  of 
Cambridge  University  for  preaching  in 
favour  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  but  in  the  next 
reign  took  part  in  the  revision  of  the  liturgy 
and  in  the  "  Bishops'  "  Bible. 

Sangallo,  Antonio  da  («^.  1546),  Italian 
architect ;  employed  by  Leo  X.  and  his 
successors  in  erecting  buildings  and  fortifi- 
cations ;  succeeded  Bramante  as  architect  of 
St.  Peter's. 

Sanmicheli,  Michele  (b.  1484,  d.  1559), 
architect,  the  results  of  whose  work  are 
chiefly  to  be  seen  at  Venice  and  Verona ; 
was  greatly  engaged  in  fortification. 

Sansevero,  Raymond  di  Sangro  (b.  1710, 
d.  1771),  a  XeapoUtan  who  invented  a  four- 
wheeled  chariot  to  pass  over  the  surface  of 
water. 

Sansovino  [Jacopo  Tatti]  (J.  1477,  d. 
1570),  sculptor  and  architect,  friend  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto  and  Perugino ;  built  the 
Zecca,  and  restored  the  cupola  of  St. 
Mark's,  Venice.  Bacchus  was  his  best 
sculpture. 

Sant,  James.  R.A.  (fi.  1820),  English 
artist  ;  studied  under  John  Varley  and 
Calcott,  and  about  1842  began  to  exhibit  his 
"fancy  subjects"  (Little  Red  Riding  Hood, 
The  Infant  Timothy,  etc.).  Among  his 
other  works  are  The  Children  in  the  Wood 
(1854  and  1856),  Frosperity— Adversity 
(1877),  and  many  portraits,  chiefly  of  the 
Countess  Waldegrave  and  her  friends. 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de  (b.  1795, 
d.  1876),  Mexican  general;  fought  at  first 
for  the  Spaniards,  but  in  1829  defeased  their 
expedition,  and  became  president  in  1833. 
He  recognised  the  independence  of  Texas, 
and  defended  Vera  Cruz  against  the  French 
in  1839,  but,  after  having  been  dictator  from 
1841  to  1844,  was  banished.  He  returned  to 
conduct  the  war  against  the  United  States, 
and  in  1853-55  was  again  dictator.  _  He  was 
afterwards  banished  once  more  for  intriguing 
against  Juarez. 


San 


(659  ) 


San 


Santerre,  Antoine  Joseph  (b.  1752,  d. 
1809),  French  brewer;  conspicuous  on  the 
day  of  the  capture  of  the  Bastille ;  became 
commander  of  the  National  Guard,  and, 
after  serving  against  the  Vendeani,  fell 
under  suspicion  as  a  Dantonist,  and  was 
imprisoned. 

Santi,  Giovanni  (d.  1494),  Italian  painter, 
father  of  Raffaelle.  There  is  a  Madonna 
and  Child  by  him  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London. 

Santley,  Charles  (6.  1834),  English  bari- 
tone, born  at  Liverpool ;  sang  in  Haydn's 
Creation  in  1857,  and  two  years  later  made 
his  deb^ut  in  operatic  parts.  The  Handel 
Festival  of  1862  was  the  first  in  which  he 
took  part.  His  first  wife  was  a  soprano, 
and  one  of  his  daughters  is  a  vocalist. 

Sanuto,  Marino  {b.  1466,  d.  1536),  Italian 
writer,  historiographer  of  Venice ;  wrote 
Zives  of  the  Dopes,  and  left  voluminous 
Dtaries,  which  have  only  recently  been 
printed. 

Sapor  I.,  King  of  Persia  (d.  272),  suc- 
ceeded Artaxerxes  I.  in  241  ;  conquered  Ar- 
menia after  procuring  the  assassination  of 
Chosroes  ;  defeated  and  captured  Valerian, 
the  Eoman  emperor,  at  Edessa  in  260,  and 
had  subdued  Syria  and  Cilicia,  when  he  was 
checked  by  Odenatus  of  Palmyra,  being 
assassinated  some  years  later  by  his  satraps. 

Sapor  II.,  "the  Great"  ((/.  379),  suc- 
ceeded Hormisdas  II.,  and  carried  on  war 
with  the  Eomans  imder  Constantius  II., 
Julian,  and  Jovian,  obtaining,  by  his  treaty 
vdth  the  last,  Nisibis,  Singara,  and  the 
provinces  beyond  the  Tigris. 

Sappho  (7th  century  B.C.),  Greek  poetess ; 
said  to  have  invented  the  metre  called  by 
her  name.  Fragments  only  of  the  works  of 
the  "  Tenth  Muse  "  are  extant. 

Sarasate, Martin  Meliton  {b.  1844),  Spanish 
violinist,  boru  at  Pampeluna ;  was  the  fa- 
vourite pupil  of  Alard  at  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire, and  played  with  success  on  the 
Continent  and  America,  his  first  appearance 
in  London  being  in  May,  1874.  His  com- 
positions include  transcripts  of  Spanish 
dances,  Friere  et  Berceuse,  and  Caprice 
Basque  (1881). 

Sarcey,  Francisque  (b.  1828),  French 
writer ;  contributed  dramatic  critiques  to 
the  Figaro,  Temps,  and  the  Steele,  and  wrote 
a  Sistort/  of  the  Siege  of  Paris,  Comediens 
et  Comediennes,  etc. 

Sardanapalus.     \^See  Esarhaddon.] 

Sardou,     Victorien     (A.     1831),     French 

dramatist,  whose  first  comedy,  produced  at 

the  Odeon  in   1854,  was  a  failure  ;  won  a 

reputation  by  M.   Gnrat  (1860),   and  other 

Q  Q  2 


pieces,  produced  at  the  Dejazet  theatre,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Academy  in  1877. 
Among  his  best-known  plays  are  Les  Pattes 
du  Mouche,  the  original  of  A  Scrap  of  Paper  ; 
Nos  Intimes,  of  Peril;  Dora,  of  Diplomacy  ; 
Odette,  Fedora,  La  Tosca,  smd Babagas  (1872), 
a  satire  on  Gambetta. 

Sarpi,  Pietro  [Fra  Paolo]  {b.  1552,  d. 
1623),  Servite  monk ;  defended  Venice 
against  the  papal  claims,  and  was  made 
councillor  of  the  Ten,  but  almost  fell  a 
victim  to  the  attempts  of  his  enemies  on  his 
hfe,  in  consequence  of  this  and  his  attacks 
on  the  abuses  of  the  Roman  court,  but  re- 
covered from  his  wounds.  His  History  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  was  first  pubUshed  in 
London. 

Sars,  Michael  (*.  1805,  d.  1869),  Nor- 
wegian zoologist,  author  of  Fauna  Littoralis 
Noricegi(e ;  discovered  a  crinoid  in  the 
North  Sea  belonging  to  a  species  supposed 
to  be  extinct. 

Sarsfield,  Patrick  {d.  1693),  Irish  officer; 
distingiushed  for  his  efforts  at  Limerick  and 
elsewhere  to  restore  the  authority  of  James 
II.  He  afterwards  served  in  the  French 
army,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Landen. 

Sarto.     \See  Andrea  del  Sarto.] 

Sartorius,  Sir  George  (A.  1790,  d.  1885), 
Enghsh  admiral ;  served  as  a  midshipman 
at  Trafalgar,  and  commanded  the  Portu- 
guese fleet  for  Dom  Pedro  in  1832-33. 

Sassoferrato,  II  [Giambattista  Salvi]  {b. 
1605,  d.  1685),  Italian  painter,  of  the  school 
of  Caracci.  There  is  a  Madonna  of  his  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Sassoon,  Sir  Albert  Abdullah  {b.  1818), 
banker,  bom  at  Bagdad ;  when  living  in 
India  made  magnificent  gifts  to  the  town  of 
Bombay,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Legislative  Council.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  was  knighted,  and  received  the 
freedom  of  the  City  of  London. 

Saumarez,  Lord  de  [b.  Ylbl,  d.  1836), 
British  admiral,  was  knighted  for  his  cap- 
ture of  La  Biunion ;  served  witli  Jervis  at 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  was  second  in  com- 
mand at  the  NUg.  In  1801  he  received  a 
peerage,  and  soon  after  was  awarded  a  pen- 
sion for  his  conduct  of  the  action  in  the  Bay 
of  Algeciras.  He  next  commanded  the  Baltic 
fleet,  and  in  1831  became  vice-admiral  of 
England,  having  been  in  1814  personally 
thanked  by  the  sovereigns  of  Europe. 

Saunders,  Sir  Edmund  (d.  1683),  Chief 
Justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  and  author  of 
Reports;  was  originally  an  errand-boy  at 
the  Inns  of  Court. 

Saussure,  Horace  Benedict  de  {b.  1740, 

d.    1799),    Swiss  naturalist ;    made    several 


Sav 


(  660) 


Say 


iinprovements  in  the  thermometer,  hy- 
grometer, and  other  instruments,  and  left  a 
record  of  his  travels,  }'oijages  dans  les  Aipes, 
of  great  scieutific  value. 

Savage,  Kichard  {d.  1743),  English  poet, 
perhaps  a  natural  son  of  the  Couutess  of 
Macclesfield,  by  Lord  Rivers  ;  was  a  friend  of 
Dr.  Johnson,  who  wrote  his  life.  In  1727  he 
killed  a  Mr.  Sinclair  in  a  drunken  quarrel, 
but  obtained  a  pardon,  and  was  received  and 
pensioned  by  Lord  Tyrconnel.  They  could 
not,  however,  agree,  and,  though  Savage 
received  a  small  pension  for  a  Birthday  Ode 
to  the  Queen,  he  died  in  a  debtor's  prison  at 
Bristol.  His  chief  work  was  the  tragedy, 
Sir  Thomas  Overbury. 

Savary,  Anne  Jean  Marie  Rene,  Due  de 
Rovigo  {]).  1774,  d.  1833),  French  general; 
distiuguished  himself  in  Egypt  and  at  Ma- 
rengo, after  which  he  became  aide-de-camp 
to  Napoleon.  He  was  entrusted  with  the 
execution  of  the  Due  d'Enghien,  and  other 
more  creditable  missions,  those  resulting  in 
the  conferences  of  Bayouue,  however,  not 
being  of  a  very  honourable  character.  For 
his  services  at  Friedlaud  he  was  ennobled, 
and  was  constantly  iu  attendance  on  Na- 
poleon, till  his  appointment  in  1810  as 
minister  of  police.  He  fled  the  country 
under  sentence  of  death  at  the  restoration, 
but  in  1819  submitted  to  trial,  and  was 
acquitted.  After  the  accession  of  Louis 
Philippe  he  held  a  command  in  Algeria  for 
a  short  time. 

Savigny,  Friedrich  Karl  von  [h.  1779,  d. 
1861),  German  jurist,  of  French  Huguenot 
descent ;  was  for  thirty-two  years  professor 
of  law  at  Berlin,  and  in  1842  was  named 
minister  of  justice  ia  Prussia.  His  chief 
works  were  Vom  Berufe  Unserer  Zeit  fur 
Gesetzgehung  und  Rechtswissenschaft  (trans- 
lated by  Hay  ward).  System  des  Heutigen 
Romischen  Rechts  (translated  by  Holloway, 
1861),  and  Geschichte  des  Romischen  Rechts 
im  Mittelalter. 

Savile,  Right  Hon.  John  [Baron  Savile] 
{b.  1825),  English  diplomatist.  After  being 
charge-d^ affaires  at  New  York,  Madrid,  and 
St.  Petersburg,  was  named  envoy-extra- 
ordinary to  Saxony  in  1866,  to  Switzerland 
1867,  and  to  Brussels  1868.  In  1883  he  was, 
as  Sir  John  Savile-Lumley,  appointed  am- 
bassador to  Italy.  He  di-opped  the  name 
Lumley  in  1887,  and  was  made  a  peer  in 
the  next  year. 

SaviUe.     {See  Halifax.] 

Saville,  Sir  Henry  {b.  1549,  d.  1622), 
scholar,  was  tutor  in  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  held  the 
wardenship  of  Mertou  College  and  the 
provostship  of  Eton  for  many  years.  He 
founded  professorships   of   astronomy  and 


geometry  at  Oxford,  and  published  a  col« 
lection  of  English  historians. 

Savonarola,  Fra  Girolamo  [h.  1452,  d.  1498), 
Italian  preacher,  born  at  Ferrara  ;  acquired 
great  political  influence  in  Florence,  where 
he  denounced  abuses  of  all  kiuds.  He  was 
twice  sent  as  envoy  to  Charles  VIII.  of 
France,  and  after  the  expulsion  of  Piero  de' 
Medici  was  real  ruler  of  the  state,  but, 
having  been  prohibited  preaching  and  ex- 
communicated by  Alexander  VI.,  he  was 
attacked  ia  his  priory  of  San  Marco,  with 
his  friends,  and  burnt,  after  being  put  to 
the  torture. 

Savory,  Sir  William  Scovell,  Bart.,  F.R.S. 
(J).  1820),  Enghsh  surgeon,  president  of  the 
Royal  College  188.5-6.  His  chief  works  are 
The  Pathology  of  Cancer,  and  Life  and 
Death — an  iutroduction  to  the  Book  of 
Health. 

Saxe,  John  Godfrey  {b.  1816,  d.  1887), 
American  poet,  journalist,  and  lecturer. 

Saxe,  Maurice,  Comte  de  {b.  1696,  d.  1750), 
marshal  of  France ;  was  a  natural  son  of 
Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  and  Poland.  His 
gi-eatest  achievements  were  the  victories  of 
Foutenoy,  Lawfeldt,  and  Rancoux,  and  the 
capture  of  Maestricht.  He  left  a  work 
entitled  Mes  Reveries,  which  was  published 
in  1757,  and  subsequently  translated. 

Saxo-Grammaticus  ( 1 2th  century) ,  Danish 
writer ;  author  of  Banornm  Rcgum  He- 
roumque  Historia,  on  which  Mamlet  ia 
founded. 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste  (b.  1767,  d.  1832), 
French  economist ;  was  for  some  time  a 
member  of  the  Tribunate,  and  in  his  Traite 
d'' Economic  Politique,  and  other  works, 
aimed  at  popularising  the  doctrines  of 
Adam  Smith. 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste  Leon  (J).  1826),  grand- 
son of  the  above ;  was  finance  minister  under 
Thiers  (1872)  and  in  several  subsequent 
administrations,  and  in  1880,  when  am- 
bassador in  England,  was  named  president 
of  the  Senate.  Again  in  1882  he  became 
finance  minister,  and  among  his  works  are 
Histoire  de_  la  Caisse  d'' Escompte,  Turgot 
("  Grands Ecrivains F7-angais ") ,  andatrans- 
lation  of  Goschen's  Theory  of  Foreign  Ex- 
changes. 

Sayce,  Archibald  Henry  (b.  1846),  Eng- 
lish philologist ;  became  fellow  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  in  1869,  and  ia  1876 
deputy  professor  of  comparative  philology, 
but  resigned  in  1890  ia  order  to  go  to 
Egypt.  Among  his  works  are  Principles 
of  Comparative  Philology,  an  Assyrian  gram- 
mar, and  Witness  of  the  Ancient  Monument* 
to  the  Ancient   Scriptures  {^^  Present   Bay 


Sea 


(661) 


Sch 


Tract "  series).    In  1891  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  Assyriology. 

Scala,  Bartolomeo  {b.  1430,  d.  1497), 
Italian  statesman  and  writer  ;  was  chan- 
ceUor  of  Florence  under  the  Medici,  and 
afterwards  gonfaloniere.  He  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Florentine  republic. 

Scaliger,  Julius  Caesar  {h.  1484,  d.  1558), 
classical  scholar,  bom  in  a  castle  on  Lake 
Garda  ;  served  for  seventeen  years  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  and,  after  leaving  the 
army,  wrote  I)e  Causis  Linfiua  Latince,  a 
defence  of  Cicero  against  Er:.s.aus,  and  other 
works.    He  is  known  as  the  eider  Scaliger. 

Scaliger,  Joseph  Justus  {b.  1540,  d.  1609), 
philologist,  son  of  the  preceding  ;  was  bom 
at  Agen,  and  in  1593  became  professor  of 
belles  lettres  at  Leyden,  where  he  taught 
Grotius  ;  wrote  De  ^mendatione  Temporum, 
and  edited  many  of  the  classics. 

ScaJiderbeg  [George  Castriota]  {b.  1404, 
d.  1467),  Albanian  prince ;  escaped  from  the 
Tvirks,  among  whom  he  had  been  brought 
up  as  a  hostage,  and,  having  recovered  his 
throne  and  renoimced  Mohammedanism, 
maintained  a  long  and  successful  war  vdth 
his  enemies.  Many  of  his  exploits  are  prob- 
ably mythical. 

Scarlatti,  Alessandro  {b.  1659,  d.  1725), 
Neapolitan  composer,  whose  works  include 
about  one  hundred  operas,  as  well  as  a  great 
number  of  masses  and  motets. 

Scarlatti,  Domenico  (b.  1683,  d.  1757),  his 
son,  was  a  friend  of  Handel,  and  became 
chapel-master  to  the  Queen  of  Spain.  He 
was  a  composer  of  church  music  and  operas. 

Scarlett,  Sir  James.     [See  Abinger.] 

Scarlett,  Sir  James  York,  G.C.B.  {b.  1799, 
d.  1871),  British  officer,  son  of  Lord  Abin- 
ger; commanded  with  distinction  in  the 
Crimea  a  brigade  of  cavalry,  and  attained 
the  rank  of  heutenaut-general  in  1862. 

Scarron,  Paul  (h.  1610,  d.  1660),  French 
satirist,  husband  of  Mademoiselle  d'Aubigne, 
afterwards  Madame  de  Maintenon.  His 
chief  works  were  Ze  Roman  Comique,  and 
L'Aeneide  Travestie. 

Schadow,  Johann  Gottfried  [b.  1764,  d. 
1850),  German  sculptor;  became  director  of 
the  Berlin  Academy  in  1816,  and  in  1833 
published  Folycleftts.  His  best  sculptures 
were  the  Quadriga  at  Berlin,  the  statues 
of  Frederick  the  Great  at  Stettin,  and  of 
Blucher  at  Rostock,  and  the  Luther  monu- 
ment at  Wittenberg.  His  son,  Feiedeich 
VON  SCHADOW  (d.  1862),  was  a  religious 
painter,  by  whom  there  are  altar-pieces  at 
Berlin  and  Frankfort. 

Schafarik,  Paul  Joseph  (b.  1795,  d.  1861), 


Slavonic  scholar ;  for  some  time  censor  to 
the  Austrian  government,  and  afterwards 
chief  librarian  at  Pi-ague.  His  chief  work 
was  Geschichte  der  Slavischen  Sprache  und 
Litteratur  naeh  alien  Mundarten  (1826). 

Schafer,  Arnold  (b.  1819),  German  his- 
torian ;  professor  at  Bonn  since  1864,  and 
author  of  Histort/  of  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
Sketch  of  the  Sources  of  Grecian  Mistory, 
etc. 

Schafer,  Wilhelm  (b.  1809,  d.  1880), 
brother  of  the  above  ;  was  some  time  pro- 
fessor at  Bremen,  and  wrote,  among  other 
works.  History  of  German  Literature  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  Goethe''s  Life,  and  Love 
and  Life — a  cycle  of  songs. 

Schaff,  Philip,  D.D.  (b.  1819),  American 
theologian,  bom  in  Switzerland.  After 
holding  several  chairs  previously,  he  became 
professor  of  biblical  literature  and  church 
history  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York.  He  was  president  of  the 
American  Bible  Revision  Committee,  and 
among  his  numerous  works  may  be  named 
History  of  the  Christian  Church,  The  Person 
of  Christ  (1865),  The  Creeds  of  Christendom, 
dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1880),  etc. 

Schalken,  Godfried  (*.  1643,  d.  1706), 
Dutch  painter,  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  his 
candle-light  scenes  being  a  speciality. 

Schamyl,  Ben  Mohammed  Effendi  (b. 
1797,  d.  1871),  "the  Warrior-Prophet  of 
the  Caucasus,"  headed  a  movement  against 
the  Russian  rule,  but  was  in  1859  made 
prisoner  and  sent  to  Central  Asia.  In  1866 
he  took  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  Tsar,  and 
died  in  Russia. 

Scharf,  George  (b.  1820),  illustrator  and 
writer  on  art ;  became  director  of  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery,  London,  in  1882. 

Schamhorst,  Gerhard  Johann  David  von 
{b.  1756,  d.  1813),  Prussian  general,  a  Hano- 
verian by  birth ;  was  present  at  Auer- 
stadt  and  Eylau,  and  skilfully  reorganised 
the  army  of  Prussia,  in  spite  of  the  orders  of 
Napoleon.  He  was  chief  of  Blucher's  stafE 
in  1813,  but  died  on  the  eve  of  the  War  of 
Liberation. 

Scharwenka,  Xavier  (i.  1850),  German 
composer  and  musician. 

Scheele,  Karl  Wilhelm  {b.  1742,  d.  1786), 
chemist ;  discovered  several  acids,  and  de- 
termined the  nature  of  others,  his  chief 
work  being  Experiments  on  Air  and  Fire. 

Scheemakers,  Pieter  (A.  1691),  Flemish 
sculptor ;  was  master  of  Nollekens,  and 
executed  the  momunents  to  Shakespeare, 
Dryden,  and  others  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Scheffel,  Joseph  Victor  von  [b.   1826,  d. 


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188ii),  poet  and  novelist,  bom  at  Karlsruhe. 
His  chief  works  were  Ekkehard,  a  historical 
romance,  The  Trumpeter  of  Sdckingen,  and 
Gditdeamus,  a  collection  of  student-sougs,  of 
which  an  English  translation  appeared  in 
1S72. 

Scheflfer,  Ary  (b.  1795,  d.  1858),  painter 
and  politician,  bom  at  Dordrecht ;  exhibited 
at  Amsterdam  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and 
afterwards  produced  at  Paris  Francesca  da 
Eimini  (1835),  the  ^'Fausf  series  (nine), 
and  several  religious  studies.  He  fought  at 
the  barricades  iu  1830,  and  was  associated 
■with  Thiers  in  offering  the  crown  to  Louis 
Philippe.  His  brothers,  Aenold  {d.  1853) 
and  Henbi  (d.  1862),  were  distinguished, 
the  one  as  a  political  writer,  the  other  as  a 
painter  of  revolutionary  scenes. 

Schelling,  Friedrich  Wilhelra  Joseph  von 
{b.  1775,  d.  1854),  G&rman  idealist  philoso- 
pher ;  was  at  Tubingen  with  Hegel,  and, 
having  succeeded  Fichte  as  professor  at  Jena, 
edited  with  the  fonner  The  Critical  Journal  of 
Fhihsophy.  He  afterwards  held  chairs  at 
WUrzbirrg  and  Munich,  and  in  1841  was 
appointed  professor  at  Berlin.  His  chief 
works  were  The  Ego  as  Principle  of  Fhi- 
losophy  (1795),  Exposition  of  my  System 
(1801),  031^  Fhilosophical  Investigations  Con- 
cerning the  Essence  of  Human  Freedom 
(1809).    He  married  Caroline  Schlegel. 

Schiller,  Johann  Christoph  Friedrich  von 
{b.  1759,  d.  1805),  poet;  was  bom  at  Mar- 
bach,  and  studied  law  and  medicine  at 
Stuttgart.  At  nineteen  he  wrote  Die 
Raiiber,  which  was  produced  at  Maunheim, 
but  lost  him  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemburg.  In  1787  he  went  to  Weimar, 
and  three  years  after  became  professor  of 
history  at  Jena,  where  he  published  his  his- 
tory of  the  Thirty  Years'  war.  Some  years 
later  he  became  intimate  with  Goethe,  whom 
he  joined  at  Weimar  in  1799,  and  wrote 
there  the  trilogy  of  TFaUenstein,  The  Sony  of 
the  Bell,  Maria  Stuart,  Wdhelm  Tell,  and 
his  ballads. 

Schilling,  Johann  [b.  1828),  sculptor,  a 
native  of  Saxony,  his  chief  productions 
being  Amor  and  Fysche  (1851),  The  Four 
Seasons,  in  Dresden,  and  the  Grand  National 
Monument  on  the  Niederwald. 

Schimmelpenninck,  Mary  Ann  {b.  1778, 
d.  1856),  English  writer  {nee  Galton) ;  joined 
the  Moravians  in  1818.  Her  chief  work  was 
Memoirs  of  Port  Royal. 

ScWegel,  August  Wilhelm  von  (A.  1767, 
d.  1845),  German  critic;  was  bom  at  Han- 
over, and  appointed  professor  of  art  and 
literature  at  Jena  m  1798,  where  he  edited, 
with  Novalis,  Tieck  and  others,  the  Athen- 
teutn,  as  the  organ  of  the  Eomantic  school. 
In  1802  he  went  to  Berlin,  and  made  the 


acquaintance  of  Madame  de  Stael,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Vienna,  where  in  1808  he 
deUvered  his  lectures  on  dramatic  literatui'e. 
In  1813  he  became  secretary  to  Bernadotte, 
then  hved  with  Madame  de  Stael  at  Paris, 
and  in  1818  became  professor  at  Bonn.  His 
chief  works  were  a  translation  of  Shake- 
speare, Kritische  Schriften,  and  some 
poems. 

Schlegel,  Karl  Friedrich  von  {b.  1772,  d. 
1829),  Orientahst,  brother  of  August,  whom 
he  joined  at  Jena ;  afterwards  hved  at 
Paris,  but  after  his  reception  into  the  Homan 
Church  (1808)  obtained  a  civU  appointment 
at  Vienna.  Besides  his  Ueber  dee  Sprachs 
und  Weisheit  der  Indier  (1808),  he  pub- 
lished in  1815  lectures  on  The  History  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Literature,  and  in  early 
life,  Lucinde,  and  other  novels. 

Schleiermacher,  Friedrich  Ernst  Daniel 
{b.  1768,  d.  1834),  theologian,  born  at  Bres- 
lau  ;  became  professor  of  theology  at  Berlin 
in  1810,  and  exercised  great  influence  as  a 
preacher  and  writer.  Among  his  chief  works 
were  Der  Christliche  Glaube,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Plato's  works  (1817).  A  trans- 
lation of  his  Life  and  Letters  appeared  in 
1860. 

ScMiemann,  Heinrich  (*.  1822,  d.  1890), 
classical  scholar ;  having  been  successful  in 
business,  gave  himself  up  to  his  early  tastes, 
publishing  results  of  his  excavations  in  the 
East  in  1869.  Troy  and  its  Remains  ap- 
peared in  1874,  in  which  year  he  began  to 
make  valuable  discoveries  at  Mycenae.  In 
1883  he  built  a  house  at  Athens,  and  pub- 
lished the  results  of  further  researches  upon 
the  site  of  Troy,  and,  in  1886,  The  Pre- 
historic Palace  of  the  Kings  of  Tiryns. 

Schneider,  Hortense  Catherine  {b.  1835), 
French  actress  ;  made  her  debut  at  Paris  in 
1853,  and  met  with  great  success  in  La  Belle 
Helene  and  La  Grand  Duchesse  de  Gerolstein 
in  1864  and  1867  at  the  Varietes,  appearing 
in  London  in  1868.  In  1881  she  married  and 
retired. 

Schneider,  Johann  Friedrich  {b.  1786,  d. 
1853),  German  composer;  became  kapell- 
meister to  the  Duke  of  Dessau.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  oratorios,  The  Deluge,  Gideon, 
Gethsemane  and  Golgotha,  etc. 

Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  Julius  [b.  1794, 
d.  1872),  fresco-painter,  bom  at  Leipzig  ; 
was  professor  of  historical  painting  at 
Munich  from  1827  to  1846,  when  he  became 
director  of  the  Dresden  gallery.  His  best 
works  were  the  frescoes  in  the  palace  of 
Munich  illustrative  of  the  Xibelungen  Lied, 
and  of  events  in  German  history. 

Schoen,  or  Schonjauer,  Martin  (d.  circa 
1490),  German  painter  of  the  school  of  Van 
Eyck.     His  best  works  are  in  the  college  of 


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Colmar,  but  his  Death  of  the  Virgin  is  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Stdiofer,  Pieter  (d.  circa  1502),  was  a 
partner  of  Gutenberg  and  Fust,  the  eaily 
printers. 

Schofleld,  John  McAllister  (b.  1831), 
American  general.  After  having  been  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  St.  Louis,  commanded 
in  the  Civil  war  the  army  of  the  Ohio,  and 
in  1868-9  was  secretary  for  war.  From  1876 
to  1881  he  was  superintendent  at  West 
Point. 

Schomberg,  Frederick  Hermann,  Duke  of 
(J).  1618,  d.  1690),  soldier  of  fortune;  was 
made  marshal  of  France,  though  aProtestant, 
for  his  services  against  Spain,  but  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  became 
minister  of  state  in  Brandenberg.  He  after- 
wards returned  to  the  service  of  the  Princes 
of  Orange,  his  early  employers,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  Henei 
DE  ScHOMBEEO  (d.  1632),  also  a  marshal 
of  France,  who  commanded  against  the 
Huguenots,  and  in  Italy,  was  descended 
from  another  family. 

Schonbein,  Christian  Frederick  (b.  1799, 
d.  1868),  German  chemist,  professor  at 
Basel ;  invented  guncotton  in  1845,  and 
discovered  ozone. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  Eowe  {b.  1793,  d. 
1864),  American  ethnologist,  bom  at  Al- 
bany. After  being  geologist  to  the  Missouri 
expedition,  became  agent  for  Indian  affairs 
in  the  North -West,  and  published,  with  the 
help  of  the  government,  Notes  on  the  Iro- 
gtcois  (1846),  Historical  and  Statistical  In- 
formation Respecting  the  Indian  Tribes,  and 
other  works. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur  (b.  1788,  d.  1860), 
German  pessimistic  philosopher,  whose 
mother  wrote  Gabriele,  and  other  works ; 
was  born  at  Dantzig,  and  trained  to  busi- 
ness, but  soon  turned  to  philosophy.  His 
great  work.  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea 
(1819),  was  translated  into  English  in  1886. 

Schouvaloff,  Peter,  Count  {b.  1827,  d. 
1889),  Russian  diplomatist;  had  been  chief 
of  the  secret  police  before  his  appointment 
as  ambassador  to  England  in  1874.  He  did 
much  to  avert  war  between  England  and 
Russia,  and  was  second  plenipotentiary  at 
the  Berlin  Congress,  after  which  he  returned 
to  St.  Petersburg. 

Schreiner,  Olive,  South-African  writer, 
daughter  of  a  Lutheran  clergyman  at  Cape 
Town  ;  wrote  The  Story  of  an  African  Farm, 
and  Dreams  (1891). 

Schroter,  Christoph  (h.  1699,  d.  1782), 
invented  the  pianoforte,  of  which  he  made 
a  model  in   1721.     He  was  for  fifty  years 


organist  at  Nordhausen,  and  wrote  on  the 
theory  of  music. 

Schubert,  Franz  Peter  (b.  1797,  d.  1828), 
Austrian  composer ;  was  bom  and  lived  at 
Vienna,  where  for  three  years  he  taught  in 
his  father's  school.  His  chief  works  were 
Rosamunde  (1823),  the  sonata  in  C  (1828), 
the  mass  in  E  flat,  and  about  six  hundred 
songs,  among  which  may  be  named  The 
Eruzing,  The  King  in  Thule,  Schlummerlied, 
and  Death  and  the  Maiden. 

Schulemboiirg,  Johaun,  Graf  von  {b.  1661, 
d.  1747),  German  soldier  of  fortune  ;  served 
under  Sobieski,  then  with  the  Dutch  against 
France,  and  finally  became  head  of  the 
Venetian  forces,  gaining  great  reputation 
for  his  defence  of  Corfu  against  the  Turks 
in  1716. 

Schulze-Delitzsch,  Hermann  (J.  1808,  d. 
1883),  German  economist ;  repre.=<ented  Ber- 
lin in  the  North-German  Parliament,  and 
in  the  Reichstag,  and  was  president  of  the 
Labour  Inquiry  Committee.  Among  his 
works  were  Die  Arbieterklassen  (1863),  and 
Kapitel  zu  einem  Deutschen  Arbeiterkate- 
chismus  (1873). 

Schumann,  Robert  Alexander  (i.  1810,  d. 
1856),  composer,  a  native  of  Saxony;  for- 
sook the  study  of  law  after  1830,  and  de- 
termined to  become  a  great  pianist,  but, 
after  hurting  his  hand,  turned,  to  compo- 
sition, his  chief  works  being  Etudes  Sym- 
phoniques.  Paradise  and  the  Peri  (1843),  a 
cantata,  many  symphonies  and  sonatas,  and 
settings  of  Burns,  Heine,  Riickert,  and 
others.  In  1843  he  established  and  edited 
the  Neue  Zeitschrift  fiir  Musik. 

Schumann,  Madame  Clara  {b.  1819),  wife 
of  the  above,  and  daughter  of  Wieck,  his 
master  ;  appeared  as  a  piauiste  when  twelve 
years  old  at  one  of  the  Gewandhaus  con- 
certs at  Leipzig,  and  soon  became  known  as 
a  briUiant  exponent  of  the  great  masters, 
including  her  husband. 

Schunck,    Edward,    Ph.D.,    F.R.S.    (*. 

182U),  English  chemiat,  well  known  for  his 
investigations  on  colouring  matter. 

Schurz,  Karl  (b.  1829),  American  soldier 
and  statesman,  of  Geiman  birth.  After 
being  concerned  in  the  movement  of  1848, 
and  rescuing  Kinkel  from  Spandau  in  1850, 
he  came  to  Scotland,  but  in  1852  settled  in 
the  United  States.  In  the  Civil  war  he  held 
commands  at  Gettysburg  and  Chancellors- 
ville,  and  in  1865  went  on  a  special  mission 
to  the  Southern  states.  In  1869  he  became 
United  States  senator,  and  opposed  the 
policy  of  Grant.  In  1877  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  interior  under  President 
Hayes,  and  in  1884  supported  the  candi- 
dature of  Cleveland  against  Blaine. 


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Schuster,  Ai-thur,  Ph.D.,  F.E.S.  (b.  I80I), 
physicist,  bom  at  Fraukf ort-on-the-Main ; 
came  to  Manchester  iu  1869,  was  appoiuted 
chief  of  the  Eclipse  expedition  to  Siam  iu  1875, 
and,  after  holding  the  chau-  of  apphed  mathe- 
matics at  Owens  College,  became  professor 
of  physics  in  1888.  In  1882  he  photographed 
for  the  first  time  the  spectrum  of  the  solar 
corona,  and  in  1884  and  1890  delivered  the 
Bakerian  lectures  on  the  discharge  of  elec- 
tricity through  gases. 

Schwanthaler,  Ludwig  Michael  von  (b. 
1802,  d.  1848),  German  sculptor,  bom  at 
Munich.  His  chief  work  was  the  colossal 
statue  of  Bavaria,  fifty  feet  high. 

Schwarzenberg,  Karl,  Prinz  von  (b.  1771, 
d.  1820),  Austrian  general ;  served  through- 
out the  Napoleonic  wars,  being  distinguished 
at  Wagram  ;  commanded  the  troops  of  the 
Allies  in  1813-14,  and  the  Russians  and  Aus- 
trians  in  the  following  year.  His  nephew, 
Pbince  Felix  {d.  1852),  became  chief  minis- 
ter of  the  Austrian  empire  in  1848,  and,  by  a 
policy  of  repression,  restored  order, 

Schweinfurtli,  Georg  August  {b.  1836), 
African  traveller,  bom  at  Riga  ;  made  a 
botanical  expedition  to  the  Nile  valley 
1863-6,  and  in  1862  discovered  the  Welle,  or 
Aruwiui  river.  He  published  in  1873  Im 
Herzen  von  A/rika,  and  made  subsequent 
explorations  of  the  country  between  the  Nile 
and  the  Red  Sea. 

Schwerin,  Christoph,  Graf  von  {b.  1684, 
d.  1757),  field-marshal  of  Prussia  ;  made 
his  first  campaign  iu  the  allied  army  under 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene,  but  en- 
tered the  Prussian  service  in.  1720.  He  was 
made  councillor  of  state  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  for  whom  he  won  the  victory  of 
Mollwitz,  but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Prague,  at  the  opening  of  the  Seven  Years' 
war. 

Scioppius,  Caspar  {h.  1576,  d.  1649),  Ger- 
man writer,  "  the  Attila  of  Authors  ;  "  wrote 
with  great  bitterness  against  the  Protestants 
(^Classicum  Jielli  Hacri,  etc.),  and  was  also 
author  of  De  Arte  Critica,  and  some  philo- 
logical works. 

Scipio,  Lucius  Cornelius,  brother  of  the 
elder  Africauus  :  was  consul  in  190  B.C.,  and 
obtained  the  surname,  "  Asiaticus,"  for  his 
conduct  of  the  Syrian  war. 

Scipio  Africanus,  PubUus  Cornelius  [h. 
234  B.C..  d.  183),  Roman  general :  took  Car- 
thago Nova  and  conquered  Spain,  became 
consul  in  206  B.C.,  and  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion the  second  Punic  war  by  the  defeat 
of  Hannibal  at  Zama  (202  B.C.).  He  became 
a  second  time  consul,  but  his  popularity 
passed  away  on  account  of  the  arrogance  of 
his  later  years. 


Scipio  Africanus,  Publius  CorneUus  (d. 
129  B.C.),  grandson  of  the  preceding  ;  was 
the  sou  of  .Similius  Paulus,  who  was  adopted 
by  him.  He  became  consul  iu  148  B.C.,  and 
took  Carthage  in  146.  In  134  he  was  again 
consul,  and  distinguished  himself  by  the 
capture  of  Numautia,  but  became  unpopular 
subsequently  by  his  resistance  to  agrarian 
reforms.  He  was  the  friend  of  Terence  and 
Lselius. 

Sclopis  de  Salerno,  Paolo,  Conte  (i.  1798, 
d.  1878),  Italian  jurist  and  statesman;  author 
of  History  of  Italian  Legidation  (1840-57), 
was  minister  of  the  iuterior  in  Piedmont  in 
1825,  and  of  justice  iu  1848,  and  was  also 
one  of  the  arbitrators  in  the  Alabama  case. 

Scoresby,  William,  D.D.  {b.  1789,  d.  1857), 
Arctic  explorer  ;  published  an  account  of  his 
experiments  on  the  temperature  of  the  ocean 
in  The  Arctic  Regions  (1819),  and  in  1822 
surveyed  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland.  He- 
subsequently  graduated  at  Cambridge,  and 
took  orders,  but  also  devoted  his  attention 
to  magnetism,  and  in  1855  made  a  voyage 
to  Melboui-ne  in  order  to  test  his  theories. 

Scott,  Charies  Brodrick,  D.D.  (J).  1825),, 
educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  was  head- 
master of  Westminster  school  1855-83. 

Scott,  Clement  William  {b.  1841),  dra- 
matic critic,  son  of  Rev.  W.  Scott ;  was  a 
clerk  in  the  War  Office  till  1879.  Besides 
his  contributions  to  the  Daily  Telegraph, 
he  published  (originally  in  Pimch)  Lags  and 
Lyrics,  etc.,  and  took  part  in  the  adaptation 
of  Diplomacy,  Sister  Mary,  etc. 

Scott,  Sir  George  Gilbert,  R.A.  (*.  1811, 
d.  1878),  architect,  son  of  Rev.  Thomas 
Scott.  His  chief  works  were  the  Martyrs' 
Memorial,  Oxford,  the  Albert  Memorial, 
Kensington,  and  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas, 
Hambiu-g.  He  also  restored  many  churches 
and  cathedrals. 

Scott,  Michael  {d.  1291),  a  Scotchman  who 
was  patronised  by  the  Emperor  Frederick 
II.,  and  had  the  reputation  of  a  magician 
throughout  Europe.  He  translated  Aristotle 
and  Avicenna  into  Latin,  and  wrote  some 
curious  works. 

Scott,  Michael  (b.  1789,  d.  1835),  author  of 
Tom  Cringle's  Log  (1829)  and  I'he  Cruise  of 
the  Midge  ;  was  bom  in  Scotland,  but  lived 
chiefly  in  Jamaica. 

Scott,  Reginald  {d.  1599),  English  writer, 
whose  Discovery  of  Witchcraft  (1584)  was 
one  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  discredit  the 
superstition. 

Scott,  Robert,  D.D.  {b.  1811,  d.  1887), 
classical  scholar,  master  of  BalKol  from  1854 
to  1870  ;  was  appointed  Dean  of  Rochester  in 
that  year.    He  was  the  author,  with  Dr 


Sco 


(^65) 


Sed 


Liddell,  of  a  Greek  lexicon  (seventh  edition, 
ISSa),  and  was  one  of  the  revisers  of  the 
New  Testament. 

Scott,  Robert  Henry,  F.R.S.  (b.  1833), 
meteorologist ;  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Meteorological  Office  in  1867,  and  pub- 
lished Weather  Charts  and  Storm  JFarnings 
(1876),  and  other  works. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  Bart.  (b.  1771,  d.  1832), 
novelist ;  was  the  son  of  a  writer  to  the  Sig- 
net in  Edinburgh,  and  practised  for  a  few 
years  as  an  advocate,  bemg  appointed  clerk 
of  the  Court  of  Session  in  1805.  After  some 
translations  from  the  German,  he  began  to 
write  ballads,  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel 
(1805)  being  followed  by  Marmion  (1808), 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  (1810),  and  other 
poems.  In  1814  he  published  TTaverley 
anonymously,  and  in  succeeding  years  ap- 
peared the  series  called  by  that  name.  In 
1820  Scott  was  made  a  baronet,  but  six 
years  after  he  was  ruined  by  the  bankruptcy  i 
of  Messrs.  Constable,  and  he  spent  his  later 
years  in  an  honoui-able  and  successful  at- 
tempt to  meet  his  liabilities  by  means  of 
his  Life  of  Napoleon,  Tales  of  a  Grandfather, 
and  contributions  to  the  Quarterly  Review. 
His  life  was  vrritten  by  his  son-in-law, 
Lockhart,  and  his  Journal  was  published  in 
1890. 

Scott,  William.     \_See  Stowell.] 

Scott,  Winfield  {d.  1786,  d.  1866),  Ameri- 
can general ;  was  made  prisoner  and 
woimded  in  the  war  of  1812-15,  and,  after 
further  services,  became  commander-in-chief 
in  1842.  Having  conducted  the  war  against 
Mexico,  he  was  Republican  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1852,  but  was  not  elected.  He 
retired  from  the  army  in  1861,  and  died  at 
West  Point. 

Scotus.     [See  Duns  Scotus.] 

Scotus  Erigena  {d.  circa  875),  Irish  school- 
man, author  of  Dialoyus  de  Bivisione Natures  ; 
lived  chiefly  at  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald 
of  France. 

Scribe,  Augustin  Eugfene  (J>.  1791,  d. 
1861),  French  dramatist,  whose  first  success 
was  with  Une  Nuit  de  la  Garde  Nationale 
(1815),  written  in  collaboration  with  Poir- 
son.  He  afterwards  wrote  with  many  col- 
laborators numerous  vaudevilles  and  come- 
dies, of  which  the  chief  (among  the  former) 
were  Les  I'remieres  Amours  and  La  Seine  de 
Seize  Ans,  and  (among  the  latter)  Bertrand 
et  Raton  and  Adrienne  Leconvrcur.  He 
also  wrote  librettos  for  the  chief  operas  of 
Meyerbeer  and  Auber,  and  in  183G  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Academie. 

Scrivener,  Frederick  Henry  Ambrose, 
D.C.L.  {h.  1813,  d.  1891),  BibUcal  scholar, 
whose  chief  works  are  editions  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  and  the  Codex  Beza,  and  Flain 


Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New 
Testament  (tliird  edition,  1883).  He  was  one 
of  the  revisers  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
received  a  Civil  List  pension  in  1872. 

Scroggs,  Sir  William  {h.  1623,  d.  1683), 
English  judge,  of  humble  origin ;  became 
notorious  for  his  subservience  to  the  court, 
and  was  removed  from  the  Bench  in  1681, 
after  an  abortive  impeachment. 

Scrope,  George  Poulett,  F.R.S.  (*.  1797, 
d.  1876),  geologist,  son  of  J.  Poidett 
Thompson  ;  assumed  the  name  on  his  mar- 
riage. He  was  author  of  Considerations  on 
Volcanoes,  and  some  economical  works,  and 
sat  as  a  Liberal  for  Stroud  from  1833  till 
1867. 

Scrope,  Richard  le  (*.  1328,  d.  1403), 
statesman  and  warrior,  whose  father  and 
uncle  were  distinguished  judges  imder  Ed- 
ward II.  and  Edward  III. ;  took  part  in  the 
wars  of  the  latter  king,  and  became  steward 
of  the  household  and  Chancellor  under 
Richard  II. 

Scudery,  George  de  {b.  1603,  d.  1667), 
French  writer,  author  of  Observations  on  the 
Cid.  His  sister,  Madelene,  or  Madeline 
(b.  1607,  d.  1701),  wrote  romances  which  had 
great  vogue  in  their  day,  including  Le  Grand 
Cyrtis. 

Seaton,  John  Colbome,  Lord  \(b.  1777,  d. 
1863),  English  general,  served  under  Wel- 
lington in  the  Peninsula  and  at  Waterloo, 
and  became  field-marshal  in  1860 ;  was 
Governor-General  of  Canada  during  the 
rebellion,  and  afterwards  high  com 
missioner  of  the  Ionian  Islands. 

Sebastian,  King  of  Portugal  (b.  1554,  d. 
1578),  allied  himself  vdth  the  Sultan  of 
Morocco  in  an  attempt  to  drive  the  Moots 
out  of  Africa,  but  was  kiUed  in  battle. 

Sebastian!,  Fran9ois  Horace  Bastien, 
Comte  {b.  1776,  d.  1851),  marshal  of  France, 
of  Corsican  birth  ;  defended  Constantinople 
against  the  English,  and  served  in  the  later 
campaigns  of  Napoleon.  In  1830  he  became 
foreign  minister,  and  was  ambassador  in 
England  from  1S35  to  1840. 

Seckendorf,  Friedrich  HeLnrich  {b.  1673, 
d.  1763),  German  soldier  and  diplomatist, 
distinguished  in  all  the  wars  of  his  time 
and  many  of  the  negotiations ;  was  im- 
prisoned by  Frederick  the  Great  in  1758 
on  a  charge  of  intriguing  with  Austria. 

Seeker,  Thomas  {b.  1693,  d.  1768), 
Engbsh  divine ;  having  held  the  sees  of 
Bristol  and  Oxford,  became  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  1758. 

Sedgwick,  Adam,  F.R.S.  (*.  1785,  d. 
1873),  geologist,  was  bom  in  Yorkshire, 
and    educated    at    Cambridge,    where   in 


Sed 


(666  J 


Seiu 


1818  he  became  Woodwaxdian  professor  of 
geolo"'y.  His  Discourse  on  the  Studies  of 
the  ffniversity  of  Cambridge  passed  through 
five  editions.  He  was  canon  of  Norwich, 
and  some  time  vice-master  of  Trinity. 

Sedgwick,  Catherine  {b.  1789,  d.  1867), 
American  writer,  author  of  A  New  England 
Tale  (1822),  and  many  other  stories,  etc. 

Sedley,  Sir  Charles  {b.  1639,  d.  1701), 
EngUsh  dramatist  and  wit,  a  gi'eat  favourite 
of  Charles  II.  His  daughter,  Catherine, 
mistress  of  Charles  II.,  was  created  by  him 
Coimtess  of  Dorchester. 

Seeley,  John  Robert  (b.  1834),  historian  ; 
was  senior  classic  (bracketed)  and  Chan- 
cellor's medalHst,  and  in  1858  became 
fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  In 
]  863  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  at 
University  College,  London,  and  in  1869 
became  Regius  professor  of  modem  history 
at  Cambridge.  In  1865  he  published 
anonymously  Ecce  Ho^no,  and  he  also  wrote 
Life  and  Times  of  Stein  (1879),  The  Ex- 
pansion of  England  (1883),  and  Greater 
Greece  and  Greater  Britain  (1887). 

Seely,  Harry  Govier,  F.R.S.  [b.  1839), 
scientific  writer ;  author  of  Catalogue  of 
Fossil  Reptiles  in  the  Woodwardian  Museum, 
Physical  Geology  and  Paleontology  (1885), 
and  Factors  in  Life  (1887). 

Seeman,  Berthold  (b.  1825,  d.  1871),  Ger- 
man botanist ;  wrote  Narrative  of  the 
Voyage  of  H. M.S.  "  Herald,''^  in  which  ship 
he  went  round  the  world.  He  also  went  on 
three  expeditions  in  search  of  Franklin,  and 
published  several  botanical  works. 

Segur,  Philippe,  Marquis  de  (6.  1724,  d. 
1801),  French  general;  was  minister  of  war 
from  1780  to  1787. 

S^gur,  Louis  Philippe,  Comte  de  {b.  1753, 
d.  1830),  his  son  ;  served  with  Lafayette  in 
America,  and  was  entrusted  with  several 
important  diplomatic  missions,  especially  to 
Russia.  He  also  wrote  several  works,  in- 
cluding his  Galerie  Morale  et  Politique  and 
Memoires. 

Sejanus,  Lucius  ^lius  {b.  20  B.C.,  d.  31), 
minister  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  on  whose 
retirement  to  Capreae  he  became  supreme, 
but  was  afterwards  put  to  death  on  a  charge 
of  conspiracy. 

Selbome,  Roimdell  Palmer,  Earl  of  {b. 
1812),  English  lawyer  and  statesman  ;  after 
a  distingmshed  career  at  Oxford,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1837,  became  Queen's  Counsel 
in  1849,  and  entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal 
in  1847.  He  sat  for  Plymouth  for  some 
years,  and  in  1861  was  made  Solicitor- 
General,  becoming  Attorney-General  two 
years  later.     He  decUned  of&ce  in  1868  on 


account  of  his  views  on  the  Irish  Church 
question,  but  in  1872  became  Lord  Chan- 
cellor with  a  peerage,  being  reappointed  in 
Mr.  Gladstone's  second  ministry.  He  joined 
the  Liberal  Unionists  on  the  Home  Rule 
question.  In  1886  he  published^  Defence 
of  the  Church  of  England  against  Dis- 
establishment. 

Selden,  John  (*.  1584,  d.  1654),  anti- 
quarian writer ;  was  one  of  the  counsel  for 
Hampden,  and  was  imprisoned  as  a  con- 
stitutionalist in  1629.  His  chief  works  were 
History  of  Tythes,  Titles  of  Honour,  Table 
Talk,  etc. 

Seleucus  L  [Nicator]  (6.  354  B.C.,  d.  281), 
King  of  Syria ;  was  one  of  Alexander's  best 
generals,  and  greatly  extended  the  province 
of  Babylon,  which  was  his  share  of  his 
master's  inheritance.  He  was  put  to  death 
by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus. 

Seleucus  II.  [CalUnicus]  {b.  247  B.C.,  A. 
225)  had  a  disastrous  career,  being  finally 
defeated  and  killed  by  the  Parthians. 

Selim  I.,  Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Turks 
Q).  1487,  d.  1520),  assassinated  his  father  and 
brothers,  took  Egypt  and  Syria  from  the 
Mamelukes,  and  obtained  the  title  of  imam. 

Selim  IL  (*.  1522,  d.  1574),  during  whose 
reign  war  was  carried  on  with  the  Pope, 
Spain,  and  Venice,  the  issue  being  the  battle 
of  Lepanto. 

Selim  III.  (*.  1761,  d.  1808),  after  a  war 
with  Austria  and  Russia  was  compelled  to 
cede  the  Crhnea  to  the  latter  by  the  Peace 
of  Jassy  (1792).  He  afterwards  joined  the 
English  against  Bonaparte,  and  was  finally 
dethroned  and  strangled  in  consequence 
of  his  attempts  to  introduce  European 
customs. 

Seljuk.    \_See  Togrul  Beg.] 

Selkirk,  Alexander  (J.  1676,  d.  1723), 
Scotch  buccaneer,  afterwards  a  lieutenant 
in  the  navy.  The  account  of  his  four  years' 
life  in  Juan  Fernandez  formed  the  basis  of 

Robinson  Crusoe. 

Selwyn,  George  Augustus  {b.  1719,  d, 
1791),  wit  and  member  of  Parliament. 

Selwyn,  George  Augustus  (b.  1809,  d. 
1878),  divine,  was  appointed  first  Bishop  of 
New  Zealand  in  1841,  and  in  1867  be- 
came Bishop  of  Lichfield.  His  son,  John 
RicHAEDSON  Seiwtn  {b.  1845),  became 
Bishop  of  Melanesia  in  1877. 

Sembrich,  Marcella  {b.  1858),  Austrian 
singer ;  made  her  debut  at  Athens  in  1877  in 
I  Pu7-itani,  and  afterwards  sang  at  Vienna, 
Dresden,  London  (1880),  and  New  York 
(1883-4),  her  favourite  parts  being  Susanna, 
Martha,  and  Zerhna. 


Sem 


(667) 


Sey 


Semiramis,  Queen  of  Assyria  {Jl.  circa 
1250  B.C.),  mythical  founder  of  Nineveh. 

S^monville,  Charles,  Marqiiis  de  {b.  1759, 
d.  1S39),  French  diplomatist;  served  skil- 
fully every  successive  government  during 
his  lifetime. 

Seneca,  Lucius  Annaeus  {b.  circa  4  B.C.,  d. 
65),  Stoic  philosopher;  was  banished  from 
Rome  on  a  false  charge,  but,  returning  after 
eight  years,  became  tutor  to  Nero.  Being 
accused  of  conspiracy,  he  died  by  opening 
his  veins  and  suffocating  himself  in  a  warm 
bath.  His  works  consist  of  treatises  and 
epistles,  but  the  tragedies  ascribed  to  him 
are  of  doubtful  authenticity. 

Senefelder,  Alois  {b.  1771,  d.  1834),  a 
German  ;  invented  lithography,  and  became 
director  of  the  royal  lithographic  office  at 
Munich. 

Senior,  Nassau  WiUiam  {b.  1790,  d.  1864), 
EngUsh  economist ;  was  appointed  master 
in  Chancery  in  1836,  and  was  professor  of 
pohtical  economy  at  Oxford  1825-30,  and 
again  1840-15.  He  was  author  of  literary 
essays  and  economical  works. 

Sepiilveda,  Juan  Gines  {b.  1490,  d.  1574), 
"  the  Spanish  Livy,"  was  historiographer  to 
Charles  V.  and  tutor  to  Pliilip  H.  His  chief 
work  was  History  of  Charles  V. 

Serassi,  Pier  Antoiuo  {jb.  1721,  d.  1791), 
Itahan  writer  ;  author  of  a  life  of  Tasso. 

Sergius  I.,  Pope  (d.  701),  had  to  leave 
Rome  for  several  years  on  account  of  his 
opposition  to  Justinian  ;  baptised  Cedwalla, 
King  of  the  West  Saxons. 

Sergius  II.  {d.  847),  Pope,  was  opposed 
by  the  Emperor  Lotharius.  During  his 
pontificate  the  Saracens  attacked  Rome. 

Sergius  IIL  {d.  911),  anti-pope;  elected 
by  the  intrigues  of  his  mistress,  Marosia 
(q.v.),  was  driven  out  by  John  IX.,  but 
restored  after  his  death. 

Sergius  IV.  {d.  1012),  Pope,  succeeded 
John  XVIII.  in  1009. 

Serrano,  Francisco,  Duque  de  la  Torre  (6. 
1810,  d.  1885),  field-marshal  of  Spain,  over- 
threw Espartero  in  1843,  and  afterwards 
joined  Narvaez.  He  gained  great  influence 
over  Queen  Isabella,  and  in  1849  became 
captain- general  of  Granada.  In  1854  he 
was  exiled,  but  soon  returned,  and  after  the 
overthrow  of  the  Bourbons  in  1868,  became 
head  of  the  provisional  government.  After 
resigning  the  regency,  he  defeated  the  Car- 
lists,  but  had  to  flee  the  country  on  account 
of  his  opposition  to  the  republic.  He  again, 
however,  became  head  of  the  government, 
and  after  some  time  in  France,  returned  in 
1875  and  headed  the  Dynastic  Left. 


Sertorius,  Quintus  {d.  72  b.c),  Roman 
general ;  made  himself  master  of  Spain, 
and  held  it  for  ten  years  against  the  Roman 
arms. 

Server  Pasha,  Turkish  statesman ;  as 
mayor  of  Constantinople  (18dS-70),  carried 
out  many  improvements,  and  in  1871  became 
foreign  minister.  He  subsequently  held 
several  other  offices,  but  returned  to  his 
former  post  in  1877.  Next  year  he  became 
minister  of  justice. 

Servetus,  Michel  {b.  1511,  d.  1553) ,  Spanish 
theologian ;  escaped  from  the  Inquisition  at 
Vienna  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  burnt  to 
death  for  his  Arianism  by  the  orders  of 
Calvin. 

Servius  TuUius,  sixth  of  the  fabled  Kings 
of  Rome. 

Severn,  Joseph  {b.  1796,  d.  1879),  painter, 
is  chiefly  known  as  the  friend  of  Keats, 
whom  he  nursed  in  his  last  illness  (1821). 

Severus.     \_See  Alexander  Severus.] 

Severus,  Marcus  Aurelius  (Jb.  208,  d.  235), 
Roman  Emperor ;  carried  on  wars  with  th-e 
Persians,  and  was  murdered  by  his  soldiers 
in  Germany. 

Severus,  Septimius  (Jb.  146,  d.  211),  Roman 
Emperor;  defeated  his  rivals,  Niger  and 
Albtuus,  drove  back  the  Parthiaus,  and, 
having  subdued  the  Picts,  built  the  wall 
called  by  his  name. 

Sevign^,  Marie,  Marquise  de  (b.  1626,  d. 
1696),  author  of  the  celebrated  Letters,  which 
were  written  to  her  daughter. 

Seward,  Anna  (*.  1747,  d.  1809),  EngUsh 
writer  ;  author  of  some  sonnets  and  a  Life 
of  iJr.  Darwin  (Erasmus  Darwin). 

Seward,  WiUiam  Henry  (A.  1801,  d.  1872), 
American  statesman  ;  was  elected  governor 
of  New  York  in  1838,  and  in  1849  became 
United  States  senator.  He  now  headed  the 
Republican  pai'ty,  and,  having  beau  an  un- 
successful candidate  for  the  presidency, 
became  secretary  of  state  under  Lincoln  in 
1861.  He  was  attacked  at  the  same  time  as 
the  latter,  but  recovered.  He  wrote  a  Life 
of  John  Quincy  Adams,  and  other  works. 

Sewell,  Elizabeth  Missing  (*.  1815),  Eng- 
lish writer  ;  author  of  Amy  Herbert,  Ancient 
History,  Popular  History  of  France,  etc. 

Sewell,  William  (J).  1650),  historian, 
author  of  History  of  the  Quakers  (1722)  : 
was  brought  up  as  a  weaver,  and  mastered 
several  languages. 

Seymour,  Sir  Edward  (Jb.  1633,  d.  1708), 
Tory  politician ;  was  elected  Speaker  in 
1673,  when  he  also  became  treasurer  of  the 


Sey 


(668  ) 


Sha 


navy.  He  promoted  the  Habeas  Corpus 
Act,  and  opposed  the  Exclusion  Bill ;  was 
dismissed  from  office  in  1694  for  dealings 
■with  the  East  India  Company,  but  on  the 
accession  of  Anne  again  became  Privy 
Councillor,  and  was  made  comptroller  of 
the  household. 

Seymour,  Jane  (b.  circa  1509,  d.  1537), 
wife  of  Henry  VIII.  and  mother  of  Edward 
VI. 

Seymour,  Sir  Thomas  (d.  1549),  yoimger 
brother  of  the  Protector  Somerset ;  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  admiral  under  Henry 
VIII. ,  but  in  the  next  reign  secretly  married 
his  widow,  and  intrigued  against  his 
brother.  He  was  beheaded  on  a  charge  of 
treason. 

Sforza,  Jacopo  [Attendolo]  (b.  1369,  d. 
1424),  Ita,]ia,n  cotidottiei-e ;  took  service  suc- 
cessively with  the  lords  of  Milan,  the  Flor- 
entines, the  Marquis  of  Ferrara,  Pope  John 
XXIII.,  and  Ladislaus,  King  of  Naples,  who 
made  him  grand  constable.  He  was  after- 
wards employed  by  Louis  of  Anjou  and 
Joanna  of  Naples. 

Sforza,  Francesco  {b.  1401,  d.  1466),  his 
son ;  was  employed  by  the  Duke  of  Milan 
against  Florence  and  Venice,  and,  after 
changing  sides  for  a  time,  married  the 
daughter  of  the  duke,  and  on  his  death 
seized  the  duchy. 

Sforza,  Ludovico,  "the  Moor"  (b.  1451, 
d.  circa  1510),  third  son  of  Francesco  ;  after 
a  period  of  exile  retm-ned  in  1479,  and  made 
himself  master  of  Milan.  He  mamed 
Beatrice  of  Este,  invited  Charles  VIII.  to 
invade  Italy,  and  in  1494  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom,  his  nephew  having  probably  been 
poisoned.  He  next  joined  the  league  against 
the  French,  and  in  the  subsequent  invasion 
by  Louis  XII.  was  made  prisoner,  and 
carried  to  France,  where  he  died  at  Loches. 

Shadwell,  Charles  {d.  1726),  writer  of 
The  Fair  Quaker  of  Deal ;  was  probably  a 
relative  of  Thomas  Shadwell. 

Shadwell,  Thomas  (b.  1640,  d.  1692), 
dramatist ;  was  ridiculed  by  Dryden,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  poet-laureate.  He  wrote 
Epsom  Wells,  The  Lancashire  Witches,  and 
other  plays. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  first 
Earl  {b.  1621,  d.  1683),  statesman  ;  in  the 
Great  Eebellion  sided  iirst  vdth  the  king,  but 
afterwards  with  the  Parliament ;  was  Privy 
Councillor  under  Cromwell,  but  at  the  Ees- 
toration  became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
with  a  peerage.  After  being  Lord  Chancel- 
lor for  a  year  (1672-3),  he  was  dismissed  and 
sent  to  the  Tower,  but  on  his  return  to 
office  passed  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and 
attempted  to  exclude  the  Duke  of  York. 


In  1681  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  tried 
for  treason,  and  on  his  release  fled  to 
Holland. 

Shaftesbury,  third  Earl  of  {b.  1671,  d. 
1713),  philosophe'r  and  politician;  his  chief 
work  being  Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners, 
Opinions,  and  Times. 

Shaftesbury,  seventh  Earl  (i.  1801,  d. 
1885),  philanthropist;  entered  Parliament, 
and  held  office  under  WelUngton  and  Peel, 
devoting  himself  to  social  questions.  He 
effected  the  passing  of  the  Ten  Hours  Bill  in 
1844,  to  limit  the  employment  of  women  and 
childi-en  in  factories,  originated  the  Shoe- 
black Brigade  and  the  Eagged  School 
Union,  was  fifty  years  chairman  of  the 
Limacy  Commission,  and  had  a  considerable 
share  in  the  framing  of  the  Public  Worship 
Eegulation  Act. 

Shah  Allum,  Emperor  of  India  {d.  1806), 
sought  the  English  alliance  after  the  defeat 
of  the  Vizier  of  Oude,  and  conveyed  to 
them  in  perpetuity  the  revenues  of  Bengal, 
Behar,  and  Orissa  (1765) ;  was  afterwards 
deposed  and  imprisoned  by  the  Mahrattas 
till  restored  by  Lake  in  1803. 

Shah  Jehan  {d.  1666),  was  crowned  in 
1627,  and  soon  conquered  part  of  theDeccan, 
but  was  depctsed  by  his  son  Aurungzebe. 

Shah  Soojah.    \_See  Dost  Mahommed.] 

Shairp,  John  Campbell  {b.  1819,  d.  1885), 
poet ;  became  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford 
in  1877,  having  previously  held  a  principal- 
ship  at  St.  Andrews.  He  wrote  Glen  Dessary, 
and  other  poems,  as  well  as  Studies  in  Poetry 
and  Fhilosophy  ;  Burns  {''Men  of  letters" 
series),  etc. 

Shakespeare,  or  Shakspere,  "William  {b. 
1564,  d.  I(il6\  di-amatist  and  poet;  was 
born  and  educated  at  Stratford-on-Avon, 
married  Anne  Hathaway  at  eighteen,  and 
went  to  London  probably  in  the  year  1586. 
His  occupation  there  at  first  is  unknown, 
but  he  afterwards  became  an  actor  and 
playwright,  and  obtained  a  share  in  the 
Blackfriars  theatre  and  afterwards  in  the 
Globe.  He  is  said  to  have  paid  annual 
visits  to  his  birthplace,  to  which,  having 
accumulated  a  fortune,  he  returned  finally 
about  1604.  He  purchased  New  Place  at 
Stratford  (now  national  property),  and 
added  to  it  an  estate.  He  had  three  chil- 
dren, but  left  no  male  descendants.  Zove's 
Labour'' s  Lost  was  probably  his  first  pubHshed 
play,  and  The  Tempest  (1611)  the  last; 
Venus  and  Adonis  and  Lucrece  appeared  in 
1593  and  1594,  and  the  Sonnets  in  the  same 
decade.  The  first  collected  edition  of  the 
plays  was  printed  in  1623,  and  the  second 
folio  in  1632.  There  are  three  important 
portraits    of    Shakespeare,    of   which    the 


Sha 


(  669  ) 


She 


Chandos  portrait  is  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery,  London,  another  is  in  the  Stratford 
Museum,  aiid  the  Martin  Droeshout  en- 
graving is  attached  to  the  first  folio  edition. 

Snaxp,  GranviUe  (b.  1734,  d.  1813), 
philanthropist,  grandson  of  John,  Archbishop 
of  York  {d.  1713),  instituted  the  Society  for 
the  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade,  advocated 
Parliamentary  reform,  and  was  chief  founder 
of  the  Bible  Society.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  several  works. 

Sharp,  James  (i.  1618,  d.  1679),  Archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews  ;  became  very  unpopular  for 
his  cruel  treatment  of  the  Presbyterians,  and 
was  murdered  in  his  caniage  about  three 
miles  from  St.  Andrews. 

Shaxp,  William,  M.D.,  F.E.S.  (b.  1805), 
surgeon,  author  of  Essays  on  Medicine;  was 
'  the  first  to  obtain  the  inclusion  of  physical 
science  in  the  public  school  curriculum. 

Sharpe,  Gregory  {b.  1713,  d.  1771), 
Orientalist  and  master  of  the  Temple  ;  wrote 
Dissertations  on  the  Origin  of  Language, 
etc.,  with  a  Hebrew  Lexicon,  and  some  con- 
troversial works. 

Shaw,  Sir  Eyre  Massey,  K.C.B.  (6.  1830), 
was  chief  officer  of  the  London  Fire  Brigade 
from  1861  to  1891,  when  he  was  knighted. 

Shaw,  Thomas  {b.  1692,  d.  1751),  divine 
and  antiquary  ;  author  of  Travels :  or,  Ob- 
servations Relating  to  Several  Parts  of  Bar - 
bary  and  the  Levant. 

Shaw-Lefevre,  Eight  Hon.  George  John 
{b.  1832),  statesman,  son  of  Sir  John  Shaw- 
Lefevre,  clerk  of  the  Parliaments  1856-75, 
represented  Reading  as  a  Liberal  from  1863 
to  1885,  and  was  returned  for  Bradford  in 
1S86.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Board  of 
Trade  1868-71, and  to  the  Admiralty  1871-4, 
and  in  1880  he  became  First  Commissioner 
of  Works.  In  1884  he  became  Postmaster- 
General,  and  in  1892  First  Commissioner  of 
Works. 

Shea,  Sir  Ambrose  {b.  1820),  colonial 
statesman  ;  was  for  six  years  speaker  of  the 
Newfoundland  Assembly,  and  was  after- 
wards a  member  of  the  Council.  He  was 
twice  sent  to  London  to  support  the  views 
of  the  colony  on  the  fisheries  question,  and 
in  1887  became  governor  of  the  Bahamas. 

Shebbeare,  John  {b.  1709,  d.  1788),  physi- 
cian ;  author  of  History  of  the  Sumatrans, 
and  other  satirical  works. 

Shedd,  William  Mayer,  D.D.  (b.  1820), 
American  theologian ;  author  of  History  of 
Christian  Doctrine,  editions  of  Augustine's 
Confessions,  and  Coleridge's  works,  etc. 

Shee,  Sir  Martin  Archer  {b.  1770,  d.  1850), 
painter,  bom  in  Dublin,  where  at  sixteen  he 
Was  much  patronised ;    came  to  London  in 


1788,  was  elected  R.A.  in  1800,  and  in  1830 
became  president  of  the  Academy.  Moore 
and  Sir  Eyre  Coote  sat  to  him,  and  his  /«- 
fant  Bacchus  is  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London. 

Sheepshanks,  Richard  (b.  1794,  d.  1855), 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  whose  chief 
work  was  the  completion  of  the  restoration 
of  the  standards  of  weights  and  measures. 
His  brother,  John  Sheepshanks  {b.  1787,  d. 
1863),  formed  and  presented  to  the  nation 
the  collection  of  pictures  known  as  the 
"Sheepshanks  Gallery." 

Sheffield,  John  Baker  Holroyd,  Earl  of  {b. 
1735,  d.  1821),  remembered  as  the  friend  of 
Gibbon,  and  editor  of  his  miscellaneous 
works. 

SheU,  Richard  Lalor  {b.  1791,  d.  1851), 
Irish  politician,  celebrated  for  his  oratorical 
powers  ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  Catholic 
Emancipation  and  Repeal  agitations,  but 
afterwards  accepted  office  under  the  Whigs, 
becoming  master  of  the  Mint  in  1846,  and 
miuister  at  Florence  in  1850.  He  also  wrote 
Eradne  and  other  plays. 

Shelburne,  Wilham  Petty,  Earl  of  {b. 
1737,  d.  1805),  English  statesman  ;  as  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trade  under  George 
Grenvdle  protested  against  the  taxation  of  the 
colonies,  and  as  Secretary  of  State  under  Pitt 
(1766-8)  attempted  to  carry  out  his  views.  In 
1782  he  took  office  under  Rockingham,  ou 
whose  death  he  became  Prime  Minister.  He 
concluded  peace  with  America,  but  was  soon 
driven  out  of  office  by  Fox  and  North,  and 
took  Httle  further  part  in  affairs.  In  1784 
he  was  created  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 

Sheldon,  Gilbert  {b.  1598,  d.  1677),  divine ; 
after  being  chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  was 
warden  of  All  Souls',  Oxford,  where  he 
built  the  Sheldonian  theatre.  He  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Canterbmy  in  1663. 

SheUey,  Percy  Bysshe  {b.  1792,  d.  1822), 
poet,  was  born  near  Horsham,  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  Oxford,  from  which  he  was 
sent  down  for  his  pamphlet,  The  Necessity  of 
Atheism.  He  was  twice  married,  lived  in 
Italy  from  the  year  1818,  and  was  drowned 
near  Leghorn  foiu-  years  later.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  Queen  Mab,  The  Revolt  of 
Islam,  Prometheus  Unbound,  Rosalind  and 
Helen,  Adonais,  Hellas,  The  Cenci,  and  many 
splendid  lyrics,  and  various  essays,  including 
The  Defence  of  Poetry  and  a  translation  of 
Plato's  Banquet. 

Shelley,  Mrs.     \_See  Wollstonecraft.] 

Shenstone,  William  (*.  1714,  d.  1763), 
poet,  whose  best  works  are  The  Pastoral 
Ballad  and  The  Schoolmistress. 

Sheppard,  Jack  {b.  1702,  d.  1724),  a 
not<iri()us  thief  and  prison  breaker. 


She 


(670) 


Sho 


Sbepstone,  Sir  Theophilus,  K.C.M.G., 
South  Africau  statesman  ;  became  secretary 
for  uative  affairs  and  member  of  the  Execu- 
tive Coimcil  of  Natal  in  1856,  and  conducted 
the  negotiations  with  the  Zulus  by  which 
the  Transvaal  was  annexed  in  1877. 

Slieraxd,  or  Sherwood,  WilHam  (b.  1659,  d. 
1728),  botanist ;  while  consul  in  the  East 
made  a  collection  of  the  plants  of  Greece 
and  Anatolia,  and  left  a  sum  for  the  endow- 
ment of  a  professorship  of  botany  at  Oxford. 

Sherbrooke.     [See  Lowe.] 

Shere  Khan  Soor,  Emperor  of  India  (d. 
1.545),  wiested  Bengal  fi'om  Hoomayoon, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  emperor,  reduced 
Malwah  and  Bajpootana,  and  ruled  well ; 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  KaUnjeet. 

Shere  Singh,  Maharajah  of  the  Sikhs  {d. 
1843),  succeeded  Kurrack  Singh  in  1840,  but 
after  a  troubled  reign  was  murdered  by  his 
soldiers. 

Shere  Singh,  Sikh  general,  coalesced  with 
Moolraj  (to  reduce  whom  he  had  been 
sent)  against  the  British,  and,  after  a  severe 
struggle,  was  defeated  by  Gough  at  Guzerat, 
when  he  surrendered  and  was  pensioned. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry  (b.  1831,  d.  1888), 
American  general ;  distinguished  himself 
during  the  Civil  war  at  Stone  river,  and  by 
his  victory  of  Cedar  Creek  (October  19, 1864), 
and  afterwards  under  Grant  at  Five  Forks 
(April  1,  1865),  and  Sailor's  Creek.  In  1867 
he  quarrelled  with  President  Johnson,  and 
was  dismissed  from  his  command. 

Sheridan,  Eichard  Brinsley  (6.  1751,  d. 
1816),  statesman  and  dramatist,  third  son  of 
Thos.  Sheridan,  the  lexicographer  (d.  1788), 
was  bom  at  Dublin  and  educated  at  Harrow. 
His  comedy.  The  Rivals,  was  produced  at 
Covent  Garden  in  1775,  and  was  followed 
hv  The  Duenna,  The  School  for  Scandal,  and 
The  Critic.  Sheridan  entered  Parliament  as 
a  Whig  in  1780,  made  a  fine  speech  on  the 
impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  and  on 
his  party  coming  into  office  became  Treasurer 
of  the  Navy  and  Privy  Councillor.  He  after- 
wards lost  his  seat,  and  became  involved  in 
debt.  He  was  married  first  to  Elizabeth 
Liinley,  daughter  of  Linley,  the  composer, 
and  secondly  to  Miss  Ogle,  daughter  of  the 
Dean  of  Winchester,  who  survived  him. 

Sherif  Pasha  (b.  1819,  d.  1888),  Egyptian 
statesman,  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
in  1857,  and,  having  been  three  times  regent, 
became  president  of  the  council  of  ministers 
in  1868.  In  1879  and  in  1881-2  he  was 
agam  chief  minister,  and  also  from  1882  to 
1886,  when  he  reSiOTied  on  account  of  his 
aversion  to  English  2sfluence. 

Sherlock,  Thomas  {b.  1678,  d.  1761), 
English  divine,  son  of  William  Sherlock, 
Dean   of   St.   Paul's;    became  successively 


Dean  of  Chichester  and  Bishop  of  Bangor, 
Salisbury,  and  London.  He  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  Bangorian  controversy,  and 
wrote  Trial  of  the  K-'itnessea. 

Sherlock,  WilUam  {b.  l6U,d.  1707),  Dean 
of  St.  Paul's  (1691),  wrote  Practical  Dis- 
coume  Concerning  JJeath  (1689),  Case  of 
Allegiance  to  Sovereign  Powers  Stated  (1691), 
etc. 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh  (d  1820,  d. 
1891),  American  general ;  served  with  dis- 
tiactiou  in  California,  and,  having  in  the 
interval  been  occupied  in  various  pursuits, 
commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull's  Run  (July 
21,  1861),  was  wounded  at  bhiloh  (April  6-7, 
1862),  and  having  led  the  expedition  against 
Vicksbiu'gh,  took  Arkansas  Port  at  the  head 
of  the  loth  Corps.  He  commanded  the  left 
wing  at  Chattanooga  (November  23-25, 
I860),  and  was  soon  after  made  head  of  the 
army  of  the  Tennessee.  He  was  repulsed  by 
Johnston  at  Kenesaw  Mountain  (June  27, 
1864),  but  defeated  his  successor,  Hood. 
After  further  victories  he  became  lieutenant- 
general,  and  in  1869  became  commander-in- 
chief,  a  position  which  he  held  till  1884. 

Sherwood,  Mary  Martha  {b.  1775,  d.  1851), 
authoress  of  Susan  Greg  (1802),  Little  Wood- 
man, Little  Henry  and  His  Bearer,  and  other 
religious  stories. 

Shield,  William  («.  1748,  d.  1829),  English 
composer ;  was  first  viola  at  the  Italian 
opera  for  many  years.  His  works  include 
The  Flitch  of  Macon,  Hasina,  and  other 
operas,  and  several  songs  (^The  Reaving  of 
the  Lead,  Old  Towler,  etc.). 

Shmeto,Richard  {b.  1810,  d.  1876),  Greek 
scholar,  published  thTee  editions  of  the  first 
book  of  Thucydides. 

Shirley,  James  {b.  1596,  d.  1666),  dramatist ; 
resigned  a  curacy  on  becoming  a  Romanist, 
and  wrote  for  the  stage,  produckig  about 
forty  plays.  He  lost  all  his  property  in  the 
fire  of  London. 

Shirley,  Walter  Waddington,  D.D.  (fi. 
1828,  d.  1866),  historian,  son  of  Bishop 
Shirley,  edited  for  the  Master  of  the  Rom 
Letters  Illustrative  of  the  Reign  »f  Henry 
III.  (1863),  and  Fasciculi  Zizaniorum 
Magistri  Johannis  TViclif.  He  was  appointed 
in  1864  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Oxford. 

Shore,  Jane,  mistress  of  Edward  TV.,  was 
the  wife  of  a  Lombard  Street  jeweller,  and 
after  the  death  of  the  king  became  attached 
to  Lord  Hastings,  in  whose  fall  ahe  was 
involved.  She  was  forced  to  do  public 
penance,  but  the  tale  of  her  dying  in  a 
ditch  is  discredited,  though  nothing  certain 
is  known  of  her  fate. 

Shore,  Thomas  Teignmouth  (b.  1841), 
divine ;  graduated  with  distinction  at  Dublin, 


Sho 


(671) 


Sie 


was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  Queen  in  1878, 
and  Canon  of  Worcester  in  1890.  He  has 
published  Some  Difficulties  of  Belief,  and 
other  works. 

Shortliouse,  John  Henry  {b,  1834),  ro- 
mance \vT:iter,  whose  chief  works  are  John 
Inglemnt  (1881),  The  Little  Schoolmaster 
Mark  (1886),  Sir  Fercival  (1886),  etc. 

Shovel,  Sir  Cloudesley  {d.  1707),  admii-al, 
destroyed  the  fleet  of  Tripoli  in  1674,  and 
distinguished  himself  during  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Successiom,  but  whUe  in  command  of 
the  Mediterranean  fleet  was  wrecked  upon 
the  Scilly  Isles. 

Shrapnel,  Henry,  Lieutenant-General  (d. 
1842),  inventor  of  the  case  shot  called  after 
him,  for  which  he  received  a  pension  of 
£1,200. 

Shrewsbury.     \_See  Talbot.] 

Shuckburgh-Evelyn,  Sir  George,  F.R.S. 
(6.  17oU,  d.  1804),  mathematician,  deter- 
mined a  formula  for  the  barometrical 
measurement  of  the  height  of  mountaius,  and 
represented  Warwickshire  for  some  years. 

Sibthorp,  John  {b.  1758,  d.  1756),  natu- 
ralist ;  was  Regius  professor  of  botany  at 
Oxford,  where  he  founded  the  professor- 
ship of  rural  economy.  His  chief  work  was 
Flora  Grceca. 

Sickingen,  Franz  von  (*.  1484,  d.  1523), 
German  warrior  ;  served  under  Maximilian 
and  Charles  V. ,  and  was  afterwards  promi- 
nent as  the  friend  of  Ukich  von  Hutten, 
and  the  protector  of  Reuchlin  and  the  re- 
formers ;  was  captm-ed  and  severely  woimded 
in  a  war  with  the  Archbishop  of  Treves. 

_  Siddons,  Sarah  (*.  1755,  d.  1831),  Eng- 
lish actress,  nee  Kemble ;  joined  Garrick 
in  1775,  and  was  not  successful,  but,  after  a 
brilliant  provincial  tour,  appeared  in  the 
Fatal  Marriage  at  Drury  Lane  in  1782,  and 
acquired  a  rapid  reputation.  In  1812  she 
refared  with  a  fortune,  having  given  un- 
rivalled renderings  of  Lady  Macbeth,  Des- 
demona,  Imogen,  and  most  of  the  greatest 
characters  in  the  tragedies  of  Shakespeare 
and  other  writers.  Her  life  was  written  by 
Thomas  Campbell  (1834). 

Sidgwick,  Henry,  D.C.L.  {b.  1838),  phi- 
losophical writer  ;  having  been  senior  classic, 
became  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1859,  but  resigned  ten  years  later 
on  conscientious  grounds.  He  took  great 
interest  in  promoting  female  education,  and 
in  1883  was  named  professor  of  Moral  Phi- 
losophy. His  chief  works  are  Principks  of 
Political  Economy,  Methods  of  Ethics  (1874), 
and  Outlines  of  the  History  sf  Ethics  (1886). 

Sidmouth,    Henry    Addington,  Viscount  I 
{b.    1757,  d.   1844),    statesman,    son  of   a  j 


London  physician  ;  entered  Parliament  as  a 
follower  of  Pitt  in  1784,  was  Speaker  from 
1789  to  1801,  when  he  became  Prime 
Minister,  representing  the  Protestant  views 
of  the  king.  He  held  office  a  little  more 
than  two  years,  but  in  1805  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Council,  with  a  peerage  under 
Pitt,  though  he  soon  resigned.  From  1812 
to  1822  he  was  Home  Secretary  imder  Lord 
Liverpool,  and  carried  out  the  repressive 
measures  of  that  period.  He  was  the 
favourite  minister  of  George  III.  in  his  later 
days. 

Sidney,  Algernon  {b.  1622,  d.  1683),  re- 
pubhcan  politician,  author  of  Discourses  on 
Government ;  was  an  active  ParUamentarian 
during  the  Civil  war,  and  a  member  of  the 
High  Court  of  Justice,  but  was  pardoned  in 
1677.  He  was  afterwards  executed  for 
alleged  complicity  in  the  Rye  House  Plot. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip  (6.  1554,  d.  1586),  sol- 
dier and  poet,  son  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney, 
statesman,  and  brother  of  the  beautiful 
Mary,  Countess  of  Pembroke ;  negotiated  a 
Protestant  league  in  1576,  and  was  after- 
wards commander  of  the  cavalry  under  his 
uncle,  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  in  the  Low 
Countries,  in  which  service  he  lost  his  life  at 
the  battle  of  Zutphen.  He  wrote  Arcadia, 
and  Ayi  Apologie  for  Poetrie. 

Siegen,  Ludwig  von  (J.  1609,  d.  1675), 
Dutch  inventor  of  mezzotint  engraving, 
which  was  introduced  into  England  by 
Prince  Rupert,  who  had  learnt  it  from  the 
discoverer  in  1654. 

Siemens,  Sir  Carl  WUhelm,  F.E.S., 
D.C.L.,  etc.  {b.  1823,  d.  1883),  English  elec- 
trician of  German  origin,  came  to  London 
in  1843 ;  invented  the  chronometric  governor, 
anastatic  printing,  electric  railways,  the 
"  Siemens  "  stove,  etc.,  and  made  a  large 
fortune  by  these  and  his  improvements  in 
steel-makmg.  In  1887  he  published  TJie 
Conservation  of  Solar  Energy. 

Siemens,  Werner  von  {b.  1816),  brother  of 
the  above  ;  introduced  many  telegraphic  im- 
provements in  Prussia,  and  in  1848,  with 
Himly,  laid  the  first  submarine  mines  with 
electric  ignition.  He  established  telegraphic 
works  in  Berlin,  branches  of  which,  in 
London  and  St.  Petersburg,  conducted  by 
his  brothers,  became  independent  works. 
He  invented  and  appHed  the  quicksilver  unit 
(for  measurements),  polarised  relays,  the 
dynamo- electric  machine,  and  the  gutta- 
percha press. 

Sieveking,  Sir  Edward,  M.D.  (b.  1816), 
physician,  translated  several  medical  works 
from  the  German,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on 
epilepsy  ;  became  physician-in-ordinary  to 
the  Pnnce  of  Wales  in  1863,  and  to  tha 
Queen  in  1888- 


Sitf 


(672) 


Sim 


Si6y^s,  Einmauuel  Joseph,  Comte  [the 
AbheJ  {b.  1748,  d.  1836),  French  pohtician ; 
published  in  1789  Qu'est-ce  que  le  Tiers- Jitat  I 
and  was  elected  as  a  deputy  for  Paris  to  the 
States- General,  in  whose  proceedings,  when 
constituted  (by  his  advice)  as  the  National 
Assembly,  he  took  an  active  part ;  was  a 
moinber  of  the  Convention,  and  afterwards 
of  the  Council  of  the  Five  Hundred ;  was 
president  of  the  Directory  in  1798,  and  after 
the  18th  Brumaire,  one  of  the  consuls.  He 
opposed  Bonaparte,  but  was  made  a  peer 
after  his  return  from  Elba,  and  had  to  leave 
France  in  181 G. 

Sigismund,  Emperor,  and  King  of  Hun- 
gary (h.  1368,  d.  1437),  conquered  Walla- 
chia,  and  defeated  many  conspiracies,  was 
crowned  emperor  in  1414,  in  which  year  he 
dominated  the  Council  of  Constance  ;  sold 
Brandenburg  to  the  Hohenzollerns,  and  in- 
trigued between  France  and  England  ;  ob- 
tained the  Bohemian  crown,  though  defeated 
by  John  Ziska,  and  was  crowned  King  of 
Italy  in  1431. 

Sigismund  I.,  King  of  Poland  (6.  1466, 
d.  lo48),  succeeded  his  brother  Alexander 
in  1506,  and  earned  on  wars  with  Eussia  and 
the  Teutonic  knights ;  allied  himself  with 
the  Hapsburgs,  and  in  Poland  ruled  well, 
but  opposed  the  Reformation. 

Sigismund  II.  {h.  1520,  d.  1572),  son  and 
successor  of  the  preceding,  was  the  last  of 
the  Jagellous,  the  crown  thenceforth  being 
made  elective.  He  tolerated  the  Protestants, 
and  favoured  the  learned. 

Sigismund  III.  {h.  1566,  d.  1632),  son  of 
John  III.  of  Sweden,  and  grandson  of  Sigis- 
mund I. ;  compelled  his  rival  to  renounce 
the  PoHsh  crown,  and  in  1593  became  King 
of  Sweden,  but  was  deposed  in  1604  for  his 
subservience  to  the  Jesuits.  He  carried  on 
wars  with  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Gustavus 
Adolphus. 

Signorelli,  Luca  (da  Cortona)  (i.  circa 
1441,  d.  1525),  Italian  painter,  whose  most 
famous  works  were  the  frescoes  in  the 
cathedral  of  Orvieto. 

Sigoumey,  Lydia  Huntley  (S.  1791,  d. 
1865),  was  called  "the  American  Hemans," 
and  wrote  Moral  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse, 
Pocahontas  and  other  Poems  (1841),  etc. 

Sigurdsson,  Jon  {b.  1811,  d.  1879),  Ice- 
landic statesman  and  writer ;  had  a  chief 
hand  in  obtaining  a  constitution  for  the 
island;  wrote  The  Political  State  of  Iceland, 
and  was  joint  editor  of  Icelandic  Snga.s,  Col- 
lection of  Laws  Affecting  Iceland,  etc. 

Silius  Italicus,  Caius  (b.  25,  d.  99), 
Roman  poet  and  orator ;  was  proconsul  in 
Asia,  and  wrote  a  poem  on  the  second  Punic 
war. 


Silverius,  Pope  [d.  538),  was  elected  in 
536  by  the  command  of  the  Ostrogoths; 
admitted  Belisarius  into  Rome,  but  was  de- 
graded in  favour  of  Vigihus,  and  banished 
to  Pandataria  by  the  influence  of  Theodora. 

Simeon,  Charles  {h.  1759,  d.  1836),  divine, 
founder  of  the  Evangelical  movement  within 
the  Enghsh  Church. 

Simeon  of  Durham  (12th  century),  his- 
torian, wrote  a  Chronicle  extending  from 
616  to  1130. 

Simeon  Stylites,  Saint  (5th  century) ,  Syrian 
shepherd,  wlio  became  a  monk,  and  lived  on 
the  top  of  pillars  in  order  to  be  nearer 
heaven,  it  was  said.  A  set  of  "  piUar  saints  " 
succeeded  him. 

Simeoni,  Giovanni,  Cardinal  (i.  1816), 
Italian  statesman ;  as  secretary  of  state, 
possessed  great  influence  over  the  policy  of 
Pius  IX.  On  the  accession  of  Leo  XIII. 
he  became  prefect  of  the  propaganda. 

Simmonds-Lund,  Peter,  F.L.S.  (J.  1814), 
English  writer  ;  author  of  Tropical  Agri- 
culture, Science  and  Commerce,  The  Popular 
Beverages  of  Various  Countries,  etc. 

Simmons,  Sir  John  Lintom,  Field  Mar- 
shal, G.C.B.,  etc.  {b.  1821),  entered  the 
army  iu  1837  ;  served  on  the  Danube  with 
Omar  Pasha,  and  in  the  Crimea  distinguished 
himself  at  the  passage  of  the  Ingur.  He 
was  consul-general  at  Warsaw  1858-60, 
governor  of  Woolwich  1869-75,  inspector  of 
fortifications  1879-80,  and  governor  of 
Malta  from  1884  to  1888,  soon  after  which 
he  became  minister  at  the  Vatican. 

Simnel,  Lambert  (i.  circa  1474),  pre- 
tender to  the  English  crown  ;  personated 
Edward,  Earl  of  Warwick,  was  crowned  at 
Dublin,  and  supported  by  the  Duchess  of 
Burgundy,  but  defeated  at  Stoke,  and  made 
a  menial  in  the  household  of  Henry  VII. 

Simon,  Sir  John,  M.D.,  P.R.S.  (6.  1816), 
sm-geon,  was  medical  officer  to  the  chief 
Government  departments  between  1855  and 
1876,  and  drew  up  many  reports  on  sanita- 
tion. 

Simon,  Jules  (J.  1814),  French  statesman, 
succeeded  Cousin  as  lecturer  on  philosophy 
at  the  Sorbonne,  and  published  editions  of 
the  great  French  philosophers,  as  well  as 
La  Liberie,  and  some  economical  and  bio- 
graphical works.  He  entered  pubhc  Ufe  in 
1869,  was  minister  of  pubhc  instruction, 
worsliip,  and  fine  arts,  in  the  Government 
of  National  Defence,  and  also  under  Thiers, 
and,  having  become  leader  of  the  Left  and 
life  senator,  was  premier  in  1876-7.  He 
opposed  Ferry's  measures  against  religioua 
sects,  and  supported  free  trade.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Academic  Francjaise  in  1876. 


Sim 


(673) 


Sko 


Simon  de  Montfort.    [See  Montfort.] 

Simonides  {b.  556  b.c,  d.  468),  Greek 
poet,  patronised  by  Hipimrchus  at  Athens, 
and  byHiero  at  Syracuse.  His  subjects  were 
taken  from  the  Persian  war,  but  only  frag- 
ments are  extant.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  poet  who  wrote  for  money,  and  also 
to  have  added  four  letters  to  the  Greek 
alphabet. 

Simplicius  (6th  century),  philosopher ; 
author  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle  and 
Epictetus. 

Simpson,  Sir  James,  general  {b.  1792,  d. 
1868),  served  in  the  Peninsular  war,  was 
second  in  command  during  the  Scinde  cam- 
paign in  1845,  and  went  to  the  Crimea  as 
chief  of  the  staff.  After  the  death  of  Lord 
Raglan,  he  was  for  a  short  time  conmiander. 

Simpson,- Sir  James  Young,  Bart.,  M.D. 
(6.  1811,  d.  1870),  physician;  made  a  speci- 
ality of  obstetrics.  He  discovered  the 
anaesthetic  properties  of  chlorof  onn.  Besides 
several  medical  works  he  was  author  of 
^rchceological  Easayn. 

Simrock,  Karl  Joseph  {b.  1802,  d.  1876), 
German  scholar  and  poet,  chiefly  known  by 
his  editions  of  the  Nibelioujeulied.  He  also 
edited  several  other  German  classics  and 
wrote  Wieland  der  Schmied. 

Sims,  George  Robert  {b.  1847),  dramatist 
and  journalist,  whose  chief  plays  are : — 
Crutch  and  Toothpick  (1879),  The  Lights  o' 
London  (1881),  The  Romany  Rye,  The  Merry 
Duchess  (1884) ;  and  (with  Mr.  Pettitt)  In 
the  Ranks,  The  Harbour  Lights,  etc.  He 
has  also  published  Memoirs  of  Mary  Jane, 
and  other  uc>\e\s.  How  the  Poor  Live  and 
the  Dagonet  Ballads. 

Sinclair,  Sir  John,  Bart.  {b.  1754,  d. 
183.j),  statistician,  represented  Caithness 
and  other  Scotch  constituencies,  and  was 
the  originator  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
in  1793.  His  chief  works  were  History  of  the 
Revenue,  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland,  and 
Dissertation  on  the  Ossianic  Poems. 

Sindiali,  or  Scindia,  Madhajee  (d.  1794), 
Mahratta  prince  ;  after  the  battle  of  Paniput 
(1761),  in  which  he  was  wounded,  escaped 
to  the  Deccan,  and  having  with  Holkar  in- 
vaded Hindostan  in  1770,  took  Delhi  and 
A^a,  and,  with  the  help  of  a  French  officer, 
gained  the  battle  of  Patan  in  1790.  He  was 
the  first  native  who  armed  his  troops  in  the 
European  manner. 

Sindia  DoiUut  Rao  {b.  1780,  d.  1827),  the 
nephew  and  adopted  son  of  the  above  ;  suc- 
ceeded him,  and  after  wars  with  the  British, 
in  which  he  was  defeated  by  Wellesley  and 
Lake,  suiTendered  some  of  his  territory  in 
1805,  and  was  thenceforth  friendly.  | 

BB 


Sismondi,  Jean  Charles  Simonde  de  (J. 
1773,  d.  1842),  historian  and  economist,  was 
born  at  Geneva ;  was  imprisoned  there  in 
j  1794  as  an  aristocrat,  and  fled  to  Tus- 
1  cauy,  but  in  1800  returned  to  his  native 
place.  His  chief  works  were  History  of  the 
Italian  Republics  of  the  Middle  Ages  (1807- 
18),  History  of  the  French,  History  of  the 
Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe,  and  some 
economical  works. 

Sivajee  Bhdslay.     \_See  Bhoslay.] 

Sixtus  I.,  Pope  {d.  128),  succeeded  Alex- 
ander I.  in  119,  and  perished  in  the  persecu- 
tion under  Adrian. 

Sixtus  IL  {b.  180,  d.  259),  an  Athenian, 
succeeded  Stephen  I.,  and  was  put  to  death 
imder  Valerian. 

Sixtus  III.  {d.  440)  succeeded  Celestine 
I.  in  432,  and  built  many  churches. 

Sixtus  IV.  {b.  1414,  d.  1484)  was 
elected  in  1471  ;  equipped  a  fleet  against  the 
Turks,  sup2>orted  the  Pazzi  against  the 
Medici,  and  Venice  against  Ferrara,  but  ex- 
communicated the  former  for  not  agreeing 
to  a  peace.     He  built  the  Sistine  chapel. 

Sixtus  V.  {b.  1521,  d.  1590)  was  originally 
a  shepherd  boy  near  Ancona,  by  name 
Felice  Peretti,  but  became  successively 
general  of  the  Cordeliers  at  Bologna,  con- 
fessor to  Pius  v.,  and  cardinal,  bemg  elected 
successor  to  Gregory  XIII.  in  1585.  He  ex- 
communicated Henry  of  Navarre,  Conde, 
and  Henri  III.  of  France,  and  approved 
the  expedition  of  Philip  II.  against  England  ; 
and  at  Rome  rebuilt  the  Vatican  Ubrary, 
estabUshed  the  press,  spent  large  sum^  in 
improving  and  adorning  the  city,  and  put 
down  brigandage  in  his  dominions.  He 
also  fixed  the  number  of  cardinals  at 
seventy. 

Skeat,  Rev.  Walter  William  (<!>.  1835), 
English  philologist ;  was  elected  feUow  of 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1862,  and 
professor  of  Anglo-Saxon  in  1878.  Hia 
chief  works  are  an  Etymological  English 
Dictionary  (with  abridgment),  and  editions 
of  Tiers  the  Plowman,  and  other  early 
EngUsh  works,  besides  one  of  Chatterton'a 
poems. 

Skene,  William  Forbes,  D.C.L.  {b.  1809,  d. 
1892),  became  historiographer  of  Scotland 
in  1881.  His  chief  works  are  Memorials  of 
Scoftish  Historic  (1868),  The  Coronation  Stone 
(1869),  and  Celtic  Scotland  (ISlQ-m). 

Skobelefif,  Mikhail  Dmitrievitch  {b.  1841, 
d.  ISS2),  Russian  general,  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Khiva  expedition  (1873),  and  be- 
came governor  of  IvhokauJ  ;  rendered  bril- 
liant services  at  Plevna  in  the  Russo-Turkish 
war,  and  in  1380  captured  (Jeok  Tepe  from 


Sla 


(674) 


Smi 


the  Turkomans ;  died  suddenly  at  St.  Peters- 
bxirg  under  suspicious  circumstances. 

Sladen,  Douglas,  poet,  went  to  Australia 
in  187i),  and  in  1882  became  professor  of 
history  at  Sydney.  His  chief  works  are, 
Aimtndiati  Lijucs,  Poetry  of  Exiles,  and 
the  compilation  of  Australian  Foets. 

Sleeman,  Sir  William  {b.  1788,  d.  1856), 
Indian  official,  suppressed  Thuggee  and 
Dacoity,  and  advised  the  annexation  of 
Lucknow. 

Sleidaaius,  Johann  Phillippson  {b.  1506, 
d.  1556),  German  historian  and  diplomatist; 
took  his  name  from  Schleiden,  where  he  was 
bom  ;  was  historian  to  the  League  of  Smal- 
kald,  and  deputy  for  Strasbm-g  at  the 
Council  of  Trent.  His  chief  work  was  De 
Statu  Religionis  et  Reipublicce  Carolo  Quinto 
Casare  Commentarii,  which  was  translated 
into  French,  English,  German,  and  Italian. 

Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  Bart.  {b.  1660,  d.  1753), 
Irish  physician  and  natm-aUst  ;  was  physi- 
cian-general under  George  I.,  and physician- 
in-ordiuary  to  George  II.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  in  1727,  and  formed 
a  valuable  museum  and  library,  which  were 
the  basis  of  the  British  Museum  collection. 

Smart,  Sir  George  {b.  1776,  d.  1867),  mu- 
sician, became  organist  at  the  Chapel  Eoyal, 
and,  as  musical  director  at  Covent  Garden, 
received  Weber,  who  died  at  his  house. 
Among  his  pupils  was  Jenny  Lind,  and  he 
introduced  St.  Taul  and  Rossini's  Stabat 
Mater. 

Smart,  Henry  {b.  1813,  d.  1879),  nephew 
of  the  above  ;  was  the  gi-eatest  organist  of 
his  day,  and  composed  many  excellent  part- 
songs,  Ave  Maria,  etc. 

Smart,  John,  R.S.A.,  R.S.W.,  R.B.A.  (b. 

1838),  painter,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Scottish  Water- Colour  Society.  His  subjects 
are  generally  taken  from  the  Highlands. 

Smeaton,  John  {b.  1724,  d.  1792),  civil 
engineer,  whose  chief  work  was  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  Eddystone  lighthouse. 

Smedley,  Erancis  Edward  {b.  1818,  d. 
1 864) ,  novelist ;  author  of  Frank  Fairlegh 
(1850),  Lewis  Arundel,  and  Harry  Cover- 
dale's  Courtship. 

Smiles,  Samuel,  LL.D.  {b.  1812),  left  the 
practice  of  medicine  to  become  first  a  jovir- 
nalist  and  then  an  author,  his  chief  works 
being  Self-Help  (1859),  Lives  of  Engineers, 
and  several  biographies,  including  one  of 
John  Murray,  the  publisher ;  while  his 
brother,  Robeim'  {h.  1818),  wrote  lives  of 
Livingstone  and  Heury  Booth. 

Smith,  Adam  {b.  1723,  d.  1790),  economist, 
was    bom    at   Kirkaldy,  and  educated   at 


Glasgow  and  Oxford,  becoming  afterwards 
jirofessor  of  logic  and  moral  philosophy  at 
the  former  university.  In  1763  he  went  to 
France,  and  met  Turgot,  Quesnay,  and  the 
French  economists,  and  after  three  years,  re- 
turned to  compose  his  Inquiry  into  the 
Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations, 
which  appeared  in  1776.  He  then  became 
commissioner  of  Customs,  and  in  1787  Lord 
Rector  of  Glasgow  University. 

Smith,  Albert (*.  1816,  d.  1860),  humorist, 
left  the  medical  profession  to  give  popular 
lectures,  including  that  on  Mont  Blanc ; 
wrote  Adventures  of  Mr.  Ledbury,  The 
Scattergood  Family,  The  Natural  Mistory  of 
Evening  Parties,  etc. 

Smith,  Alexander  {b.  1830,  <f.  1867),  Scotch 
poet,  sou  of  a  pattern-designer  at  Kilmar- 
nock ;  edited  the  works  of  Burns,  and  wrote 
A  Life  Drama  (1853),  City  Poems,  and 
Edtcin  of  Beira,  and,  with  Sydney  Dobell, 
Sonnets  on  the  Crimean  War. 

Smith,  Archibald  Levin,  Lord  Justice 
{b.  1836),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1860,  and 
after  being  juni«r  counsel  to  the  Treasury, 
was  raised  to  the  Bench  in  1883.  He  was 
one  of  the  Parnell  Commission  judges. 

Smith,  George  (*.  1840,  d.  1876),  Assyri- 
ologist;  when  a  printer  employed  by 
Messrs.  Bradbmy  and  Agnew  became 
acquainted  with  Sir  H.  Rawlmson,  and  was 
in  1870  appointed  assistaut-keeper  of  Oriental 
antiquities.  He  deciphered  the  Chaldean 
account  of  the  Deluge,  excavated  on  the 
site  of  Nineveh  in  1873-5,  and  in  1876  dis- 
covered the  site  of  the  Carchemish,  but  died 
at  Aleppo  the  same  year.  He  published 
Assyrian  Discoveries,  Chaldean  Account  of 
the  Genesis,  and  other  works. 

Smith,  George  Barnett  {b.  1841),  journal- 
ist and  biographer  ;  his  chief  works  being 
Shelley,  a  Critical  Biography  (1877), 
Poets  and  Novelists,  lives  of  Gladstone, 
Bright,  Victor  Hugo,  etc.,  and  William  I. 
and  the  German  Empire  (1887). 

Smith,  Goldwin,  D.C.L.  (b.  1823),  his- 
torian ;  after  a  distinguished  course  at 
Oxford,  where  he  becaine  fellow  of  Oriel  in 
1847,  and  professor  of  Modem  History  in 
1858,  settled  ten  years  later  in  the  United 
States,  but  went  to  Canada  in  1871.  He 
was  secretary  to  the  second  Oxford  Com- 
mission, and  wrote  The  Foundation  of  the 
American  Colonies,  The  Conduct  of  Etig land 
in  Ireland,  Pym,  Hampden,  and  CromweU, 
and  several  pamphlets  on  the  slavery  and 
other  political  questions. 

Smith,  Sir  Harry,  Bart.  {b.  1788,  d.  1860), 
general ;  distinguished  himself  in  the  Penin- 
sular war,  and  was  present  at  Waterloo, 
and  afterwards  served  against  the  Sikhs  in 


Smi 


(675) 


Smi 


1840-6,  winning  the  victory  of  Aliwal,  and 
contributing  to  that  of  Sobraon.  As 
governor  of  the  Cape  he  conducted  the 
Kaifir  war  which  ended  in  1852. 

Smith,  Henry  John  Stephen,  F.R.S.  (b. 
1826,  d.  1883),  mathematician  ;  after  gaining 
distinction  in  classics  and  mathematics  aUke, 
became  feUow  of  BaUiol,  and  in  1861  Savilian 
professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford.  He  was 
Liberal  candidate  for  the  University  in  1878. 
Most  of  his  important  work  remains  in 
manuscript. 

Smith,  Horace  (J.  1779,  d.  1849),  novelist 
and  humorous  writer ;  published  with  his 
elder  brother,  James  {b.  177 b,  d.  1839),  Jie- 
jected  Addresnes  (1812),  and  several  contri- 
butions to  periodicals,  and  wrote  alone  many 
novels — Gaieties  and  Gravities,  Love  and 
Mesmerism,  etc. 

Smith,  John,  Captain  (*.  1580,  d.  1631), 
colonist ;  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks 
when  in  the  Hungarian  service,  but  after 
his  escape  from  the  Crimea  went  out  to 
colonise  Vii'ginia  in  1606.  He  was  captured 
by  the  Indians,  and  only  saved  from  death 
by  Pocahontas,  the  Indian  girl,  and  after  his 
release  and  explorations  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
was  made  president  of  the  Colonial  Council. 
He  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1615, 
and  on  his  return  to  England  met  Poca- 
hontas, and  presented  her  to  the  qiieen. 
His  History  of  Virginia,  New  England,  and 
the  Summer  Isles  appeared  in  1624,  and 
various  autobiographical  works. 

Smith,  Joseph  {b.  1805,  d.  1844),  founder 
of  Mormonism ;  was  the  son  of  a  farmer  in 
Vermont  State,  built  Nauvoo  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi, where  he  was  arrested  for  treason 
and  murdered  by  the  mob.  The  Book  of 
Mormon  was,  according  to  his  account,  a 
translation  of  records  written  on  thin  plates 
of  metal,  to  the  discovery  of  which  he  was 
supernaturally  guided. 

Smith,  Robert  {b.  1689,  d.  1768),  mathe- 
matician ;  after  being  tutor  to  the  Duke  of 
Cximberland  and  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Cambridge,  became  master  of  Trinity  in 
1742.  He  founded  the  "Smith's  Prizes," 
and  wrote  several  mathematical  works. 

Smith,  Robert  Angus,  F.R.S.  (6.  1817,  d. 
1884),  scientific  writer  ;  author  of  Report  on 
the  Air  and  Water  of  Towns  (1848),  On  the 
Examination  of  Air  (1867),  Disinfectants 
and  Disinfection,  A  Century  of  Science  in 
Manchester  (1883),  etc. 

Smith,  Robert  Pajme,  D.D.  (p.  1818), 
divine  ;  was  Regius  professor  of  divinity  at 
Oxford  from  1860  to  1871,  when  he  became 
Dean  of  Canterbury.  He  was  one  of  the  re- 
visers of  the  Old  Testament,  being  especially 
proficient  in  Syriac. 
B  B  2 


Smith,  Sydney  (jb.  1771,  d.  1845),  divine; 
founded  with  Jeffrey  and  others  the  Edin- 
burgh Review  (1802).  and  having  come  to 
London,  published  under  the  name  "Peter 
Plymley"  his  Letters  to  my  Brother 
Abraham  ivho  lives  in  the  Country  (1807), 
advocating  CathoHc  emancipation.  He 
obtained  a  canoirry  at  Bristol  in  1828,  and  a 
few  years  later  wrote  in  the  cause  of  Reform 
Mrs.  Partington'' s  Tight  ivith  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  He  afterwards  became  Canon  of  St. 
Paul's,  and  wrote  Letters  to  Archdeacon 
Singleton  (1837). 

Smith,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1514,  d.  1577), 
statesman  and  writer;  was  Secretary  of 
State  under  Edward  VI.  and  Elizabeth,  and 
wrote  De  Republicd  Angloi-um  and  other 
works. 

Smith,  Thomas  Southwood  (Jb.  1788,  d. 
1861),  sanitary  reformer;  author  of  The 
Divine  Government  and  The  Philosophy  of 
Health  (1834),  became  medical  member  of 
the  Board  of  Health  in  1848,  after  having 
done  much  sanitary  work  for  the  Poor  Law 
Commissioners.  His  papers,  The  Use  of  the 
Dead  to  the  Living,  led  to  the  passing  of  the 
Anatomy  Act. 

Smith,  Toulmin  (fi.  1816,  d.  1869),  anti- 
quary ;  author  of  On  the  Discovery  of 
America  by  the  Northmen  in  the  Tenth 
Century,  The  Law  of  Nuisances,  and  The 
Parish  (1854). 

Smith,  William  {b.  1769,  d.  1840), 
geologist,  whose  collection  was  purchased 
by  the  British  Museum.  He  wrote  Treatise 
on  Irrigation,  and  drew  the  map  called 
Delineation  of  the  Strata  of  England  and 
Wales  (1815). 

Smith,   William,  Sir,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  (b. 

1813),  became  editor  of  the  Quarterly  Review 
in  1867,  and  compiled  Dictionary  of  Anti- 
quities (1842),  Studenfs  Greece,  Studeufs 
Rome,  English-Latin  and  Latin-English  dic- 
tionaries, and  many  similar  works,  besides 
being  joint-editor  of  the  Dictionary  of 
Christian  Biography. 

Smith,  Right  Hon.  Wilham  Henry  (h.  1825, 
d.  1891),  statesman;  carried  on  his  father's 
business  of  bookseller  and  newsagent  in  the 
Strand,  and  was  elected  in  1868,  after  one  un- 
successful candidature,  Conservative  mem- 
ber for  Westminster,  his  opponent  on  each 
occasion  being  J.  S.  Mill.  He  was  Financial 
Secretary  to  the  Treasury  in  1874-77  ;  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  1877-80 ;  Secretary 
of  State  for  War,  and  for  a  week  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland  in  1SS.5  :  and  agam 
Secretary-at-War  from  1886  till  his  appoint- 
ment at  the  end  of  1887  as  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. A  peerage  was  conferred  on  his  wife 
after  his  death. 


Smi 


(676) 


Soc 


Smith,  William  Robertson,  D.D.  (J.  1846), 
critica.1  theologiau ;  was  removed  in  1881 
from  his  professorship  at  Aberdeen,  which 
he  had  held  since  1870,  for  his  views  on  the  Old 
Testament,  published  in  the  Encyclopcedia 
liritannica,  of  which  he  became  editor ;  he 
was  appointed  to  the  Lord  Almoner's 
readership  of  Ai-abic  at  Cambridge  in  1883  ; 
three  years  later  became  university  librarian, 
a  post  which  he  resigned  on  being  a^jpointed 
Adams  professor  of  Arabic.  He  was  one  of 
the  Old  Testament  revisers,  and  his  chief 
works  are  The  Old  Testament  i?i  the  Jeivish 
Church  (1880),  and  The  Religion  of  the 
Semites  (1889). 

Smith,  Sir  William  Sidney,  G.C.B.  {b. 
1764,  d.  1840),  admiral ;  was  sometime  in  the 
service  of  Sweden,  and  in  command  of  an 
English  expedition  at  Havre  was  made  pris- 
oner by  the  French,  but  escaped  from  the 
Temple  after  two  years'  confinement.  In 
1798  he  was  given  a  command  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  next  year  succeeded  in  hold- 
ing Acre  against  Bonaparte.  He  cooperated 
with  Abercromby  in  1801,  and  received  a 
pension  at  the  end  of  the  war. 

SmoUett,  Tobias  George  {b.  1721,  d.  1771), 
novelist  and  historian ;  was  several  years  in 
the  navy,  but  afterwards  became  an  author, 
his  chief  novels  being  Roderick  Random 
(1748)  and  Peregrine  Pickle.  He  also  con- 
tinued Hume's  History  of  England,  trans- 
lated Dun  Quixote  and  Gil  Bins,  and  was 
•employed  as  a  writer  against  the  Whigs. 

Smyth,  Charles  Piazzi,  F.R.S.E.,  etc.  {b. 
1819),  astronomer,  son  of  Admiral  Smyth; 
was  astronomer- royal  of  Scotland  for  forty- 
three  years,  his  chief  achievements  being  his 
investigations  in  Teneriffe  and  concerning 
the  Great  Pyramid. 

Smyth,  William  {b.  1764,  d.  1849), 
historian,  for  forty-two  years  professor  of 
modem  history  at  Cambridge.  His  chief 
works  were  Lectures  on  Modern  History  and 
On  the  French  Revolution. 

Smyth,  WilHam  Henry  (b.  1788,  d.  1865), 
admiral ;  conducted  a  survey  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society.  His  works 
include  The  Mediterranean  :  A  Memoir — 
Physical,  Historical,  and  Nautical  (1854), 
and  translations  from  Arago  and  Benzoni. 

Snayers,  Henrik  {b.  1612),  Dutch  en- 
graver, executed  several  prints  after  Rubens 
and  Vandyck. 

Snayers,  Pieter  (6. 1593,  d.  1670),  historical 
and  landscape  painter,  friend  of  Rubens  and 
Vandyck,  the  latter  of  whom  painted  his 
portrait. 

SneU,  Willebord  {b.  1591,  d.  1626),  Dutch 
mathematician ;    he    succeeded    his   father. 


RoDOLPH  {d.  1613),  as  professor  at  Leyden, 
discovered  the  law  of  refraction  of  rays  of 
light,  and  was  the  first  who  measured  the 
earth  by  the  application  of  trigonometry. 

Snider,  Jacob  {b.  1820,  (f.  1866),  inventor 
of  the  rifle  known  by  his  name ;  was  bom 
in  Philadelphia,  but  came  to  England  in 
1859,  and  submitted  his  Mount  Storm  gun  to 
the  French  and  English  governments,  but  it 
was  not  approved. 

Snorri  -  Stnrlason  (b.  1178,  d.  1241), 
Icelandic  writer  ;  published  and  partly  com- 
posed the  Heimskringla,  and  edited  the 
akaldda,  or  Sno7-ri-£dda. 

Snow,  John  (b.  1813,  d.  1858),  EngUsh 
physician ;  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
subjects  of  cholera  and  anaesthetics,  pub- 
lishing The  Mode  of  Communication  of 
Cholera  (1849),  and  On  Chloroform  and  other 
Ancesthetics,  left  nearly  finished,  which  was 
edited  by  Dr.  Richardson. 

Snyders,  Frans  {b.  1579,  d.  1657),  Flemish 
painter,  who  excelled  in  the  representations 
of  animals. 

Soane,  Sir  John  {b.  1753,  d.  1837),  English 
architect,  professor  of  the  Royal  Academy ; 
designed  the  Dulwich  Gallery,  the  Privy 
Council  and  Board  of  Trade  offices,  and  the 
old  Law  Courts  ;  left  to  the  nation  his  house 
and  art  museum. 

Sobiesld,  John  [John  III.  of  Poland]  (b. 

1629,  d.  1696),  Polish  warrior;  saved  his 
counti'y  from  the  combination  of  the  Tatars 
and  Cossacks,  and  became  grand-marshal 
(1667),  took  Choczim  from  the  Turks,  and 
was  elected  king  in  1674.  After  further 
combats  with  Tatars  and  Turks,  he  reUeved 
Vienna  from  the  siege  of  the  latter  in  1683, 
and  invaded  the  Slav  provinces,  but  his 
efforts  to  introduce  reforms  in  the  Polish 
constitution  were  fruitless. 

Socinus,  Faustus  {b.  1539,  d.  1601),  Italian 
theologian ;  adopted  and  disseminated  the 
rationalistic  views  of  his  uncle,  L^lius  {d. 
1562),  was  twelve  years  in  the  service  of 
Florence,  but  afterwards  lived  at  Cracow, 
till  in  1598  he  was  subjected  to  outrage  by  a 
mob.  His  doctrines  are  contained  in  the 
first  two  volumes  of  Bibliotheca  Fratrum 
Folonorum  (published  1656). 

Socrates  {b. circa4Q9  B.C.,  d.  399),  Athenian 
philosopher;  worked  at  first  as  a  sculptor, 
but  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  gratuitous 
teaching.  He  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  saving  the  lives  of  his 
pupils,  Alcibiades  and  Xenophon,  at  Potidsea 
and  Delium  ;  was  finally  condemned  to  drink 
hemlock  on  a  charge  of  impiety  and  the 
corruption  of  youth. 

Socrates  ('ith  century),  historian  ;  born  at 
Constantinople,  wrote  a  histoiy  of  the  church 


Soe 


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Sor 


from  the  point  at  which  Eusebius  ends  to 

the  year  440. 

Soemmering,  Samuel  Thomas  {b.  1755,  d. 
1 830) ,  German  anatomist ;  friend  of  Schelling 
and  Goethe,  held  chairs  at  Cassel  and  Mainz, 
and  became  privy  councillor  of  Bavaria. 
He  made  researches  on  the  lymphatic  vessels 
and  in  electricity,  but  his  great  work  was 
I)e  Corporis  Humani  Fabricd  (1794-1801). 

Solario,  Antonio,  called  "Lo  Zingro"  (d. 
1455),  Italian  fresco -painter,  originally  a 
smith.     Most  of  his  works  are  at  Naples. 

Sollnus,  Cains  Julius  (3rd  century), 
Roman  geographer,  called  "  Polyhistor," 
from  the  title  of  his  work,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  EngUsh  in  1587  by  Arthur 
Golding. 

Solis,  Antonio  An^jJ).  1610,  d.  1686),  Spanish 
writer,  author  of  Sistori/  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico,  with  poems,  dramas,  and  letters. 

Sollas,  W.  J.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.  {h.  1849), 
English  geologist;  was  made  professor  of 
geology  and  zoology  at  University  College, 
Bristol,  in  1880,  and  in  1883  obtained  the 
chair  of  geology  and  mineralogy  at  Dublin. 

Solomon,  King  of  Israel,  reigned  circa 
1015-977  B.C. 

Solomon,  Solomon  J.  [h.  1860),  painter; 
first  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1 880,  his  chief  pictures  having  been  Cassandra 
(now  at  Ballarat) ,  Sacred  and  Frofane  Love, 
Niobe,  and  The  Judgment  of  Paris  (1891),  etc. 

Solon  {d.  circa  560  B.C.),  legislator  of 
Athens,  and  one  of  the  seven  sages ;  abolished 
the  Draconian  Code,  and  founded  a  new  con- 
stitution on  the  basis  of  property. 

Solyman,  "theMagnificent,"  Sultan  of  the 
Turks  (i.  1496,  d.  1566),  succeeded  Selim  I.  in 
1520,  took  Belgrade  next  year,  and  Rhodes 
in  1522  ;  invaded  Hungary,  won  the  battle 
of  Mohacz  (1526),  and  took  Buda,  but  was 
compelled  to  retire  from  before  Vienna.  In 
1534  he  carried  on  war  with  Persia,  and  took 
Bagdad.  Six  years  later  he  again  made 
war  on  Hungary,  and  soon  after  allied  him- 
self with  Francis  I.  against  Charles  V.  In 
1560  he  captured  Tripoli,  but  failed  before 
Malta  five  years  later,  and  died  next  year  in 
his  camp  in  Hungary. 

Somers,  John,  Lord  {b.  1652,  d.  1716), Eng- 
lish lawyer  and  statesman ;  was  one  of  the 
counsel  for  the  Seven  Bishops,  and  chair- 
man of  the  committee  which  drew  np  the 
Declaration  of  Rights,  and  became  Solicitor- 
General  (1689),  Attorney  -  General,  Lord 
Keeper,  and  in  1697  Lord  High  Chancellor. 
He  framed  the  plan  for  the  Scotch  union, 
became  president  of  the  Council  in  1708,  and 
was  president  of  the  Royal  Society. 


Somerset,  Lord  Fitzroy.     \_See  Raglan.] 

Somerset,  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of  (d. 
1552),  was  created  Earl  of  Hertford  on  the 
marriage  of  his  sister  to  Henry  VIII. ,  and  on 
the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  became  governor 
of  the  king  and  lord  protector.  He  carried 
on  war  against  Scotland,  favoured  the  Pro- 
testants, but  was  beheaded,  after  a  previous 
confinement  in  1549,  on  a  charge  of  con- 
spiracy against  the  lives  of  some  of  the  privy 
councillors. 

Somerset,  Robert  Carr,  Earl  of  {d.  1645), 
Scotch  favourite  of  James  I. ;  became  lord 
treasurer  of  Scotland  in  1610,  and  was 
afterwards  notorious  in  connection  with  the 
murder  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury. 

Somerville,  Mary,  nee  Fairfax  {b.  1780,  d. 
1872),  scientific  writer;  author  of  On  the 
Connection  of  the  Physical  Sciences  (1834), 
Physical  Geography  (1869),  and  On  Molecular 
and  Microscopic  Science.  She  received  a  Civil 
List  pension  of  £300  in  1835,  and  Somerville 
Hall,  Oxford,  was  founded  in  memory  of 
her. 

Somerville,  William  {b.  1692,  d.  1742), 
poet,  author  of  The  Chase,  etc. 

Sontag,  Henrietta  {b.  1806,  d.  1854), 
German  singer;  made  her  debut  at  Prague 
at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  was  very  successful 
in  Paris  and  London  (1828).  In  1830  she 
married  Count  Rossi,  but  in  1849  reappeared 
in  London,  the  United  States,  and  Mexico, 
where  she  died. 

Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover  (b.  1630,  d. 
1714),  granddaughter  of  James  I.,  and 
mother  of  George  I. ;  was  heir  to  the  throne 
by  the  Act  of  Settlement,  but  died  just  before 
Queen  Anne. 

Sophia  Alexievna,  Regent  of  Russia  {h. 
1656,  d.  1704),  organised  the  revolt  of  the 
Stretlitzen,  and  ruled  by  the  help  of  Galitzin 
for  seven  years,  but  was  deprived  and 
imprisoned  by  her  brother,  Peter,  for  con- 
spiring against  him. 

Sophia  Dorothea  of  Zell  {b.  1666,  d.  1726), 
wife  of  George  I.,  by  whom  she  was  divorced 
and  imprisoned  for  life  at  Ahlden.  Her 
daughter  of  the  same  name  {d.  1757)  married 
Frederick  the  Great. 

Sophocles  (A.  496  B.C.,  d.  405),  Greek  tragic 
poet ;  was  appointed  one  of  the  Strategi 
after  the  production  of  Antigone.  Of  the 
tragedies  attributed  to  him  only  seven  are 
extant.  He  introduced  a  third  actor,  and 
made  several  changes  in  the  constitution  of 
the  drama. 

Sorbonne,  Robert  de  (fi.  1201,  d.  1274), 
confessor  and  chaplain  to  Louis  IX. ;  founded 
the  college  of  the  Sorbonne. 


Sor 


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Sow 


Sorby,  Henry  Clifton,  F.R.S.,  etc.  {b. 
182G),  geologist,  became  president  of  Fii-th 
College,  Sheffield,  in  1822.  His  publications 
deal  with  geological  and  microscopical 
subjects. 

Sorel,  Agnes.     [See  Agnes  Sorel.] 

Sostratus  (3rd  century  B.C.),  constructed 
the  Pharos  or  lighthouse  of  Alexandria. 

Sotheby,  Samuel  Leigh  (d.  1861),  anti- 
quary, whose  chief  work  was  Frincipia 
Tijpographica  (1858). 

Sotbem,  Edward  Askew  {b.  1826,  d.  1881), 
comedian  ;  after  acting  in  England  made  his 
first  appearance  at  Boston  as  Dr.  Pangloss, 
but  gained  his  reputation  as  Lord  Dundreary, 
in  Our  American  Cousin,  which  he  played  over 
a  thousand  times  in  America,  and  nearly  five 
hundred  at  the  Haymarket.  He  also  created 
the  title  character  in  David  Garrick. 

Soubise,  Benjamin  de  {d.  1641),  French 
Protestant,  who  carried  on  war  against 
Louis  XIII.,  and  obtained  the  aid  of  Eng- 
land, but  was  ultimately  obliged  to  take 
refuge  there. 

Soubise,  Charles,  Prince  de  (i^.  1715,  d. 
1787) ,  mai-shal  of  France ;  was  made  governor 
of  Flanders  in  1751,  and  by  the  favoui-  of 
Madame  de  Pompadoui'  obtained  a  command 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  but  was  defeated 
at  Rossbach,  though  he  afterwards  con- 
quered Hesse.  He  was  at  intervals  minister 
of  state  under  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI. 

Soufflot,  Jacques  Germain  {b.  1713,  d. 
1781),  architect;  designed  Ste.- Genevieve  at 
Paris  and  several  buildings  at  Lyon. 

Soult,  Nicolas,  Jean  de  Dieu,  Duke  of  Dal- 
matia  (b.  1769,  d.  1851),  marshal  of  France; 
entered  the  army  in  1785,  became  general  in 
the  republican  armies,  but  was  made  prisoner 
at  Genoa  in  1799,  became  marshal  in  1804, 
and  held  several  commands  till  in  1 808  he  was 
sent  to  Spain  to  crush  Sir  John  Moore.  He 
then  took  Oporto,  and  governed  Portugal  so 
well  that  overtures  were  made  to  give  him 
permanent  rule,  but  he  had  to  meet  Wel- 
lington, who  defeated  him  at  the  Douro. 
He  gained  the  victory  of  Ocaiia  over  the 
Spaniards,  but  was  defeated  at  Albuera,  and 
in  1813  was  recalled  to  Germany,  where  he 
became  chief  of  the  staff.  After  Vittoria  he 
returned  to  Spain  as  lieutenant  of  the  em- 
peror, but  was  driven  into  France  by  Wel- 
lington, and  on  the  abdication  of  Napoleon 
became  minister  of  war  under  Louis  XVIII. 
After  the  escape  from  Elba,  however,  he  re- 
joined the  emperor,  and  was  among  those 
proscribed  at  the  restoration  ;  but  on  his  re- 
turn he  was  created  pair  de  France,  and  was 
minister  of  war  imder  Louis  Philippe  from 
1830  to  1847.  being  also  the  representative  of 
France  at  the  coronation  of  Queen  Victoria. 


South,  Sir  James,  F.R.S.  {b.  1785,  d.  1867), 
English  astronomer,  son  of  a  di-uggist ;  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Astronom- 
ical Society,  of  which  he  became  president 
in  1829,  and  was  associated  with  Sir  John 
Herschell  in  observations  on  the  double  stars, 
receiving  the  Copley  medal  and  a  pension  for 
his  labours. 

South,  Robert  {b.  1633,  d.  1716),  divine; 
carried  on  a  controversy  with  Sherlock  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  was  cele- 
brated both  as  a  preacher  and  a  wit. 

Southampton,  Thomas  Wriothesley,  first 
Earl  of  {d.  1550),  statesman;  became  Sec- 
retary of  Stiite  in  1538,  and  was  a  leader  of 
the  Anglo-Roman  party ;  became  Chancellor 
in  1544,  and  promoted  the  persecution  of  the 
Protestants.  He  negotiated  a  treaty  with 
Scotland,  was  one  of  the  executors  of  Henry 
VIII.,  was  deprived  of  the  seals  by  Somerset, 
but  restored  to  the  Council  in  1549. 

Southampton,  Henry,  third  Earl  {b.  1573, 

d.  1624),  friend  of  Essex,  in  whose  disgrace 
he  was  involved,  is  chiefly  to  be  remembered 
as  the  patron  of  Shakespeare,  Venus  and 
Adonis  being  dedicated  to  him, 

Southampton,  Thomas,  fourth  Earl  {d. 
1667),  statesman;  was  made  a  privy  coun- 
cillor by  Charles  I.  on  his  desertion  of  the 
Parliamentarians,  and  represented  the  king 
at  Uxbridge  ;  was  the  friend  of  Clarendon, 
and  was  made  lord  high  treasurer  after 
the  Restoration. 

Southcott,  Joanna  {b.  1750,  d.  1814),  a 
Devonshire  woman,  who  founded  a  sect, 
declaring  that  she  was  about  to  bring  forth 
"the  Second  Shiloh."  A  post-mortem  ex- 
amination showed  that  she  had  suffered  from 
dropsy. 

Southeme,  Thomas  {b.  1660,  d.  1746), 
dramatist ;  held  a  commission  in  the  army, 
and  wrote  Isabella :  or  the  Fatal  Marriage, 
Oroonoko,  and  other  tragedies,  as  weU  as 
some  comedies. 

Southey,  Robert  {b.  1774,  d.  1843),  poet 
and  biographer,  son  of  a  linendraper  at 
Bristol :  settled  at  Keswick  in  1803,  and  there 
wrote  The  Curse  of  Kehama  (1810),  and  all 
his  chief  poems,  except  Thalaba  (1801),  as 
well  as  his  Uves  of  Nelson  (1813)  and  of 
Wesley  (1820),  The  Doctor,  and  contributions 
to  the  Quarterly.  He  became  poet  laureate 
in  1813,  and  received  a  pension  in  1835.  He 
was  twice  married,  first  to  Edith  Fricker, 
sister  of  his  friend  Coleridge's  wife,  and 
secondly  to  Caroline  Bowles  (q.v.),  the 
romance -writer  and  poet,  who  died  in  1854. 

Sowerby,  George  Brettingham  {b.  1788,  d. 
1854),  brother  of  James;  wrote  The  Genera 
of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells,  and  other  works. 


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Spi 


Sowerby,  James  (b.  1757,  d.  1822),  natur- 
alist and  artist;  author  of  English  Fungi, 
and,  with  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  English  Botany. 

Sozomenus  (5th  century),  Greek  historian, 
author  of  a  History  of  the  Church  from  323 
to  423,  which  he  dedicated  to  Theodosius. 

Spaendonck,  Gerard  van  {b.  1746,  c?.  1822), 
Dutch  flower-painter;  became  miniature- 
painter  to  the  King  of  France  and  professor 
of  iconography  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 

Spagnuolo  [Giovanni  di  Pietro]  (16th 
centuiy),  Spanish  painter,  who  settled  in 
Italy,  executed  the  altar-piece  in  the  Lerver 
church  of  Assisi.  His  Adoration  of  the  Magi 
has  been  attributed  to  Raffaelle. 

Spallanzani,  Lazaro  (jb.  1729,  d.  1789), 
Italian  naturalist  and  scholar,  professor  at 
Pavia  and  director  of  the  museum ;  made 
important  investigations  concerning  genera- 
tion, respiration,  and  digestion. 

Spanheim,  Ezekiel  {b.  1629,  d.  1710), 
numismatist  and  diplomatist ;  author  of  I)e 
Prcestantia  et  Usti  Kiimismatoriim  Anti- 
quorum,  came  to  England  (where  he  died)  as 
minister  of  the  Elector-Palatine. 

Sparks,  Jared  (b.  1789,  d.  1866),  American 
writer;  became  professor  of  history  at 
Harvard  in  1839,  and  president  of  the  col- 
lege in  1849.  His  chief  work  was  Life  and 
Writings  of  Washington  (1834-7). 

Spartacus  {d.  7'2  b.c),  a  Thracian,  who 
headed  the  revolt  of  the  gladiators  at  Capua. 
After  some  successes  he  was  defeated  by 
Crassus  and  slain. 

Spedding,  James  (b.  1808,  d.  1881),  English 
writer  ;  author  of  Life  and  Letters  of  Bacon 
(1876),  and  a  complete  edition  of  his  works. 
He  also  wrote  Publishers  and  Authors  (1867), 
and,  with  Gairdner,  Studies  in  English 
History,  etc. 

Speed,  John  {b.  1542,  d.  1629),  historical 
writer  ;  author  of  History  of  Great  Britain 
from  Julius  Cccsar  to  James  J.,  and  The 
Theatre  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Britain. 

Speke,  John  Banning  (b.  1827,  d.  1864), 
explorer ;  served  as  a  soldier  in  India,  and 
in  1857,  with  Burton,  discovered  Lake 
Tanganyika  and  the  sources  of  the  Nile. 
He  afterwards  went  with  Grant  to  the  west 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  published  his 
Journal  in  1863. 

Spelman,  Sir  Henry  {b.  1562,  d.  1641), 
antiquary,  author  of  Glossaritcm  Archceolo- 
gium  and  other  works.  His  son,  Sir  John 
{d.  1683),  wrote  a  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

Spence,  William,  F.R.S.  (b.  1780,  d. 
I860),  wrote,  with  Rev.  W.  Kirby,  Intro- 
duction to  Entomology. 


Spencer,  Herbert  {b.  1820),  utilitarian 
philosopher;  was  for  some  years  a  civil 
engineer  before  engagiag  in  literature. 
Having  come  to  London  he  became  in- 
timate with  George  Eliot  and  G.  H. 
Lewes,  and  in  1851  published  Social  Statics. 
He  undertook  a  lecturing  tour  in  America 
in  1882,  previous  to  which  had  appeared 
Principles  of  Psychology  {\%bb),  First  Prin- 
ciples (1862),  Education  (1861),  Principles  of 
Biologi/ilSlii),  The  Study  of  Sociology  (1872), 
The  Ilata  of  Ethics  (1879),  The  Man  v. 
The  State  (1884),  and  other  works  fol- 
lowed. 

Spencer,  John  Charles,  third  Earl  (b. 
1782,  d.  1845),  statesman,  better  known  as 
Lord  Althorp  ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
proceedings  against  the  Duke  of  York  in 
1809,  and  in  1830  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  and  leader  in  the  Commons 
imder  Earl  Grey,  but  disagreed  with  him 
on  the  Coercion  Bill,  and  resigned  in  1834. 
He  held  oilice  for  a  short  time  uuder  Mel- 
bourne, but,  after  succeeding  to  the  peerage, 
took  little  further  part  in  affairs. 

Spencer,  John  Poyntz,  K.G.,  fifth  Earl 
(b.  1835),  was  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
from  1868  to  1874,  and  having  been  president 
of  the  Council  from  1880  to  1882,  held  the 
same  office  again  from  that  year  till  1885. 
In  the  1886  ministry  he  was  Lord  President 
of  the  Council,  and  in  1892  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty. 

Spener,  Philipp  Jacob  {b.  1635,  d.  1705), 
German  theologian,  founder  of  the  Pietist 
sect. 

Spenser,  Edmimd  {b.  1552,  d.  1599), 
English  poet;  went  to  Ireland  in  1580  as 
secretary  to  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  and 
lived  iu  Cork  county  in  the  intervals  till  the 
rebellion  of  TjTone  (1598).  The  Faerie 
Qucene  was  partly  printed  in  1590,  his  other 
chief  works  being  TJie  Shepheard'' s  Cale7idar, 
Colin  Chutes  Come  Home  Again  (1591),  and 
View  of  the  State  oflreland. 

Spenser,  or  Spencer,  Henry  {d.  1406), 
divine,  called  the  "Fighting  BL-^hop"  (of 
Norwich),  put  down  the  rising  in  the  eastern 
counties  in  1381,  and  served  Urban  VI. 
against  Clement  VII.  in  Flanders. 

Speranski,  Michael  (J.  1711,  d.  1840), 
Russian  statesman,  minister  of  Alexander  I., 
made  a  digest  of  the  laws  of  Russia. 

Speusippus  {d.  339  B.C.),  Athenian  phi- 
losopher, nephew  of  Plato,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  head  of  the  Academy. 

Spielhagen,  Friedrich  {b.  1829),  German 
novelist,  bom  at  Magdeburg;  wrote  Prob- 
lematische  Xaturen  (I860),  Hammer  und 
Amhos  (1869),  Was  will  das  werden  (1887), 
as  well  as  some  comedies. 


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Spinola,  Ambrose,  Marquis  {ti.  1571,  d. 
1630),  J^panish  general;  commauded  in  the 
Low  Countries  against  Maurice  of  Nassau, 
and  afterwards  in  Germany  and  Italy. 

Spinoza,  Benedict  (*.  1632,  d.  1677),  phi- 
losopher, bom  at  Amsterdam  of  Portuguese- 
Jewish  descent,  was  excommunicated  and 
renounced  Judaism.  His  chief  works  were 
Tractatus  T/aoioffico-Foliticus,  Ethica,  and 
Uogitata  Metapliysica. 

Spohr,  Ludwig  (*.  1784,  d.  1859),  German 
violinist  and  composer,  bom  in  Brunswick  ; 
became  director  of  the  Vienna  theatre  in 
1813,  was  kapellmeister  at  Hesse-Cassel 
from  1822  to  1857,  and  came  to  Paris  in 
1819,  and  London  in  1820.  His  chief  works 
ai-e  The  Last  Judgment  (1826)  and  Calvary 
(oratorios).  The  Alchy mist  (an  opera),  nine 
symphonies,  etc.,  and  a  work  on  the  violin. 
His  autobiography  was  translated  in  1864. 

Spontini,  Gasparo  Luigi  Pacifico  {b.  1774, 
d.  1851),  Italian  composer,  produced  at 
seventeen  his  opera  /  Puntigli  delle  Bonne  ; 
became  chamber -composer  to  the  Empress 
Josephine,  and  produced  Vestale  (1807)  at 
Paris,  and  after  being  reinstated  by  the 
Bourbons  went  to  BerUn  in  1820.  Here  he 
composed  Olympia,  and  several  other  operas. 

Spottiswoode,  John  (b.  1565,  d.  1639), 
Archbishop  of  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrews  and 
Chancellor  of  Scotland;  wrote  History  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Spottiswoode,  William  (6.  1825,  d.  1883), 
mathematician  and  Orientalist,  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  in  1879.  He  wrote 
The  Polarisation  of  Light  and  A  Tarantnsse 
Journey  through  Eastern  Russia. 

Sprat,  Thomas  {b.  1636,  d.  1713),  divine, 
successively  Dean  of  Westminster  and  Bi- 
shop of  Rochester  ;  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he  wrote  an 
account,  as  well  as  a  History  of  the  Eye 
House  Plot  and  a  Life  of  Cowley. 

Sprengel,  Kurt  (*.  1766,  d.  1833),  German 
physician,  professor  of  medicine  and  botany 
at  Halle :  wi-ote  a  History  of  Medicine,  Anti- 
quitates  Botanicce,  etc. 

Sprigg,  Sir  James  Gorden,  K.C.M.G.  [h. 
1837),  colonial  statesman,  went  to  the  Cape 
in  1868,  and  was  prime  minister  1878-81, 
treasurer  1884-6,  becoming  again  premier 
in  the  latter  year. 

SpuUer,  Eugene  (*.  1835),  French  politi- 
cian, abandoned  the  bar  for  journalism, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  lievue 
Politique.  He  opposed  the  plebiscite  of 
1870,  in  which  year  he  became  secretary  to 
Gambetta,  and  edited  La  Republique  Fran- 
(aise  fi'om  1871  to  1876.     In  1880  he  became 


leader  of  the  Advanced  Left  in  the  Chamber, 
and  has  published  works  on  Michelet  and 
on  the  Jesuits. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon  {b.  1834,  i. 
1892),  Baptist  preacher ;  was  bom  in  Essex, 
and  came  to  London  in  1853,  the  Metro- 
polifcin  Tabernacle  being  opened  in  1861. 
His  sermons  were  published  weekly  almost 
from  the  beginning,  and  had  a  large  sale. 
In  18S7  he  withdrew  from  the  Baptist 
Union. 

Spurzheim,  Gaspar  {b.  1776,  d.  1832),  one 
of  the  founders  of  phrenology,  born  near 
Trier ;  became  acquainted  with  Gall  at 
Vienna,  and  having  for  some  years  worked 
and  travelled  with  him,  died  in  the  United 
States. 

Squarcione,  Francesco  (b.  1394,  d.  1474), 
Italian  painter ;  established  a  great  school 
of  art  at  Padua,  and  had  Mantegna  and 
Bellini  for  pupils. 

Stackhouse,  Thomas  (i.  1680,  d.  1752), 
EugUsh  divine,  author  of  The  History  of  the 
Bible.  Another  man  of  the  same  name,  who 
died  in  1785,  published  A  General  View  of 
Ancient  History,  Chronology,  and  Geography. 

Stadion,  Johann,  Count  (b.  1763,  d.  1824), 
Austrian  statesman,  did  much  towards  form- 
ing the  third  coalition  against  France,  and 
having  become  foreign  minister,  began  the 
war  wliich  ended  with  Wagram.  In  1812 
he  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Toplitz,  signed 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1814,  and  reorganised 
the  iinances. 

Stael-Holstein,  Anne,  Baronne  de  [Mad- 
ame de  Stael]  {b.  1766,  d.  1817),  French 
writer,  daughter  of  Necker,  her  husband 
being  the  Swedish  ambassador ;  published 
several  works  before  the  revolution,  and 
fled  to  Switzerland,  and  afterwards  to  Eng- 
land in  September,  1792.  She  returned  to 
Paris  in  1796,  but  was  banished  by  Napoleon 
in  1802,  and  travelled  till  his  fall.  Her  chief 
works  were  Ten  Years  of  Exile,  Germany, 
Helphine,  Corinne,  and  other  novels,  and 
Considerations  on  the  French  Revolution. 

Stahl,  Georg  Ernst  {b.  1660,  d.  1734), 
German  physician,  professor  at  Jena  and 
Halle  ;  was  the  propounder  of  the  phlogistic 
theory  in  chemistry,  and  of  the  immaterial 
hypothesis  in  physiology. 

Stainer,  Sir  John,  Mus.  Doc.  (b.  1840), 
English  organist  and  composer ;  was  organist 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  from  1859  to 
1872,  and  of  St.  Paul's  from  that  year  till 
1889,  when  he  resigned  and  retired  to 
Oxford,  where  he  became  professor  of 
music.  His  compositions  include  Gid^eon 
(an  oratorio)  and  the  cantata  The  Daughter 
ofjairns,  etc.,  and  he  published  Theory  of 
Harmony  and  other  works. 


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stair,  James  Dab-jTiiple,  Viscount  (b. 
1619,  d.  1695),  Scotch  jurist,  some  time 
president  of  the  Court  of  Session,  was  author 
of  Institutions  of  the  Laws  of  Scotland. 

Stair,  John,  Earl  of  («?.  1707),  statesman, 
as  Secretary  of  State  in  Scotland  planned 
with  the  Campbells  the  massacre  of  (jlencoe, 
and  was  dismissed  in  1695  ;  but  became 
Privy  Councillor  under  Anne,  and  a  great 
supporter  of  the  Act  of  Union. 

Stair,  John,  second  Earl  (b.  1673,  d. 
1747),  general  and  statesman,  distinguished 
himself  under  Marlborough,  and  was  made 
commander-in-chief  in  Scotland  by  George 
I.  He  then  went  to  France,  and  organised 
the  Quadi'uple  Alliance,  and  after  a  period 
of  retii'ement  became  ambassador  to  Holland 
as  well  as  commander  in  Flanders,  winning 
the  battle  of  Dettingen  in  1743. 

Stanfield,  W.  Clarkson,  E.A.  {b.  1794,  d. 
1867) ,  landscape-painter ;  was  iu  eaily  life  a 
sailor,  and  then  became  scene-painter.  His 
chief  pictures  were  Market-Boats  on  the 
Scheldt,  The  Battle  of  Trafalgar,  Gnidecca, 
Venice,  Como,  and  others,  which  are  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Stanford,  Charles  Villiers  (6.  1852), 
musical  composer,  born  in  Dublin  ;  became 
conductor  to  the  Cambridge  Musical  Society, 
and,  in  1887,  professor  of  music.  Among 
his  productions  are  music  to  Tennyson's 
Qwen  Mary,  Browning's  Cavalier  Tunes, 
etc.,  Father  O^Flynn,  and  The  Revenge, 
Savonarola,  The  Canterbury  Pilgrims,  The 
Veiled  Prophet,  Eden  (1891),  etc. 

Stanhope,  Lady  Hester  Lucy  {b.  1776,  d. 
1839),  daughter  of  Chaeles,  third  Earl,  an 
extreme  Whig  of  scientific  tastes  ;  after  the 
death  of  Lord  Chatham,  her  uncle,  to  whom 
she  had  been  secretary,  went  to  Syria  to 
study  astrology,  and  exercised  great  influ- 
ence over  the  pashas. 

Stanhope,  James,  first  Earl  (*,  1673,  d. 
1721),  soldier  and  statesman,  served  with 
distinction  under  William  III. ,  and  in  Spain 
during  the  Succession  war :  was  Secretary 
of  State  from  1714  to  1717,  and,  after  being 
Premier  a  few  months,  returned  to  that  office, 
and  skilfully  directed  English  foreign  policy. 

Stanhope,  Philip,  fifth  Earl  {b.  1805,  d. 
1875),  historian  and  politician,  was  under- 
secretary for  Foreign  Affairs  in  Peel's 
first  ministry,  and  secretary  to  the  Board 
of  Control  1845-6.  He  wrote  History  of 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and 
History  of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht 
to  that  of  Versailles  (which  appeared  under 
his  courtesy  title  of  Lord  Malion),  a  Life  of 
Pitt,  and  edited  the  Letters  and  tyritings  of 
Lord  Chesterfield,  and,  in  part,  the  Memoirs 
of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 


Stanhope,  Right  Hon.  Edward  {b.  1840), 
second  son  of  the  above  ;  was  elected  fellow 
of  Ail  Souls',  Oxford,  in  1862,  entered  Par- 
liament in  1874,  and  having  held  some  sub- 
ordinate posts  was  vice-president  of  the 
Education  Committee,  and  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  1885-6,  Colonial  Secretary 
1886-7,  and  became  Secretary-at-War  in 
the  latter  year. 

Stanhope,  W'ilUam,  first  earl  of  Harring- 
ton {d.  1756),  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1717 
and  1730,  and  was  shortly  after  created 
Secretary  of  State. 

Stanislaus  Leczinski,  King  of  Poland  {b. 
1677,  d.  1766),  was  elected  by  the  Diet  in 
1704  at  the  instance  of  Charles  XII.,  but 
was  deposed  on  the  fall  of  that  king. 
Louis  XV.,  however,  having  married  his 
sister,  he  was  again  elected  in  1733,  but  was 
compelled  to  retire  to  France,  becoming 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  but  retaining  kingly  rank. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn  {b.  1815,  d. 
1881),  divine,  son  of  Edwaed,  Bishop  of 
Norwich  {d.  1849),  author  of  Familiar 
History  of  Birds ;  was  educated  at  Rugby 
and  Balliol,  and  became  professor  of  eccle- 
siastical history  at  Oxford  in  1858.  He 
visited  the  East  in  1853  and  1862,  and  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Westminster  in  1863. 
Among  his  works  were  Life  of  Dr.  Arnold, 
Sinai  and  Palestine,  and  Essays  on  Church 
and  State. 

Stanley,  Henry  Morton,  D.C.L.  {b.  1841), 
African  explorer,  born  in  Wales ;  took  the 
name  of  his  adopted  father  in  place  of  that 
of  Rowlands,  and  having  served  in  the 
American  Civil  war,  and  been  a  war  cor- 
respondent in  Turkey  and  Abyssinia,  was 
in  1870  sent  to  find  Livingstone,  whom  he 
metat  Ujiji  (November  10,  1871),  and  having 
explored  with  him  came  home  in  1872.  In 
1874  he  again  went  to  Africa,  and  in  the 
course  of  four  years  ex]  I  jred  Victoria  and 
Albert  Nyanza,  and  the  Congo.  In  1879-82 
he  once  more  visited  the  latter,  and  in  1887 
went  to  relieve  Emin  Pasha.  How  I  found 
Livingstone,  Through  the  Lark  Continent,  and 
In  Darkest  Africi  describe  his  expeditions. 

Stanley  of  Alderley,  Edward,  Lord  {b. 
1802,  d.  1869),  statesman,  patronage  secre- 
tary to  the  Treasury  1835-41,  when  he 
became  Paymaster-General.  He  again  held 
that  office  as  well  as  that  of  vice-president 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  was  President  of 
the  Board  1855-58.  From  1860  to  1866  he 
was  Postmaster-General  with  a  seat  in  the 
Cabinet. 

Stanley  of  Preston,  Frederick,  Lord  {b. 
1841),  statesman,  younger  son  of  the  four- 
teenth Earl  of  Derby,  retired  from  the  army 
in  1865,  in  which  year  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment for  Preston,  was  financial  secretary 
to  the  War  OflBce  1874-77,  to  the  Treasury 


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1877-78,  and  was  Secretary-at-War  from 
that  year  till  1880,  was  Colonial  Secretary 
1885-86,  and  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  1886-88.  In  the  former  year  he  was 
created  a  peer,  and  in  the  latter  became 
Governor- General  of  Canada. 

Stansfeld,  Right  Hon.  James  {b.  1820), 
English  statesman,  entered  Parliament  in 
1859  as  a  Radical,  and  held  a  subordinate 
office  in  1863-64,  resigning  on  account  of  his 
intimacy  with  Mazzini.  He  again  held 
office  in  1866,  from  1869  to  1871  was  secre- 
tary to  the  Treasury,  and  president  of  the 
Local  Government  Board  1871-74.  He 
again  occupied  that  post  in  the  Home  Rule 
ministry. 

Stanton,  Edwin  (d.  1869),  American 
statesman  ;  was  attorney -general  and  after- 
wards war-minister  under  Lincoln,  and 
continued  in  office  under  President  Johnson, 
but  quarrelled  with  him  in  1866 ;  was  re- 
instated by  the  Senate  after  dismissal,  but 
retired  after  the  acquittal  of  the  president. 

Stapledon,  Walter  {d.  1326),  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  and  founder  of  Exeter  College, 
Oxford ;  was  killed  in  a  rising  of  the 
London  citizens. 

Stapleton,  Augustus  Granville  (jb.  1800), 
secretary  to  George  Canning ;  author  of 
George  Canning  and  his  Times  (1859). 

Statins,  Publius  Papinius  {b.  61,  d.  circa 
98),  Roman  poet,  author  of  Silvce,  Thebats, 
and  Achilleis  (unfinished). 

Staunton,  Howard  (*.  1810,  d.  1874), 
chess-player  and  Shakespearean  scholar; 
defeated  M.  de  St.  Amand,  the  champion  of 
Europe,  in  1843,  and  published  Chess-player'' s 
Handbook,  while  he  also  brought  out  an 
edition  of  the  foUo  of  1623,  and  Memorials 
of  Shakespeare. 

Stead,  William  Thomas  {b.  1849),  journa- 
list, conducted  the  Fall  Mall  Gazette  from 
1883  to  1889,  and  exercised  no  slight  influence 
on  opinion  in  the  matters  of  the  Criminal 
Law,  and  the  state  of  the  navy,  etc. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence  (6.  1833), 
American  poet,  author  of  Alice  of  Monmouth 

(1864),  Lyrics  and  Idylls  (1879),  and  the 
compilations  Poets  of  America  (1885),  and 

rictorian  Poets. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard  {b.  1671,  d.  1729), 
Irish  essayist  and  dramatist ;  while  serving 
in  the  Guards  published  his  Christian  Hero, 
and  in  1702  brought  out  his  first  play.  The 
Funeral :  or,  Gri^fd  la  Mode.  He-afterwards 
established  and  wrote  with  Addison  The 
Tatler  (1709),  The  Spectator  (1711).  and  The 
Guardian.  He  was  expelled  from  the  House 
of  Commons  for  his  pamphlets  The  Crisis 
and  The  Englishman,  but  was  knighted  and 


given  a  place  by  George  I.,  to  whom  hia 
play  The  Conscious  Lovers  (1722)  was  dedi- 
cated. 

Steell,  Sir  John,  R.S.A.  (b.  1804,  d.  1891), 
sculptor,  among  whose  chief  productions  are 
statues  of  Scott,  Wellington,  and  Burns  at 
Edinburgh,  and  of  the  latter  at  New  York 
and  Dunedin. 

Steen,  Jan  (6.  1636,  d.  1689),  Dutch 
painter,  bom  at  Leyden. 

Steenwyk,  Henrik  van  (6.  1550),  painter, 
master  of  Peter  Neefs.  Architectural  in- 
teriors were  his  speciality. 

Steenwyk,  Henrik  van,  "the  Younger" 
(A.  1589),  architectural  painter,  friend  of 
Vandyck,  by  whose  advice  he  came  to 
England,  where  he  died. 

Steevens,  George  (*.  1736,  d.  1800),  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Shakespeare's  plays  in 
1766,  and  three  years  later  some  notes,  which 
were  incorporated  with  those  of  Dr.  Johnson. 

Stefano  (Gittino),  Tommasodi  {d.  1324,  d. 
1356),  fi-esco  painter  of  the  school  of  Giotto. 

Steffens,  Heinrich  {b.  1773,  d.  1848), 
Norwegian  writer,  held  the  chair  of  natural 
history  successively  at  Jena,  Halle,  Breslau, 
and  Berlin.  His  chief  works  were  Grundziige 
der  Fhilosophischen  Naturwissenschaft,  Die 
Vier  Norweger,  and  other  novels,  and  Was 
ich  erlebte. 

Stein,  Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl,  Baron  von 

{b,  1757,  d.  1831),  Prussian  statesman,  was 
president  of  the  Westphaliau  Chambers  from 
1797  to  1804,  when  he  became  minister  of 
finance,  but  resigned  in  1807.  He  was  recalled 
after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  but  was  proscribec" 
and  exiled  by  order  of  Napoleon  in  1808. 
Li  1812  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  en- 
couraged Alexander  I.  against  Napoleon, 
and  gained  great  influence  with  the  allies. 
His  liberal  views  not  being  approved,  how- 
ever, he  retired  till  1827.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  him  in  Berlin  in  1875. 

Steinitz,  William  {b.  1836),  Bohemian 
chess-player,  won  the  championship  of  the 
world  by  his  victory  over  Anderssen  in  1866, 
and  took  part  in  numerous  tournaments.  In 
1883  he  settled  in  the  United  States. 

Steinmetz,  Karl  Friedrich  von  {b.  1796,  d. 
1877),  Prussian  general,  served  in  the  later 
campaigns  against  Napoleon,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  suppressing  the  revo- 
lution of  1848 ;  defeated  the  Austrians  on 
three  consecutive  days  in  1866,  and  com- 
manded the  first  army  in  1870,  but  soon  re- 
signed on  account  of  differences  with  Prince 
Frederick  Charles  and  Manteuffel. 

Stella  [Esther  Johnson]  (b.  1684,  d.  1727), 
friend  and  lover  of  Dean  Swift. 


Ste 


(683  ) 


Ste 


Stenhouse,  John,  F.E.S.  {b.  1809,  d.  1880), 
Scotch  chemist  of  the  school  of  Liebig; 
invented  the  charcoal  respirator  and  a 
process  of  waterproofing  by  paraffin. 

Steno,  Nicholas  {b.  1638,  d.  1687),  Danish 
anatonist.  Bishop  of  HeliopoUs  and  vicar 
apostolic  of  the  north,  wrote  Observations  on 
the  Muscles  and  Glands,  aaid  other  works. 

Stephen,  St.,  first  Christian  martyr. 

Stephen,  King  of  England  {b.  1105,  d. 
1154),  was  son  of  Adela,  daughter  of 
Wilham  I.  and  of  Theobald,  Comte  de  Blois  ; 
obtained  the  crown  on  the  death  of  Henry  I. 
chiefly  by  the  iufluence  of  the  Bishop  of 
Wiachester,  his  brother.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  civil  war  with  the  EngUsh  and 
Scotch  partisans  of  the  claims  of  the 
Empress  Maud,  and  also  by  internal 
anarchy,  the  end  of  the  struggle  being  the 
Treaty  of  WaUingford,  by  which  Stephen 
obtained  the  crown  for  Ufe. 

Stephen,  Sir  James,  K.C.B.  {b.  1789,  d. 
1859),  historical  writer,  son  of  James 
Stephen,  master  in  chancery  {d.  1832),  was 
for  fourteen  years  under-secretary  for  the 
Colonies,  and  in  1849  became  professor  of 
Modem  History  at  Cambridge.  His  chief 
works  were  Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography 
and  Lectures  on  the  History  of  France. 

Stephen,  Sir  James  Fitzjames,  D.C.L.  {b. 
1829),  his  eldest  son;  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1854,  was  recorder  of  Newark  1859-68, 
and  legal  member  of  the  Council  of  India 
1869-72.  From  1879  to  1891.  when  he  re- 
signed, he  was  a  judge  of  the  High  Court,  and 
his  chief  works  are  Digest  of  the  Law  of  Evi- 
dence, Digest  of  the  Criminal  Laiv,  and  Sis- 
tory  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England  (1883). 

Stephen,  Leslie  (*.  1832),  brother  of  the 
above,  was  for  several  years  fellow  and 
tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  ;  edited 
the  Cornhill  for  eleven  years,  and  in  1882 
undertook  the  editorship  of  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  which  he  resigned  in 
1891.  Among  his  works  are  History  of 
Enqlish  Thouf/ht  in  the  Eighteenth  Centuri/ 
(1876),  The  Science  of  Ethics  (1882) ;  lives  of 
Jolmson,  Pope  and  Swift  m  the  Men  of 
Letters  series,  and  a  Life  of  Henry  Faivcett 
(1885). 

Stephen  I.,  Kmg  of  Hungary  {b.  979,  d. 
1038),  was  the  son  of  a  chieftain  named 
Geysa,  and  was  made  Apostolic  King  by 
Pope  Sylvester.  He  was  active  in  establish- 
ing Christianity,  and  was  canonised  after 
his  death. 

Stephens  rEstienne  or  Etienne"),  a  noted 
f  ainily  of  printers  of  Paris.  Henry  (b.  circa 
1460,  d.  Io20)  :  his  second  son  Robert  {b. 
1503,  d.  1559)  in  1550  retired  to  Geneva  on 
account    of    his    Protestantism,    and    his 


younger  brother  Charles  {b.  1504,  d.  1564), 
and  his  eldest  sou  Henry  \b.  1528,  d.  1598), 
were  also  noted  members  of  the  family. 

Stephens,  George,  LL.D.  (b.  1813), 
Scandniaviau  scholar,  professor  of  English 
language  and  literature  at  Copenhagen, 
whose  work  has  chiefly  lain  in  the  direction 
of  Scandinavian  and  Old  Enghsh  literature 
and  remains. 

Stephens,  James  (b.  circa  1820),  Fenian, 
fled  to  Paris  after  the  Yoimg  Ireland  move- 
ment, and  ten  years  later  (1858)  started  the 
Fenian  organisation.  He  was  arrested  in 
Ireland  in  1865,  but  escaped  from  prison  and 
went  to  America,  whence  he  directed  the 
insurrection  of  1867.  He  was  compelled  to 
leave  Paris  in  1886.  Returned  to  Ireland 
1891. 

Stephenson,  Sir  Augustus,  K.C.B.  {b. 
1827),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1852.  and 
became  public  prosecutor  in  1884. 

Stephenson,  George  {b.  1781,  d.  1848), 
engineer,  was  bom  at  Wylam,  worked  as  a 
collier  and  brakesman,  and  in  1815  was 
presented  with  1,000  guineas,  and  publicly 
entertained  for  his  invention  of  a  safety 
lamp.  His  first  engine  had  been  constructed 
before  this,  and  in  1829  he  won  a  prize  of 
£500  for  the  best  engine,  his  locomotive,  the 
Rocket,  being  fitted  with  the  "  blast-pipe." 

Stephenson,  Robert  {b.  1803,  d.  1859),  his 
son ;  won  the  mathematical  prize  in  a  six- 
months'  course  at  Edinburgh  University,  and 
returned  to  help  his  father.  He  constructed 
the  I'lanet,  the  model  of  the  modern  loco- 
motive, and  won  world-wide  reputation 
as  a  constructor  of  bridges,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  railways.  He  entered  Parliament 
for  Whitby  as  a  Conservative  in  1847. 

"  Stepniak,"  Sergius  Dragomanoft"  {b. 
1841),  Russian  writer;  was  removed  from 
his  professorship  of  Kieff  and  exiled  in  1876 
for  his  pohtical  opinions,  and  then  settled  at 
Geneva.  Among  his  works  are  Hiomada 
("  Common  Things  "),  Tyrannicide  in  liussia, 
and  The  Turks  TFithin  and  Without,  Under- 
ground Mussia,  etc. 

Sterling,  Antoinette  {h.  1850),  contralto 
singer,  was  bom  in  America,  and  made  her 
first  appearance  in  England  in  1873.  Two 
years  later  she  married  Mr.  John  McKinlay, 
and  settled  in  this  country. 

Sterling,  John  {b.  1806,  d.  1844),  Scotch 
writer,  son  of  Edward  Sterling  ("  Vetus  ") 
{d.  1817),  was  a  pupil  of  Julius  Hare  at 
Cambridge,  and  in  1834  became  his  curate 
at  Hurstmonceux.  He  gave  up  his  orders 
on  account  of  ill-health,  became  acquainted 
with  Carlyle,  who  wrote  his  life,  and  pub- 
lished y/r</i«r  Cnningsby  (1833),  some  poems, 
and  a  tragedy,  Strafford  (1843). 


Ste 


(  684  ) 


Sti 


stem,  Daniel,  noin  de  plume  of  Marie, 
Couiifsse  d'Agoult  {b.  1805,  d.  1876), 
French  writer,  author  of  some  essays  and 
novels  and  of  Histoire  de  la  Jtevolution  de 
^4S.  She  lived  some  years  with  Liszt,  but 
afterwards  returned  to  her  husband.  One  of 
her  daughters  married  Emile  Ollivier,  and 
another  Ricliard  Wagner. 

Sterne,  Laurence  {l>.  1713,  d.  1768),  Irish 
divine  and  writer,  author  of  Tristram 
Shandy  (1759-67),  The  Sentimental  Journey, 
and  Letters  to  his  Friends  (posthumous), 
etc. 

Stemliold,  Thomas  (b.  circa  1500,  d. 
1549),  was  joint-author  with  Hopkins  of 
the  first  English  metrical  version  of  the 
Psalms. 

Stesichorus  (d.  circa  560  b.o.),  Greek 
poet,  born  in  Sicily,  some  fi-agments  by 
whom  are  extant. 

Stevens,  Alfred  (b.  1818,  d.  1875),  EngUsh 
sculptor,  pupil  of  Thorwaldsen,  became 
director  of  the  Sheffield  School  of  Art  in 
1850,  and  in  1857  was  entrusted  with  the 
execution  of  the  Wellington  monument  in 
St.  Paul's,  which  was  unfinished  at  hia 
death. 

Stevens,  Joseph  (b.  1832),  Belgian  painter, 
whose  pictures  of  dogs  and  other  animals 
were  exhibited  at  Paris  and  Brussels.  The 
Unconscious  Philosopher  and  An  Episode  in 
the  Dog  Market,  Paris,  were  seen  at  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1855,  and  the  artist  obtained 
the  first  prize  in  the  International  Exhibition 
of  1871.  His  brother,  Alfred  (4.1828),  ac- 
quired celebrity  as  a  genre  painter. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus  (J.  1793,  A  1868),  Ameri- 
can statesman,  entered  Congress  in  1848,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  anti-slavery  agita- 
tion, urging  rigorous  measures  against  the 
Confederates. 

Stevenson,  Robert  (b.  1772,  d.  1850),  Scotch 
engineer ;  completed  the  Bell  Rock  light- 
house, of  which  he  published  an  account, 
and  invented  the  intermittent  and  flashing 
exhibition  of  light. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis  (i.  1850),  novelist, 
poet,  and  essayist,  grandson  of  the  above ; 
gave  up  the  family  profession  and  travelled, 
afterwards  writing  the  following  works, 
among  others :  An  Inland  Voyage  (1878), 
Virginibus  Puerisqne  (1881),  New  Arabian 
J^ights  (1882),  Treasure  Island  (1883),  A 
Child's  Garden  of  Verse,  Prince  Otto  (1885), 
Strange  Case  of  Br.  Jekyll  and  3Ir.  Hyde 
(1885),  Kidnapped  (1886),  The  blaster  of 
Ballantrae  (1889),  The  JFrecker  (1892),  2 
Footnote  to  History  (1892).  In  1890  he  went 
to  live  in  Samoa. 

gtevin,  Simon  (b  1548,  d.  1620),  Flemish 


mathematician  ;  was  the  first  to  establish  the 
use  of  decimal  fractions. 

Stewart,  Alexander  Tumey  (b.  1802,  d. 
1876),  American  millionaire,  bom  in  Ire- 
laud  ;  devoted  part  of  his  wealth  to  the 
relief  of  the  Irish  peasants,  and  of  the 
French  during  the  war.  He  also  estab- 
lished a  home  for  working  girls  at  New 
York,  and  a  model  garden  city  on  Long 
Island. 

Stewart,  Balfour,  F.R.S.  (*.  1828,  d. 
1887),  Scotch  physicist;  after  some  years  in 
Australia  and  at  Edinburgh  as  assistant  to 
Principal  Forbes,  became  director  of  Kew 
observatory  in  1859,  and  professor  of 
physics  in  Owens  College  in  1870.  His 
chief  works  were  An  Elementary  Treatise 
on  Meat  (1866),  and,  with  Professor  Tait, 
The  Unseen  Universe  (1875),  and  The  Para- 
doxical Philosophy  (1878). 

Stewart,  Sir  Donald  Martin,  Bart.  G.C.B., 
etc.  {b.  1824),  general;  entered  the  Bengal 
army  in  1840,  distingmshed  himself  during 
the  Indian  Mutiny,  held  a  command  in  the 
Abyssinian  war,  and  cooperated  with  Sir 
F.  Roberts  (Lord  Roberts)  in  the  Afghan 
war  of  1879-80.  He  was  commander-in- 
chief  in  India  from  1881  to  1885,  when  he 
became  a  member  of  the  CounciL 

Stewart,  Dugald  {b.  1753,  d.  1828),  Scotch 
metaphysician,  son  of  Dr.  Matthew  Stewart, 
the  mathematician,  whom  he  assisted  for 
three  years,  but  was  appointed  in  1785  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  at  Glasgow.  He 
had  great  influence  over  the  rising  Whig 
generation,  and  his  Collected  Works  were 
edited  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton. 

Stewart,  Major- General  Sir  Herbert  (b. 
1843,  d.  1885),  entered  the  army  in  1864, 
served  in  the  Zulu  war,  and  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  Boers  at  Majuba  Hill.  He 
had  a  command  in  the  Egyptian  campaigns 
of  1882  and  1884.  and  after  winning  the 
battle  of  Abu  Klea  (January  17,  1885)  was 
mortally  wounded  a  few  days  later  at 
Gubat. 

Stigand  (11th  century),  became  P^'shop  of 
the  East  Angles  in  1043,  of  Winchester  in 
1047,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1053 
(probably).  He  became  a  strong  partisan  of 
the  Godwines.  and  crowned  Harold,  but  made 
his  submission  to  William  after  Hastings. 
He  afterwards,  however,  flew  to  the  "  Camp 
of  Refuge"  in  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  life  on  his  capture  in  1072. 

Stilicho  {d.  408),  general  of  the  Western 
Empire ;  married  Serena,  niece  of  Theo- 
dosius,  who  entrusted  him  with  the  care  of 
his  sons.  He  obtained  great  influence  over 
Honorius,  who  had  married  his  daughter, 
saved  Rome  from  famine,  defeated  Alario 


Sti 


(685  ) 


Sto 


in  403  and  drove  him  from  Italy,  and  simi- 
larly put  an  end  to  the  invasion  of  Rada- 
gaisus  in  405.  He  afterwards  negotiated 
with  Alaric,  but  was  plotted  against  by 
Olympius,  and  murdered  at  Bavenna. 

Stilling.     [See  Jung.] 

Stillingfleet,  Edward  (b.  1635,  d.  1699), 
theologian ;  successively  Dean  of  St.  Paul's 
and  Bishop  of  Worcester ;  was  author  of 
Eirenicon,  and  had  controversies  with  Locke, 
Baxter,  and  the  Romanists. 

Stirling,  Hon.  Sir  James  (b.  1836),  judge ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1862,  and  became 
judge  of  the  Chancery  division  in  1886. 

Stirling,  James  Hutchison,  LL.D.  {b. 
1820),  Scotch  writer;  abandoned  medicine 
for  literature,  and  wrote  The  Secret  of  Hegel 
(1865),  Thomas  Carlyle's  Counseh  (1886),  a 
translation  of  Schwegler's  History  of  Fhilo- 
sophi/,  etc. 

Stirling,  Mrs.  {b.  1817),  actress  [Fanny 
Clifton],  made  her  first  appearance  at  the 
East  London  theatre,  and  subsequently 
played  imder  Macready  at  Drury  Lane. 
Her  finest  parts  were  Peg  Woffington  in 
Masks  and  Faces  and  the  Nurse  in  Romeo 
and  Juliet.    She  retired  in  1886. 

StirUng-MeixwelL     {See  Maxwell.] 

Stobseus,  (5th  or  6th  century),  Greek 
writer ;  author  of  the  compilations  Antho- 
logia  and  Eclogce. 

Stockhausen,  Julius  {b.  1825),  vocalist, 
bom  in  Paris,  became  the  pupil  of  Halle 
and  Garcia  and  the  friend  of  Ary  Scheffer ; 
appeared  in  London  in  1851,  and  afterwards 
fulfilled  engagements  at  the  Opera  Comique, 
Paris,  and  at  ILeipzig  and  Cologne.  He  also 
wrote  Method  of  Sinying ,  and  in  1874  became 
director  of  the  Stem  Choral  Society  in 
Berlin. 

Stoclnnar,  Christian  Friedrich,  Baron  ijb. 
1787,  d.  1863),  statesman  and  physician  ;  was 
long  attached  to  King  Leopold  of  Belgium, 
first  as  physician  and  then  as  secretary,  and 
subsequently  became  a  confidential  adviser 
of  Queen  Victoria.  His  Memoirs  were  trans- 
lated and  edited  by  Professor  Max-Miiller 
in  187'2. 

Stocks,  Lumb,  R.A.  {h.  1812),  engraver; 
executed  fine  plates  after  Macliso,  Landseer, 
Wilkie,  Leighton,  Sir  Noel  Paton,  and  other 
artists. 

Stockton,  Francis  Richard  (*,  1834), 
American  writer ;  author  of  Rudder  Grange, 
The  Great  War  Syndicate,  and  other  novels. 

Stoddard,  Richard  Henry  {b.  1825), 
American  writer,  author  of  Poems  (1852), 
'l\>wn  and  Country,  Little  Red  Riding  Hood, 


3femoirs  of  E.  A.  Foe,  etc.    His  wife  {tie« 
Barstow)  has  also  vmtten  novels. 

Stokes,  Sir  George  Gabriel,  F.R.S.  {b. 
18iy),  mathematician,  was  senior  wrangler 
and  first  Smith's  prizeman  in  1841,  and 
eight  years  later  became  Lucasian  professor 
of  mathematics.  He  became  president  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1885,  and  was  returned 
as  a  Conservative  for  Cambridge  in  1887. 
His  publications  deal  with  pure  and  applied 
mathematics  and  the  undulatory  theoiT  of 
Hght. 

Stokes,  William,  M.D.,  F.E.S.  {b.  1804, 
d.  1877),  physician,  son  of  Dr.  Whitley 
Stokes,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of 
physics  at  Dublin.  His  works  include  F)iag- 
nosis  and  Treatment  of  the  Diseases  of  the 
Chest,  and  Lectures  on  Continued  Fevers. 

Stokes,  Whitley,  D.C.L.  {b.  1830),  son  of 
the  above  ;  was  law  member  of  the  Council 
of  India  1877-82,  and  president  of  the  Indian 
Law  Commission  of  1879.  Besides  his  works 
on  Indian  law  he  published  philological 
works  {Frish  Glosses,  etc.). 

Stokes,  Sir  John,  Lieutenant-General  (6. 
1825),  entered  the  army  in  1843,  served 
against  the  Kaffirs,  and  in  1855  was  chief 
engineer  to  the  Turkish  contingent.  He 
was  afterwards  commissioner  for  the  Danube, 
and  was  appointed  in  1876  British  repre- 
sentative on  the  Suez  Canal  Board.  He 
retired  from  the  army  in  1887. 

Stolberg,  Friedrich  Leopold,  Count  von 
(b.  1750,  d.  1819),  German  writer,  author  of 
History  of  the  Religion  of  Jesus  Christ  (1811- 
18),  Fie  Insel,  and  some  poems  and  trans- 
lations. His  brother.  Christian  {b.  1748,  d. 
1821),  was  also  a  poet  and  translator. 

Stone,  Edward  James,  F.R.S.  (b.  1831), 
astronomer ;  became  Radclifl'e  observer  at 
Oxford  in  1879,  made  a  catalogue  of  stars 
while  at  the  Cape,  and  in  1882  super- 
intended the  observations  of  the  transit 
of  Venus. 

Stone,  Marcus,  R.A.  {b.  1840),  painter, 
son  of  Frank  Stone,  A. R.A. ;  exhibited  Rest 
at  the  Academy  in  1858.  Among  his  subse- 
quent pictures  were  Stealing  the  Keys, 
Henry  FILL,  and  Anne  Boleyn,  and  II  y 
en  a  Toujours  un  Autre,  which  was  pur- 
chased from  the  Chantrey  Bequest  fxmd. 

Storey,  George  Adolphus,  A.R.A.  (A. 
1834),  English  painter ;  first  exhibited  in 
1852,  among:  his  pictures  being,  lite  Shy 
Fupil,  Meetinfi  of  William  Seymour  with 
Lady  Arabella  Stuart,  and  A  Royal 
Challenge. 

Storm,  Heinrich  Friedrich  von  {b.  1766, 
d.  1835),  Russian  economist,  author  of  Court 
W  A'onomie  Politique. 


Sto 


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Str 


story,  Joseph  {h.  1799,  (^.  1845),  American 
jurist,  professor  of  law  at  Harvard.  His 
chief  work  was  Commentary  on  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  iStates. 

Story,  William  "Wetmore  {b.  1819),  son 
of  the  above  ;  published  Contracts  not  under 
Seal  and  other  legal  works,  but  afterwards 
devoted  himself  to  literature  and  sculpture. 
Among  his  publications  are  several  poems, 
Origin  of  the  Italian  Language  and  Litera- 
ture, Conversations  in  a  Studio,  etc.,  and  he 
has  executed  numerous  monuments,  statues, 
and  busts. 

Stothaxd,  Thomas,  E.A.  {b.  Vlbb,  d.  1834), 
designer,  was  called  by  Turner  "the  Giotto 
of  England."  Filgrim's  Progress,  Robinson 
Crusoe,  and  many  other  works  were  illus- 
trated by  him. 

Stoughton,  John,  D.D.  (*.  1807),  Con- 
gregationalist  divine ;  author  of  Historg 
of  Religion  in  England  from  the  Opening  of 
the  Long  Parliament  to  1850  (1881-4),  and 
many  other  works. 

Stow,  John  (J).  1525,  d.  1605),  antiquary, 
his  chief  works  being  Annals  of  this  King- 
dom from  the  Time  of  the  Ancient  Britons, 
and  Surveg  of  London. 

Stowe.     \See  Beecher-Stowe.] 

Stowell,  William  Scott,  Lord  (*.  1745, 
d.  1836),  lawyer,  elder  brother  of  Lord 
Eldon;  became  judge  of  the  Consistory 
Court  and  Privy  Councillor  in  1788,  entered 
Parliament  two  years  later,  was  nominated 
judge  of  the  Court  of  Admiralty  in  1798, 
and  received  a  peerage  in  1812. 

Strabo  (i.  circa  50  B.C.),  Greek  historian 
and  geographer,  born  at  Amasia  in  Cappa- 
docia ;  travelled  extensively,  and  wrote 
Geographia,  and  some  historical  memoirs. 

Strada.  Famianus  {b.  1572,  d.  1649), 
Italian  writer,  author  of  History  of  Wars 
in  the  Netherlands,  1550-90. 

Strada,  John  [Stradano]  (b.  1536),  Flemish 
painter ;  settled  at  Florence,  where  he  exe- 
cuted his  Crucifixion  and  some  animal  and 
battle-pieces. 

Stradivarius,  Antonio  {b.  1670,  d.  1728), 
maker  of  tiie  Cremona  violins. 

Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of 
{b.  1593,  d.  1641),  English  statesman;  as 
member  for  Yorkshire,  opposed  the  court 
till  1628,  when  he  received  a  peerage  and 
was  made  president  of  the  north ;  became 
Lord-Deputy  of  Ireland  in  1633,  where  he 
ruled  with  a  high  hand,  but  created  the  flax 
and  linen  industries  ;  was  impeached  in  1640, 
and  was  condemned  by  bill  of  attainder  and 
executed. 

Strafford,  George  Byng,  Earl  of  {h.  1830), 


statesman  ;  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons  (as  Viscount  Enfield) 
from  1852  to  1874 ;  was  named  under- 
secretary for  Foreign  Affairs  in  1870,  and  in 
1880  for  India,  being  also  first  Civil  Service 
Commissioner  from  1880  to  1888. 

Strangford,  George  Sidney  Smythe, 
seventh  Viscount  {b.  1814,  d.  1857),  politi- 
cian of  the  Young  England  school ;  sat  for 
Canterbury  from  1841  to  1852,  and  was  for 
a  short  time  under-secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs.  His  chief  work  was  Historical 
Fancies. 

Strangford,  Percy  William,  eighth  Vis- 
count {b.  1825,  d.  1869),  brother  of  theabotre; 
was  a  great  linguist,  but  left  but  meagre 
results,  of  which  XeWcrs  and  Papers  on  Philo- 
logical and  Kindred  Subjects  were  the  chief. 

Stratford,  John  de  {d.  1348),  ecclesiastical 
statesman,  took  an  active  part  in  the  de- 
position of  Edward  II.,  became  Chancellor 
in  1330,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  three 
years  later ;  was  removed  in  1340  after  a 
quarrel  with  Edward  III.  about  the  supply 
of  funds,  but  was  pardoned  and  afterwards 
exercised  considerable  influence  over  affairs. 
His  brother,  Robeet,  Bishop  of  Chichester 
{d.  1362),  was  several  times  Chancellor. 

Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  Stratford  Canning, 
Viscount  {b.  1786,  d.  1880),  diplomatist, 
cousiu  of  George  Canning,  educated  at  Eton 
and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  negotiated 
the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  between  Russia  and 
Tui-key  (1812) ;  was  sent  to  Constantinople 
in  1825  to  urge  the  claims  of  the  Greeks, 
and  seven  years  later  negotiated  a  treaty 
between  the  Porte  and  Greece.  After 
sitting  in  Parliament  from  1835  to  1842, 
he  was  again  sent  to  Turkey,  and  remained 
at  Constantinople  for  seventeen  years, 
during  which  he  thwarted  Russian  intrigues, 
and  induced  Austria  to  occupy  the  Danubian 
provinces  during  the  Crimean  war. 

Strathnaim,  Hugh  Rose,  Baron  {b.  1803, 
d.  1885),  general ;  was  sent  to  organise  the 
Turkish  defence  against  Mehemet  Ali  in 
1840,  was  some  time  charge-d' affaires  at 
Constantinople,  and  was  commissioner  with 
the  French  army  during  the  Crimean  war  ; 
commanded  the  Central  India  Field  Force 
during  the  Mutiny,  and  was  afterwards 
commander-in-chief  in  India  and  Ireland 
successively.  In  1877  he  attained  the  rank 
of  field-marshal. 

Strauss,  David  Friedrich  {b.  1808,  d.  1874), 
German  critic  ;  lost  his  position  at  Tiibingen 
in  consequence  of  his  Leben  Jesu  kritisch 
bearbeitet  (1835).  Among  his  other  works 
the  chief  were  ChristUche  Glaubenslehre 
(1839-41),  Life  and  Times  of  Ulrich  von 
Huiten  (1858),  Voltaire  (1870),  and  Ber  alte 
und  der  nezie  Glaube  (1872). 


Str 


(687) 


Stn 


Strauss,  Johann  (b.  1825),  musical  com- 
poser, whose  works  include  The  Blue  Danube 
and  many  other  waltzes.  The  Forty  Thieves 
Q871),  and  other  operas.  His  brothers, 
Joseph  {d.  1870)  and  Edwaed  (6. 1835),  also 
acquired  reputation  as  composers  and  con- 
ductors. 

Street,  George  Edmund,  R.A.  Vb.  1824,  d. 
1881),  English  architect,  assisted  Sir  Gilbert 
Scott  at  Hamburg,  restored  Christ  Church, 
Dublin,  and  buUt  many  chiirches.  His 
designs  for  the  new  Law  Courts  were  ap- 
proved, but  only  partially  carried  out. 

Strickland,  Agnes  {fi.  1806,  d.  1874), 
historical  writer ;  author  (with  her  sister, 
Elizabeth)  of  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England 
(1840-49)  &\idi  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland 
(1850),  and  alone  of  The  Bachelor  Koigs  of 
England  (1862),  and  other  works,  fcjhe  re- 
ceived a  Civil  Lost  pension  in  1871. 

Strickland,  Hugh  Edwin  {b.  1811,  d. 
1853),  naturalist,  author  of  The  Dodo  and  its 
Kindred,  was  killed  on  the  railway  near 
Clarborough  tunnel. 

Strossmayer,  Joseph,  D.D.  {b.  1815), 
Austrian  divine  of  liberal  tendencies  ;  became 
Bishop  of  Croatia  and  Bosuia  in  1850,  and 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  proceedings  of 
the  CEcumenical  Council  1869-70. 

Strozzi,  Filippo  {d.  1538),  married  one  of 
the  Medici,  but  took  the  lead  in  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Florentine  republic  in 
1527,  and  after  its  overthrow  joined  the  con- 
spiracy against  Alessandro  (1537),  after 
which,  when  captured,  he  put  an  end  to 
his  life. 

Strozzi,  Giulio  {d.  1636),  author  of  the 
poem  Venezia  Edificata. 

Strozzi,  Niccolo  {d.  1650),  wrote  David 
of  Trebizond,  and  some  idylls  and  sonnets. 

Strozzi,  Palla  (b.  1372,  d.  1462),  Italian 
scholar  and  patron,  procured  MS.  of  The 
Folitics  and  other  valuable  works,  but  was 
exiled  from  Florence  for  opposition  to  the 
Medici. 

Strozzi,  Piero  {d.  1558),  son  of  last-named.; 
attained  the  rank  of  marshal  in  the  French 
army,  and  served  his  adopted  country  in 
Scotland  (1548),  and  at  Calais  in  1558,  but 
was  mortally  wounded  at  the  siege  of 
Thionville. 

Struensee,  Johann  Fwedrich,  Count  [b. 
1737,  d.  1772),  Danish  statesman  ;  at  first 
court  physician,  obtained  complete  control 
of  the  administration  through  his  favour 
with  the  queen  (Caroline  Matilda  of  Eng- 
land) ;  was  beheaded  on  a  cliarge  of  guilty 
relations  with  her,  which  was  brought  by 
his  enemies. 

Strutt.  Joseph  {b.  1742,  d.  1802),  antiquary, 


author  of  Complete  View  of  the  Dresses  and 
Habits  of  the  People  of  England,  Sports  atid 
Pastimes,  etc. 

Struve,  Friedrich  Georg  "Wilhelm(*.  1793, 
d.  1864),  Danish  astronomer ;  became  director 
of  the  Dorpat  observatory  iu  1817,  and  of 
that  at  Pultowa  in  1839.  He  had  the  chief 
part  in  the  triangulation  of  Livonia,  and  the 
arc  of  the  meridian  in  Russia  and  Scan- 
dinavia measured  by  him  was  the  longest 
ever  attempted. 

Struve,  Georg  Adam  {b.  1619,  d.  1692), 
German  jurist,  professor  of  law  at  Jena, 
author  of  Syntagma  Juris  Feudalis,  and  other 
works. 

Strype,  John  {b.  1643,  d.  1737),  English 
clergyman,  author  of  Ecclesiastical  Monu- 
ments, Annals  of  the  Reformation,  and  lives 
of  several  of  the  reformers  and  of  others. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  {b.  1742,  d.  1786),  Scotch 
writer ;  author  of  View  of  Society  in  Europe, 
History  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  etc. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  Charles,  "American 
Stuart"  {h.  1756,  d.  1828),  portrait-painter ; 
came  to  England  when  young,  and  lived 
there  till  1793.  He  was  a  pupil  of  West,  and 
executed  portraits  of  George  III.,  George 
IV.,  Louis  XVI.,  Washington,  Reynolds, 
and  other  contemporaries. 

Stuart,  James,  "Athenian  Stuart"  {b, 
1713,  d.  1788),  traveller  and  antiquary; 
author  of  The  Antiquities  of  Athens. 

Stuart,  James  E.  B.  {b.  1835,  d.  1864), 
American  general ;  celebrated  for  his  services 
to  the  Confederates,  his  chief  exploits  being 
the  night  attack  of  August,  1862,  when 
General  Pope's  papers  were  captured,  and 
the  raid  across  the  Potomac  in  the  seune 
year.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Ash- 
land, and  died  at  Richmond. 

Stuart,  John  McDonald  {b.  1818,  d.  1866), 
explorer,  crossed  Australia  from  north  to 
south  in  1860. 

Stuart-Wortley,  Lady  Emmeline  {b.  1806, 
d.  1855),  traveller,  and  writer  of  Etcetera, 
Portugal  and  Madeira,  and  similar  works. 

Stubbes,  John  {b.  circa  1541,  <^.  circa  1600), 
a  Puritan  lawyer,  whose  hand  was  cut  off 
for  a  pamphlet  opposing  the  marriage  of 
Elizabeth  with  the  Duke  of  Anjou. 

Stubbs,  William,  D.D.  (*.  1825),  historian 
and  divine ;  became  Regius  professor  of 
modem  history  at  Oxford  in  1866,  Bishop  of 
Chester  in  1884,  and  of  Oxford  in  1889.  His 
chief  works  are  Select  Charters,  Constitu- 
tional History  of  England  to  14S5  (1874-78), 
and  editions  of  the  Chronicles  of  Benedict  of 
Petwborrmgh  and  Roger  Hoveden. 

Stueioont,  or  Dirk  van  Haarlem  (15th 


Stn 


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STd 


century),  Dutch  painter,  whose  chief  works 
axe  historical  pictures  now  in  the  royal  col- 
lection at  the  Hague. 

Sturgeon,  WilUam  (6.  1783,  d.  1850), 
electrician,  was  for  twenty  years  in  the 
ranks.  He  afterwards  published  Essays  on 
Electro-Magnetism,  invented  the  electro- 
magnetic coil  machine  and  the  electro- 
magnetic machinery  engine,  and  pubhshed 
many  treatises  on  similar  subj  ects. 

Sturm,  Jacques  (b.  1803,  d.  1855),  Swiss 
mathematician  ;  discovered  the  best  method 
hitherto  known  for  the  solution  of  numerical 
equations. 

Suarez,  Francisco  {b.  \bi%,  d.  1617), 
SpMuish  Jesuit;  author  of  Defensio  Fidei 
Ciitliolicce  contra  Anylicance  Sectce  Errores, 
which  was  burnt  by  the  pubUc  hangman 
both  at  London  and  Paris  (1613). 

Suchet,  Louis  Gabriel  {b.  1770,  d.  1826), 
mai-shal  of  France ;  distmguished  himself 
in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  chief  field  of  his 
operations  being  Aragon,  where  he  was 
commander-in-  chief. 

Suckling,  Sii-  John  {b.  1609,  d.  1642),  Eng- 
lish poet  and  dramatist ;  was  sent  to  the 
Tower  for  an  attempt  to  liberate  Strafford, 
and  escaped  impeachment  by  flight  to 
France,  where  he  died. 

Sudbury,  Simon  de  [d.  1381),  ecclesiastical 
statesman ;  became  Bishop  of  London  in 
13(j1  and  Primate  in  1375.  He  was  made 
Chancellor  in  1379,  and  having  been  one  of 
the  advisers  of  the  poll-tax  was  murdered 
by  the  mob  in  the  Peasant  revolt. 

Sue,  Marie  Joseph  Eugene  {b.  1804,  d. 
1859),  French  novelist ;  saw  some  service  as 
an  army  doctor,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  in  1850,  but  was  proscribed  after 
the  coup-d'etat.  His  cliief  works  were  Les 
Mysteres  de  Paris  (1842),  Le  Juif  Errant 
(1844-45),  and  Les  Mysteres  du  Feuple. 

Suetonius  Paulinus,  Roman  general ; 
subdued  Anglesea,  and  defeated  Buddug 
(Boadicea)  in  61. 

Suetonius  Tranquillus,  Caius  {d.  circa 
160),  Roman  historian ;  the  only  one  of 
whose  works  which  is  extant  in  a  complete 
state  is  his  Vitce  Duodeciin  Casarum. 

Suffolk,  Charles  Brandon,  Duke  of  ((f. 
1545),  English  soldier;  was  employed  by 
Henry  VIII.  in  his  French  wars  and  in  re- 
ducing the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace.  He  married 
Mary  Tudor  after  the  death  of  Louis  XII. 

Suffren  St.  Tropez,  Pierre  de  (b.  1726,  d. 
1788),  French  admiral :  took  part  in  the 
attack  on  Port  Mahon,  was  made  prisoner  at 
Lagos,  and  subsequently  gained  several 
victories. 


Suger,  Abbe  (d.  1152),  statesman  under 
Louis  VI.  and  Louis  VII.  ;  wrote  a  life  of 
the  former,  and  organised  a  crusade,  but  did 
not  Uve  to  lead  it. 

Suidas  (10th  or  Uth  century),  compiled 
a  valuable  Greek  lexicon. 

Suleiman  Pasha  {b.  1838,  d.  1883),  Turkish 
general ;  took  part  m  the  conspiracy  against 
Abd-el-Aziz,  commanded  in  Servia  in  1877, 
and  in  the  Kusso-Turkish  war  succeeded 
Mehemet  Ali  Pasha  as  commander-in-chief. 
After  the  war  he  was  tried  and  condemned 
to  fifteen  years'  imprisonment. 

Sulla,  Lucius  Comehus  {b.  138  B.o.,d.  78), 
served  imder  Marius  in  Africa,  and  against 
the  Cimbri,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Social  war  ;  when  consul  was  deprived  of  his 
command  against  Mithridates  by  Marius  (88 
B.C.),  but  gained  possession  of  Rome  soon 
after  ;  took  Athens,  and  defeated  the  forces 
of  Mithridates  (87-83),  and  in  82  again 
mastered  Rome,  where  he  proscribed  his 
enemies,  and  remodelled  the  constitution  in 
an  aristocratic  direction. 

Sullivan,  Alexander  Martin  {b.  1830,  d. 
1884),  Irish  pohtician  ;  conducted  The  Nation 
from  1855  to  1876,  and  entered  ParHamentia 
1874  as  a  Home  Ruler,  but  broke  with  his 
party  on  the  Land  Act  of  1881,  which  he 
wished  to  accept.  He  was  author  of  New 
Ireland  (1877).  His  brother,  Timotht 
Daniel  (J.  1827),  entered  Parliament  in  1880, 
was  Lord  Mayor  of  Dubhu  in  1885,  and 
composed  God  save  Ireland  and  other  songs. 

Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour  (Jb.  1842), 
composer  ;  son  of  the  Sandhurst  bandmaster, 
published  his  setting  of  The  Tempest  1862, 
and  produced  The  Prodigal  Son  in  1860.  In 
1871  appeared  the  cantata  On  Shore  and  Sea, 
in  1880  The  Martyr  of  Antioch,  and  in  1886 
The  Golden  Legend  (Leeds  festival).  Besides 
his  work  in  collaboration  with  W.  S.  Gilbert, 
Pinafore,  The  Mikado,  Patience,  The  Yeomen 
of  the  Guard,  The  Gondoliers,  etc.,  which 
began  in  1871,  he  composed  The  Lost  Gltord 
and  other  songs,  several  hymns,  and  the 
opera  Ivanhoe. 

SuUivan,  Barry  {b.  1824,  d.  1891),  trage- 
dian ;  made  his  debut  at  Cork  in  1840,  and 
first  appeared  in  London  in  1851  (as  Hamlet). 
He  subsequently  played  with  success  in 
Australia,  the  United  States,  and  Canada, 
among  his  best  parts  being  Faulconbridge, 
Macbeth,  and  Jaques.  His  last  appearance 
was  at  Liverpool  in  1887. 

SulUvan,  Right  Hon.  Edward  {b.  1822,  d. 
1885),  Irish  judge ;  was  Solicitor- General 
for  Ireland  (1865-66),  Attorney  -  General 
(1868-69),  and  became  Master  of  the  Rolls 
in  that  year. 

Sully,  James  {b.  1842),  English  psycholo- 
gist ;    author  of  Pessimism :  a  History  and 


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Swi 


a  Criticism  (1877),  Illusions,  and  Outlines  of 
PsycJiology,  etc.  (1884). 

Sully,  Maximilien  de  Bethune,  Due  de 
(b.  Ioo9,  d.  1641),  French  statesman:  served 
Henri  de  Xavarre  as  soldier  and  diplomatist, 
and  when  he  became  King  of  France  was 
named  finance  minister,  in  which  capacity 
he  did  much  able  work.  He  negotiated  a 
treaty  with  England,  and  retired  on  the  death 
of  Heni'i  iV.,  leaving  valuable  Meinoires. 

Siilly-Prudliomine.Rene  Fran^oisArmand 
(b.  iSSy),  French  poet,  whose  chief  works  are 
Les  Epreuves,  Les  Vaines  Tendresses,  and 
other  poems,  and  a  translation  of  the  Be 
Naturd  Jierum  of  Lucretius. 

Sulpicius  Rufus,  Servius  (b.  105  B.C.,  d. 
43),  Eoman  jiu-ist  and  orator,  friend  of 
Cicero  :  was  the  first  to  give  jxmsprudence  a 
scientific  form.    He  was  consul  in  51  B.C. 

Sulpicius  Severus  (5th  century),  eccle- 
siastical historian ;  author  of  Life  of  St. 
Martin  of  Tours  and  Abridgment  of  Eccle- 
siastical History. 

Sulzer,  Johann  Georg  (b.  1720,  d.  1779), 
Swiss  writer,  whose  chief  work  was  Allge- 
meine  Theorie  der  schonen  Kilnste  (1771-74), 

Sumner,  Charles  (fi.  1811,  d.  1874), 
American  statesman  and  jurist ;  delivered  a 
powerful  speech  against  war  in  1845  {The 
True  Grandeur  of  Nations),  and  in  1850  was 
elected  United  States  senator.  In  1856  he 
made  a  speech,  The  Crime  against  Kansas, 
which  caused  a  personal  attack  upon  him  by 
a  Southern  delegate.  In  1859  he  made  his 
oration,  I7ie  Barbarism  of  Slavery,  was 
chairman  of  committee  on  foreign  relations 
1861-71 ;  and  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the 
American  claims  in  the  Alabama  case. 

Sumner,  John  Bird,  D.D.  (J.  1780,  d. 
1862),  English  divine,  became  Bishop  of 
Chester  in  1828,  and  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1848.  He  wrote  Records  of  the 
Creation  and  other  works.  Chaeles  Sumnee 
{h.  1790,  d.  !874),  Bishop  of  Winchester 
1827-69,  was  his  brother,  whose  own  son  be- 
came Bishop-SufFragan  of  Guildford  in  1888. 

Sunderland,  Robert  Spencer,  second  Earl 
of  {b.  1640,  d.  1702),  statesman,  son  of  the 
first  Earl,  who  was  killed  at  Newbury ;  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State  in  1678,  and 
though  dismissed  for  his  sui)port  of  the 
Exclusion  Bill,  was  soon  reinstated.  He 
was  president  of  the  Council  under  James 
II.,  but  intrigued  with  France  and  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  served  the  latter  till 
his  retirement  in  1697. 

^Sunderland,  Charles,  third  Earl  {b.  1675,  d. 

1722),  married  as  his  second  wife  a  daughter 

of  Marlborough,  and  having  fulfilled  several 

diplomatic  missions,  was  Secretary  of  State 

SS 


during  the  ascendency  of  the  Whigs  (1707- 
10).  In  1715  he  became  Lord  Viiyj  Seal; 
two  years  later  was  again  Secretary  of  State, 
and  was  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  from 
1718  till  the  South  Sea  crash,  when,  though 
acquitted,  he  was  dismissed. 

Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  (b.  1516, 
d.  1547),  soldier  and  poet ;  distinguished 
himself  in  France  and  Scotland,  but  was 
tried  and  beheaded  for  treason  on  somewhat 
unsubstantial  charges.  His  works  are 
chiefly  songs  and  sonnets. 

Surtees,  Robert  [h.  1779,  d.  1834),  anti- 
quary, author  of  History  of  Durham,  etc. 
The  Surtees  Society  takes  its  name  from  him. 

Sussex,  H.R.H.  Augustus  Frederick, 
Duke  of  (b.  1773,  d.  1843),  sixth  son  of 
George  III.,  offended  his  father  by  his 
marriage  with  Lady  Augusta  Murray  and 
his  Whig  sympathies. 

Sutton,  Manners.    [^See  Manners-Sutton.] 

Suttou,  Sir  Richard  {d.  1524),  English 
barrister,  one  of  the  chief  founders  of 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford. 

Sutton,  Thomas  {b.  1552,  d.  1611), 
merchant ;  having  gained  great  wealth  by 
purchase  of  property  in  the  north  containing 
coal  mines,  bought  the  dissolved  manor  of 
the  Chartreux,  from  which  was  founded  the 
Charterhouse. 

Suwarrow,  or  Suvarof,  Alexander  Vassilo- 
vich  (b.  1729,  d.  1800),  Russian  general,  rose 
from  the  ranks  to  be  field-marshal ;  com- 
manded in  the  Turkish  war  1773-74,  re- 
duced the  Tartars  in  1783,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  next  Turkish  war  took  Ismail  (1790). 
Aiter  the  peace  of  Jassy  he  was  sent  against 
Kosciusko,  and  his  last  campaign  was  that 
against  the  armies  of  Napoleon  in  Italy  and 
Switzerland. 

Swammerdam,  Johannes  Q>.  1637,  d. 
1680),  Dutch  naturalist,  author  of  General 
History    of  Insects,    and    History    of    the 

Day-fly- 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel  (*,  1688,  d.  1772), 
founder  of  the  "  New  Church,"  was  bom  at 
Stockholm,  and  occupied  himself  as  a  scien- 
tific engineer  till  1743,  from  which  time  he 
began  to  write,  when  Hving  in  Sweden  or 
England,  among  his  numerous  works  being 
Arcana  Coslestia,  De  Cultu  et  Amor e  Dei,  The 
True  Christian  Religion,  and  several  scien- 
tific treatises. 

Swegen,  or  Sweyn  IL  [Sueno],  {d.  1014). 
became  King  of  Denmark  in  986;  invade'd 
England  994,  and  was  proclaimed  king  in 
1013. 

Swift,  Jonathan  {b.  1667,  d.  1745),  Irish 
divine  and  writer,  lived  some  time  with  Sir 
W.  Temple,  and  took  orders,  beginning  his 


Swi 


(  690  ) 


Sza 


political  career  just  before  the  death  of 
Wiliiam  III.  He  became  intimate  with  the 
Tory  leaders  of  the  reigu  of  Anne,  conducted 
the  Examiner,  and  wrote  pamphlets  in  their 
interest;  and  in  1713  became  Dean  of  St. 
Patrick's.  His  chief  works  were  The  Tale 
of  a  Tub  (1704),  Gulliver's  Travels  (1726-27), 
and  TJie  Drapier  Letters  (1725),  Journal  to 
Stella,  Battle  of  the  Books,  etc. 

Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles  {b.  1837), 
poet  and  critic,  left  Oxford  without  graduat- 
ing, and  in  1865  published  AUdanta  in 
Calydon,  his  first  great  poem.  Besides  this 
he  wrote  Cha^telard,  Bothwell,  Mary  Stiuirt, 
Marino  Faliero  and  other  tragedies;  Songs 
before  Sunrise  (1871),  A  Century  ofBoundels, 
and  Foems  and  Ballads  (three  series) ;  and 
among  his  prose  works,  which  appeared  in 
collective  form  in  Essays  and  Studies  (1875), 
and  Miscellanies  (1886),  the  chief  are  esti- 
mates of  Blake,  Ford,  Ben  Jonson,  Shake- 
speare, and  Victor  Hugo.  He  also  published 
parodies  (^Specimens  of  Modern  Poets,  1880). 

Swithin,  Saint  {d.  862),  was  chaplain  of 
Egbert  and  Bishop  of  Winchester. 

Swynford,  Katherine,  third  wife  of  John 
of  Gaunt,  and  ancestress  of  the  house  of 
Beaufort. 

Sybel,  Heinrich  von  {b.  1817),  German 
historian  and  poUtician,  held  chairs  at 
Marburg,  Mimich,  and  Bonn  successively, 
and  in  1875  became  director  of  state 
archives.  He  opposed  Bismarck's  PoUsh 
policy  in  the  Prussian  Landtag,  and  entered 
the  Reichstag  in  1875.  His  chief  work  is 
History  of  the  French  Revolution,  in  two 
volumes,  of  which  there  is  an  English  trans- 
lation. 

Sydenham,  Charles  Poulett  Thompson, 
Lord  {b.  1799,  d.  1841),  English  statesman  ; 
entered  ParUament  in  1826,  first  took  office 
in  1832,  became  President  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  in  1834,  and  was  Governor-General  of 
Canada  from  1839  till  his  death. 

Sydenham,  Thomas  {b.  1624,  d.  1689), 
physician,  fellow  of  All  Souls',  Oxford.  His 
workswere  printed  bythe  Sydenham  Society, 
established  in  1843. 

Sydney,  Algernon.     [See  Sidney.] 

Sylla.    [See  Sulla.] 


Sylvester,  James  Joseph,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 

etc.  (b.  1814),  mathematician,  after  holding 
chairs  at  University  College,  in  the  vmi- 
versity  of  Virginia,  at  Woolwich,  and  at 
the  Johns  Hopkins  university,  Baltimore, 
became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at 
Oxford  in  1883.  He  discovered  the  "theory 
of  reciprocants,"  invented  the  plagiograph 
and  other  instruments,  and  published  Laws 
of  Verse  and  other  works. 

Sylvester  I.,  Pope  {d.  335),  elected  in  314, 
is  said  to  have  converted  Constantine. 
During  his  pontificate  the  Coimcil  of  Nice 
(325)  was  held. 

Sylvester  II.  [Gerbert],  elected  in  999,  is 
said  to  have  introduced  Arabic  numerals, 
and  to  have  invented  clocks. 

Sylvester  III.  [Anti-pope]  was  elected  in 
1044,  but  retired  three  months  later. 

Syme,  James  {b.  1799,  d.  1870),  Scotch 
surgeon,  professor  of  clinical  surgery  at 
Edinburgh  for  many  years,  author  of 
Fruiciples  of  Surgery  (1832),  and  other 
works ;  introduced  important  operative  im- 
provements. 

Symmachus,  Quintus  Aurelius  (4th  cen- 
tury), Roman  senator,  attempted  a  revival 
of  Paganism  under  Gratian  and  Valentinian. 
Some  of  his  letters  and  orations  are  extant. 

Symonds,  John  Addington  (S.  1840),  Eng- 
lish writer,  some  time  fellow  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  His  chief  works  are  The 
Renaissance  in  Italy  (seven  vols.).  Studies  of 
the  Greek  Foets,  a  translation  of  Beuvenuti 
Cellini's  Autobiography,  and  some  volumes 
of  verse. 

Symonds,  Sir  Thomas,  G.C.B.  (fi.  1811), 
admiral  (1879) ;  entered  the  navy  in  1825, 
served  iu  the  Crimean  war,  commanded  the 
Channel  fleet  (1868-70),  and  was  placed  on 
the  retired  list  in  1881. 

Symons,  George  James,  F.R.S.  (J>.  1838), 
meteorologist,  devoted  his  attention  chiefly 
to  the  subjects  of  rainfall  and  temperature  ; 
was  chairman  of  the  committee  on  the  erup- 
tion of  Krakatoa  (1884). 

Szalkai,  Anthony  von  {d.  1804),  Hun- 
garian poet,  whose  Fikko  Hertzeg  was  the 
first  piece  composed  in  the  Magyar  language. 


Taa 


(691) 


Tal 


Taaffe,  Eduard,  Count  (J.  1833),  Austrian 
statesman  ;  became  secretary  to  the  Hun- 
garian government  in  1857,  and  minister  of 
the  interior  in  1867 ;  was  minister  of  war 
and  president  of  the  council  1869-70  ;  agaia 
became  president  of  the  council  with  the 
office  of  minister  of  the  interior  in  1879. 

Tabaxi,  Abu  Jaafar  Mohammed  (fi.  839,  d. 
922) ,  an  Arabic  historian,  bom  in  Tabaristan. 
His  chief  work  is  a,  Chronicle,  extending  from 
the  creation  to  his  own  time.  The  part 
which  treats  of  the  history  of  the  Saracens 
is  considered  valuable. 

Tacca,  Pietro  [d.  1640),  Italian  sculptor, 
bom  at  Carrara,  studied  under  Giovanni  da 
Bologna.  His  masterpieces  are  the  statues 
of  Ferdinand  III.  at  Leghorn,  and  of  Philip 
rV.  at  Madrid. 

Tacitus,  Caius  Cornelius  (h.  55,  d.  circa 
130),  Roman  historian  ;  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  consul  Agricola  (78),  was 
quaestor  imder  Vespasian,  aedile  mider  Titus, 
praetor  under  Domitian,  and  consul  under 
Nerva  (97).  His  chief  works  are  the  Life 
of  Agricola  and  the  Gerniania,  both  written 
about  98,  the  Histories  extending  from  68 
to  96,  and  the  Annals  extending  from  14  to 
68. 

.  Tacitus,  Marcus  Claudius  {b.  200,  d.  276), 
Roman  Emperor  ;  was  elected  by  the  Senate 
on.the  death  of  AureUan  (275).  He  died  in 
Asia  Minor. 

Taffl,  Andrea  {b.  1213,  d.  1294),  Florentine 
artist :  according  to  Vasari  introduced  into 
Italy  the  art  of  designing  in  mosaic,  which 
he  leamt  from  a  Greek  named  Apollonio, 
whose  acquaintance  he  made  at  Venice,  and 
who  became  his  fellow-worker  at  Florence. 

Tagliacozzi,  or  Taliacotius,  Gasparo  {b. 
1546,  d.  1599),  was  boru  at  Bologna,  and 
became  professor  of  medicine  and  anatomy 
in  the  university  there.  He  was  renowned 
for  his  skill  in  restoring  portions  of  the 
human  face. 

Taglioni,  Maria  (A.  1804,  d.  1884),  ballet- 
dancer,  born  at  Stockliolra :  performed  in 
Paris  1827-32,  and  in  1838  appeared  in 
London.  In  1832  she  married  Count  Gilbert 
'te  Voisins. 

^d-ine,    Hippolvte    Adolphe    (*.    1828), 

French    writer ;    became  professor    at    the 

School  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris  in  1864.    He 

has  published  a  History  of  English  Literature 

bb2 


(1864),  The  Origin  of  Contemporary  France 
(1875-85),  etc. 

Tait,  Archibald  Campbell  {b.  1811,  d. 
188-.i),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  born  at 
Edinburgh,  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Glasgow  and  Oxford  ;  opposed  the  "  Oxford 
Movement;"  was  head- master  of  Rugby 
1842-50,  Dean  of  Carlisle  1850-56,  and 
Bishop  of  London  from  1856  to  1868,  when 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
He  wrote  The  Dangers  and  Safeguards  of 
Modern  Theology  (1861),  etc. 

Tait,  Patrick  Macnaghten,  bom  in  Edin- 
burgh, has  published  papers  on  The  Statistics 
of  Mortality  in  Lndia,  and  kindred  subjects. 

Tait,  Peter  Guthrie  {b.  1831),  man  of 
science,  educated  at  Cambridge,  became 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1860.  He  has  published  works  on 
Quaternions  (1866),  Heat  and  Light  (1884),  a 
Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy,  written  in 
conjunction  with  Sir  Wilham  Thomson,  and 
other  works. 

Talbot,  Charles,  Lord  {b.  1684,  d.  1737), 
son  of  William  Talbot,  Bishop  of  Durham, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1711,  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1719,  became  Solicitor- General  in 
1726  and  Chancellor  in  1733. 

Talbot,  Edward  Stuart  {h.  1844),  waa 
appointed  fust  warden  of  Keble  College, 
Oxford,  in  1870,  vicar  of  Leeds  1889. 

Talbot,  John,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury  (i. 
1373,  d.  1453),  was  the  son  of  Richard 
Lord  Talbot,  of  Goodrich  Castle,  in  Here- 
fordshire. He  distinguished  himself  in 
France  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V. ,  took  part 
in  the  siege  of  Orleans  (1428-29),  and  suc- 
ceeded Suffolk  as  commander  of  the  Enghsh 
forces,  but  was  taken  prisoner  at  Fatay 
(1429) :  after  his  release  in  1433  again  fought 
with  distiuction  in  France  ;  was  created  Earl 
of  Shrewsbury  in  1442  ;  was  Lord-Lieutenant 
of  Ireland  1446-47;  became  lieutenant  of 
the  duchv  of  Aquitaine  in  1452,  and  was 
slain  while  attempting  to  relieve  Chatillon. 

Talbot,  "William  Henry  Fox  {h.  1800,  d. 
1877),  man  of  science;  discovered,  inde- 
pendently of  Daguerre,  the  art  of  fixing 
images  formed  in  the  camei-a  Itudda.  The 
process  is  described  in  his  Pencil  of  Nature 
(1844). 

Talfourd,  Sir  Thomas  Noon  {b.  1795,  d. 
1854),  man  of  letters ;  bom  at  Reading,  was 


Tal 


(692) 


Tan 


called  to  the  bar  iu  1821,  represented  Read- 
ing as  a  Whig  1S35-41  and  1847-49,  and  was 
author  of  the  Copyright  Act  of  1842 ; 
became  a  judge  of  Common  Pleas  in  1849. 
His  cMef  works  are  Ion,  a  tragedy  (1835), 
and  Memoirs  of  Charles  Lamb  (1837-48). 

Taliesin,  "  the  Chief  of  the  Bards,"  lived 
in  the  sixth  century.  Poems  attributed  to 
him  may  be  found  in  the  Archceology  of 
JFales  by  Owen  Jones. 

Tallaxd,  Camille  d'Hostun,  Due  de  (b. 
1652,  d.  1728),  marshal  of  France  ;  fought 
under  Turenne ;  came  to  England  as  am- 
bassador in  1697  ;  in  1 70^'  received  a  command 
on  the  Rhine  ;  defeated  the  Prince  of  Hesse 
at  Laudau  (1703) ;  was  completely  defeated 
by  Marlborough  at  Blenheim  (1704),  and 
carried  a  prisoner  to  England,  where  he  re- 
mained for  seven  years.  In  1726  he  was 
made  minister  of  state. 

Talleyrand-P^rigord,  Charles  Maurice  de. 
Prince  of  Benevento  {b.  1754,  d.  1838), 
French  diplomatist ;  educated  at  St.  Sulpice, 
was  made  agent -general  for  the  French 
clergy  in  1780,  became  Bishop  of  Autun  in 
1788,  was  elected  a  deputy  of  the  clergy  to 
the  States -General  (1789),  advocated  the 
aboUtion  of  tithes  and  the  transference  of 
church  lands  to  the  state,  and  took  a  leading 
part  in  other  measures  of  the  National 
Assembly ;  resigned  his  bishopric  in  1790, 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  England  in  1792, 
but  was  expelled  in  1794  and  sailed  to 
America ;  returned  to  France  in  1796,  and 
became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  under  the 
Convention.  This  of&ce  he  retained  under 
Napoleon,  who  owed  much  to  his  skill  in 
diplomacy,  but,  differences  arising  between 
them,  Talleyrand  threw  in  his  lot  with  the 
Bourbons,  and  acquiesced  in  Napoleon's 
deposition.  He  was  for  a  short  time  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  under  Loiiis  XVIII.,  and 
represented  France  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  but  resigned  owing  to  the  Royalist 
reaction.  From  1830  to  1835  he  was  French 
minister  in  London.  Hia  Memoirs  were 
published  in  1891. 

TaUien,  Jean  Lambert  (b.  1769,  d.  1820), 
French  revolutionist;  after  conducting  a 
Jacobin  journal  called  UAmi  des  Citoyens, 
became  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  spirits  of 
the  Convention,  and  was  foremost  in  urging 
the  condemnation  of  Louis  XVI.  He  af  ter- 
war'is  adopted  milder  views,  and  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  overthrow  of  Robes- 
pierre. In  1798  he  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt,  and  on  his  return  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  English,  but  was  soon  after- 
wards released. 

Tallis,  Thomas  {b.  1529,  d.  1585),  was 
organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth.  In  conjunction  with  Wil- 
liam   Bird    he    published    a   collection    of 


sacred    music     (1575),     which    is    highly 
esteemed. 

Talma,  Franc^ois  Joseph  {b.  1763,  d.  1826), 
French  actor  ;  made  his  debut  at  the  Comedie 
Frau(;aise  in  1787.  He  confined  himself  to 
tragedy  in  his  later  years.  Among  his  finest 
impersonations  were  MauguyinXes  Templiers 
(1805)  and  Charles  IX. 

Talmage,  Thomas  de  Witt  (J.  1832),  a 
popular  American  preacher  and  lecturer. 

Tamberlik,  Enrico  (6.  1820,  d.  1889), 
Italian  operatic  singer,  fii'st  appeared  at 
Naples  1841. 

Tamburini,  Antonio  {b.  1800,  d.  1876), 
Italian  baritone ;  first  visited  London  and 
Paris  in  1832. 

Tamerlane.    \_See  Timur.] 

Tancred  {b.  1078,  d.  1112),  a  leader  in  the 
first  Crusade;  was  the  son  of  the  Marquis 
Eudes  and  Emma,  sister  of  Robert  Guiscard. 
The  chronicles  represent  him  as  the  personifi- 
cation of  aU  knightly  virtues,  and  he  is  one  of 
the  heroes  of  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered. 
He  was  made  Prince  of  GaUlee  bjr  Godfrey 
de  Bouillon,  and  succeeded  his  cousin, 
Boamund,  as  governor  of  Antioch. 

Tancred  {d.  1194),  King  of  SicUy,  son  of 
Roger,  Duke  of  Apulia,  and  grandson  of 
Roger  n. ;  succeeded  his  cousin,  WilHam 
II.,  in  1190.  He  was  engaged  in  a  struggle 
with  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  husband  of 
Constance,  daughter  of  Roger,  who  claimed 
the  throne. 

Tann,  Ludwig,  Baron  von  der  (J>.  1815,  d. 
1881),  Bavarian  general;  commanded  the 
South  German  contingent  in  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war  (1866),  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Franco -German  war,  defeating 
General  de  Failly  at  Beaumont  (1870). 

TannaMll,  Robert  (*.  1774,  d.  1810),  Scotch 
song-writer  ;  was  bom  at  Paisley,  where  he 
followed  the  trade  of  a  weaver. 

Tanner,  Thomas  (J.  1674,  d.  1735), 
antiquary :  educated  at  Oxford,  became 
Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1732.  He  published 
Notitia  Monastica,  a  description  of  the 
religious  houses  of  England  and  Wales 
(1695),  and  IjihUotheca Britnnnico-Hibernica 
(1748),  and  edited  Wood's  ^<Ae«(5  Oxonienses 
(1721). 

Tannhaiiser,  a  minnesinger  of  the  13th 
century,  supposed  to  be  the  original  of  the 
knight  in  the  legend. 

Tansillo,  Luigi  {b.  1510,  d.  1568),  Italian 
poet ;  wrote  The  Tears  of  St.  Peter,  II  Podere, 
The  Kurss,  Egle,  a  pastoral  drama,  etc. 

Tantia  Topee  {b.  circa  1819,  d.  1859),  the 
lieutenant  of    Nana   Sahib  in  the  Indian 


Tar 


(  693) 


Tav 


Mutiny.  He  kept  up  the  struggle  after  his 
master's  flight,  but  was  caught  in  April, 
1859,  tried,  and  executed. 

Tarleton,  Richard  {d.  1589),  actor,  horn  at 
Condover,  in  Shropshire ;  according  to  Stowe 
became  one  of  the  queen's  players  in  1583. 
He  wrote  a  play  called  The  Seven  Deadly 
Sms. 

Tarquinius  Priscus,  fifth  King  of  Rome ; 
was  born  at  Tarquiuii,  in  Etruria.  He  suc- 
ceeded Ancus  Martius,  and  is  said  to  have 
reigned  from  615  to  577  B.C. 

Taxquinius  Superbus,  seventh  King  of 
Rome ;  ascended  the  throne  after  murdering 
his  father-in-law,  Servius  Tullius.  _  The 
shameful  conduct  of  his  son  Sextus,  in  the 
outrage  of  Lucretia,  led  to  the  expulsion  of 
the  family  from  Rome,  about  510  B.o. 

Tartini,  Giuseppe  (6.  1692,  d.  1770), 
musical  composer,  bom  at  Pisano,  in  Istria ; 
became  leader  of  the  orchestra  in  the  church 
of  San  Antonio  at  Pisa  in  1721.  He  com- 
posed numerous  concertos  and  sonatas,  in- 
cluding the  famous  DeviVs  Sonata,  and 
wrote  a  Treatise  on  Harmony  (1754),  and 
other  works  on  the  theory  of  music. 

Taschereau,  Most  Rev.  Elzear  Alexandre, 
Cardinal  (6.  1820),  became  Archbishop  of 
Quebec  in  1871. 

Tasman,  Abel  Janssen  (J.  drca  1600,  d. 
after  1645),  a  Dutch  navigator.  In  1642  he 
was  sent  from  Batavia  by  Van  Diemen, 
governor  of  the  Dutch  Indies,  on  an  explor- 
ing expedition,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
discovered  Van  Diemen' s  Land,  now  called 
Tasmania,  and  many  islands  in  the  Pacific. 

Tasso,  Bernardo  (6. 1493,  d.  1569),  Italian 
poet;  wrote  L''Amadigi  (1560),  founded  on 
the  romance  Amadis  de  Gaule. 

Tasso,  Torquato  {b.  1544,  d.  1595),  Italian 
poet,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at 
Sorrento,  and  studied  law  at  the  university 
of  Padua,  where  he  published  his  earliest 
poem,  Rinaldo,  in  1562.  In  1565  he  entered 
the  service  of  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este,  and 
was  invited  to  the  coinrt  of  his  brother, 
Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara.  Whilst  there  he 
wrote  his  pastoral  drama  Aminta  (1573),  and 
in  1575  finished  his  great  epic,  La  Geru- 
talemme  Liberata,  describing  the  first 
Crusade,  which  was  published  in  1580.  In 
1577  he  was  imprisoned  by  Alfonso  in  a 
convent,  from  which  he  escaped.  In  1579 
he  returned  to  Ferrara,  but  was  confined  in 
a  madhouse,  where  he  remained  till  1586, 
when  he  was  released  at  the  intercession  of 
the  Duke  of  Mantua  and  other  princes.  In 
1594  Clement  VIII.  summoned  him  to  Rome 
to  receive  a  laurel  crown,  but  he  died  soon 
after  his  arrival. 


Tate,  Nahum  (6.  1652,  d.  1715),  born 
in  DubUn,  succeeded  Shadwell  as  poet- 
laureate  ;  assisted  Dryden  in  the  second  part 
of  Absalom  and  Achitophel  (1684),  and  was 
joint-author  with  Dr.  Brady  of  a  metrical 
version  of  the  Psalms. 

Tatian  {b.  circa  130),  founder  of  the 
Encratite  sect ;  was  bom  in  Assyria.  After 
reading  the  Bible  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity,  and  repaired  to  Rome,  where 
he  became  the  disciple  of  Justin  Martyr. 
He  subsequently  adopted  Gnostic  views,  and 
returned  to  Asia,  where  he  founded  hia 
school.  His  Address  to  the  Greeks  is  an 
apology  for  Christianity. 

Tauchnitz,  Karl  Christoph  {b.  1761,  d. 
1836),  a  printer  and  publisher  of  Leipzig, 
famous  for  his  editions  of  classical  authors. 
His  nephew.  Baron  Beenhaed  Tauchnitz 
(jb.  1816,  d.  1884),  began  in  1841  his  well- 
known  series  of  British  Authors. 

Tauler,  Johann  {b.  1290,  d.  1361),  German 
mystic,  bom  at  Strasburg;  entered  the 
Dominican  order,  studied  at  Paris  under 
Eckhart,  and  afterwards  fell  under  the 
influence  of  Nicholas  of  Basel.  His  ser- 
mons, in  which  he  denounced  the  vices  and 
abuses  of  the  age,  are  amongst  the  earliest 
compositions  in  the  German  tongue. 

Taunton,  Henry  Labouchere,  Lord  {b. 
1798,  d.  1869),  represented  Taunton  1830- 
69  ;  was  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in 
1846  and  1855;  became  Secretary  for  the 
Colonies  in  1858  ;  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1859. 

Tausen,  or  Tagesen,  Johan  (S.  1494,  d. 
1561),  the  founder  of  Danish  Protestantism; 
was  born  in  FUnen.  Whilst  a  student  in 
Germany  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
Luther,  and  after  his  return  to  Denmark 
(1521)  preached  the  doctrines  of  the  Re- 
formation. He  was  patronised  by  Frederick 
I.,  who  made  him  his  chaplain  (1526). 
After  Frederick's  death  he  was  subjected 
to  some  persecution,  but  in  1542  he  became 
Bishop  of  Ripen. 

Tavannes,  Gaspard  de  Saulx  de  (6.  1509, 
d.  1573),  marshal  of  France  ;  was  an  active 
opponent  of  the  reformed  doctrines.  He 
suppressed  several  Protestant  risings,  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  battles  of  Jamac 
and  MontcontouT  (1569),  and  is  believed  to 
have  instigated  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. 

Tavemier,  Jean  Baptiste,  Baron  d'Au- 
bonne  {b.  1605,  d.  1689)  traveller,  born  in 
Paris,  son  of  a  designer  of  maps,  of  Dutch 
origin  ;  several  times  visited  Turkey,  Persia, 
and  the  East  Indies,  and  amassed  great 
wealth  as  a  trader  in  jewels ;  was  ennobled 
by  Louis  XIV.  (1669) ;   in  1687  was  made 


Tay 


(694) 


Tay 


director  of  the  East  India  Company  estab- 
lished by  the  Elector  of  Braudeuburg,  but 
died  at  Moscow  whilst  joui-neying  to  the 
East. 

Taylor,  General  Sir  Alexander  {b.  1826), 
secured  the  capture  of  Delhi  (1857)  by  his 
skill  as  commander  of  the  engineers. 

Taylor,  Alfred  Swayne  (b.  1806,  d.  1880), 
professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  and 
chemistry  at  Guy's  Hospital ;  published  a 
Mamtal  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  (1844),  etc. 

Taylor,  Bayard  (i.  1825,  d.  1878),  American 
man  of  letters ;  published  several  works  of 
travel,  poems,  stories  of  American  life,  and 
a  translation  of  Goethe's  Faust  (1870-71). 
In  lS75i  he  was  appointed  United  States 
minister  at  Berhn,  where  he  died. 

Taylor,  Brook  {b.  1685,  d.  1731),  mathe- 
matician, educated  at  Cambridge  ;  was  sec- 
retary of  the  Eoyal  Society  1714-18.  He 
published  several  mathematical  works,  and 
was  the  inventor  of  *'  Taylor's  theorem." 

Taylor,  Charles  (S.  1840),  became  master 
of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1881. 
He  has  published  works  on  mathematical 
subjects  and  on  Hebrew  literature. 

Taylor,  Sir  Henry  (*,  1800,  d.  1886),  man 
of  letters ;  became  in  1824  a  clerk  in  the 
Colonial  OfB.ce,  from  which  he  retired  in 
1872.  His  chief  works  are  his  dramas, 
Fhilip  van  Artevelde  (1834),  Isaac  Oomtienus 
(1827),  and  Edivin  the  Fair  (1842).  His 
Autobiography  appeared  in  1885. 

Taylor,  Isaac  {b.  1787,  d.  1865),  man  of 
letters  and  mechanician ;  belonged  to  a 
celebrated  literary  family.  His  father  was 
a  Nonconformist  minister  at  Ongar.  His 
best-known  works  are  The  Natural  History 
of  Enthusiasm  (1829)  and  Spiritual  Despotism 
(1835). 

Taylor,  Isaac  (Jb.  1829),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding; has  published  JFords  and  Flaces 
(1864),  Greeks  and  Goths:  a  Sttidy  of  the 
Runes  (1879),  The  Alphabet  (1883),  etc. 

Taylor,  Isidore  Justin  Severin,  Baron  (3. 
1789,  d.  1879),  French  traveller  and  author, 
of  English  descent;  was  appointed  royal 
commissary  of  the  Theatre  Franqais  in  1825. 
In  1843  he  founded  the  Association  des 
Artistes  Musiciens.  He  pubUshed  Voyages 
Pittoresques  et  £omantiques  (1820-63),  etc. 

Taylor,  Jane  (b.  1783,  d.  1824),  sister  of 
Isaac  Taylor ;  was  authoress,  with  her  sister 
Ants',  of  Hymns  for  Infant  Minds. 

Taylor,  Jeremy  (b.  1613,  d.  1667),  divine, 
born  at  Cambridge ;  after  studying  in  the 
university  of  that  town,  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  Archbishop  Laud,  who  presented 
him  to  a  fellowship  at  Oxford  (1636).    He 


soon  afterwards  became  chaplain  to  Charles 
I.,  was  rector  of  Uppingham  1638-42,  and 
accompanied  the  king  to  Oxford.  About 
1645  he  withdrew  into  Wales,  where  he  kept 
a  school  at  Newton,  in  Caermarthenshire, 
and  afterwards  found  a  shelter  in  the  house 
of  the  Earl  of  Carbery.  He  removed  to 
Ireland  in  1657,  and  after  the  Restoration 
was  made  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor. 
His  chief  works  are  Hides  and  Exercises  of 
Holy  Living  and  Dying  (1650-1),  the  Liberty 
of  Fruphesying  (1647),  Doctor  Dubitantium 
(1660),  and  his  Sermons. 

Taylor,  John  {b.  circa  1580,  d.  1654),  the 
"  Water  Poet,"  bom  at  Gloucester;  served 
ia  the  expedition  of  Essex  to  Cadiz  (1596) ; 
afterwards  became  a  waterman  on  the 
Thames.     He  was  an  ardent  Eoyalist. 

Taylor,  John  {b.  1694,  d.  1761),  Unitarian 
divine ;  was  minister  of  a  congregation  at 
Norwich  1733-57.  His  chief  work  was  a 
Hebrew- English  Concordance. 

Taylor,  Colonel  Philip  Meadows  {b.  1808, 
d.  1876),  was  for  many  years  in  the  service 
of  the  Nizam  of  the  Deccan.  He  published 
The  Confessions  of  a  Thug  (1839),  and  other 
tales  of  Indian  life. 

Taylor,  General  Reynell  George  {b.  1822, 
d.  1886),  distinguished  himself  in  the  Pun- 
jaub  campaign  of  1848-9. 

Taylor,  General  Sir  Richard  Chambre 
Hayes  (Jb.  1819),  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Crimean  war  and  the  Indian  Mutiny. 

Taylor,  Rowland  {d.  1555),  a  learned  di- 
vine ;  was  chaplain  to  Cranmer,  who  pre- 
sented him  to  the  rectory  of  Hadleigh,  in 
Suffolk.  After  two  trials  before  Gardiner, 
he  was  burnt  at  the  stake  near  Hadleigh. 

Taylor,  Thomas  (o.  1758,  d.  1835),  the 
"  Platoiiist " ;  published  translations  of 
Plato  (1804)  and  Aristotle  (1812). 

Ta,ylor,  Tom  (fi.  1817,  d.  1880),  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  be- 
came fellow  ;  wrote  the  Ticket-of-Leave  Man 
(1873)  and  other  plays,  and  edited  Funch 
1874-80. 

Taylor,  William  {b.  1765,  d.  1836),  man  of 
letters  ;  was  the  son  of  a  merchant  at  Nor- 
wich. He  published  translations  of  Biirger's 
Lenore  and  Lessing's  Nathan  der  Weise,  and 
wrote  a  Survey  of  German  Foetry. 

Taylor,  William  Mackergo  {b.  1829), 
American  preacher,  bom  in  Scotland ;  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle, 
New  York,  in  1872. 

Taylor,  Zachary  (J.  1784,<f.  1850),  American 
general;  distinguished  himself  iu  the  war 
with  Mexico  (1846-7);  was  in  1850  elected 
president  of  the  United  States,  but  died  four 
months  after  his  inauguration. 


Teh 


(  695  ) 


Tern 


Tchemaieff,  Michael  Gregorovitch  (5. 
1828),  Eussian  general ;  was  sent  against 
Khokand  in  1863,  and  took  Tashkend  (1865) ; 
commanded  the  Servian  forces  in  the  war 
with  Turkey  (1876),  and  proclaimed  Milan 
king;  became  governor  of  Tashkend  in 
1882. 

Teale,  Thomas  Pridgin  (Jb.  1831),  was 
president  of  the  Public  Health  section  of 
the  British  Medical  Association  at  Liverpool, 
1883.  He  has  published  Bangers  to  Health 
(1879),  etc. 

Teck,  H.S.H.  Francis  Paul  Charles  Louis 
Alexander,  Prince  of  (b.  1837),  only  son  of 
Duke  Alexander  of  Wiirtemberg,  married  in 
1866  H.R.H.  the  Princess  Mary  Adelaide, 
daughter  of  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Cambridge. 

Tegetlioff,  Wilhelm,  Baron  von  (*.  1827, 
d.  1871),  Austrian  admiral;  commanded  the 
Austrian  squadron  in  the  Danish  war  of 
1864,  and  gained  a  victory  off  Hehgoland ; 
in  1866  defeated  the  Italians  under  Persano 
at  Lissa ;  became  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Austrian  navy  in  1868. 

Tegetmeier,  William  {b.  1816),  omitholo- 
^t,  has  published  The  Poultry  Book, 
pigeons,  etc.,  and  assisted  Darwin  in  The 
Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication. 

Teener,  Esaias  (*.  1782,  d.  1846),  Swedish 
poet ;  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
university  of  Lund  in  1812,  and  Bishop  of 
Wexio  in  1824.  Among  his  poems  are 
Frithjofs  Saga  (1820-5),  Axel,  a  romance 
(1821),  and  The  Children  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  an  idyll,  translated  by  Longfellow. 

Teignmouth,  John  Shore,  Lord  {b.  1751, 
d.  1834) ,  bom  in  Devonshire ;  went  to  Bengal 
as  a  cadet  in  1769,  became  a  member  of  the 
Supreme  Council  of  Calcutta  in  1786,  and 
was  Governor-General  from  1793  to  1797, 
when  he  was  created  a  peer.  He  was  first 
president  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society. 

Teissier,  Antoine  (J.  1632,  d.  1715),  French 
writer  :  left  France  on  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Xantes,  and  became  historiographer 
to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 

Tekeli,  Emeric,  Count  de  {b.  1658,  d.  1705), 
Hungarian  patriot ;  commanded  his  coun- 
trymen in  their  struggle  against  the  nile  of 
Austria.  After  many  successes,  lie  was 
forced  in  1697  to  retire  to  Turkey,  where  he 
died. 

Telesio,  Bernardino  (*.  1509,  d.  1588), 
Italian  patriot,  bom  at  Cosenza,  studied  at 
Milan,  Rome,  and  Padua ;  attacked  tlie 
method  of  the  schoolmen,  and  in  1565  pub- 
lislied  his  Be  Eeii/m  Katurd,  in  wliich  he 
maintains  the  necessity  of  basing  philosophy 


on  the  study  of  nature.  He  established  a 
school  at  Naples. 

Telford,  Thomas  {b.  1757,  d.  1834),  en- 
gineer, bom  in  Eskdale,  Dumfriesshire,  of 
peasant  parents,  removed  to  Edinburgh  in 
1780,  and  to  London  in  1783  ;  in  1787  be- 
came county  surveyor  of  Shropshire.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  the  Ellesmere  Canal 
(1795-1805),  the  Caledonian  Canal  (opened 
in  1823),  the  road  from  London  to  Holy- 
head (completed  in  1815),  the  Menai  Sus- 
pension Bridge  (1819-26),  and  the  St. 
Katherine's  Docks  in  London  (1828). 

Tell,  William  («?.  circa  1350),  Swiss  patriot, 
is  reputed  to  have  been  the  means  of  saving 
his  country  from  the  Austiian  yoke.  The 
story  of  his  shooting  an  apple  on  his  son's 
head  and  even  his  very  existence  are  now 
considered  mythical. 

Tellez,  Gabriele,  or  Tirso  de  Molina  (b. 

1585,  d.  1648),  Spanish  dramatist,  became  a 
monk  in  1620.  He  wrote  interludes,  autos 
sacramentales,  and  over  three  hundred  come- 
dies. 

Temanza,  Tommaso  {b.  1705,  d.  1789), 
Italian  architect;  built  the  church  of  La 
Santa  Maddalena  in  Venice,  and  wrote 
Lives  of  the  most  Celebrated  Venetian  Archi- 
tects and  Painters  (1777). 

Tempelliof,  Georg  Friedrich  (3.  1737,  d. 
1807),  German  soldier ;  commanded  the 
Prussian  artillery  during  the  early  part  of 
the  revolutionary  war  with  France,  and 
afterwards  became  military  tutor  to  the 
brothers  of  Frederick  William  III.  He 
wrote  The  Prussian  BoDibardier  (1781),  a 
History  of  the  Seven  Tears'  JFar  (1783),  etc. 

Tempesta,  Antonio  (*.  1555,  d.  1630), 
artist,  bom  at  Florence,  studied  under  Stra- 
danus.    He  is  famous  for  his  battle-pieces. 

Temple,  Frederick  (b.  1821),  became  head- 
master of  P.ugby  in  1858  ;  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Exeter  in  18d3,  and  of  London  in 
1885.  He  is  the  author  of  the  paper  On  the 
Education  of  the  World  in  Essays  and  JRe- 
views  (1860),  etc. 

Temple,  Sir  John  {d.  1677),  Master  of  the 
Rolls  in  Ireland  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. ; 
wrote  a  Hiftori/  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  of 
1641,  published  in  1646. 

Temple,  Sir  Richard,  Baronet  (b.  1828), 
entered  the  Bengal  Civil  Service  in  1846 ; 
was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal  1874-7, 
and  Governor  of  Bombay  1877-80  ;  has  been 
president  of  the  Social  Science  Congress, 
and  was  elected  vice-chairman  of  the 
London  School  Board  in  1885.  He  has  pub- 
lished Men  and  Events  of  my  Time  in  India 
(1882),  etc. 

Temple,  Sir  William  (d.  1628,  d.  1699), 


Ten 


(696) 


Ter 


son  of  Sir  John  Temple,  was  bom  in  Lon- 
don ;  after  studying  at  Cambridge,  travelled 
in  France,  Holland,  and  Germany ;  on  his 
return  (1654)  joined  his  father  ia  Ireland, 
and  sat  in  the  Irish  ParUament  of  1661 ; 
■was  in  1665  sent  on  a  secret  mission  to  the 
Bishop  of  Munster ;  negotiated  the  Triple 
Alliance  (166S),  and  was  soon  afterwards 
appointed  ambassador  to  the  States-General, 
but  was  recalled  in  1669  ;  was  again  sent  to 
the  Netherlands  in  1674,  and  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  negotiations  which  led  to  the 
treaty  of  Nimeguen  (167S) ;  finally  returned 
to  England  in  1679,  and  in  1686  settled  at 
Moor  Park  in  Surrey,  where  he  died.  He 
wrote  Observations  on  the  United  Frovinces, 
two  volumes  of  Miscellanies,  and  Memoirs. 

Tenerani,  Pietro  (J.  1800,  d.  1869),  Italian 
sculptor,  bom  near  Carrara,  was  a  pupU 
and  friend  of  Thorwaldsen.  He  became 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  at 
Rome. 

Teniers,  David,  "the  Elder  "  (5.  1582,  d. 
1649),  Flemish  painter,  bom  at  Antwerp; 
studied  vmder  Rubens,  and  afterwards  in 
Italy,  where  he  remained  ten  years.  His 
pictures  for  the  most  part  represent  village 
festivals,  groups  in  taverns,  and  similar 
scenes. 

Teniers,  David,  "the  Younger"  (b.  1610, d. 
1685),  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  chose 
the  same  class  of  subjects  as  his  father, 
whom  he  is  generally  considered  to  have 
excelled. 

Tenison,  Thomas  {b.  1636,  d.  1715),  bom 
at  Cottenham  in  Cambridgeshire,  educated 
at  Cambridge ;  in  1680  became  vicar  of  St. 
Martin's-in-the-Fields,  where  he  endowed  a 
free  school ;  supported  the  Protestant  cause 
during  the  reign  of  James  II. ;  was  ap- 
pointed Archdeacon  of  London  in  1689, 
Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1691,  and  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1694. 

Tennant,  William  {b.  1785,  d.  1846),  poet 
and  Orientalist,  bom  in  Fif  eshire ;  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  St. 
Andrews  in  1835.  His  chief  work  was  the 
humorous  poem  Anster  Fair  (1812). 

Tennemann,  WUhehn  Gottlieb  {b.  1761,  d. 
1819),  German  philosopher,  studied  at  the 
universities  of  Erfurt  and  Jena,  and  became 
professor  in  that  of  Marburg  in  1804.  He 
published  a  History  of  Fhtlosophy  (1798- 
1811)  and  other  works. 

Tennent,  Sir  James  Emerson  {b.  1804,  d. 
1869),  bom  at  Belfast,  for  many  years  re- 
presented his  native  town  in  Parliament, 
and  was  secretary'  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
1852-67.  He  published  Ceylon  1859),  and 
other  books  of  travel. 

Teimiel,  John  {b.  1820),  artist;  began  to 


contribute  to  Fimch  in  1851,  and,  after  the 
death  of  Leech  in  1864,  was  recognised  as 
■unrivalled  as  a  designer  of  political  cartoons. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  Lord  [b.  \^m.  d.  1892), 
was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  George  Tennyson, 
rector  of  Somersby  iu  Lincolnshire,  where 
he  was  bom.  He  was  educated  at  Louth 
grammar  school,  and  in  1827  published 
Foems  by  Tivo  Brothers,  partly  the  work  of 
his  brother  Charles.  In  1828  he  matricu- 
lated at  Cambridge,  where  he  gained  the 
Chancellor's  medal  (1829).  Foems  :  Chiefly 
Lyrical  (1830)  was  followed  in  1833  by  a 
volume  containing  The  Falace  of  Art,  (Enone, 
and  other  of  his  best  kno^wn  pieces.  The 
Gardener''s  Daughter,  Locksley  Hall,  and 
other  poems  were  added  in  1842,  and  in  1847 
appeared  The  Frincess,  a  Medley,  in  blank 
verse.  In  3[emoriam,  a  tribute  to  the  memory 
of  Arthur  Hallam,  was  published  in  1850.  In 
the  same  year  Tennyson  succeeded  Words- 
worth as  poet-laureate.  Among  his  subse- 
quent poems  were  Maud  (1855),  The  Idi/lls  of 
the  King  (1859),  Enoch  Arden  (1864),  Becket, 
a  drama  (1SS4),  and  Demeter  (1889),  The 
Foresters,  etc.  In  1884  he  was  created  a  peer. 

Tenterden,  Charles  Abbot,  Lord  (J,  1762, 
d.  1832),  lawyer,  became  in  1816  a  puisne 
judge  of  the  Common  Pleas;  during  the 
same  year  was  transferred  to  the  King's 
Bench ;  was  made  Lord  Chief  Justice  in 
1818,  and  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1827.  In 
1802  he  published  the  Law  of  Merchant 
Ships  and  Seamen. 

Terburg,  Gerhard  (b.  1608,  d.  1681),  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Zwoll,  became  burgomaster 
of  Deventer,  where  he  died. 

Terby,  Franqois  Joseph  Charles,  a  Belgian 
astronomer  and  meteorologist. 

Terence  [Publius  Terentius  Afer]  {b.  195, 
d.  159  B.C.),  Roman  comic  poet,  is  said  to 
have  been  the  slave  of  a  Roman  senator,  who 

f ranted  him  his  liberty.  Among  his  come- 
ies,  which  are  imitations  of  those  of  the 
Greek  dramatist  Menander,  are  Andria, 
Heauton  Tifnoronmenos,  and  Fhormio. 

Terpander,  a  Greek  lyric  poet  of  the  7th. 
century  B.C.,  born  iu  the  island  of  Lesbos, 
added  "three  strings  to  the  lyre,  which  had 
pre^viously  only  four. 

Terray,  Joseph  Marie.  Abbe  {b.  1715,  d. 
1778),  became  controller-general  of  the 
finances  under  Louis  XV.  in  1769.  After 
half  ruininc  the  country  by  his  reckless  and 
unjust  taxation,  he  was  dismissed  by  Louis 
XVI.  in  1774. 

Terry,  Edward  O'Connor  (h.  1844),  come- 
dian, is  proprietor  of  the  Terry  theatre  in 
the  Strand,  erected  in  1887. 

Terry,  Ellen  {b.  1848),  actress,  made  he* 


Ter 


(697) 


The 


first  appearance  at  the  Princess'  theatre  in 
1856.  In  1878  she  joined  the  Lyceum  com- 
pany, and  was  subsequently  associated  with 
the  chief  productions  iinder  Mr.  Irving's 
management.  Among  the  parts  she  has 
played  are  Ophelia,  Camma  in  Tennyson's 
Cup,  Desdemona,  Juliet,  Beatrice,  and  Queen 
Katharine  of  Aragon. 

Tertullianus,  Quintus  Septimius  Florens 
(h.  circa  150,  d.  circa  230),  the  earliest  of  the 
Latin  fathers,  was  bom  at  Carthage,  where 
he  is  said  to  have  practised  as  an  advocate, 
prior  to  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  the 
date  of  which  is  unknown.  He  was  subse- 
quently ordained  presbyter.  Late  in  life  he 
became  a  Montanist.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  Liber  Apologeticus,  Ad  Martyres, 
and  l)e  Corona  Militu. 

Tetzel,  or  Tezel,  Johann  {b.  circa  1470,  d. 
1519),  a  Dominican  monk;  was  named  by 
Pope  Leo  X.  commissary  apostolic  in 
Germany.  After  carrying  on  a  trafiic  in 
indulgences  for  many  years,  he  was  attacked 
by  Luther,  who  in  1517  issued  his  Decla- 
ration against  Indulgences  at  Wittem- 
berg. 

Teuffel,  Wilhehn  Sigismund  (J.  1820,  d. 
1872),  was  appointed  professor  of  classical 
philology  at  Tubingen  in  1857.  His  chief 
work  is  a  History  of  Bmnan  Literature 
(1870). 

Tewfik,  Khedive  of  Egypt  (Jb.  1852,  d. 
1892),  was  made  ruler  by  the  representatives 
of  England  and  France  in  1879.  His  reign 
was  marked  by  the  rebellion  of  Arabi 
(1882-83),  and  the  insurrection  of  the 
"Mahdi." 

Thackeray,  "William  Makepeace  (b.  1811, 
d.  1863),  novelist,  bom  in  Calcutta:  was 
educated  at  the  Charterhouse  and  Cam- 
bridge ;  studied  art  at  Paris,  but  do+nrmined 
to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and  in  1837 
became  connected  with  Fraser^s  Magazine, 
to  which  he  contributed  the  Great  Hoggarty 
Diamond.  In  1840  he  published  the  Faris 
SJcetch-Book,  and  in  1842  began  to  write  for 
Fnnch,  in  which  appeared  his  Book  of  Snobs. 
His  first  great  novel.  Vanity  Fair  (1846-48), 
was  followed  by  Fendennis  (1850),  Esmond 
(1852),  The  JS'cwcomes  (1854),  and  others. 
He  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  in  England 
and  America  on  the  English  Humourists  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century  (1851),  and  TJie  Four 
Georges  (1852-56),  and  edited  the  Cornhill 
Magazine  (1859-63). 

Thalberg,  Sigismund  {b.  1812,  d.  1871), 
musician,  studied  under  Hummel  at  Vienna, 
Pixis  in  Paris,  and  Moscheles  in  London ; 
devoted  himself  to  the  pianoforte,  and 
acquired  fame  in  Ms  tours  through  Belgium, 
Holland.  England,  Russia,  Brazil,  and  the 
United  States. 


Thales  {b.  circa  636,  d.  circa  546  B.C.), 
Greek  philosopher,  bom  at  Miletus,  one  of 
the  seven  sages,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Ionian  school.  He  taught  that  all  things 
have  their  origin  in  water. 

Theebaw,  ex-King  of  Ava  (i.  1858),  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1878.  Owing  to  his 
misrule  and  hostile  attitude  towards  the 
English,  war  was  declared  against  him  by 
the  latter  in  1885,  resulting  in  his  deposition 
and  the  annexation  of  Upper  Burmah. 

Thelusson.  Peter  {d.  1797),  a  London 
merchant,  celebrated  as  having  left  the  bulk 
of  his  wealth  to  accumulate  for  the  benefit 
of  his  descendants.  An  Act  was  in  con- 
sequence passed  (40  George  III.,  c.  98)  which 
made  such  bequests  illegal. 

Thelwall,  John  (*.  1764,  d.  1834),  political 
agitator  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  tried 
for  treason  together  with  Hardy  and  Home 
Tooke,  but  acquitted  (1794).  He  afterwards 
became  a  teacher  of  elocution, 

ThemistiuB,  a  Greek  philosopher  and 
orator  of  the  4th  centtuy,  taught  for  many 
years  at  Constantinople.  Some  of  his  orations 
are  extant. 

Themistocles  (b.  circa  514,  d.  449  B.C.), 
Athenian  general,  defeated  the  fleet  of 
Xerxes  in  the  battles  of  Artemisitmi  and 
Salamis  (481  B.C.).  He  was  banished  in  471, 
and  in  465  retired  to  the  court  of  Artaxerxes, 
King  of  Persia.  He  is  said  to  have  poisoned 
himself. 

Thenard,  Louis  Jacques  {b.  1777,  d.  1857), 
French  chemist,  was  professor  at  the  College 
de  France  1810-40.  His  chief  work  was 
Traite  de  Chimie  Elementaire  (1813-17). 

Theobald,  Le-w-is  (b.  circa  1692.  d.  1744), 
dramatist  and  critic,  was  bom  at  Sitting- 
bourne  in  Kent.  He  incurred  Pope's 
enmity  by  attacking  his  edition  of  Shake- 
speare, and  was  the  original  hero  of  the 
Bunciad  (1728).  His  own  edition  of  Shake- 
speare was  published  in  1733. 

Theocritus,  a  pastoral  poet  of  the  earlier 
half  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  was  born  at 
SjTacuse.  He  spent  much  of  his  life  at  the 
court  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  at  Alexandria, 
but  afterwards  returned  to  SjTacuse.  He 
wrote  Idyls  in  the  later  Doric  dialect. 

Theodora  (rf.  548),  Empress  of  the  East, 
originally  an  actress ;  became  the  mistress  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian,  who  married  her  in 
525.  She  was  notorious  for  her  sensuality 
as  well  as  for  the  part  she  played  in  court 
intrigues. 

Theodore  {d.  690),  a  monk  of  Tarsus,  was 
sent  to  Enjrland  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
by  Pope  Vitalian  in  668. 


The 


(  G08 


Thi 


Tlieodore,  King  of  Abyssinia  (6.  circa  1818, 
d.  186S),  was  crowned  Emperor  of  Ethiopia 
in  ISoo.  lu  consequence  of  his  imprison- 
ment of  the  English  consul,  Captain 
Cameron  (1S64),  an  expedition  was  sent 
a-^aiust  him,  commanded  by  Sir  Robert 
Napier,  afterwaAls  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala 
(1867) .  Theodore  was  deserted  by  his  army 
and  died  by  his  own  hand. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  {d.  429),  Greek 
ecclesiastical  writer ;  became  Bishop  of 
Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia  in  39i.  Nestorius  was 
Ids  disciple.  His  writings  were  condemned 
in  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (553). 

Theodoret  (b.  circa  336,  d.  457),  Greek 
father,  bom  at  Antioch ;  became  Bishop 
of  Cyrus,  in  Syria,  in  420 ;  defended  Nes- 
torius against  the  attacks  of  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andiia,  whom  he  opposed  in  the  Council 
of  Ephesus  (431),  but  afterwards  took  part 
in  the  excommunication  of  Nestorius  in  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451).  He  wi-ote 
Commentaries  on  the  Bible,  an  Ecclesiastical 
Eistory  (323-428),  etc. 

Theodoric,  "  the  Great "  {d.  526), 
originally  chieftain  of  a  tribe  of  Ostro- 
goths ;  was  educated  at  Constantinople ; 
after  overthrowing  Odoacer  (493)  established 
the  Ostrogoth  kingdom  in  Italy,  which  he 
sought  to  consolidate  by  effecting  a  imion  of 
Goths  and  Italians.  He  fixed  his  capital  at 
Ravenna,  where  he  erected  many  beautiful 
buildings.  His  Edictum  was  a  body  of  law 
for  Romans  and  barbarians  alike. 

Theodoric  I.,  King  of  the  Visigoths  (d. 
451),  ascended  the  throne  in  419.  In  con- 
junction with  the  Roman  general  Aetius,  he 
defeated  Attda  in  the  battle    of    Chalons 

(451). 

Theodoric  I.,  King  of  the  West  Franks 
(h.  circa  4S5,  d.  534),  was  son  of  Clovis.  On 
his  father's  death  the  kingdom  was  divided, 
Theodoric  receiving  Austrasia  as  his  share. 

Theodosius  L,  "the  Great,"  Emperor  of 
Rome  {b.  346,  d.  395),  was  brought  up  as  a 
soldier  by  his  father,  a  distuiguished  general. 
In  S79  the  Emperor  Gratiau  made  him 
ruler  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  empire. 
After  defeating  the  Goths  (386)  he  in  388 
restored  to  his  throne  Valeutinian,  the 
brother  and  successor  of  Gratian.  who  had 
been  expelled  from  Italy  by  Maximus.  In 
392  Eugeiiius  succeeded  Valentinian,  but 
was  defeated  in  394  by  Theodosius,  who 
thus  became  sole  ruler  over  the  Roman 
world. 

Theodosius  II.  {h.  401,  d.  450),  son  of 
Arcailius,  and  grandson  of  Theodosius  the 
Great ;  succeeded  his  father  in  403.  During 
his  reign  was  compiled  the  collection  of  laws 
called  Codex  Theodosianus. 


Tlieognis,  a  Greek  elegiac  poet  of  the 
6th  century  B.O.  He  was  driven  from 
Megara,  his  native  city,  by  the  democratic 
party,  and  retired  to  Thebes. 

Theon  of  Alexandria,  a  mathematician 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century.  He 
was  the  father  of  Hypatia. 

Theopliilus  {d.  412),  became  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria  in  385.  In  the  Anthropo- 
morphic controversy  he  bitterly  opposed 
Origen,  and  afterwards  extended  his  enmity 
to  Chrysostom,  who  sheltered  some  of 
Origen's  party  at  Constantmople. 

Theophrastus  {b.  circa  390,  d.  circa  237 
B.C.),  Greek  philosopher  ;  bom  in  Lesbos, 
studied  in  Athens  under  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  head  of  the  Lyceum 
(322).  His  chief  work  is  his  Characters, 
depicting  various  types  of  human  nature. 

Theresa,  Saint  (b.  1515,  d.  1582),  Spanish 
mystic,  bom  at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile  ;  en- 
tered a  Carmelite  convent  in  her  native 
tovra  (1534),  into  which  she  introduced  a 
stricter  rule.  In  1562  she  established  a  new 
convent  at  Avila,  and  subsequently  extended 
her  reforms  throughout  the  whole  order. 

Thespis  {circa  535),  a  native  of  Mount 
Icaria  in  Attica ;  introduced  an  actor,  who 
conversed  with  the  chorus  at  the  Dionysiac 
festivals.  This  was  the  first  step  in  the 
development  of  Greek  tragedy. 

Thevenot,  Melchisedec  (J).  1621,  d.  1692), 
French  geographer  ;  became  royal  librarian 
in  1684.  He  published  Relations  de  Divers 
Voyages  (1663-72),  etc.  His  nephew,  Jean 
Thevbnot  (J>.  1633,  d.  1667),  travelled  m 
Persia,  India,  and  other  countries,  and  wrote 
descriptions  of  his  journeys. 

Thibaudin,  Jean  (*.  1822),  French 
general ;  served  in  the  Franco -German 
war,  and  was  minister  of  war  1883-85. 

Thibaut,  Antoine  Frederic  Juste  {b.  1744, 
d.  1840),  jurist,  bom  in  Hanover;  became 
professor  at  Heidelberg  in  1805.  He  pub- 
lished System  des  Faiidektenrechts  (1803), 
etc. 

Thierry,  Jacques  Nicholas  Augustin  (6. 
1795,  d.  1856),  French  historian,  bom  at 
Blois ;  became  the  disciple  and  secretary  of 
St.  Simon  in  1814,  but  left  him  in  1817  :m 
1825  published  his  principal  work,  The  His- 
tory of  the  Conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans.  He  lost  his  sight  at  the  age  of 
thirty-one.  His  brother,  Am^d^e  SraON 
DoMiNiatTE  Thieeet  {b.  1797,  (^.18731, 
published  a  History  of  Gaul  under  the 
Roman  Administration  (1840-2),  and  othar 
works. 

Thiers,  Louis  Adolphe  {b.  1797.  d.  I877)t 


Thi 


(699) 


Tho 


French  statesman,  1)0111  at  Marseilles, 
studied  law  at  Aix;  in  1821  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  a  journalist ;  was 
engaged  on  his  Histoire  de  la  Revolution 
Frangaise  1823-37 ;  in  1830  started  the 
National,  and  did  much  towards  raising 
Louis  Philippe  to  the  throne  ;  was  minister 
of  commerce  and  pubhc  works  1832-4 ;  in 
1836  formed  a  ministry  in  which  he  was 
president  of  the  council  and  minister  of 
foreign  aiiairs,  and  was  again  premier  in 
1S40.  Alter  his  overthrow  in  October  he 
devoted  himself  to  his  Histoire  du  Gonm- 
lat  et  de  V Empire,  the  last  volume  of 
which  appeared  in  1862.  He  returned  to 
the  Chamber  in  1863,  opposed  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  was  declared  chief  of  the 
executive  power  in  February,  1871,  and  be- 
came president  of  the  repubUc  in  the  fol- 
lowing August.    He  resigned  in  May,  1874. 

TMrlwall,  Connop  ifi.  1797,  d.  1875),  his- 
torian and  theologian,  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse  and  Cambridge ;  was  or- 
damed  in  1828 ;  took  part  with  Julius 
Hare  in  translating  Niebuhr's  History  of 
Rome;  in  1834  became  rector  of  Kirby 
Underdale  in  Yorkshire,  where  he  wrote 
most  of  his  History  of  Greece  (1835-47).  In 
1840  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  St.  David's, 

TMstlewood,  Arthur,  {b.  1772,  d.  1820), 
was  the  leader  in  the  Cato  Street  conspiracy, 
the  aim  of  which  was  to  assassinate  the 
ministers  and  establish  a  provisional  govern- 
ment.    He  was  executed. 

Thistlewood-Dyer,  William  Turner  (3. 
IS  13),  became  director  of  the  Royal  Gardens, 
Kew,  in  1885.  He  has  published  Flora  of 
Middlesex  (1869),  etc, 

Tholuck,  Friedrich  August  Gottreu  {b. 
179y.  d.  1877),  German  theologian,  born  at 
Breslau ;  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Halle  in  1826.  He  wrote  many  works  com- 
bating the  scepticism  of  the  time. 

Thomas,  Annie  [Mrs.  Pender  Cudhp]  {b. 
1838),  a  popular  novelist. 

Thomas,  Arthur  Goring  {b.  1851,  d. 
1892),  musician,  studied  at  Paris ;  has  com- 
posed The  Sun-  Worshippers,  a  cantata 
(ISSl),  Esmeralda,  an  opera,  produced  at 
Covent  Garden  (1883),  etc. 

Thomas,  Charles  Louis  Ambroise  {b. 
1811),  composer,  bom  at  Metz ;  became 
director  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire  of  Music 
in  1871.  His  masterpieces  are  Mignon 
(1866)  and  Hamlet  (1868). 

Thomas,  George  Housman  (jb.  1824,  d. 
1S6S),  painter  and  wood-engraver ;  excelled 
as  a  designer  of  book  illustrations.  He  was 
for  many  years  on  the  staff  of  the  Ilhistrnted 
London  JS'eifs.  His  brother,  William 
LusoN    ThosiaB    (i.     1830),     an    eminent 


painter  in  water  -  colours,  started  the 
Graphic  in  1869  and  the  Daily  Graphic  in 
1890. 

Thomas,  Theodore  {b.  1835),  musician, 
bom  in  Hanover  ;  went  to  the  United 
States  in  1845  ;  has  organised  musical  festi- 
vals and  concerts  in  many  American  towns, 
and  has  done  much  to  raise  the  public 
taste. 

Thomasius,  Christian  (b.  1655,  d.  1728), 
Gennan  philosopher,  born  at  Leipzig  ;  be- 
came a  professor  in  that  town,  but  owing  to 
his  freedom  of  thought  was  compelled  to  re- 
move to  Berlin,  where  he  was  patronised  by 
the  Elector  of  Braudenburg.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  jurisprudence  in  the  university  of 
Halle  on  its  foundation  in  1694. 

Thompson,  Edmund  SjTnes,  M.D.  (b. 
1837),  has  published  essays  on  Sciatica, 
Mediastinal  Growths,  etc. 

Thompson,  Edward  Maunde  (b.  1840), 
born  in  Jamaica ;  became  principal  librarian 
and  secretary  of  the  British  Museum  in 
1888.  He  has  edited  Eobert  of  Avesbury's 
Chronicle  for  the  Rolls  Series  (1889),  and 
other  works. 

Thompson,  Sir  Henry  {b.  1820),  bom  at 
FramUngham,  Suffolk  ;  became  professor  of 
clinical  surgery  at  University  College  Hos- 
pital in  1866.  He  has  published  Practical 
Eithotomy  and  Lithoirity  (1863),  etc. 

Thompson,  Silvanus  PhiUips  (*.  1851), 
became  principal  of  the  City  and  Guilds 
Technical  College,  Finsbury,  in  1885.  He 
has  written  works  on  electricity,  and  made 
discoveries  in  that  and  kindi-ed  subjects. 

Thompson,  Lieutenant- General  Thomas 
Perronet  {b.  1783,  d.  1869),  was  an  early 
advocate  of  free  trade,  and  published  A 
Corn-Laiv  Catechism  in  1827. 

Thompson,  William  Hepworth  (b.  1810, 
d.  1886),  became  Regius  professor  of 
Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1853,  and  succeeded 
Whewell  as  master  of  Trinity  in  1866. 

Thorns,  William  John  {b.  1803,  d.  1885), 
archa;ol'  gist ;  was  secretary  to  the  Camden 
Society  1S38-73,  and  deputy-librarian  in  the 
House  of  Lords  1845-82.  He  originated 
Notes  and  Queries,  which  he  edited  1849-73. 

Thomson,  Allen  {b.  1809,  d.  1884),  became 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Glasgow  University 
in  1848.  He  made  important  investigations 
in  coimection  with  embryology. 

Thomson,  Sir  Charles  Wyville  {b.  1830,  d. 
1882),  was  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Edinburgh  University  1870-81.  He  was  the 
scientific  chief  of  the  Challenger  expedition 
in  1872. 


Tho 


(  700  ) 


Tho 


Thomson,  James  (b.  1700,  d.  1748),  poet, 
born  at  Ednam  in  Roxburghshire ;  was 
educated  at  Jedburgh  and  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity ;  came  to  London  in  1725,  and  there 
published  his  Winter  (17-i3),  Summer  (1727), 
Spring  (1728),  and  Atitionn  (1730).  About 
this  time  he  accompanied  the  son  of  Lord 
Chancellor  Talbot  on  a  Continental  tour. 
He  was  afterwards  introduced  by  Lord 
Lyttelton  to  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales, 
who  granted  him  a  pension.  In  1746  he 
was  made  surveyor-general  of  the  Leeward 
Islands.  Besides  the  Seasons,  he  published 
Liberty  (1735-6),  The  Castle  of  Indolence, 
an  allegorical  poem  (1716),  several  di-amas, 
and  some  lyi-ics,  of  which  RuU  Britannia 
is  the  most  famous. 

Thomson,  James  {b.  1834,  d.  1882), 
poet,  born  at  Port  Glasgow ;  was  brought 
up  at  the  Caledonian  Orphan  Asylum,  and 
became  a  schoolmaster  in  the  army.  From 
1860  to  1875  he  contributed  to  the  National 
Jiefonner,  in  which  was  published  his  City 
of  Lreadful  Night  (1874). 

Thomson,  Joseph  (b.  1858),  African  ex- 
plorer ;  has  travelled  through  Masai  Land 
(1884),  and  in  Morocco  (ISSS).  He  has 
published  accounts  of  his  journeys. 

Thomson,  Joseph  John  (b.  1856),  became 
professor  of  experimental  physics  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1884. 

Thomson,  William  (b.  1819,  d.  1890),  was 
educated  at  Shrewsbmy  and  Oxford ;  be- 
came provost  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in 
1855,  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in 
.1861,  and  Archbishop  of  York  in  1862.  He 
published  An  Uidl'me  of  the  Necessary  Laws 
of  Thought  {\M^),  etc. 

Thomson,  Sir  William  (J.  1824),  bom  in 
Belfast,  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and 
Cambridge ;  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  at  Glasgow  in  1846.  From  1846 
to  1851  he  edited  the  Cambridge  and  Dublin 
Mathematical  Journal,  to  which  he  contri- 
buted several  important  papers.  Some  of 
his  chief  discoveries  are  announced  in  the 
Secular  Coating  of  the  Earth  (1852),  and 
the  Bakeriau  lecture,  the  Electrodynamics  of 
Qualities  of  M'jtals  (1855).  He  has  invented 
the  quadrant,  portable,  and  absolute  electro- 
meters, and  other  scientific  instruments.  To 
the  general  public  he  is  best  known  by  his 
work  in  connection  with  submarine  tele- 
graphjr  (1858-66).  In  January,  1892,  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Kelvin. 

Thorbum,  Sir  Robert  {b.  1856),  entered 
the  Newfoundland  House  of  Assembly,  and 
became  premier,  but  resigned  in  1889.  He 
represented  Newfoundland  in  the  Colonial 
Conference  held  in  London  in  1886. 

Thoreau,  Henry  David  {b.  1817,  d.  1862), 


American  naturalist ;  was  a  friend  of 
Emerson,  and  a  member  of  the  Transcen- 
dental school.  In  1845  and  the  following 
years  he  Uved  a  hfe  of  complete  solitude, 
described  in  Waldcn  (1854).  He  became 
acquainted  with  John  Brown  in  1859,  and 
devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  Liberationist 
cause. 

Thoresby,  Ralph  {b.  1658,  d.  1725), 
antiquary;  published  Ducatus  Leodiensis 
(1715),  and  Vicuna  Leodiensis  (1724),  works 
on  the  topography  and  antiquities  of  Leeds. 

Thornbury,  George  Walter  (b.  1828,  d. 
1870),  published  a  Life  of  Turner  (1861),  Old 
and  New  London  (1873-74),  etc. 

Thome,  Richard  Thome  {b.  1842),  Milroy 
lectui-er  to  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
has  published  pa^jers  on  the  progress  of 
preventive  medicme,  diphtheria,  etc. 

ThomhUl,  Sir  James  (^>.  1676,  d.  1734), 
painter,  bom  at  Weymouth  ;  after  educating 
himself  in  England,  travelled  in  Holland 
and  France  ;  on  his  return  was  conunissioned 
by  Queen  Anne  to  paint  the  dome  of  St. 
Paul's ;  decorated  the  refectory  and  saloon 
of  Greenwich  Hospital,  and  some  of  the 
rooms  in  Hampton  Court.  His  daughter 
married  Hogarth. 

Thornton,  Bonnell  (*.  1724,  d.  1768), 
humorist  and  miscellaneous  writer ;  was  the 
associate  of  George  Colman  in  a  periodical 
entitled  the  Connoisseur,  and  published  a 
translation  of  Plautus  (1766),  etc. 

Thornton,  Sir  Edward  (b.  1817),  diplo- 
matist ;  was  envoy  -  extraordinary  and 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Brazil  (1865-67) 
and  the  United  States  (1867-81),  ambassador 
to  the  Czar  (1881-84),  and  to  the  Sultan 
(1884-86). 

Thornycroft,  Mary  {b.  1814),  daughter  of 
John  Francis,  sculptor  ;  married  the  sculjitor, 
Mr.  Thornycroft,  in  1840  ;  afterwards  studied 
at  Rome  under  Gibson  and  Thorwaldsen. 
Among  her  chief  works  is  the  Skipping  Girl 
(1855). 

Thornycroft,  W.  Hamo,  A.R.A.  (b.  1850), 

sculptor,  son  of  the  preceiliug  ;  first  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1871-  He  has 
executed  statues  of  Artemis  (1880),  and 
Teucer  (1881),  etc. 

Thorold,  Anthony  Wilson  (b.  1825),  be- 
came Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1877 ;  was 
transferred  to  Winchester  in  1891. 

Thorpe,  Thomas  Edward  (b.  1845),  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  Normal  School  of 
Science  and  Royal  School  of  Mines,  South 
Kensington :  has  published  a  Dictionary  of 
Applied  Chemistry,  etc. 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert  Bertel  {b.  1770,  d 


Tao 


(701) 


Tie 


1841),  Danish  sculptor,  of  Icelandic  origin  ; 
studied  at  the  free  school  of  the  Academy  of 
Copenhagen,  and  was  sent  by  that  body  to 
Eome  in  1796.  His  first  great  work  was  his 
Jason  (1802).  Except  for  a  visit  to  Denmark 
in  1819-20,  when  he  executed  the  statues  of 
Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apostles  for  the  Frue 
Kirke  at  Copenhagen,  he  remained  ia 
Rome  till  1837.  After  that  date  he,  for  the 
most  part,  lived  in  Denmark.  His  master- 
pieces include  the  Entry  of  Alexand-er  into 
Babylon  (1812),  the  statue  of  Prince  Ponia- 
towski,  and  the  Dyinff  Lion  at  Lucerne. 

Thou,  Jacques  Auguste  de  {b.  15-53,  d. 
1617),  French  historian ;  studied  law  at 
Orleans  and  afterwards  under  Cujacius  at 
Valence  ;  in  1578  became  clerk  to  the  par- 
Uament  of  Paris ;  was  named  coimcillor  of 
state  in  1588,  and  in  1593  chief  librarian  to 
the  kiag.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  draw- 
ing up  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  His  chief  work 
is  Historia  Sui  Temporis,  extending  from 
1546  to  1584. 

Thrasybulus  {d.  389  b.c),  Athenian  gene- 
ral ;  was  exiled  by  the  Thirty  TjTants,  and 
withdrew  to  Thebes,  whence  he  led  an  expe- 
dition into  Attica,  and  after  defeating  the 
Spartans  at  Phyle  and  Munychia,  overthrew 
the  Thirty,  setting  up  a  commission  of  ten  in 
their  place.  This  body  also  opposed  Thrasy- 
bulus,  and  were  supported  by  the  Spartans, 
but  a  reconciHation  was  effected,  and  the 
exiles  were  recalled. 

Throgmorton,  Sir  Nicholas  {b.  eirca  1513, 
d.  1571),  English  diplomatist;  was  sent  by 
Elizabeth  as  ambassador  to  France  and  to 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

Thucydides  {b.  circa  471,  d.  circaiOl  B.C.), 
Greek  historian,  bom  at  Athens  ;  is  said  to 
have  been  descended  from  Olorus,  King  of 
Thrace.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  he  received  a  command,  but 
failed  to  relieve  AmphipoUs  when  beseiged 
by  Brasidas,  and  was  banished  (423  B.C.). 
After  twenty  years  of  exile,  during  which 
he  is  sujjposed  to  have  written  his  History 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  he  returned  to 
Athens  about  403. 

Thurloe,  John  (b.  1616,  d.  1668),  bom  at 
Abbots  Roding,  in  Essex  ;  became  Secretary 
of  State  to  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  retained 
the  oifice  under  his  son,  Eichard.  After  the 
Restoration  he  was  for  a  short  time  im- 
prisoned. 

Thurlow,  Edward,  Lord  {b.  1732,  d.  1806), 
bom  in  Suffolk ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1734,  became  Solicitor- General  in  1770,  and 
Attorney- General  in  1771 ;  was  Lord  Chan- 
cellor 1778-92,  except  for  a  short  interval  in 
1783. 

Thurston,  Sir  John  Bates  (fi.  1836),  high 


commissioner  and    consul-general  for   tha 
Western  Pacific. 

Thurston,  Robert  H.  (b.  1839),  a  dis- 
tinguished American  engiaeer. 

Tibaldi,  Pellegrino  (J.  1527,  d.  eirca  1592), 
painter  and  architect,  bom  at  Bologna, 
studied  at  Rome  ;  about  1570  was  chosen 
architect  of  the  cathedral  of  Milan  ;  in  1586 
was  summoned  to  Spain,  and  superintended 
the  building  of  the  Escurial  till  1595,  when 
he  returned  to  Milan. 

Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  [b.  42  B.C.,  d.  37 

A.D.),  Roman  Emperor;  was  the  stepson  of 
Augustus,  who  married  his  mother.  L  via. 
In  B.C.  12  he  married  the  emperor's  '  au  ;h- 
ter,  JuHa.  He  distinguished  him>eil  in 
the  German  wars  during  the  lifetime  of 
Augustus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  14  a.d. 
About  22  A.D.  he  placed  aU  power  in  the 
hands  of  his  favourite,  iElius  bejanus,  who 
afterwards  fell  under  his  suspicion,  and  was 
put  to  death  in  31.  In  26  Tiberius  retired  to 
the  island  of  Caprese,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  studied  astrology  and  to  have  indulged 
in  gross  licentiousness.  He  was  assassinated 
by  Macro,  commander  of  the  Praetorian 
Guards. 

TibuUus  (b.  eirca  43,  d.  19  B.c),  Roman 
poet ;  was  patronised  by  Messala  Coryiuus, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  his  expedition  to 
Gaul  (31).    He  wrote  four  books  of  Elegies. 

Tichbome,  Charles  Robert,  has  carried  on 
important  investigations  in  connection  with 
chemistry  andpharmacy.  He  has  published 
The  Mineral  Tvaters  of  Europe,  etc. 

TickeU,  Thomas  (b.  1686,  d.  1740),  man  of 
letters,  bom  in  Cumberland,  educated  at 
Oxford ;  became  the  friend  of  Addison, 
through  whose  influence  he  was  made 
imder- secretary  of  state  (1717).  He  was 
secretary  to  the  Lords  Justices  of  Ireland 
1724-40.  His  writings  include  several 
poems,  and  papers  published  in  the 
Spectator. 

Ticknor,  George  (b.  1791,  d.  1871),  Ameri- 
can author,  travelled  in  Europe  (1815-19); 
was  professor  of  modem  languages  at 
Harvardi (1819-34).  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Spanish  Literature  (1849),  and  a  Lip  of 
Prescott  (1864). 

Tidemand,  Adolphus  (*.  1816,  d.  1876), 
Norwegian  painter,  studied  at  Copenhagen 
and  Dusseldorf.  He  gained  a  European 
reputation  by  his  contributions  to  the  great 
exhibitions. 

Tieck,  Johann  Ludwi^  {b.  1773,  d.  1853), 
poet  and  novelist,  bom  m  Berlin,  studied  at 
Halle  and  Gottingen ;  formed  a  friendship 
with  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  and  became  a 
leader  of  the  Romantic  school ;  after  residing 


Tie 


(702) 


Tin 


in  various  German  towns  and  visiting  Italy 

ilSOo)  and  England  (1817),  settled  in 
)resden,  where  he  was  director  of  the 
theatre  from  1819  to  1840,  when  he  was  in- 
vited to  Berlin  by  Frederick  Wilham  IV. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  the  di-amas  of  St. 
Genoceva  (1800)  and  The  Emperor  Octavian 
(1804),  Taks,  some  of  which  were  trans- 
lated bv  Carlyle,  Fhantasus  (1812-15^  and 
translations  of  IJoh  Quixote  (1799-1802)  and 
Shakespeai-e  (1825). 

Tiedemann,  Dietrich  {b.  1748,  b.  1803), 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Marburg 
in  1786.  He  wrote  the  Bysteni  of  Stoic 
Fhilosophy  (1776),  the  Spirit  of  Speculative 
Fhilosophy  (1790-97),  etc. 

Tiemey,  George  {b.  1761,  d.  1830),  states- 
man :  entered  Parliament  in  1796,  opposed 
Pitt,  with  whom  he  fought  a  duel  (1798), 
was  Irish  Secretary,  and  afterwards  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trade  under  Fox  and 
Grenville  (1806-7),  became  leader  of  the 
Opposition  in  the  House  of  Coromons  in 
1817  ;  was  master  of  the  Mint  1827-28. 

Tilden,  Samuel  Jones  {b.  1814,  d.  1886), 
American  politician ;  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1841 ;  became  chairman  of  the  Democratic 
State  Convention  in  1866 ;  took  a  leading 
part  in  exposing  the  "Tammany  Ring" 
(1871);  was  elected  governor  of  New  York 
in  1874. 

Tillemont,  Louis  Scbastien  le  Nain  de  {b. 
1637,  d.  1698),  French  historian ;  studied  at 
Port  Royal,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1676. 
He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Emperors  during 
the  First  Six  Centuries  of  the  Church,  and 
an  Ecclesiastical  History  which  covers  the 
same  period. 

Tilloch,  Alexander  {b.  1759,  d.  1825),  born 
at  Glasgow ;  invented  improvements  in 
printing,  and  drew  out  a  patent  for  stereo- 
typed plates ;  in  1787  came  to  London, 
where  he  edited  various  periodicals,  starting 
the  Philosophical  Magazine  in  1797. 

Tillotson,  John  (J).  1630,  d.  1694),  son  of 
a  Yorkshire  clothier ;  was  brought  up  as  a 
Calvinist,  and  sent  to  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge  ; 
conformed  to  the  Church  of  England  at  the 
Restoration ;  became  lecturer  at  St.  Lawrence 
Jewry  in  1664  ;  was  made  a  prebend  of  Can- 
terbury in  1670,  and  dean  in  1672  ;  opposed 
Charles  II. 's  attempts  to  make  concessions 
to  the  Roman  Catholics  (1672)  ;  after  the 
Revolution  was  made  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (1691).  He  published  many  eloquent 
Sermons. 

Tilly,  John  Tserclas,  Count  of  (*.  1559,  d. 
1632),  general,  bom  in  South  Brabant; 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  contributing  greatly  to  the  victory  of 
Prague  (1620),  and  succeeded  Wallenstein  as 


commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial  forces 
(1630).  He  was  defeated  and  mortally 
wounded  in  an  engagement  with  Gustavus 
Adolphus  on  the  Lech. 

Timbs,  John,  F.S.A.  (b.  1801,  d.  1875), 
miscellaneous  writer;  published  Curiosities 
of  London  (1855),  etc. 

Timoleon  [d.  337  B.C.),  a  Corinthian  of 
noble  birth,  put  his  brother  Timophaues  to 
death  for  attempting  to  make  himself 
tyrant  (364) ;  was  in  344  sent  to  aid  the 
Syracusans  against  the  tyrant  Dionysius  and 
the  Carthaginians ;  overthrew  Dionysius  in 
343,  and  in  339  defeated  a  Carthaginian 
ai-mament ;  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life 
at  Syracuse. 

Timon,  the  "Misanthrope,"  an  Athenian 
of  the  5th  century  B.C.,  who  became  dis- 
gusted with  mankind  and  lived  in  seclusion. 

Timon,  the  "Phliasian,"  Greek  philo- 
sopher of  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Pyrrho  the  sceptic.  He  wrote  Silli, 
a  satire  against  all  schools  of  philosophy. 

Timothy,  Saint  (d.  circa  97),  born  in 
Lycaonia,  was  brought  up  as  a  Christian 
by  his  mother,  Eunice  :  accompanied  St. 
Paul  in  his  missionary  joiu-neys :  became 
Bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
stoned  to  death  in  that  town. 

Timur,  or  Tamerlane  (b.  1335,  d.  1405), 
Tartar  conqueror,  was  bom  in  Sogdiana. 
After  establishing  his  power  over  the  tribes 
of  Tm-kestan,  he  conquered  Korassan,  Can- 
dahar,  Bagdad,  Northern  India,  and  Syria, 
and  finally  attacked  Bajazet,  Sultan  of  the 
Turks,  whom  he  overthrew  at  Ancyra  in 
1402.  He  died  whilst  marching  to  attack 
China. 

Tindal,  Matthew  (b.  circa  1657,  d.  1733), 
bom  in  Devonshire,  was  the  son  of  a  clergy- 
man. He  professed  Romanism  under  James 
II.,  but  afterwards  recanted,  and  eventually 
became  a  deist.  He  wrote  Christianity  as 
Old  as  the  Creation  (1730),  and  other  attacks 
on  revealed  religion. 

Tindal,  Nicholas  {b.  1687,  d.  1774),  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  translated  and  contmued 
Rapin's  History  of  England. 

Tindale,  or  Tyndale,  William  (b.  circa 
1480,  d.  1536),  English  reformer,  bom  in 
Gloucestershire,  studied  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge ;  in  1524  retired  to  Hamburg, 
where  he  printed  part  of  his  New  Testament ; 
carried  on  his  translation  of  the  Bible  at 
Worms  (where  he  was  joined  by  his  asso- 
ciate Fryth),  Marburg,  and  elsewhere,  but 
was  arrested  at  Antwerp  in  1535,  and  burnt 
at  Vilvorde  the  following  year. 

Tintoretto,  H  [Jacopo  Eobusti]  [b.  1512, 


Tip 


(703) 


Tol 


d.  1594),  Venetian  painter,  obtained  his  title 
from  the  fact  that  his  father  •was  a  dyer 
{iintore).  He  studied  under  Titian,  and  also 
modelled  his  style  on  that  of  Michelangelo. 
The  Miracle  of  the  Slave,  in  the  Academy 
of  Venice,  is  considered  his  masterpiece. 

Tippoo  SaMb  {b.  1749,  d.  1799),  was  the 
son  of  Hyder  Ah,  sovereign  of  Mysore, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1762.  In  1784  he 
assumed  the  title  of  Sultan.  He  carried  on 
the  struggle  against  the  English  intermit- 
tently till  1792,  when  he  was  forced  by 
Lord  Cornwalhs  to  sue  for  peace,  and  sur- 
rendered part  of  his  territory.  In  1799  the 
war  was  renewed,  and  Tippoo  was  slain 
whilst  defending  his  capital  of  Seringa- 
patam. 

Tiraboschi,  Girolamo  (b.  1731,  d.  1794), 
Italian  author,  born  at  Bergamo ;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  rhetoric  at  Milan  in 
1766,  and  in  1770  became  hbrarian  to  the 
Duke  of  Modena.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Italian  Literature  (1772-83),  etc. 

Tirard,  Pierre  Emmanuel  (J.  1827),  has 
been  twice  prime  minister  of  France. 

Tiscbendorf,  Lobegott  Friedrich  Con- 
stantin  von  {b.  Iblo,  d.  1874),  German  bib- 
lical scholar ;  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Leipzig  in  1850.  He  made  three  journeys 
to  the  East  in  search  of  materials  for  his 
revised  text  of  the  New  Testament  (1854-65), 
and  discovered  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  in  a 
monastery  on  Mount  Sinai.  His  edition  of 
the  Septuagint  appeared  in  1840. 

Tissaphemes  [d. 
Lower  Asia  under  Darius 
xerxes ;  favoured  the  Spartans  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  He  was  executed  at 
Sardis  by  order  of  CyruB. 

Tisza,  Koloman  {h.  1830),  was  prime 
minister  of  Hungary  1875-90.  He  resisted 
the  aggressions  of  Eussia  in  1876-8. 

Tite,  Sir  William  (*.  1802,  d.  1873),  an 
English  architect.  His  chief  work  is  the 
Royal  Exchange,  completed  in  1844. 

Titian  [Tiziano  VecelU]  {b.  1477,  d.  1576), 
Venetian  painter,  studied  under  Giovanni 
Bellini,  and  was  much  influenced  by  his  fel- 
low-pupil Giorgione  ;  in  1511  was  employed 
in  decorating  the  ducal  palace  at  Venice ;  in 
1514  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Alphonso, 
Duke  of  Ferrara,  for  whom  he  executed 
several  works ;  painted  the  portrait  of 
Charles  V.  during  his  visit  to  Bologna  in 
1529;  visited  Rome  1545-6,  and  was  after- 
wards several  times  summoned  to  Germany 
by  Charles  V.  Among  his  masterpieces  is 
the  Bacchus  and  Ariadne  in  the  National 
G}aUery,  London. 

TitienB,  or  Tietjens,  Theresa  (b.  1834,  d. 


395    B.cJ,    Satrap    of 
II.    and  Arta- 


1877),  operatic  singer,  born  at  Hamburg, 
made  her  first  appearance  in  London  m 
1858.  She  was  for  many  years  prima  donna 
at  Her  Majesty's  theatre. 

Titus  Flavlus  Vespasianus  (b.  40,  d.  81), 

Roman  Emperor ;  served  under  his  father, 
Vespasian,  in  Syria,  and,  after  the  return  of 
the  latter  to  Rome,  brought  the  Jewish  war 
to  a  close  by  his  capture  of  Jerusalem  (70). 
He  succeeded  Vespasian  in  79,  and  showed 
himself  a  wise  and  beneficent  ruler. 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel 
de  (b.  1SU5,  d.  1859),  French  poHtical  phi- 
losoplier,  bom  at  Verneuil ;  visited  America 
in  1831-2,  and  after  his  return  published  De 
la  Lemoci-atie  en  Amiriqiie  (1835-40) ;  was 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1849 ;  in  1851 
withdrew  to  Normandy,  where  he  wrote 
L'Ancien  Regime  (1856),  etc. 

Todd,  Charles  [b.  1826),  became  Govern- 
ment astronomer  and  superintendent  of 
telegraphs  in  South  Australia  in  1855,  and 
postmaster-general  in  1870. 

Todd,  Robert  Bentley  (fi.  1810,  d.  1860), 
was  appointed  professor  of  physiology  in 
King's  College  in  1837.  Among  his  works 
was  a  Cyclopcedia  of  Anatomy  and  Fhysiology 
(1836-59),  written  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Grant. 

Todlixmter,  Isaac  {b.  1820,  d.  1884),  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
fellow  of  St.  John's  College.  He  published 
some  well-knov?n  mathematical  treatises. 

Todleben,  Franz  Eduard,  Count  (b.  1818, 
d.  1884),  Russian  general,  of  German  ex- 
traction ;  during  the  Crimean  war  con- 
structed the  fortifications  of  Sebastopol, 
which  he  defended  in  person ;  took  part  in 
the  war  against  Turkey  and  reduced  Plevna 
(1877). 

Togml  Beg  [d.  1063),  grandson  of  Seljuk, 
and  founder  of  the  Seljuk  dynasty  of 
Turks.  After  the  conquest  of  Korassan  and 
the  capture  of  Ispahan  (1051),  he  marched 
to  Bagdad  to  the  relief  of  the  KaHf  Kaim, 
expelled  the  Buvides,  and  received  the  title 
of  "Prince  of  Princes,"  with  the  virtual 
sovereignty  of  the  Saracen  dominions  in 
Asia. 

Toland,  John  (b.  1670,  d.  1722),  deist, 
born  near  Londonderry,  of  Roman  Catholic 
parents,  studied  at  Glasgow,  Edinburgh, 
and  Leyden ;  pubUshed  Christianity  not 
Mysterious  (1696),  etc. 

Tollens,  Hendrik  {b.  1780,  d.  1856),  Dutch 
poet,  bom  at  Rotterdam,  wrote  many  dra- 
matic ballads  and  patriotic  songs. 

Tolstoi,  Alexis  Constantinovitch,  Count 
(b.  1818,  d.  1875),  Russian  author,  served  in 


Tol 


(704) 


Tor 


the  Crimean  war ;  published  the  Death  of 
Ivan  Che  Ternble,  aud  other  dramas,  Prince 
Sei-ebrennin^  an  historical  novel  (1863),  and 
some  epic  narratives. 

Tolstoi,  Leo  Nikolaievitch  (b.  1828),  Rus- 
sian author  and  social  reformer,  studied  at 
the  university  of  Kazan ;  served  in  the 
Crimean  war ;  has  pubUshed  War  and  Peace 
(1860),  Anna  Earenina  (1875-7),  The  Kreut- 
zer  Sonata  (1889),  also  several  essays  in 
moral  philosophy,  including  My  Heligion 
(1885). 

Tomlinson,  Charles,  F.R.S.  (b.  1808),  has 
published  numerous  papers  on  scientific  sub- 
jects ;  also  a  translation  of  Dante's  Inferno 
(1877),  etc. 

Tomlinson,  Herbert  [b.  1845),  demonstra- 
tor of  uatural  philosophy  at  King's  College, 
London;  has  contributed  scientific  papers  to 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  the 
Philosophical  Magazine,  etc. 

Tommaseo,  Nicolo  (b.  1802,  d.  1874), 
Italian  patriot  and  author,  took  part  in  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1847-49,  holding 
office  in  the  provisional  government  as 
minister  of  religion  and  education.  He 
pubhshed  a  Dictionary  of  Synonyms  (1832), 
a  collection  of  the  popular  songs  of  Tuscany, 
Corsica,  Dalmatia,  and  Greece  (1839),  etc. 

Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe  [b.  1763,  d.  1798), 
Irish  revolutionist,  founded  the  Society  of 
United  Irishmen  in  1793 ;  in  1795  took  refuge 
in  America  to  avoid  prosecution;  in  1796 
removed  to  France,  and  held  a  command  in 
the  abortive  expedition  of  Hoche  to  Bantry 
Bay  ;  having  landed  in  Ireland  to  excite  an 
insurrection,  was  arrested  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  committed  suicide  in  prison. 

Tooke,  John  Home  (b.  1736,  d.  1812),  son 
of  John  Home,  a  London  poulterer,  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge ;  was  ap- 
pointed incumbent  of  New  Brentford  in 
1760 ;  became  the  associate  of  John  Wilkes ; 
in  1777  was  fined  and  imprisoned  for  attack- 
ing the  conduct  of  the  king's  forces  in 
America  ;  was  tried  for  high  treason  in 
1794,  but  acquitted.  In  1782  he  adopted  the 
surname  of  his  benefactor,  William  Tooke 
of  Pui-ley.  He  wrote  a  well-known  etymo- 
logical work,  the  Diversions  of  Parley  (1786- 
1805). 

Tooke,  William  {b.  1744,  d.  1820),  was 
chaplain  to  the  Russian  Company  at  St. 
Petersburg  (1774-92),  and  pubhshed  several 
works  on  Russian  history.  His  son,  Thomas 
Tooke  (6.  I774,  d.  1858),  drew  up  the  petition 
of  the  merchants  of  London  for  free  trade, 
presented  to  ParUament  in  1820,  and  pub- 
lished a  History  of  Prices  and  the  State  of 
the  Circulation,  and  a  Sketch  of  the  State  of 
the  Corn  Trade  in  the  last  Two  Centuries. 


Toole,  John  Lawrence  (b.  1832),  comedian, 
made  his  fii^st  appearance  at  the  Haymarket 
in  1852 ;  in  1880  became  manager  of  the 
Folly  theatre,  henceforward  known  as 
"Toole's." 

Topete,  Juan  Battista  (6.  1821,  d.  1885), 
Spanish  pohtician  and  sailor  ;  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  revolution  of  1868 ;  held  office 
under  Amadeus. 

Toplady,  Augustus  Montague  (b.  1737,  d. 
1778),  an  English  clergyman ;  in  1775  settled 
in  London,  where  he  preached  in  the  French 
Protestant  chapel,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields. 
His  Calvinist  views  led  him  to  attack  Wesley. 
Many  of  his  hymns  are  well  known,  es- 
pecially Rock  of  Ages. 

Torelli,  Giuseppe  {b.  1721,  d.  1781), 
Italian  mathematician ;  edited  the  works  of 
Archimedes. 

Torfesen,  or  Torfaeus  Thormod  (b.  1636, 
d.  1719),  historian,  born  in  Iceland ;  became 
historiographer  for  Norway  to  Christian  V. 
of  Denmark.  He  published  Historia  Rerum 
Norvegicaruin  (1711),  etc. 

Torquemada,  Juan  de  (*.  1388,  d.  1468), 
Cardinal,  bom  at  Valladolid;  opposed  the 
followers  of  WycUf  and  Huss  at  the  Council 
of  Basel  (1431),  and  took  part  in  the  endea- 
vour to  reconcile  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Chm-ches  at  that  of  Florence  (1439) ;  be- 
came Bishop  of  Palestrina  in  1455,  and  of 
Sabina  in  1464.  He  wrote  Commentaries  on 
Gratian's  Decretal,  etc. 

Torquemada,  Tomasde  {b.  1420,  d.  1498), 
became  the  first  inquisitor-general  in  Spam 
in  1483. 

Torrens,  William  Torrens  McCullagh  (b. 
1813),  first  entered  Parhament  in  1847  ;  was 
instrumental  in  passing  the  Artisans' 
Dwellings  Bill,  and  establishing  the  London 
School  Board. 

Torricelli,  Evangelista  {b.  1608,  d.  1647), 
Italian  mathematician,  inventor  of  the 
barometer ;  was  the  friend  of  Galileo,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  professor  at  Florence. 

Torrigiano,  Pietro  (b.  1474,  d.  1522), 
rtalian  sculptor,  bom  at  Florence ;  was  the 
fellow  student  of  Michaelangelo,  whose  nose 
he  broke  in  a  quarrel;  entered  the  service 
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  executed  the  tomb  of 
Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey ;  after- 
wards removed  to  Spain,  and  died  at  Seville. 

Torrington,  George  Byng,  Viscount  {d. 
1773),  EngUsh  admiral ;  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  battle  of  Malaga,  and  the  relief 
of  Barcelona  (1706) :  in  1718  completely  de- 
feated the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  Passaro. 

Torstenson,  Leonard,  Count  {b.  1603,  d. 
1651,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Swedish 


Tos 


(705) 


Tre 


forces  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war ;  defeated 
the  Imperialists  at  Jankowitz  (1645),  and 
elsewhere. 

Tosti,  or  Tostig  (d.  1066),  Earl  of 
Northumberland,  brother  of  Harold,  King 
of  England ;  took  part  in  the  invasion  of 
Harald  Hardrada,  King  of  Xorway,  and 
was  slain  with  him  at  the  battle  of  Stam- 
ford Bridge. 

Totila  {d.  552)  (also  called  Baduila),  was 
chosen  King  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  541. 
After  capturing  Eome  (546),  he  re-estab- 
lished the  Gothic  dominion  in  Italy,  but 
was  defeated  and  slain  by  Narses. 

Tott,  Franqois,  Baron  de  (*.  1733,  d. 
1793),  French  diplomatist  ;  for  many  years 
resident  at  Constantinople  ;  introduced  im- 
portant reforms  into  the  Turkish  anny  and 
navy.  He  wrote  Memoires  sur  les  Titrcs  et 
les  Tartares  (1784),  etc. ;  died  in  Hungary. 

Toumefort,  Joseph  Pitton  de  {b.  1656,  d. 
1708),  French  botanist,  born  at  Aix ;  after 
travelUng  in  Europe  and  the  East  (1700-2), 
became  professor  of  medicine  in  the  College 
de  France.  He  published  several  works  on 
botany. 

Toumeur,  Cyril  (circa  1600),  English 
dramatist,  author  of  The  Revenger''s  Trag- 
edy (1607),  and  TheAtheisfs  Tragedy  (1612). 
Nothing  is  known  concerning  his  Ufe. 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  Francois  Do- 
minique (b.  1743,  d.  1803),  son  of  African 
slaves,  was  bom  in  San  Domingo.  He  was 
in  1796  appointed  by  the  Directory  chief  of 
the  army  of  San  Domingo,  and  afterwards 
established  his  authority  throughout  the 
island,  which  he  ruled  with  justice  and 
vigour.  When  Bonaparte  sought  to  restore 
slavery  in  San  Domingo  (1801),  Toussaint 
resisted,  but  was  forced  to  surrender,  and 
was  sent  to  France,  where  he  died  in 
prison. 

Towers,  Joseph  {b,  1737,  d.  1799),  miscel- 
laneous writer ;  became  a  Unitarian 
minister  in  1774. 

Townley,  Charies  {b.  1737,  d.  1805),  anti- 
quary, bom  in  Lancashire ;  during  a  long 
residence  in  Eome  formed  a  collection  of 
antiquities,  known  as  the  "Townlejr 
Marbles,"  which  was  purchased  after  his 
death  by  the  British  Museum. 

Townshend,  Charles,  Viscount  (b.  1676, 
d.  1738),  Whig  statesman  ;  was  ambassador 
to  the  States -General  (1709-10),  and  nego- 
tiated the  Barrier  Treaty,  for  which  he  was 
censured  by  the  House  of  Commons  (1712); 
became  Secretary  of  State  and  Prime  Minister 
on  the  accession  of  George  I.,  but  was  dis- 
missed in  1716  ;  returned  to  office  as  Secre- 
tary of  State  under  Walpole  in  1721,  but 
T  T 


quarrelled  with  him  in  1730,  and  retired  to 
his  seat  of  Raynham  in  Norfolk. 

Townshend,  Charles  {b.  1725,  d.  1767), 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  secretary  at 
war  under  Bute,  and  paymaster  of  the 
forces  in  the  Rockingham  Mmistiy  (1765)  ; 
as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  under  Chat- 
ham in  1776  was  responsible  for  the  taxa- 
tion of  the  American  colonies,  which  led  to 
the  war  of  Independence. 

Toynbee,  Amold  (b.  1852,  d.  1883),  poUti- 
cal  economist,  fellow  and  tutor  of  Balhol 
College,  Oxford  ;  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  the  labouring  classes,  and  lived 
much  amongst  them  in  the  East  End  of 
London.  Toynbee  Hall,  in  Whitechapel, 
was  founded  after  his  death  to  further  his 
schemes  of  improvement. 

Tracy,  Benjamin  {b.  1830),  American 
politician  ;  became  secretary  of  the  navy  in 

1889. 

Tradescant,  John  (d.  1652),  horticulturist 
and  collector  of  curiosities ;  was  gardener  to 
Charles  I. 

Traill,  Kenry  Duff  (J.  1842),  journalist, 
contributed  volumes  on  Sterne  and  Cole- 
ridge to  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series  ; 
has  also  published  Uves  of  William  III. 
(1888)  and  Strafford  (1889),  etc. 

Trajan  [Marcus  Ulpius  Trajanus]  {b.  55,  d. 
117),  Roman  Emperor,  bom  in  Spain;  was 
consul  in  91 ;  became  in  97  the  associate  of 
Nerva,  whom  he  succeeded  in  98  ;  was  vic- 
torious over  the  Dacians  (101-5),  and  ex- 
tended the  Roman  Empire  in  the  East. 

Traquair,  Ramsay  Heatley  {b.  1840), 
keeper  of  the  natural  history  collections  in 
the  Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  Edinburgh  ; 
has  published  papers  on  fossil  ichthyology, 
etc. 

Tredgold,  Thomas  {b.  1788,  <?.  1829),  bom 
near  Durham  ;  after  following  the  trade  of 
a  carpenter  in  Scotland,  came  to  London, 
where  he  established  himself  as  a  civil  en- 
gineer. He  published  The  Steam  Engine 
(1827),  etc. 

Tregelles,  Samuel  Prideaux  {b.  1813,  d. 
1875),  Biblical  scholar;  was  engaged  from 
1830  onwards  on  his  critical  edition  of  the 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  completed  in 

1872. 

Trelawny,  Edward  John  {b.  1792,  d. 
1881),  bom  in  Cornwall;  entered  the  navy 
when  eleven  years  old.  His  early  career  is 
recorded  in  his  Advcnttires  of  a  Younger  Son. 
He  afterwards  became  the  friend  of  Shelley 
and  Byron,  and  wrote  Mecollections  of  those 
poets  (1858),  republished  in  a  revised  form 
m  1878. 


Tre 


(706) 


Tro 


Tremellius,  Emmanuel  {b.  1510,  d.  1580), 
Protestaut  divine ;  boru  at  Ferrara  of 
Jewish  parents ;  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity by  Cardinal  Pole,  and  to  Protes- 
tantism by  Peter  Maityr  ;  came  to  England 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ;  in  loob  re- 
moved to  Gei-many,  and  became  professor 
of  Hebrew  at  Heidelberg  and  afterwards  at 
Sedan. 

Trench,  Richard  Chenevix  (b.  1807,  d. 
1886),  became  professor  of  theology  in 
King's  College  in  1847  ;  Dean  of  Westmin- 
ster in  1856,  and  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in 
1864.  He  published  Jfotes  on  the  Miracles 
(1846),  Study  of  Words  (1851),  two  volumes 
of  poems,  etc. 

TrencH,  William  Steuart  {b.  1808,  d. 
1872),  author  of  Realities  of  Irish  Life 
(1869). 

Trenck,  Friedrich,  Baron  von  der  {b. 
1726,  d.  1794),  a  Prussian  officer,  famous 
for  his  prison  adventures,  which  are  nar- 
rated in  his  Memoirs  (1786-7).  He  was 
guillotined  during  the  French  Revolution. 

Trendelenburg,  Friedrich  Adolf  {b.  1802, 
d.  1872),  beciirae  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Berhn  in  1833.  He  wrote  on  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle,  and  opposed  Hegel  and  Herbart. 

Trevelyan,  Sir  Charles  Edward,  Bart.  {b. 
1807,  d.  1886),  Indian  civilian;  was  governor 
of  Madras  in  1859,  and  financial  minister  in 
India  1862-5  ;  was  instrumental  in  effecting 
administrative  reforms  both  in  India  and  at 
home.  He  published  the  Education  of  the 
People  nf  India,  etc. 

Tre.ely?n,  Sir  George  Otto,  Bart.  {b. 
1838),  sou  of  the  preceding,  and  nephew  of 
Lord  Macaulay,  entered  Parliament  as  a 
Liberal  in  1865  ;  was  Irish  Secretary  1882-4, 
and  Secretary  for  Scotland  1892.  He  has 
published  the  Life  and  Letters  of  Lord 
Macaulay  (1876),  and  Hie  Early  Times  of 
Charles  James  Fox  (1880). 

Treviso,  or  Trevigi,  Girolamo  da  [b.  1508, 
d.  1544),  Itahan  painter ;  after  residing  some 
time  at  Bologna,  entered  the  service  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  employed 
him  as  an  architect  and  engineer.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Boulogne. 

Tribonianus  (b.  circa  475,  d.  circa  545), 
Roman  lawyer,  bom  in  Pamphylia ;  became 
consul  under  Justinian,  and  was  president  of 
the  commission  employed  by  him  to  compUe 
the  Pandects,  Institutes,  and  Code. 

Tricoupis,  Charilaos  {b.  1832),  Greek  poU- 
tician,  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1866 ;  has  several  times  been  prime 
minister. 

Trimen,  Henry  {b.  1843),  director  of  the 


Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Ceylon ;  has  pub- 
lished several  works  on  botanical  subjects. 

Trimen,  Roland  {b.  1840),  zoologist;  has 
published  tSouth  African  Butterflies  (1887-9), 
etc. 

Trimmer,  Mrs.  Sarah  {b.  1741,  d.  1810)^ 
wrote  Fabulous  Histories  and  other  books 
for  children. 

Tripe,  John  WiUiam,  M.D.  [b.  1821),  a 
writer  on  medical  subjects,  became  public 
analyst  in  1872. 

Tristan  da  Cimlia  {d.  circa  1520),  Portu- 
guese navigator,  set  out  from  Lisbon  in 
1506  ;  discovered  the  islands  which  bear  his 
name,  and  explored  the  coasts  of  Africa. 

Tristram,  Rev.  Henry  Baker  (b.  1822), 
has  published  Bible  Places  (1871),  Tlie  Land 
of  Moab  (1874),  and  other  works  of  travel. 

Trivet,  Nicholas  [d.  1328),  English  Domi- 
nican ;  wrote  Annates  Sex  Regain  Anglias,  a 
chronicle  extending  from  1136  to  1307. 

Trochu,  Louis  Jules  (b.  1815),  French 
general ;  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
Gennan  war  became  governor  of  Paris,  and 
after  the  proclamation  of  the  Republic, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces,  but  re- 
signed early  in  1871,  and  retired  in  1873. 

Trogus  Pompeius,  a  Roman  historian  of 
the  time  of  Augustus,  born  in  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis.  His  Universal  History  siurvives 
only  in  the  abridgment  of  Justin. 

TroUope,  Anthony  [b.  1815,  d.  1882), 
novelist,  son  of  Mrs.  Frances  TroUope,  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  Harrow ;  in 
1834  entered  the  Post  Office  Department, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1862.  Among  his 
novels  are  Barchester  Towers  i^?>b1),  Framley 
Parsonage  (1861),  and  The  Last  Chronicle  of 
Barset  (1867). 

Trollope,  Right  Rev.  Edward  (b.  1817), 
became  Bishop  Suffragan  of  Nottingham  in 

1877. 

Trollope,  Frances  {b.  1778,  d.  1863^, 
wrote  I)omestic  Life  of  the  Americans  (1832), 
and  many  novels. 

TroUope,  Thomas  Adolphus  {b.  1810),  son 
of  the  preceding ;  has  published  several 
novels  and  works  on  Italian  history. 

Tromp,  Martin  Harpertzoon  (b.  1597, 
d.  1653),  Dutch  naval  commander,  became 
lieutenant -admiral  in  1637  ;  defeated  a 
large  Spanish  fleet  in  1639;  was  defeated 
by  Blake  in  May,  1652,  but  gained  a  victory 
over  him  in  the  following  November  ;  after 
several  other  engagements  was  mortally 
wounded  in  an  action  with  Monk  off 
Scheveningen. 

Tromp,  Comelis  (S.  1629,  d.  1691),  Dutch 


Trii 


(707') 


Tnr 


admiral,  son  of  the  preceding ;  distin- 
guished himself  against  the  EugUsh  in  the 
war  of  1673.  He  became  grand  admiral  of 
HoUand  in  1677. 

Triibner,  Nicholas  (*.  1817,  d.  1884),  a 
publisher  of  works  of  philology,  rehgious 
philosophy,  and  Oriental  literature.  He  was 
bom  at  Heidelberg,  and  established  his  busi- 
ness in  London  in  1852. 

Truro,  Thomas  Wilde,  Lord  [h.  1782,  d. 
1855),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1817  ;  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Whig  in  1831 ;  became 
Solicitor-General  in  1840;  was  Attorney- 
General  in  1841,  and  Lord  Chief  Justice  of 
the  Common  Pleas  from  1846  to  1850,  when 
he  became  Lord  Chancellor,  and  was  raised 
to  the  peerage. 

Tseng,  His  Excellency  the  Marquis  [h. 
1836,  d.  1890),  Chinese  diplomatist,  was  in 
1878  appointed  minister  to  the  coiu-ts  of 
London  and  Paris,  to  which  that  of  St. 
Petersburg  was  added  in  1879. 

Tucker,  Abraham  (h.  1705,  d.  1774),  Eng- 
lish metaphysician  ;  wrote  Tlie  Light  of 
Nature  Fiirsued,  etc. 

Tucker,  Josiah  (b.  1711,  d.  1799),  divine 
and  writer  on  politics  and  commerce,  became 
Dean  of  Gloucester  in  1758.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  American  war  he  recommended 
a  separation  of  the  colonies  from  the  mother 
country. 

Tudela,  Benjamin  of  {d.  1173),  Jewish 
rabbi,  bom  at  Tudela  in  Navarre;  visited 
Turkey,  Persia,  and  other  countries,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  his  travels. 

Tuke,  D.  Hack  (h.  1827),  editor  of  the 
Journal  of  Mental  Sdence ;  has  published 
works  on  insanity,  hypnotism,  etc. 

TuUoch,  John  [b.  1823,  d.  1886),  became 
principal  of  the  theological  college  of  St. 
Andrew's  University  in  1854.  He  published 
Rational  Theology  and  Christian  Philosophy 
in  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1872), 
Facts  of  Religious  Life  (1876),  etc. 

Tullus  Hostllius  [d.  638  B.C.),  third  king 
of  Rome,  succeeded  Numa  in  670  B.C.  He 
carried  on  wars  against  the  Albans  and 
Sabines. 

Tunis,  the  Beys  of,  were  hereditary 
princes,  sometimes  tributary  to  the  Sultan, 
but  more  often  to  the  Dey  of  Algiers. 
Hamuba  Pasha  (1782-1814)  established  the 
virtual  independence  of  his  country.  Mtr- 
HAMAB  Bey  reigned  1814-23.  Hussein  Bet 
(1823-35)  and  Sroi  Mustapha  Bey  (1835-9.) 
sought  protection  from  the  French  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  Porte.  The  French 
in  their  turn  became  aggressors,  but,  with 
English  aid,  the  independence  of  Tunis  was 
maintained  during  the  reigns  of  SiDi  Ahmed 
Bet  (1839-55)  and  Sroi  MuHAitAD  Bet 
tt2 


(1855-9).  The  efforts  of  the  English  to 
establish  more  cordial  relations  between 
Tunis  and  the  Porte  having  eventually 
failed,  the  French  in  1881  invaded  the 
country,  and  Muhamad  es  Sadtk  [h.  1813), 
who  had  become  Bey  in  1859,  was  forced  to 
sign  a  treaty  instituting  a  French  protec- 
torate. 

TimstaU,  Cuthbert  (J.  1474,  d.  1559), 
English  prelate  ;  studied  at  Oxford,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Padua,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  learned  scholars  of  his  age.  Under 
Henry  VIII.  he  held  the  offices  of  Master  of 
the  Rolls  (1516-21)  and  keeper  of  the  privy 
seal  (1523-30);  was  sent  ou  embassies  to 
the  Emperor  and  to  France,  and  became 
successively  Bishop  of  London  (1522)  and 
Durham  (1530).  Deprived  during  the  reign 
of  Edward  VI.,  he  was  restored  on  the 
accession  of  Mary,  but  again  deprived  by 
Elizabeth,  who  placed  him  imder  the  cus- 
tody of  Archbishop  Parker. 

Tupper,  Sir  Charles  {b.  1821),  bom  in 
Nova  Scotia;  was  in  1883  appointed  high 
commissioner  in  Great  Britain  for  the 
Dominion  of  Canada. 

Tupper,  Martin  Farquhar  (ft.  1810,  d. 
1889),  poet  and  prose  writer,  author  of  Fro- 
verbial  Fhilosopliy  (1838),  etc. 

Turenne,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne, 
Vicomte  de  (b.  1611,  d.  1675),  French 
general,  son  of  the  Due  de  Bovdllon,  and 
grandson  of  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange, 
entered  the  French  army  in  1630  ;  became 
marechal  de  camp  in  1634 ;  in  1643  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  forces  in  Ger- 
many, where  he  remained  till  the  close  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  war  (1048),  distinguisliing 
himseK  by  his  retreat  from  Marienthal  and 
his  victory  at  Nordlingen  (1645)  ;  opposed 
Conde  with  success  in  the  war  of  the  Fronde 
(1652-9) ;  was  made  marshal -general  in 
1660;  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1668; 
greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  with 
Holland  (1672-5),  in  the  course  of  which  he 
was  killed  by  a  cannon  shot. 

Target,  Anne  Robert  Jacques  (J.  1727,  d 
1781),  French  statesman,  was  from  1761  to 
1774  intendant  of  Limoges,  where  he  en- 
couraged agricultm^e  and  introduced  im- 
provements in  the  administration ;  became 
comptrolle»- general  of  finances  in  1774,  but 
was  dismissed  in  1776. 

TurguenefF,  Ivan  Sergyevitch  [b.  1818,  d. 
1883),  Russian  novelist,  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Berlin  ;  after  the  Franco -German 
war  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  mainly 
resided  till  his  death.  Among  his  novels 
are  A  Nest  of  Nobks  (1858),  Fathers  and 
Sons  (1862),  and  Virgin  Soil  (1877). 

Turner,  Dawson  (h.  1775,  d.  1858),  botanist 
and  antiquary;  published  a  work  on  Fuci 
(1808-19),  etc. 


Tnr 


(708) 


Tyr 


Turner,  Godfrey  Wordsworth  (b.  1825,  d. 
lSi)l),  joui'uulist,  was  for  mauy  years  special 
correspondent  to  the  JJaily  Telegraph. 

Turner,  Joseph  Mallord  William  {b.  nib, 
d.  ISJl),  landscape  painter;  son  of  a  hair- 
dresser in  Covent  Garden,  studied  at  the 
schools  of  the  Eoyal  Academy;  became 
A.R.A.  in  1799,  and  R.A.  in  1802,  and  soon 
won  a  reputation  as  a  painter  both  iu  water- 
colours  and  in  oils.  In  1807  he  began  tlie 
Liber  Studioriim,  a  series  of  prints  for  the 
most  part  executed  by  himself.  For  England 
and  Wales,  the  Southern  Coast,  and  other 
series  of  engravings,  he  prepared  di-awiugs, 
which  are  now  highly  prized.  Among  the 
finest  of  his  oU-paiatings  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  are  Dido  Building  Carthage 
and  The  Sun  Rising  in  a  Mist. 

Turner,  Sharon  (b.  1768,  d.  1847),  his- 
torian ;  was  at  the  age  of  fifteen  articled  to 
an  attorney  in  the  Temple,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  ms  business.  His  chief  work  is  a 
History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  (1799-1805). 

Turner,  William  {d.  1568),  divine  and 
naturalist,  bom  at  Morpeth,  educated  at 
Cambridge;  became  a  preacher  of  the  re- 
formed doctrines,  and  was  forced  to  with- 
draw to  Italy  iQ  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  ; 
was  made  Dean  of  Wells  by  Edward  VI.  ; 
removed  to  Germany  on  the  accession  of 
Mary,  but  returned  under  Elizabeth.  He 
wrote  a  Herbal  (1568)  and  several  works 
agaiast  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Turner,  Sir  William  [b.  1832),  became 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  imiversity  of 
Edtaburgh  in  1867. 

Turpin,  or  TUpin  {d.  circa  800),  Bishop  of 
Rheims,  formerly  supposed  to  be  the  author 
of  a  chi'onicle  entitled  Be  Vita  Caroli  Magni 
et  Rolandi,  which  is  now  believed  to  be  a 
romance  of  a  later  date. 

Tiirr,  General  Stephen  {b.\  825) ,  Hungarian 
patriot;  entered  the  Russian  army  in  1848; 
deserted  to  the  Hungarian  in  1849,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  revolution  which 
ensued ;  was  arrested  by  the  Austrians  at 
Bucharest  in  1855,  and  only  escaped  the 
penalty  of  death  through  the  representations 
of  the  British  Government.  He  served  in. 
the  Crimean  war  and  the  Itahan  war  of 
Independence. 

Tusser,  Thomas  {b.  circa  1515,  d.  circa 
1580),  Enghsh  poet,  author  of  Five  Hundred 
Foints  of  Good  Husbandry  (1557). 

Twain,  Mark,  pseudonjon  of  Samuel 
Langhome  Clemens  {b.  1835),  American 
humorist,  bom  at  Florida,  in  Missoxrri. 
After  living  in  Nevada  and  San  Francisco, 
he  remived  in  1867  to  New  York,  where  he 
published  his  Jumping  Frog.  In  the  same 
year  he  started  on  a  journey  to  Italy  and 
the  East,  recorded  in  Tlie  Innocents  Abroad 


(1869).  Among  liis  other  writings  are  Tlie 
Adventures  of  Tom  Sawyer  (1876),  A  Tramp 
Abroad  (1880),  and  Huckleberry  Finn  (1885). 

Twisleton,  Hon.  Edward  Turner  Boyd 
{p.  1809,  d.  1874),  was  chief  poor-law  com- 
missioner in  Ireland  1839-49.  In  1871  he 
published  a  work  proving  that  Sir  Philip 
Francis  wrote  the  Letters  of  Junius. 

Twiss,  Horace  {b.  1787,  d.  1849),  barrister, 
sat  in  Parliament  1828-32;  wrote  a  Bio- 
graphy of  Lord  Eldon  (1844). 

Twiss,  Sir  Travers  (jb.  1809),  jurist,  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  filled  the 
chaii-  of  political  economy  1842-49,  and  that 
of  civil  law  1855-70;  became  a  Queen's 
Counsellor  in  1867,  and  was  (Queen's  Ad- 
vocate 1867-72.  He  published  The  Laiv  of 
Nations  in  Times  of  War  (1863). 

Tyler,  John  {b.  1790,  d.  1862),  American 
statesman,  born  in  Virginia,  entered  Congress 
in  1816  ;  became  vice-president  imder  Harri- 
son in  1840,  and  president  in  1841.  During 
his  government  Texas  was  annexed  to  the 
United  States.  (Jn  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
he  espoused  the  side  of  the  South. 

Tyler,  Wat  {d.  1381),  a  native  of  Essex, 
headed  the  peasant  rising  in  1381. 

Tylor,  Edward  Bm-nett  {b.  1832),  became 
in  1884  keeper  of  the  Oxford  University 
museum  and  reader  in  anthropology.  He 
has  published  Primitive  Culture  (1871),  the 
GifEord  lectures  on  Natural  Religion  (1888), 
etc. 

Tyndall,  John  (*.  1820),  man  of  science, 
born  in  County  Carlo w,  Ireland,  joined  the 
Irish  Ordnance  Survey  in  1839  ;  was  a  rail- 
way engineer  1844-7 ;  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Marburg  and  Berlin  (1848-51)  ; 
became  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  Royal  Institution  in  1853.  After  an 
expedition  to  Switzerland  with  Professor 
Huxley  in  1856  wrote,  in  conjunction  with 
him,  a  treatise  On  the  Structure  and  Motio)i 
of  Glaciers  ;  presided  at  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  at  Belfast,  in  1874. 
Among  his  works  are  Heat  as  a  Mode  of 
Motion  (1863),  and  Fragments  of  Science. 

Tyrconnel,  Richard  Talbot,  Earl  of  {d. 
1691),  commander  of  the  forces  in  Ireland, 
and  viceroy  under  James  II. ;  died  whilst 
preparing  to  resist  WilUam  of  Orange. 

T3rrtseus,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  7th 
century  B.C.,  probably  bom  in  Attica.  He 
became  commander  of  the  Lacedaemonian 
army,  and  so  animated  the  Spartan  soldiers 
by  his  strains  that  they  comj  ietely  defeated 
the  Messenians. 

Tyrwhitt,  Thomas  (*.  1730,  d.  1786), 
EngHsh  man  of  letters,  published,  among 
other  works,  an  edition  of  Chaucer's  Canter- 
bury Tales  (1772-8). 


Uba 


709) 


Urb 


Ubaldini,Petniccio  (16th century),  Italian 
writer  and  illimunator,  came  to  England  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  He  wrote  Vita  di 
Carolo  Magno  (1581),  Description  of  Scotland, 
and  other  works. 

ijberweg,  Friedrich  {b.  1826,  d.  1871), 
German  philosophical  writer,  professor  at 
Konigsberg,  and  author  of  System  der 
Logik  und  Geschichte  der  loyischen  Lehren 
(translated  by  T.  Lindsay  in  1871)  and 
Grundriss  der  Geschichte  d^r  Philosophie 
von  Thales,  translated  by  Morris  and  Porter 
in  1875. 

Uccelli,  Paolo  {d.  1475),  Florentine 
painter  of  the  naturalist  school,  whose  real 
name  was  Doni.  Among  his  works,  which 
are  now  rare,  is  the  Battle  of  San  Egidio  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Udal,  Nicholas  {b.  circa  1504,  d.  1556), 
English  scholar,  head-master  of  Eton  and 
afterwards  of  Westminster ;  wrote  Ralph 
Roister  Doister,  the  first  English  comedy, 
which  was  discovered  in  1840. 

Udine,  Giovanni  da  («.  1487,  d.  1564), 
Italian  painter,  pupil  of  Giorgione  ;  assisted 
EafFaelle  with  his  cartoon;?,  decorated  the 
Vatican  loggia,  and  was  a  skilful  delineator 
of  still  life. 

Ugolino.     \^See  Gherardesca.] 

UMand,  Johann  Ludwig  (*.  1787,  d.  1862), 
German  poet,  whose  Gedichte  appeared  in 
1815 :  took  an  active  part  in  the  rising  of 
Germany  against  Napoleon,  was  a  member 
of  the  Wiirtemberg  Assembly  between  1819 
and  1830,  and  in  1848  was  a  deputy  to  the 
Frankfort  Assembly.  Most  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  into  English,  and  his 
life,  by  his  widow,  appeared  in  1874.  He 
was  professor  at  Tubin<;eu  for  three  years 
(1830-3). 

Ukert,  Friedrich  {b.  1780,  d.  1851),  Ger- 
man geographer;  author  of  Geography  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

inioa,  Alonso  de  (d.  circa  1580),  Spanish 
historian  :  author  of  Vita  deW  gran  Capitano 
Ferdinando  Gonzaga,  under  whom  he  had 
served. 

UUoa,  Don  Antonio  (b.  1716,  d.  1795), 
Spanish  mathematician ;  was  captured  by 
the  English  on  his  return  from  PerTi,  but 
soon  released  and  elected  F.B.S.     He  was 


author  of  Travels,  and  a  work  on  South 

America. 

UlpMLas  (or  Wulfila)  {b.  311,  d.  381),  was 
appointed  in  341  bishop  of  the  Goths  north 
of  the  Danube.  His  translation  of  the  Bible 
is  the  most  ancient  work  in  a  Teutonic  lan- 
guage ;  but  fragments  only  are  extant. 

XJlpianus,  Domitius  {d.  228),  Eoman 
juiist;  friend  and  minister  of  Alexander 
Severus,  was  muidered  in  a  mutiny  excited 
by  the  reforms  he  had,  as  praetorian  prefect, 
introduced.  Excerpts  from  his  works  are  in 
the  JJigest. 

Ulrica  Eleonora,  Queen  of  Sweden  {b. 
1656,  d.  1693),  daughter  of  Frederick  LEI.  of 
Denmark,  and  wife  of  Charles  XI.  of 
Sweden,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of 
Charles  XII.  and  Ulrica. 

Ulrica  Eleonora  {d.  1741),  her  daughter; 
married  Fredeiick  of  Hesse- Cassel,  and  on 
the  death  of  Charles  XII.  came  to  the 
throne  of  Sweden,  but  soon  resigned  in 
favour  of  her  consort. 

Ulugh-Begh,  or  Olek  Bek  {d.  1449),  Tatar 
prince  ;  was  put  to  death  by  his  son  after  a 
long  reign.  He  left  works  on  astronomy, 
geography,  and  chronology. 

Unger,  Franz  (J).  1800,  d.  1870),  Austrian 
scientific  writer,  professor  of  botany  at 
Vienna ;  visited  Scandinavia  and  the  East 
for  piu-poses  of  geological  research,  and  was 
author  of  Anatomic  mid  Fhysiologie  der 
Pjlanzen,  Iconographia  Rlantarum  Fossilium, 
and  many  other  works. 

Urban  L,  Pope  {d.  230),  was  elected  in  222. 

Urban  II.  [Eudes]  M.  1099),  elected  in 
1088,  when  Bishop  of  Ostia;  continued  the 
policy  of  Gregory  VTI.,  and  opposed  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.,  who  set  up  an  anti- 
pope  against  him,  and  took  Rome ;  convened 
the  Council  of  Clermont  in  1095,  at  which 
the  first  Crusade  was  proclaimed,  and  Philip 
I.  of  France  was  excommunicated  ;  in  1098 
made  the  Norman  counts  of  Sicily  apostolic 
legates,  and  in  the  same  year  held  the 
Council  of  Bari. 

Urban  III.  [Crivelli]  {d.  1187),  elected  in 
1085 ;  opposed  the  usiu^ations  of  Bar- 
bar  ossa. 

Urban  IV.  [Panthaleon]  (d.  1264),  elected 


Urb 


(710) 


Vai 


in  1261,  instituted  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi,  and  increased  the  number  of  car- 
dinals. 

Urban  V.  [Guillaume  de  Grimoard]  {b. 
1302,  (/.  1370),  elected  in  1362  ;  left  Avignon 
in  1367,  and  re-entered  Rome  with  the  em- 
peror, but  retiurued  before  his  death ;  sent 
missiouai-ies  to  Tartary  and  Georgia,  and 
attempted  to  set  on  foot  a  new  crusade. 

Urban  VL  [Prignano]  (rf.  1389),  was 
elected  in  1378,  when  Ai'chbishop  of  Bari, 
but  soon  deposed  on  account  of  his  meditated 
reforms,  Clement  VII.  being  set  up  as  anti- 
pope.  The  latter,  however,  was  only  recog- 
nised by  France,  Naples,  and  Savoy,  though 
the  struggle  continued  throughout  the  life- 
time of  Urban. 

Urban  VII.  [Castagna]  {b.  1521,  d.  1590), 
was  elected  September  15th,  1590,  but  only 
reigned  thirteen  days. 

Urban  VIII.  [MafEei  Barberini]  (b.  1568,  d. 
1644)  was  elected  in  1623,  founded  the  Col- 
lege "  De  Propaganda  Fide, "  created  many 
cardinals,  was  a  patron  of  the  learned,  and 
published  some  poems.  He  suppressed  the 
Jesuits  and  condemned  Jansenius. 

Ure,  Andrew  (b.  1778,  d.  1857),  Scotch 
chemist ;  became  Andersouiau  professor  at 
Glasgow  in  1806,  published  in  1821  his  Dic- 
tionary  of  Chemistry,  and  in  1839  Dictionary 
of  Arts,  Mamfactures,  and  Mines,  being 
also  author  of  other  scientific  works. 

Urfe,  Honors  d'  {b.  1567,  d.  1624),  French 
writer ;  author  of  the  romance,  L'Astree 
(1610),  which  has  been  frequently  trans- 
lated ;  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  wars  of  the 
League. 

Urquhart,  David  {b.  1805,  d.  1877),  Scotch 
Eussophobist  politician  and  writer  ;  author 
of  Progress  of  Russia  in  the  West,  North, 
and  Soifth  (1853),  and  other  works;  re- 
presented Stafford  in  ParHament  fi'om  1847 
to  1852,  and  opposed   Lord   Pahnerston's 


policy.     He  introduced  the   Turkish  bath 
into  England. 

Urqubajt,  or  Urchard,  Sir  Thomas  (17th 
century),  philologist;  author  of  Logopan- 
dekteision:  or,  an  Introduction  to  the  Universal 
Language,  and  of  a  translation  of  Rabelais. 

Urquijo,  Luis  de  {b.  1768,  d.  1817),  Spanish 
statesman  ;  abolished  slavery,  and  introduced 
vaccmation  into  Spain  ;  was  foreign  minister 
(1798-1800),  after  which  he  was  imprisoned 
by  the  Inquisition,  but  in  1808  became 
secretary  of  state. 

Urraca,  Queen  of  Castile  and  Leon  (rf. 
1126),  by  her  marriage  vdth  Alfonso  I.  of 
Aragou  imited  that  crovra  to  those  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  but  afterwards  made  war 
on  her  husband  and  excluded  liim  from 
Castile.  She  also  quarrelled  with  her  son 
and  her  sister,  Theresa  of  Portugal. 

Ursinus,  anti-pope ;  opposed  St.  Damasus 
in  366,  and  was  subsequently  banished  by 
Valentinian  I.  in  385. 

Ursinus,  Zacharias  {b.  1534,  d.  1583), 
Silesian  reformer  ;  went  with  Melancthon  to 
the  conference  of  Worms,  and  drew  up  the 

Heidelberg  Catechism. 

Ussher,  James  {b.  1580,  d.  1656),  Irish 
divine;  became  Bishop  of  Meath  in  1620, 
and  four  years  later  Archbishop  of  Armagh. 
His  chief  work  was  Annates  Veteris  et  Novi 
Testainenti  (1650-54),  the  author,  by  Crom- 
well's order,  being  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

Uwins,  Thomas  {b.  1782,  d.  1857),  EngUsh 
painter ;  was  some  time  secretary  of  the 
Water  Colour  Society,  and  from  1847  to 
1855  keeper  of  the  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don, where  are  three  of  his  pictures.  He 
became  R.A.  in  1838. 

Uzziah,  or  Azariah,  King  of  Judah,  reigned 
808  B.o.  to  766. 


Vahl,  Martin  (J.  1749,  d.  1804),  Norwe- 
gian botanist,  held  chairs  at  Copenhagen ; 
wrote  fiymbolce  Botanicce,  and  continued 
Flora  Danica. 

VaiUant,  Jean  Baptiste  {b.  1790,  d.  1872), 
marshal  of  France ;  served  in  the  Napo- 
leonic wars,  and  was  made  prisoner  in  1813, 
but  was  present  at  Waterloo,  and  was  sent 
to  Algeria  in  1830  and  1834.  He  became 
field-marshal  after  the  coup-d'' etat  of  1851, 
was    war    minister    1854-9,    and,    having 


served  in  Italy,  was  in  1860  made  minister 
I  of  the  house  of  the  emperor. 

;  Valllant,  Jean  Foi  {b.  1632,  d.  1706), 
j  numismatist,  was  taken  by  the  Algerines, 
and  remained  a  slave  for  some  months; 
and  when  again  chased  by  corsairs,  swal- 
lowed the  medals  he  had  ^vith  him.  He 
afterwards  travelled  in  Persia  and  Egypt 
collecting. 

VaiUant.  S6bastien    {b.  1669,    d.   1722), 


Val 


(711) 


Van 


botajiist,  whose  chief  work  was  Botanicon 
Farisiense. 

Valdes,  Juan  de  {d.  1540),  Spanish  theo- 
logian ;  retii'ed  to  Naples  to  escape  the 
Inquisition,  where,  after  his  death,  his 
followers  were  persecuted.  His  chief  work 
was  his  Hundred  and  Ten  Considerations 
(translated  by  Nicholas  Ferrar). 

Valens,  Flavius  {b.  328,  d.  378),  Emperor 
of  Rome,  a  Pannoniaii  by  birth  ;  reigned  in 
the  East  while  his  brother  ruled  in  the  West, 
and  was  killed  in  a  revolt  of  the  Goths. 

Valentine  ('2nd  century),  Egyptian  theo- 
logian ;  founded  a  Gnostic  sect  at  Rome, 
and  obtained  many  adherents  in  the  East. 

Valentinian  I.,  Emperor  of  Rome  [b.  321, 
d.  375),  was  declared  Emperor  in  3Gi,  and 
shared  his  power  with  his  brother,  Valens  ; 
carried  on  wars  with  the  Gauls,  and  was  kiUed 
in  a  campaign  against  the  QuadL 

Valentinian  II.  {d.  392),  his  son,  reigned 
with  Gratian  till  383 ;  was  deposed  by  Maxi- 
mus  but  restored  by  Theodosius,  and  was 
finally  assassinated. 

Valentinian  III.  {b.  419,  d.  455),  was  pro- 
claimed in  425.  During  his  reign  Britain 
was  abandoned,  and  Italy  invaded  by  Attila. 
The  Emperor  having  caused  Aetius  to  be 
killed  was  himself  ultimately  murdered. 

Valerianus,  Publius,  Emperor  of  Rome, 
WIS  proclaimed  by  the  army  in  Rhastia  in 
2  j4,  but  defeated  in  260  by  Sapor,  King  of 
Pevsi.i.  and  imprisoned  for  life. 

Valerius  Maximus  ^Ist  century),  Latin 
writer,  author  of  Be  I'actis  Dictisque  3Iemo- 
rabilibiiy,  one  of  the  first  books  printed. 

Valette,  Jean  Parisot  de  la  {b.  1494,  d. 
1568),  gi-and  master  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John,  repulsed  an  attack  on  Malta  by  the 
Sultan  Solyraan  in  1565,  and  founded  the 
town  of  Valetta. 

Valla,  Lorenzo  (d.  circa  1457),  Italian 
writer,  disproved  the  genuineness  of  the 
donation  of  Constantine,  and  carried  on  con- 
troversies with  Poggio  and  other  scholars. 
Besides  several  philosoj)hical  books  and  a 
History  of  Ferdinand  of  Arngon,  he  wTote 
Elegantice  Sermonis  Latini,  his  chef-d'ceuvre. 

VaUance,  or  Valiancy,  Charles  (b.  1721, 
d.  1812),  British  officer;  made  a  survey  of 
Ireland,  and  published  an  Irish  grammar 
and  dictionary. 

Valle,  Pietro  della  {h.  1586,  d.  1652), 
ItaUan  traveller ;  visited  Persia,  Arabia, 
and  Egypt,  and  published  Viaggi  descritti 
in  Lettere  Familiari. 

Valli^re,  Louise,  Duchesse  de  la  {b.  1644, 
d.  1710),  mistress  of  Louis  XIV.,  by  whom 


she  had  four  children.  She  was  originally 
maid  of  honour  to  Henrietta,  Duchess  of 
Orleans,  and  when  superseded  by  Madame 
de  Montespan  took  the  veil. 

VaUisneri,  Antonio  {b.  1661,  d.  1730), 
ItaUan  physician,  professor  of  medicine  at 
Padua  and  F.R.S.  A  genus  of  plants  bears 
his  name,  and  his  Opera  Fisico-Mediche  ap- 
peared in  1727. 

Valpy,  Richard  {b.  lloA,d.  1836),  English 
scholar,  head-master  of  Reading  grammar 
school,  published  Greek  and  Latin  gram- 
mars, which  were  long  in  use.  His  son, 
Abbaham  John  {d.  1854),  edited  the  Belphin 
Latin  Classics. 

Valsalva,  Antonio  Maria  (J.  1666,  <^.1703), 
Italian  physician,  president  of  the  Institute 
of  Bologna  and  F.R.S.  His  great  work  was 
De  Aiire  Humana  Tractatus. 

Vambery,  Arminius  {b.  1832),  Hungarian 
traveller,  went  through  the  deserts  of  the 
Oxus  to  Khiva  and  Samarcand  between 
1861  and  1864,  and  became  on  his  return 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Pesth. 
He  several  times  visited  England,  where  his 
Travels  and  Adventures  in  Central  Asia  ap- 
peared in  1864,  and  his  life  and  Adventures 
in  1883.    He  has  written  many  other  works. 

Vanbrugh,  Sir  John  (6.  1666,  d.  1726), 
architect  and  dramatist ;  designed  Blenheim 
Palace  and  Castle  Howard,  and  wrote  The 
Jielapse.  The  Frovoked  Wife,  The  Confederacy, 
and  other  comedies. 

Van  Buren,  Martin  {b.  1792,  d.  1862), 
American  statesman,  supported  the  war 
against  Great  Britain,  and  was  elected 
senator  in  1821,  and  president  1837. 

Vancouver,  George  {d.  1798),  British 
sailor ;  was  with  Cook  in  his  second  and 
third  voyages,  and  in  1791  was  named  com- 
mander of  an  expedition  to  ascertain  the 
means  of  communication  between  the  North 
Pacific  and  the  North  Atlantic.  Vancouver's 
Voyage  was  published  three  years  later,  and 
his  name  was  given  to  an  island  on  the 
coast  surveyed  by  him. 

Vandamme,  Dominique  (b.  1771,  d.  1830), 
French  general;  after  serving  throughout 
the  revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  wars,  was 
captured  at  Kuhn  in  1813,  and  sent  to  Siberia. 
He  returned,  however,  in  the  next  year,  re- 
joined Napoleon,  and  offered  to  defend  Paris 
after  Waterloo,  but  was  banished  at  the  re- 
storation, and  lived  in  America  till  1824. 

VanderbUt,  ComeHus  (b.  1794,  d.  1877), 
American  millionaire ;  was  successively  a 
New  York  ferryman,  captain  of  a  steamer, 
and  a  hotel  proprietor.  He  made  the 
greater  ])art  of  his  fortune  by  his  steain- 
Uuers,    aud  by  railway  speculations.      His 


Von 


(  712  ) 


Van 


son,  William  (i.  1821,  d.  1885),  greatly- 
increased  the  fortune  left  to  him,  and  was 
for  a  time  the  richest  man  in  the  world. 

VaJi  der  Heist.     {See  Heist.] 

Van  der  Neer,  Aart  {b.  circa  1619),  Dutch 
marine  painter,  several  of  whose  works  are 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Vandervelde,  Willem  (h.  1610,  d.  1693), 
painter,  called  "the  Old,"  to  distinguish 
him  from  his  son,  was  born  at  Leyden,  but 
came  to  England,  and  was  pensioned  by 
Charles  II.  He  excelled  in  the  delineation 
of  marine  subjects,  being  present  at  several 
battles  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch 
for  the  purposes  of  his  art. 

Vandervelde,  "Willem  {b.  1633,  d.  1707), 
his  son,  was  born  at  Amsterdam,  and  came 
with  his  father  to  England.  He  also  excelled 
Lq  sea-pieces,  of  which  the  National  Gallery, 
London,  holds  two  specimens. 

Vander  Werfif,  Adrian  (b.  1659,  d.  1722), 
Dutch  historical  painter,  pupil  of  Van  der 
Neer.    Many  of  his  pictures  are  at  Munich. 

Van  der  Wey den,  Eoger(rf.  1464),  Flemish 
painter  of  the  school  of  Van  Eyck.  His 
Deposition  in  the  Tomb  is  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  which  also  possesses  an 
Ecce  Homo  and  three  other  pieces  from  the 
hand  of  another  artist  of  the  name,  who 
died  in  1529. 

Van  de  Weyer,  Sylvain  (i.  1802,  d.  1874), 
Belgian  statesman ;  was  prominent  in  the 
movement  for  separation  from  Holland,  and 
became  the  first  foreign  minister  of  the 
new  kingdom.  He  was  also  twice  ambassador 
in  London,  and  was  minister  of  the  interior 
from  1835  to  1849.     He  died  in  London. 

Van  Diemen,  Antoni  {b.  1593,  d.  1645), 
Dutch  explorer,  sailed  on  five  voyages  of 
discovery,  finding  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

Vandyck,  Sir  Anthony  (b.  1599,  d.  1641), 
portrait  painter,  after  studying  under  Ru- 
bens visited  Italy  and  England,  and  in  1631 
was  made  royal  painter  by  Charles  I.  and 
knighted.  Several  of  his  works  are  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  and  his  Cru- 
cifixion  is  at  St.  Martin's,  Ghent. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry  (i.  1612,  d.  1662),  re- 
pubhcan  and  Puriten  ;  became  governor  of 
Massachusetts  about  1635,  but  soon  returned 
to  England,  entered  Parliament,  and  was 
appointed  treasurer  of  the  navy.  He  took 
an  active  part  against  Strafford,  and  was  the 
principal  mover  of  the  Covenant  in  England, 
and  the  Self-Deuying  Ordinance.  Although 
he  was  not  one  of  the  regicides,  he  was 
beheaded  at  the  Restoration  on  this  ground. 

Van  Eyck.     \See  Eyck.] 

Van  Eelmont.     [See  Helmont.] 


Vanhomrigh,  Hester  {d.  1723)  [Vanessa], 
pupil  and  triendof  Swift;  died  of  grief  be- 
cause he  was  unwilling  to  marry  her. 

Van  Huysum.     \_See  Huysum.] 

Vanini,  Giulio  Cesare  Q>.  1585,  d.  1619), 
Italian  pliilosopher ;  entered  the  Carmelite 
order,  and  acquired  a  great  reputation  as  a 
preacher ;  came  to  England,  and  oifered  to 
join  the  Church,  but  was  thrown  into  the 
Tower  (1614).  After  publishing  at  Paris  his 
Be  Admirandis  Natur<B,  Itegmce,  I)eaeque, 
Murtalium  Arranis  (1616),  he  was  con- 
demned by  the  Inquisition  as  an  atheist,  and 
burnt  at  Toulouse. 

Vanloo,  Jean  Baptiste  {b.  1684,  d.  1745), 
French  painter,  born  at  Aix,  obtained  a 
high  reputation  both  in  France  and  England 
as  a  portrait  painter.  His  brother,  Chaeles 
(d.  1765),  became  painter  to  the  king  and 
director  of  the  Academy,  and  was  invited 
by  Frederick  to  Berlin. 

Van  Mander,  Caxel  {b.  1548,  d.  1606), 
Flemish  writer  and  artist,  pupU  of  Lucas  de 
Heere;  foimded  a  school  of  painting  at 
Haarlem,  and  wi'ote  Het  Schilder  £ock 
[Lives  of  the  Painters), 

Van  MUdert,  William  (b.  1765,  d.  1836), 
English  divine,  author  of  Life  of  Waterland  ; 
became  Bishop  of  Llaudaff  m  1819,  Dean  of 
St.  Paul's  in  1820,  and  Bishop  of  Durham 
in  1826. 

Vanni,  Francesco  {d.  1609),  Italian  painter 
in  the  style  of  Barocci.  His  St.  Raymond 
Walking  on  the  Sea  is  at  Siena,  and  The 
Scourging  of  Christ  and  Death  of  Cecilia  are 
at  Rome .   His  two  sons  were  artists  of  repute. 

Van  OS,  Pieter  Gerard  (*.  1776,  d.  1839), 
Dutch  painter  and  engraver  in  the  manner 
of  Paul  Potter ;  died  at  the  Hague. 

Vanossa.     [See  Alexander  VI.] 

Vansittart,  Nicholas  {b.  1766,  d.  1831), 
EngUsh  statesman  (created  Lord  Bexhill  in 
1823) ;  was  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland 
1805-6;  Secretary  to  the  Treasury  in  the 
Grenville  Ministry ;  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  1812-1823. 

Van  Somer,  Paul  [b.  1576,  d.  1621),  Dutch 
portrait  painter,  lived  in  England  after 
1606,  and  executed  portraits  of  James  I., 
Prince  Henry,  Bacon,  and  many  others. 

Van  Sweiten,  Gerard  [b.  1700,  d.  1772), 
physician,  bom  at  Leyden  ;  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  medical  school  at  Vienna,  and 
wrote  Commentary  on  the  Aphorisms  of 
Boerhaave,  whose  pupil  he  had  been. 

Vanucci,  Andrea.    [See  Andrea  del  Sarto.] 

Vanvitem,  Luigi  {b.  1700,  d.  1773),  Italian 


'Vap 


(713) 


Van 


architect  of  Flemisli  exti-action,  became 
architect  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  in  1726.  His 
chief  work  was  the  palace  of  CaSerta,  which 
he  built  for  the  King  of  Naples. 

Vapereau,  Louis  Gustavo  {b.  1819),  French 
biographer,  was  some  time  secretary  to 
Victor  Cousin,  and  in  1877  became  inspector- 
general  of  public  instruction.  He  edited  the 
JJietionnaire  JJniiersd  des  Contemporains, 
and  Dictionnaire  Univer&el  des  Litteratures. 

Vargas,  Luis  de  (b.  1502,  d.  1568),  Spanish 
painter,  whose  works  are  chiefly  to  be  found 
in  his  birthplace,  Seville. 

Varius  Rufus,  Lucius  (rf.  9),  Latin  poet, 
friend  ox  Horace  and  Virgil;  wrote  a 
biography  of  the  latter  which  is  lost,  only 
fragments  of  his  works  being  extant. 

Varley,  Comehus  (6.  1781,  d.  1873), 
water-colour  painter,  brother  of  John  ;  was 
the  inventor  of  the  graphic  telescope. 

Varley,  John  (i.  1778,  d.  1842),  English 
painter,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Water 
Colour  Society,  to  whose  exhibitions  he 
sent  frequent  contributions.  Linnell  and 
William  Hunt  were  among  his  pupils.  He 
wrote  a  practical  Treatise  oti  Perspective, 
and  other  works. 

Vamliageii  von  Ense,  Karl  August  {b. 
1785,  d.  18.3S),  German  historian  and  diplo- 
matist ;  entered  the  Austrian  army,  and  was 
wounded  at  Wagram,  and  served  with  the 
Russians  during  the  war  of  Liberation.  In 
1814  he  entered  the  Prussian  diplomatic 
eervice,  and  was  charged  with  several 
missions,  being  secretary  to  Hardenberg  at 
the  Congress  of  Vienna.  His  chief  works 
were  Biographische  Benkmale,  Denkwiirdiff- 
knten  and  Kahel. 

Varro,  Marcus  Terentius  {h.  116  B.C.,  d. 
26  B.C.),  Latin  writer;  took  part  with 
Pompey,  but  made  his  peace  with  Caesar, 
and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Augustus.  He 
wrote  490  works,  of  whicli  two  only,  De  Re 
Jiusticd,  and  De  Liiu/"'  Lntina,  are  extant. 
Augustine  made  use  of  his  Antiquitatum 
Libri,  the  lost  chef-d'ceuvre  at  Varro. 

Varthema,  Ludovico  di  (16th  century), 
Venetian  traveller,  the  narrative  of  whose 
travels  in  Asia  and  the  East  Indies  appeared 
in  1510,  an  English  version  being  published 
in  1863  by  Mr.  Winter  Jones.  It  contains 
the  earliest  mention  of  Australia. 

Varus,  Publius  Quintilius  («?.  9),  Roman 
general,  whose  name  is  remembered  on 
account  of  his  defeat  by  the  Germans  under 
Arminius,  and  the  despairing  exclamation  of 
AuguBtufl  in  reference  to  it. 

Vasa.     [See  Gustavua  Vasa.] 

Vasari,  Giorgio  (A.  1511,  d.  1574),  Italian 


painter  and  writer,  pupil  and  imitator  of 
Michelangelo,  left  some  portraits  of  merit, 
and  was  skilled  as  a  goldsmith  and  architect, 
but  is  chiefly  remembered  by  his  Lives  oj 
the  Most  Excellent  Painters,  Sculptors,  and 
Architects,  first  published  in  1550,  and 
frequently  translated  and  added  to. 

Vasco  di  Gama.     [-Se;*  Gama.] 

Vataces,  John  Ducas  {d.  1254),  Emperor 
of  Nicaea,  successor  of  Theodore  Lascaris 
and  husband  of  his  daughter  Irene,  de- 
feated his  rivals,  formed  a  fleet  but  was 
unsuccessful  in  his  attempts  on  Constanti- 
nople. In  1237  the  German  Emperor 
Eiederick  II.  formed  an  alliance  with  him. 

Vattel,  Emmerich  von  (b.  1714,  d.  1767), 
Swiss  publicist ;  after  leaving  the  court  of 
Frederick  the  Great  became  minister  of 
Augustus  II.  of  Saxony.  His  chief  work  was 
Droit  des  Gens  :  ou,  Principes  de  la  Zoi 
Naturelle  Appliqttes  a  la  Conduite  aux 
Affaires  des  Nations  et  des  Souverains, 

Vauban,  Sebastien  le  Prestre  de  (b.  1633, 
d.  1707),  marshal  of  France;  served  first  in 
the  Spanish  army,  but  having  been  made 
prisoner  entered  the  French  service,  and 
became  chief  engineer.  He  conducted  fifty- 
three  sieges,  and  erected  thirty-three 
fortresses.  At  Maestricht  (1672)  he  intro- 
duced the  system  of  parallels,  Lille  (1667), 
Mons  (1691),  and  Charleroi  (1694),  being, 
among  other  places,  invested  by  him.  He 
left  memoirs  in  manuscript,  called  Mes 
Oisivetis. 

Vaughan,  Charles  John,  D.D.  {b.  1816), 
divine,  senior  classic  in  1838,  was  head- 
master of  Harrow  1844-59 ;  vicar  of  Don- 
caster  1860-69 ;  became  master  of  the 
Temple  in  1869,  and  Dean  of  Llandaif  in 
1879,  but  refused  further  promotion.  He 
published  notes  on  several  of  the  Epistles 
and  some  volumes  of  sermons. 

Vaughan,  Henry,  ' '  the  Silurist "  (,d.  1693) , 
Enghsh  poet,  author  of  Olor  Iseanus  {The 
Swan  of  the  Usk),  Silex  Scintillans,  and  some 
devotional  works.  His  brother,  Thouas  {d. 
1665),  wrote  some  works  on  magic. 

Vaughan,  Herbert,  D.D.  (A.  1832),  was 
consecrated  Romanist  Bishop  of  Salford  in 
1S72,  and  in  1892  became  Archbishop  of 
Westminster. 

Vaughan,  Robert  {d.  1868),  Nonconformist 
divine ;  established  the  British  Quarterly 
Bevieiv,  and  wrote  Life  and  Opinions  of  John 
de  Wycliffe,  Memorials  of  the  Stuart 
Dynasty,  etc. 

Vaulabelle,  Achille  de  (J.  1799,  d.  1879), 
French  historian  and  journalist ;  author  of 
L'Histoire  des  Deux  Restaurations,  and  other 
works. 


Vau 


(714) 


Ver 


Vauvenargues,  Luc  de  Clapiers,  Marquis 
de  {b.  1715,  d.  1747),  French  writer,  served 
some  time  with  the  ai-my  in  Italy  and 
Germany.  He  wrote  Intruductiun  a  la  Con- 
naissance  de  VEsprit  Humain  suivie  de  Jie- 
Jiexions  et  de  Maximes. 

VeccMetta,  II  [Lorenzo  di  Pietro]  (b.  1412, 
rf.l480),  Italian  jiaiuter,  sculptor,  and  archi- 
tect, most  of  whose  works  are  at  Siena. 

Vega,  Garcilasso  de  la.    \_See  Garcilasso.] 

Vega,  Lopez  de  la  (b.  1562,  d.  1635), 
Spanish  poet,  wrote  his  Hermosura  de 
Angelica  while  serving  with  the  Armada. 
He  was  also  author  of  Arcadia  and  numerous 
plays  written  after  his  entry  into  the 
Franciscan  order. 

Veitch,  John,  LL.D.  (6.  1829),  philo- 
sophical writer,  assisted  Sir  W.  Hamilton  at 
Edinburgh,  and  became  professor  of  logic 
at  St.  Andrews  in  1860,  and  afterwards  at 
Glasgow.  His  chief  works  are  a  work  on 
Descartes  (sixth  edition,  1879),  a  memoir  of 
Sir  W.  Hamilton,  Essays  in  Philosophy,  and 
History  and  Foetry  of  the  Scottish  Border 
(1878). 

Velasquez,  Don  Diego  Rodriquez  da 
Silva  {b.  1599,  d.  1660),  Spanish  painter, 
studied  xmder  Herrera  the  Elder  and 
Pacheco,  and  was  named  court  painter 
under  Philip  IV.,  who  became  his  friend  and 
frequently  employed  him.  Nearly  all  of  his 
works  are  at  Madrid,  but  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  has  several,  including 
Philip  IV.  Hunting  the  TFild  Hoar,  Adora- 
tion of  the  Shepherds,  and  Or  land'}  Muerto. 
He  excelled  in  all  kinds  of  subjects. 

Velleius  Paterculus  (b.  19  b.o.),  Roman 
historical  writer. 

Venddme,  Louis,  Due  de  {b.  1654,  d.  1712), 
French  general,  a  descendant  of  Henri  IV.  ; 
took  Barcelona  in  1697,  commanded  in  Italy 
against  the  ImperiaUsts,  and  during  the 
Spanish  Succession  war  was  defeated  at 
Oudenarde,  but  won  the  battle  of  Villa - 
viciosa  (1710). 

Vendramini,  John  (b.  1769,  d.  1839),  line- 
engraver,  born  in  Italy,  studied  some  time 
in  England  under  Bartolozzi,  and  died  in 
London.  His  best  work  was  the  transcript  of 
Piombo's  liaising  of  Lazarus. 

Veneziano,  Agostino  (d.  circa  1540), 
Venetian  engraver,  whose  chef-d'ceuvre  ia 
The  Skeletons  after  Bandinelli. 

Veneziano,  Antonio  {b.  circa  1310,  d. 
1384),  painter,  from  whose  hand  are  three 
tine  frescoes  in  the  Campo  Santo,  Pisa. 

Veneziano,  Domenico  {b.  1420,  d.  1476), 
painter,  two  only  of  whose  pictures  (at 
Florence)  are  now  preserved. 


Venius,  or  Van  Veen,  Otto  {b.  1556,  d. 
1634),  Dutch  painter,  was  the  master  cf 
Rubens. 

Ventura,  Joachim  {b.  1792,  d.  1861), 
Italian  preacher,  called  the  "  Bossuet  of 
Italy  ;  "  became  general  of  the  Theatines  in 
183U,  was  friend  of  the  Popes  Leo  XII.  and 
Pius  IX. ,  preached  the  funeral  sermon  over 
O'Connell,  and  attempted  to  organise  an 
Italian  Confederacy  under  the  Pope.  He 
was  offered  the  presidency  of  the  Assembly 
at  Rome  in  1848,  but  declined  it,  and  passed 
his  last  years  in  France. 

Verdi,  Giuseppe  {b.  1814),  Italian  com- 
poser, son  of  an  innkeeper,  produced  a 
musical  drama  at  La  Scala,  Milan,  in  1839, 
but  first  gained  a  name  by  his  I  Lombardi 
(1843).  He  was  a  member  of  the  Parma 
Assembly  in  1859,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Italian  Parliament  in  1861,  becoming  senator 
in  1872.  Among  his  operas  may  be  named 
Rigoletto  (1851),  II  Trovatore  (1853),  La 
Traviata  (1854),  Aida  (1871),  and  Otello 
(1887),  Falstaf{\%'d2),  etc. 

Vere,  Sir  Francis  {b.  1554,  d.  1608), 
English  general;  distinguished  himself 
against  Spain  in  the  Netherlands  and  at 
Cadiz.  A  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
"Westminster  Abbey,  and  his  Commentaries 
appeared  in  1657.  His  brother.  Sir  Hoeaoe 
(d.  1635),  succeeded  to  his  command  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  was  created  Lord  Tilbury 
by  Charles  I. 

Verelst,  Simon  {b.  1664),  Flemish  flower 
and  fruit  painter,  obtained  great  popularity 
in  England. 

Vergil,  Polydore  {d.  1555),  English  writer, 
born  in  Italy,  was  the  last  collector  of  Peter's 
pence  in  England,  and  in  1513  became  Pre- 
bendary of  St.  Paul's.  He  was  author  of 
Historia  Anglica — a  work  more  valuable  for 
its  Latin  than  its  history. 

Vergniaud,  Pierre  Victorin  (b.  1753,  d. 
1793),  French  revolutionist,  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  Gironde,  by  whose  fall  he  suffered, 
being  sent  to  the  guillotine  by  Robespierre. 
He  was  a  great  orator. 

Vennuyden,  Sir  Cornelius  {d.  after  1656), 
Dutch  engineer,  came  to  England  in  1621, 
and  was  knighted  for  reclaiming  Hatfield 
Chase.  He  afterwards  carried  out  the  drain- 
ing of  Bedford  Level,  but  did  not  himself 
profit  thereby. 

Verne,  Jules  {b.  1828),  French  writer, 
wrote  several  comedies,  but  is  known  chiefly 
by  his  scientific  romances.  Twenty  Thousand 
Leagues  under  the  Sea,  Around  the  World  in 
Eighty  Days,  etc. 

Vemet,  Claude  (6.  1714,  d.  1789),  French 


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Vic 


painter  of  sea-pieces,   whose   Castle  of  St. 
Angelo  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Vemet,  Antoine  Horace  [Carle  Vernet] 
{b.  IToS,  d.  1835),  son  of  Claude,  excelled 
in  depicting  battles  and  horses.  Among  his 
works  are  Triumph  of  ^miiius  Faulus  and 
Morning  of  the  Battle  of  Austerlitz. 

Vemet,  Jean  Horace  [Horace  Vemet]  {b. 
1789,  d.  1863),  son  of  Carle,  received  in- 
struction from  his  father,  and  became 
attached  to  the  Bonaparte  regime,  fighting 
for  it  at  Clichy  in  1815,  and  illustrating  its 
achievements.  In  1828  he  became  director 
of  the  school  of  art  at  Rome.  Among  his 
pictures  may  be  named  Napoleon  on  the  Eve 
of  fFaterloo,  The  Bridge  of  Areola,  and  The 
Smalah  of  Abd-el-Kader  Surprised. 

Vernon,  Edward  (b.  1684,  d.  1757),  English 
admiral ;  took  Porto  Bello  ia  1739,  but  failed 
in  the  attempt  on  Carthagena  in  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

Vernon,  Robert  {b.  1774,  d.  1849),  patron 
of  fine  arts;  presented  the  "Vernon  Gallery  " 
to  the  British  nation  in  1847. 

Veronese,  Paolo  [Cagliari]  {b.  1532,  d. 
1588),  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Verona, 
mad  a  study  of  Tiziano  at  Venice.  His 
Marriage  at  Cana,  in  the  Louvre,  and 
Adoration  of  the  Magi  and  Family  of 
JJarius  at  the  Feet  of  Alexander,  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  are  fine  speci- 
mens of  his  art. 

Verres,  Caius,  was  propraetor  of  Sicily 
73-71  B.C.,  and  was  prosecuted  by  Cicero 
for  his  cruelties  there. 

VerrocMo,  Andrea  del  {b.  1432,  d.  1488), 
Italian  sculptor  and  paiuter,  was  the  master 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Lorenzo  di  Credi. 
He  left  many  specimens  of  his  sculpture  at 
Rome  and  Venice,  but  only  one  painting. 
The  Baptism,  at  Florence. 

Vertue,  George  {b.  1684,  d.  1756),  English 
engraver,  executed  prints  for  Rapin's  His- 
tory, and  of  portraits  of  Charles  I.,  twelve 
English  poets,  etc.  He  also  collected 
materials  for  a  history  of  art  vsx  England, 
which  were  utilised  by  Horace  Walpole. 

Vesalius,  Andreas  {b.  1514,  d.  1564), 
anatomist,  bom  at  Brussels,  accompanied 
Charles  V.  in  his  campaigns  as  physician, 
and  also  attended  Philip  II.  He  died  in 
Zante,  where  he  had  been  wrecked  on  his 
return  from  Jerusalem.  His  great  work 
was  Be  Corporis  Ilumani  Fabrica. 

Vespasianus,  Titus  Flavius  (6.  9,  d.  79), 
Emperor  of  Rome  ;  having  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Germany,  Britain,  and  S}T^a, 
was  proclaimed  emperor  in  69,  and  reigned 
ten  years. 


VespuccL     \_See  Amerigo.] 

Vestris,  Madame  Lucia  Elizabeth  {b. 
1797,  d.  l!:i54),  English  actress  ;  she  was  the 
granddaughter  of  Bartolozzi,  and  made 
her  debut  in  1815.  Having,  meanwhile, 
been  deserted  by  her  first  husband,  she 
came  back  to  London  in  1819,  and 
acted  at  Drury  Lane,  the  Haymarket, 
the  Olympic,  and  other  houses  till  her 
retirement  from  the  stage  in  1854,  her 
Phoebe  in  Paul  Pry  being  very  popular. 
In  1838  she  married  Charles  Matthews, 
the  younger.  This  lady  is  not  to  be 
confoimded  with  Maeie  Dugazon  Ves- 
TEis,  the  French  tragedienne,  who  died 
in  1804. 

Vezin,  Hermann  {b.  1829),  actor,  was  bom 
in  America,  and  iu  1850  came  to  England. 
Among  his  best  parts  have  been  Jacques, 
Dan'l  Druce,  and  Dr.  Primrose. 

Viardot-Garcia,  PauUne  {b.  1821),  Italian 
singer,  daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia  and  sis- 
ter of  Malibran,  first  appeared  in  London 
in  1839  as  Desdemona,  and  subsequently 
visited  all  the  chief  Continental  towns,  re- 
tiring in  1862.  She  composed  an  opera  and 
some  songs. 

Vice,  Giovanni  Battista  (b.  1668,  d.  1743), 
Italian  philosopher,  whose  chief  work  was 
Fincipi  di  una  JS'uova  Scienza  (1725). 

Victor,  Claude,  Duo  de  Belluno  (i.  1768, 
d.  1841),  marshal  of  France,  was  at  first 
a  drummer-boy,  but  became  general  of 
division  in  1799.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  Marengo,  and  received  his  baton  after 
Friedland,  and  gained  some  successes  in 
Spain,  but  lost  the  battles  of  Talavera  (1809) 
and  Barossa  (1811).  He  deserted  Napoleon 
in  1814,  and  was  war  minister  from  1S21  to 
1823. 

Victor  Amadeus  II.,  King  of  Sardinia  and 
Duke  of  Savoy  (i.  1666,  d.  1732),  renewed 
the  persecution  of  the  Waldenses ;  was  recog- 
nised as  heir  to  the  crown  of  Spain  at  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  and  was  given  Sicily,  but 
received  Sardinia  in  exchange  in  1720.  He 
abdicated  in  1730,  but  soon  after  attempted 
to  resume  the  crown. 

Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  first  King  of  Italy 

{b.  1820,  d.  1878),  became  King  of  Sardinia 
on  the  abdication  of  his  father  in  1849,  ajid 
immediately  began  to  reorganise  the  kingdom 
and  to  enforce  toleration.  He  sent  a  con- 
tingent during  the  war  with  Russia  to  help 
the  alHes  in  the  Crimea,  and  in  1859  he  se- 
cured the  alliance  of  France  in  his  struggle 
with  Austria.  The  price  agreed  on  was  the 
cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice,  but  the  result 
was  the  union  of  Italy  under  the  ruler  of 
Sardinia.  By  the  lielp  of  Prussia  the  libera- 
tion of  Venice  was  gained  in  1866,  and  Roma 


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■was  evacuated  by  the  French  in  1870.  Victor 
Emmanuel  was  called  by  his  people  "  Re 
Galanttwrno." 

Victoria  Alexandrlna,  Queen  of  Great 
Britain  and  EmiJiess  of  India  (b.  1819), 
daughter  of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  fourth 
son  of  George  III.,  was  crowned  on  June  28, 
1837.  She  married,  in  1840,  Prince  Albert 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  who  died  in  1861, 
by  whom  she  had  nine  children.  The 
chief  events  of  the  reign  have  been  the 
establishment  of  the  penny  post  (1840),  the 
repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  (1846),  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  Punjaub  (1849),  the  Great  Exhi- 
bition (18.51),  the  Crimean  war  (1854-5),  the 
Indian  Mutiny  (1857-8),  followed  by  the 
assumption  of  sovereignty  over  India,  the 
second  and  third  Reform  Bills  (1867  and  1884), 
wars  in  Afghanistan,  China,  South  Africa, 
and  Egypt,  and  the  Fenian  and  Home  Rule 
agitations  in  Ireland.  The  jubilee  of  the 
Queen's  accession  was  celebrated  in  1887. 
Five  attempts  were  made  on  her  life,  in 
1840,  1842  (three),  and  1882. 

Vida,  Marco  Girolamo  {b.  1490,  d.  1567), 
Bishop  of  Alba,  and  author  of  the  Christiad, 
a  Latin  poem. 

Vien,  Joseph,  Comte  (b.  1716,  d.  1809), 
French  historical  painter,  whose  chef-d'oeuvre 
is  the  Freaching  of  St.  Denis,  in  the  church 
of  St.  Roch,  Paris. 

Vigilantius,  (5th  century),  presbyter  of 
Barcelona ;  opposed  asceticism,  and  was  de- 
nounced by  Jerome. 

Vigny,  Alfred,  Comte  de  {b.  1799,  d.  1863), 
French  writer,  author  of  Foemes  Antiques  et 
Modernes  (1826-37),  Cinq-Mars,  a  romance 
(1837),  some  plays,  and  Destinees  (posthu- 
mous poems). 

Villani,  Giovanni  {d.  1348),  Italian  writer, 
author  of  Istorie  Fiorentine.  which  was  first 
printed  in  1537.  The  author  died  of  the 
plague.  His  brother  Matteo  continued  his 
history. 

Villari,  Pasquale  (b.  1827),  Italian  writer, 
became  professor  of  history  at  Pisa  in  1859, 
and  at  Florence  in  1866.  His  chief  works  are 
Snronarola  and  his  Times  (translated  1863), 
and  Machiavelli  and  his  Times  (1877-82), 
which  has  also  been  translated. 

Villars,  Louis,  Due  de  {b.  1653,  d.  1734), 
marshal  of  France,  served  in  his  youth  under 
Conde  and  Turenne,  and  after  being  twice 
ambassador  at  Vienna,  suppressed  the  Cami- 
sard  rising  (1705),  but  was  defeated  by 
Marlborough  at  Ramillies  and  Malplaquet. 
He  took  Denain  in  1712,  but  saw  no  more 
service  till  the  year  of  his  death,  when  he 
commanded  for  a  short  time  in  Italy. 

Villeliardouin,  Geoffroy  de  {d.  circa  1213), 


French  historian,  negotiated  an  alliance  with 
Venice  in  1199,  and  went  on  the  crusade 
which  followed,  describing  it  in  his  Histoire 
de  la  Frise  de  Constantinople  par  les  Franqais 
et  les  Venitiens. 

Villemain,  Abel  Francois  (*.  1790,  d. 
1870),  French  writer ;  assisted  Guizot  at  the 
Sorbonne,  and  became  professor  of  eloquence, 
and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from 
1839  to  1844.  Among  his  works  are  Cours 
de  la  Litterature  Fran(;aise  (1828-38),  and 
Souvenirs  d'Histoire  et  de  Litterature. 

VUleneuve,  Pierre  Sylvestre  de  {b.  1763, 
d.  1806),  French  admiral ;  commanded  the 
right  wing  at  Aboukir,  and  plaimed  the 
invasion  of  England  in  1804,  being  given 
the  command  of  the  fleet.  He  was  defeated 
by  Sir  R.  Calder  off  Ferrol  and  then, 
against  his  will,  fought  the  battle  of  Tra- 
falgar, after  which  he  was  for  some  months 
a  prisoner  in  England.  His  death  was  prob- 
ably due  to  suicide  caused  by  his  disgrace. 

Villeroy,  Francois,  Due  de(*.  1643,fi?.  1730), 
marshal  of  France,  was  defeated  at  Ramillies, 
and  elsewhere  showed  his  incompetence. 
An  ancestor  of  his,  who  died  in  1617,  was  a 
minister  of  state  under  Francis  I.,  Charles 
IX.,  Henri  III.,  and  Henri  IV. 

Villiers.     \_See  Buckingham.] 

Villiers,  Right  Hon.  Charles  Pelham  {b. 
1802),  politician ;  was  first  elected  for  Wolver- 
hampton in  1835,  and  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  Anti-Corn  Law  agitation.  He  was 
named  Judge  Advocate -General  in  1853, 
and  was  president  of  the  Poor  Law  Board 
from  1859  to  1866. 

Vincent.     [See  St.  Vincent.] 

Vincent,  Charles  Howard  {b.  1849),  was 
director  of  Criminal  Investigations  from 
1878  to  1884,  and  entered  Parhament  in  1885. 

Vincent,  Sir  Edgar,  K.C.M.G.  {b.  1857), 
his  brother,  became  financial  adviser  to  the 
Khedive  in  1883,  and  afterwards  governor  of 
the  Ottoman  bank. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  Saint  {b.  1576,  d.  1660), 
French  philanthropist;  was  captured  and 
made  a  slave  by  Tunisian  pirates,  but  was 
afterwards  almoner  to  Marguerite  de  Valois 
and  tutor  to  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  founded 
in  1617  the  Confrerie  de  Charite,  reformed 
the  galley-slaves,  and  in  1634  instituted  the 
Sceurs  de  Charite. 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da  (b.  1452,  d.  1519), 
Italian  painter  and  sculptor,  entered  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  executed 
there  an  equestrian  statue  of  Francesco 
Sforza ;  studied  anatomy  with  Delia  Torre, 
and  painted  his  Last  Supper  about  1497. 
In    1502    he    became    architect    to    Caesar 


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Borgia,  and  was  afterwards  painter  to  Louis 
XII.  and  Francis  I.  of  France.  Among 
his  other  great  works  are  the  Vierge  aux 
Mockers  and  La  Joconde  in  the  Louvre. 

Viner,  Charles  {b.  1680,  d.  1756),  lawyer, 
author  of  Genei'al  Abridgment  of  the  Laws 
of  England  ;  founded  the  Vinerian  professor- 
ship at  Oxford. 

Vinet,  Alexandre  (A.  1797,  d.  1847),  Swiss 
writer,  seceded  from  the  Protestant  Chm'ch, 
and  wrote  Essai  sur  la  Manifestation  des 
Convictions  Jieligieyises,  et  sur  la  Separation 
de  VEglise  et  de  VEtat,  Discours  sur  Quelques 
Sujets  Religieux  (^Vital  Christianity),  and 
some  Uterary  works. 

VioUet-le-Duc,  Eugene  [b.  1814,  d.  1879), 
French  architect  and  writer  ;  restored  Notre 
Dame,  La  Sainte  Chapelle,  and  other 
chiu-ches,  and  published  Military  Archi- 
tecture in  the  Middle  Ages,  Restoration, 
and  other  works.  He  was  a  strong  re- 
publican, and  commanded  a  body  of  engineers 
at  the  siege  of  Paris. 

Viotti,  Giovanni  {b.  1753,  d.  1824),  violin- 
ist; was  very  successful  at  Paris  and  in 
England,  but  was  compelled  to  leave  the 
latter  country  on  suspicion  of  being  a  spy. 
He  returned  in  1795,  and  in  1818  became 
director  of  the  Paris  opera.  He  composed 
concertos  in  A,  B,  C,  and  D. 

Vircho-w,  Rudolf  {b.  1821),  German  patho- 
logist; after  being  involved  in  trouble  on 
account  of  his  share  in  the  movement  of 
1848,  obtained  chairs  of  pathological  ana- 
tomy at  Wurzburg  and  Berlin  (1856), 
having  recently  published  his  Cellular  Path- 
ology. Three  years  later  he  returned  to 
politics,  and  ultimately  became  leader  of 
the  Liberal  opposition  in  the  Prussian 
Assembly,  and  was  challenged  to  a  duel 
in  1865  by  Bismarck.  In  1878  he  retired 
from  public  Hfe.  He  was  much  consulted 
during  the  iUness  of  the  Emperor  y^ed- 
erick. 

Virgil  [Publius  Virgilius  Maro]  {b.  70 
B.C.,  d.  19  B.C.),  Roman  poet,  bom  near 
Mantua,  found  patrons  in  Maecenas  and 
Augustus,  who  restored  to  him  his  estate. 
He  died  at  Bnmdusium  on  his  return 
from  a  visit  to  Greece.  His  chief  works 
were  The  Eclogues  or  Bucolics,  The  Georgics, 
and  the  ^neid,  the  latter  of  which  has 
been  translated  by,  among  others,  Dryden, 
Conington,  and  William  Morris. 

Vlsconti,  Matteo,  was  named  vicar  of 
the  Empire  in  Lombardy  in  1294,  and  suc- 
ceeded nis  uncle  Ottone  in  the  sovereignty, 
which  was  held  by  the  family  till  1447. 

Vlsconti,  Ottone  (d.  1295),  was  forced  by 
Urban  IV.  on  the  people  of  Milan  as 
archbishop,     and    after    a     long    struggle 


with  his  rival,   Delia  Torre,  became  lord 
of  Milan. 

I      Vissclier,  Cornelius    {b.    1629,   d.    1658), 
,  Dutch  engraver;  executed  a  great  number 
i  of  prints,  which  were  catalogued  in  1863 
by  W.  Smith,  F.S.A. 

Vitellitis,  Aulus  (i.  15,  d.  69),  Emperor  of 
Rome,  was  raised  to  the  purple  by  the 
German  legions  in  January,  69  ;  but  though 
his  rival,  Otho,  was  defeated,  his  own  army 
was  soon  after  routed,  and  its  leader  put  to 
.  death  at  Rome. 

Vitruvius  Pollio,  Marcus  (1st  century), 
Latin  writer  on  architecture,  whose  De 
Architecturd  has  been  frequently  trans- 
lated. 

Vivian,  Richard  Hussey,  Lord  {b.  1775, 
d.    1842),    English    general,    distinguished 

j  himself  in  the  Peninsvda  war,  especially 
at  Conmna  and  Toulouse.  He  after- 
wards entered  Parliament,  became  master- 

i   general  of  the  ordnance  in  1835,  and  a  peer 

I  in  1841. 

Vogel,  Sir  Julius  {b.  1835),  colonial  states- 

I    man ;  after  being  head  of  the  government 

,    of   Victoria  for  many  years,  went  to  New 

i    Zealand  in  1869,  held  ofiRce  under  Fox  and 

Waterhouse,    and   was    prime    minister    in 

succession  to  the  latter.     From  his  resigna- 

[    tion  in  1876  till  1881  he  was  agent-general, 

and  from  1884  to  1887  again  held  office  in 

New  Zealand.    He  published  in   1890  the 

I  novel  A.D.  2000. 

Vogt,  Karl  (i.  1817),  Swiss  writer,  pro- 
;  fessor  of  natural  history  at  Geneva,  and 
j  author  of  Lessons  on  Man,  his  Place  in 
I    Creation,     Science    and    Superstition,    and 

I    several  similar  works. 

I 

Vogii6,  Vicomte  Melchior  de  (b.  1848), 
French  writer ;  author  of  Histoires  Orientales, 
Le  Fils  de  Pierre  le  Grand,  etc. ;  was  elected 
to  the  Academie  in  1888. 

Volney,  Constantino,  Comte  de  (b.  1757,  d. 
1820),  French  traveller;  was  a  member  of 
the  States- General,  and  was  imprisoned 
during  the  Terror,  but  ennobled  by  Napoleon 
and  the  Bourbons.  His  chief  works  were 
Voijiige  en  Syrie  et  en  Egypte,  and  Ruins .-  or 
Mt'dddtions  oti  the  Jievolutiom  of  Empire. 

Volpato,  Giovanni  (b.  1733,  d.  1802), 
Italian  engraver;  author  of  Principles  of 
Design;  was  father-in-law  and  teacher  of 
Raphael  Morghen. 

Volta,  Alessaudro  {b.  1745,  d.  1826), 
natural  philosopher  ;  was  for  thirty  years 
professor  at  Pavia,  and  became  F.R.S. 
Besides  making  other  discoveries,  he  in- 
vented the  voltaic  pile  or  electrical  column. 

Voltaire  (6.  1694,  d.  1778),  whose  original 


Vol 


(718) 


Wag 


name  was  Fraii9ois  Marie  Arouet,  was  born 
at  Paris,  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  aud  became 
a,  protege  oi  Niuon  de  I'Enclos.  In  1716-17 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  on  suspicion 
of  writing  a  libel  on  the  king,  and  Aedipe 
was  produced  in  1718.  After  another  im- 
prisonment he  went  to  England,  where,  in 
17-8,  the  Henriade  was  published.  He 
escaped  prosecution  by  disavowing  his 
writings,  and  in  1736  began  to  correspond 
\yiih  Frederick  the  Great.  After  the  rise  of 
the  Pompadour  he  secured  a  reception  at 
court  and  at  the  Academie.  In  1750  he  went 
to  the  court  of  BerHn,  where  he  stayed  three 
years,  the  result  being  a  historical  quarrel. 
Soon  after  this  he.  settled  at  Feruey,  where 
the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent,  but  before  his 
death  he  visited  Paris,  and  was  received  as 
a  popular  hero.  He  wrote  numerous  plays 
and  romances  (Oandide,  Zadig),  etc.,  Histoire 
de  Charles  XII.,  Steele  de  Louis  XIV.,  and 
other  historical  works,  and  Essai  sur  les 
Mceurs  et  P  Esprit  des  Nations. 

Volterra,  Daniele  de  {b.  1509,  d.  1566), 
Italian  artist,  pupil  of  Michelangelo.  His 
masterpiece,  Trie  Bescent  from  the  Cross,  was 
torn  by  the  French,  who  attempted  to  take 
it  from  Trinita  de  Monti  at  Borne. 


Vortigem,  British  chief ;  invited  the 
Saxons  to  help  him  against  the  Picts  and 
Scots,  who,  however,  joined  the  enemy. 

Vos,  Simon  de  {b.  1603),  Dutch  painter, 
hunting- pieces  being  his  speciality,  belonged 
to  a  well-known  family  of  artists. 

VOSB,  Johann  Heinrich  {b.  1751,  d.  1826), 
German  poet,  a  native  of  Mecklenburg.  His 
best  work  was  Zwue  (1795).  He  translated 
parts  of  Homer,  Virgil,  Ovid,  Theocritus, 
and  other  writers,  and  also  the  whole  of 
Shakespeare. 

Vossius,  Gerard  {b.  1557,  d.  1649),  Dutch 
philologist,  friend  of  Grotius  ;  was  director 
of  the  colleges  of  Dort  and  Leyden  and 
Prebendary  of  Canterbury.  He  wrote  Aris- 
tarchus,  a  treatise  on  gi'ammar,  and  other 
works.  Isaac  Vossius,  Canon  of  Windsor 
(*.  1618,  d.  1689),  was  his  son. 

Vries,  Hans  Fredeman  de  {b.  1527,  d.  1604), 
Dutch  painter,  celebrated  for  his  mastery 
of  perspective. 

Vroom,  Hendrik  Comelis  (b.  1566),  Dutch 
marine  painter ;  drew  the  designs  for  the 
tapestry  in  the  House  of  Lords,  illustrative 
of  the  defeat  of  the  Armada. 


w 


Waagen,  Gustav  Friedrich  (J.  1794,  d. 
1868),  German  writer,  professor  of  art-his- 
tory at  Berlin.  His  chief  work  was  Kunst- 
werke  tmd  Eiinstler  in  England  and  Paris, 
of  which  there  are  several  EngUsh  versions. 

Wace  {d.  circa  1184),  Anglo-Norman 
poet,  made  Canon  of  Bayeux  by  Henry  11. ; 
was  author  of  the  Roman  du  Hou  and  Ze 
Brut  d'Angleterre. 

Wace,  Henry,  D.D.  (6.  1836),  theologian, 
became  Prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  in  1881 
and  principal  of  King's  College,  London, 
in  1883 ;  edited  with  Dr.  W.  Smith  the 
Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography,  and  pub- 
lished Boyle  and  Bampton  Lectures  (1874 
and  1879). 

Waddin^on,  William  Henry  {b.  1826), 
French  statesman  of  English  parentage  and 
education  (Chancellor's  medallist  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1849,  and  rowed  in  the  race  with 
Oxford) ;  after  publishing  some  works  on 
classical  archaeology,  entered  public  life  in 
1871  as  a  supporter  of  Thiers,  and  in  1876 
became  minister  of  public  instruction.  He 
was  afterwards  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
(1877),    French    plenipotentiary    at    Berlin 


(1878),  president  of  the  Council  (1879),  and 

in  1883  became  ambassador  in  England. 

Wade,  Sir  Thomas  Francis,  K.C.B.  {b. 
1818),  became  British  minister  in  China  in 
1871,  having  previously  been  attached  to 
the  Elgin  mission  (1857-60),  to  which  his 
knowledge  of  Chinese  was  of  great  service. 
He  published  in  1867  Tzu-Erh  Chi  (Fro- 
gressire  Chinese  Course). 

Wadham,  Nicholas  {b.  1536,  d.  1609), 
foiinded  the  college  at  Oxford  which  bears 
his  name,  and  which  was  finished  in  1613. 

Wagenaar,  Jan  (b.  1709,  d.  1773),  Dutch 
writer,  historiographer  of  Amsterdam ;  wrote 
a  History  of  Holland  (in  twenty-one  volumes), 
and  other  works. 

Waghorn,  Thomas  {b.  1800,  d.  1850), 
British  naval  oificer,  projected  the  overland 
route  to  India.  He  ruined  himself  in  the 
undertaking,  but  received  a  pension  shortly 
before  his  death. 

Wagner,  Wilhelm  Richard  {b.  1813,  d. 
1883),  German  composer,  bom  at  Leipzig, 
was  conductor  of  the  Royal  Opera,  Dresden, 
from  1842  to  1849,  during  which  time  were 


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produced  Eienzi,  Der  Fliegende  Hollander 
(1843),  and  Tannhaiiser  (1845).  He  was 
obliged  to  leave  Dresden  for  political 
reasons,  and  Lohengrin  was  first  heard  at 
Zurich  in  1850.  From  1864  he  enjoyed  the 
patronage  of  Ludwig  II.  of  Bavaria,  under 
whose  auspices  Tristan  und  Isolde,  JJie 
Meistersinger,  etc. ,  were  produced.  Parsifal 
was  his  last  work.  Wagner  came  to  Lon- 
don in  1877,  and  died  in  Italy.  He  was 
twice  married,  his  second  wife  beiug  Cosiiiia 
von  Biilow  {iiee  Liszt).  His  (jtsammelte 
Schriften  und  Dichtungen  contain  his  theory 
of  the  opera. 

Wahliab,  Mohammed  Ebn  Abdel  ( 1 8  th  cen- 
tury), Mohammedan  reformer  and  fouader 
of  the  Wahhabees,  bom  in  Arabia,  his 
father  being  a  sheikh,  condemned  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Prophet,  the  use  of  tobacco  and 
wine,  and  other  usages,  against  which,  with 
the  help  of  his  son-iu-law.  Sheikh  Ibu 
Sa'ud,  he  took  forcible  measures.  His 
doctrines  spread  widely,  especially  among 
the  Bedouins. 

Waltz,  Georg  {b.  1813,  d.  1886),  German 
historian,  pupil  of  Eanke,  and  professor  at 
Gottingen  (1848-75) ;  edited  for  some  time 
the  Monumenta  Germanics  Historica,  and 
wrote  a  History  of  the  German  Constitution, 
a  History  of  Schleswig-Holstein  (1851-4) 
and  other  works. 

Wake,  William  (b.  1657,  d.  1737),  divine, 
successively  Dean  of  Exeter,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1716),  attempted  to  bring  about  a  union  of 
the  English  and  Gallican  churches. 

Wakefield,  Edward  Gibbon  {b.  1796,  d. 
1862),  colonial  organiser  ;  while  in  prison  for 
abduction  wrote  his  Letter  from  Sydtey 
(1829),  advocating  the  system  of  colonisation 
called  by  his  name,  which,  after  his  release, 
was  carried  out  by  the  South  Australian 
Association.  He  was  secretary  to  Lord 
Durham  in  Canada  in  1838,  and  next  year 
obtained  the  annexation  by  Great  Britain 
of  New  Zealand,  in  the  colonisation  of 
which  he  took  an  active  part.  In  1849  he 
published  TJie  Art  of  Colonisation. 

Wakefield,  Gilbert  {b.  1756,  d.  1801), 
scholar  and  critic,  was  imprisoned  for  a 
letter  to  the  Bishop  of  LlandafF  directed 
against  the  Government.  He  seceded  from 
the  Church  of  England,  and  wrote,  among 
other  works,  Inquiry  into  the  Opinions  of  the 
Christian  Writers  of  the  Three  First  Cen- 
turies Concerning  the  Person  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Wakefield,  Priscilla  {d.  1832),  established 
at  Tottenham  the  "Frugality  Bank"  (the 
first  savings  bank),  and  wrote  works  for 
the  young. 

Wakley,  Thomas  (A.  1795,  d.  1862),  phy- 
sician,   and    coroner    for    Middlesex.      He 


established  the  Lancet  in  1823,  and  as  editor 
had  to  meet  actions  against  it  by  Abemethy 
and  Bransby  Cooper.  He  sat  for  Finsbury 
in  Parliament  from  1835  till  1862. 

Waldeck,  Christian  August,  Prince  of  {b. 
17-44,  d.  1778),  served  with  credit  in  the 
Austrian  army  against  the  French,  and 
became  member  of  the  Aulic  Council,  and 
died  m  Portugal,  wJiither  he  had  gone  to 
reorgamse  the  army. 

Waldeck,  George  Frederick,  Prince  of 
{b.  1620,  d.  1692),  distiaguished  himself  as 
faeld-marshal  in  the  imperial  service  against 
the  French,  and  against  the  Turks  at  the 
siege  of  Vienna  (1683).  Afterwards,  as 
marshal-general  in  the  Dutch  service,  he 
commanded  against  the  armies  of  Louis 
XIV. 

Waldemar,  King  of  Sweden  {b.  1242,  d. 
1302),  was  elected  in  1250,  but  defeated  by 
his  brother,  Magnus  I.,  ia  1279,  and  died  in 
prison. 

Waldemar  I.,  "the  Great,"  King  of 
Denmark  {b.  1131,  d.  1182),  became  king  in 
1157  ;  after  a  struggle  with  his  rivals,  put 
down  the  piracies  of  the  Wends,  refused  to 
do  homage  to  the  Emperor  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  but  assisted  him  against  Henry  the 
Lion  (q.v.).  Some  of  his  laws  are  still  in 
force. 

Waldemar  II. ,  "  the  Victorious  "  (d.llil), 
came  to  the  throne  in  1202,  on  the  death  of 
his  elder  brother :  made  Norway  tributary  ; 
conquered  Eastern  Pomerania  (now  Prussia) 
in  1210 ;  received  the  title  of  King  of  the 
Wends  from  Frederick  II.  for  his  assistance 
against  Otto  ;  conquered  but  lost  Esthonia, 
and  was  obliged  to  renounce  his  German 
territories  in  order  to  procure  his  release 
from  Henry,  Count  of  Schwerin.  The  title 
Waldemae  III.  is  variously  given  to  the 
son  of  Waldemae  II.  (1218-31),  and  to  the 
son  of  Christopher  II.,  the  latter  reigning 
1340-1375. 

Walden,  Thomas  [Netter]  (d.  1430), 
principal  of  the  CarmeUtes  in  England, 
and  confessor  of  Henry  V.  ;  wrote  Doc- 
trinale  Antiquum  Fidei  Fcclesiee  Catholicce, 
against  the  Lollards,  and  was  perhaps 
author  of  Fasciculi  Zizaniorum  Johannis 
WycUf. 

Wales,  Prince  of.     \^Sce  Albert  Edward.] 

WalewsM,  Alexandre  Colonna,  Count 
{b.  1810,  d.  1868),  French  statesman,  natural 
son  of  Napoleon  I.  by  a  Polish  countess ; 
becnme  a  French  subject  after  the  failure 
of  the  rising  of  1830,  and  was  much  em- 
ployed diplomatically  by  Napoleon  III., 
being  also  foreign  minister  from  1855  to 
1800,  and  president  of  the  Corps  Legislatif 
in  1865. 


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Walford,  Edward  {b.  1823),  English 
writer,  author  of  numerous  works,  among 
which  may  be  named  Londoniana,  The 
County  Families  of  the  United  Kingdom,  part 
of  Old  and  Xew  London,  Greater  London,  and 
sevei-al  biographical  and  educational  books. 

Walford,  Mrs.  Lucy  Bethia,  novelist ;  pub- 
lished in  Bli(ckwood''s  Magazine  The  Babi/s 
Grandmother,  A  Stiffnecked  Generatio)i,  and 
other  works,  and  also  wrote  Mr.  Smith,  etc. 
She  married  in  1869  Mr.  A.  S.  Walford. 

Walid  L,  Ommiad  Kialif  of  Damascus  {d. 
715),  came  to  the  throne  in  705,  and  acquired 
Armenia,  Cilicia,  and  Cappadocia  from  the 
Greek  Empire,  tlie  great  mosque  of  Damascus 
being  also  begun  in  his  reign. 

WaUd  II.,  "Al  Fassik"  {b.  703,  d.  744), 
succeeded  Hescham  in  743,  but  was  soon 
after  put  to  death. 

Walker,  Clement  {d.  1651),  political 
writer .;  autlior  of  History  of  Independency , 
from  a  Presbyterian  standpoint ;  was  im- 
prisoned by  Cromwell,  and  wrote  a  violent 
treatise  against  him  when  in  the  Tower. 

Walker,  Francis  Amasa  (A.  1840),  Ameri- 
can economist  and  statistician,  son  of  Amasa 
Walkee  {d.  1875),  author  of  The  Science  of 
Wealth  (1866),  was  wounded  and  made 
prisoner  in  the  Civil  war.  He  was  professor 
of  political  economy  at  Yale  from  1873  to 
1881,  his  Political  Economy  being  published 
in  1883. 

Walker,  Frederick,  A.E.A.  {b.  1840,  d. 
1875),  painter  ;  engraved  the  illustrations  to 
Thackeray's  novels,  and  exhibited  both  at 
the  exhibitions  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in 
Water  Colours  and  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
His  Tag  rants  (1868),  now  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  and  The  Bathers  (1867), 
were  his  best  pictures. 

Walker,  George  {cl.  1690),  Lnsh  clergy- 
man, received  the  thanks  of  Parliament  for 
his  defence  of  Derry  against  James  II.,  and, 
after  being  named  bishop  of  that  see,  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 

Walker,  John  (b.  1732,  d.  1807),  lexico- 
gi-apher,  liis  chief  work,  a  Critical  Pro- 
nouncing Dictionary,  being  published  in 
1775. 

Walker,  Robert  {d.  circa  1659),  painter; 
executed  several  portraits  of  Cromwell  (one 
of  which  is  in  the  British  Museum),  as  well 
as  of  Blake  and  other  contemporaries. 

Walker,  Thomas  (b.  1784,  d.  1836), 
humorist ;  was  an  active  police  magistrate, 
but  is  chiefly  remembered  by  his  weekly 
publication.  The  Original  (1835). 

Walker,  William  Sidney  (b.  179'),  d.  1846), 
poet    and   scholar,   educated    at  Eton   and 


Trinity  College.  Edited  a  Corpus  Poetarum 
Latinarum ;  left,  besides  Poetical  Pemains, 
copious  notes  on  the  text  and  versification  of 
Shakespeare,  which  were  embodied  in  books 
published  in  1854  and  1860. 

Walker- Arnott,  George  {b.  1799,  d.  1868), 
botanist ;  lield  the  chair  of  botany  at 
Glasgow  from  1845  till  his  death,  travelled 
extensively,  and  collaborated  with  Hooker 
in  his  British  Flora  and  other  works. 

Wall,  Joseph,  "Governor  Wall"  {d. 
1802)  ;  was  tried  and  hanged  for  the  murder 
of  Benjamin  Armstrong,  who  received  eight 
hundred  lashes  by  his  orders  as  governor  of 
Goree  in  1782,  the  soldier  having  demanded 
for  the  men  arrears  of  pay. 

Wall,  William  (d.  1728),  divine,  incumbent 
of  Shoreham ;  was  author  of  History  of 
Infant  Baptism. 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russel,  F.R.S.  (6.1822), 
scientific  writer  ;  visited  South  America  and 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  publishing  the  re- 
sults of  his  observations  on  his  return, 
among  his  other  works  being  Contributions 
to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection  (1871),  Cn 
Miracles  and  Modern  Spiritualism  (1875), 
Land  JUationalisation  (1882) ,  and  Darwinism 
(1889).  The  discovery  of  the  evolution  hypo- 
thesis was  arrived  at  by  him  at  the  same 
time  as  by  Darwin.  In  1884  he  pubHshed 
a  strong  attack  upon  vaccination.  In  1881 
he  received  a  Civil  List  pension  of  £100. 

Wallace,  Lewis  (b.  1827,  at  Brookville, 
Indiana),  American  general,  diplomatist, 
lawyer  and  author.  He  served  as  first  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Mexican  war ;  engaged  in  the 
practice  of  law  in  Indiana  from  1848 ;  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  in  1861;  served 
through  the  Civil  war.  From  1881  to  1885 
he  was  United  States  minister  to  Turkey. 
Author  of  77(6  Fair  God  (1873),  Ben  Hur 
(1880),  The  Boyhood  of  Christ  (1888),  The 
Prince  of  India' {^n)'. 

WaUace,  Sir  WilHam  {d.  1305),  Scotch 
hero  ;  headed  the  rising  of  1297  against  the 
English,  and  won  a  victory  at  Cambus 
Kenneth,  after  which  he  crossed  the  border, 
and  was  named  guardian  of  Scotland  on 
his  return.  Next  year,  however,  he  was 
defeated  by  Edward  I.  at  Falkirk,  after 
which,  deserted  by  the  nobles,  he  carried  on 
a  guerilla  warfare  for  seven  years.  After 
being  imprisoned  in  France,  whose  aid  he 
had  sought,  he  was  declared  an  outlaw  in 
1304,  and  having  been  captured  next  year 
was  sent  to  London  and  hanged. 

WaUace,  WilUam  Vincent  [b.  1814,  d. 
1865),  musical  composer,  bom  at  Waterford ; 
travelled  in  both  hemisi^heres,  and  lived  for 
some  time  in  Mexico  and  New  York. 
Among  his  operas  were  Maritana   (1846)^ 


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Lurline    (1860),     and     The    Amber     Witch 
(1861),  and  he  left  also  many  songs. 

Wallenstein,  Albrecht,  Grai  von  Wald- 
stein  (A.  1583,  d.  1634),  Duke  of  Friedland, 
Imperialist  general,  of  noble  Bohemian 
family  ;  after  servLug  against  the  Tui'ks,  the 
Venetians,  and  Bethlen  Gabor,  raised  an 
army  at  his  own  expense  in  1626  for  the  em- 
peror, and  defeated  Mansfeld  and  the  Danes. 
In  1630  he  was  deprived  of  his  command  by 
the  jealousy  of  the  League,  but  was  soon 
recalled  to  oppose  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The 
Swedish  king  was  repulsed  at  Breitenfeld 
(1632),  but  Wallenstein  was  defeated  at 
Liitzen,  where  Gustavus  fell.  After  his 
defeat  he  negotiated  with  France,  and 
having  been  outlawed  by  the  emperor,  was 
assassinated  at  Eger. 

Waller,  Edmund  (o.  1605,  d.  1687),  Eughsh 
poet ;  sat  in  the  Long  Parliament,  and  was 
imprisoned  in  1643  for  complicity  in  a 
RoyaKst  plot,  but  was  restored  to  his  estates 
by  Cromwell,  and  enjoyed  the  favour  of 
Charles  H.  and  James  II.  He  is  remem- 
bered by  his  love  poems,  addressed  to  Lady 
Dorothea  Sidney,  under  the  name  of 
"Sacharissa." 


Waller,  Sir  WilUam  {b.  1697,  d.  1668),  a 
Presbyterian  member  oi  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment ;  became  second  in  command  on  the 
outbreak  of  war  with  the  king.  He  gained 
some  successes  in  the  west,  but  was  re- 
moved by  the  Self-Denying  Ordinance,  and 
afterwards  twice  imprisoned. 

WalliB,  Henry  (b.  1830),  painter,  his  chef 
d^eeuvre  being  The  Death  of  Chatterton. 
Many  of  his  subjects  are  drawn  from  the  Ufe 
of  mediaeval  Venice. 

WaUis,  Eobert  (i.  1794,  d.  1878),  line- 
engraver,  executed  plates  for  Turner's 
pictures.  His  engraving  of  Lake  Nemx  being 
especially  valued. 

Wallon,  Henri  Alexandre  {h.  1812),  French 
historian  and  politician  ;  had  a  considerable 
share  in  the  establishment  of  the  third 
republic,  and  in  1875  became  minister  of 
public  instruction.  Among  his  works  are 
Jeanne  d'' Arc,  Richard  II.,  and  Le  Trihuuid 
Revolntxonnaire  de  Paris  (1886).  In  1878 
he  was  candidate  for  membership  of  the 
Acadi'mie  against  M.  Renan. 

Walpole,  Horace  {b.  nn,d.  1797),  Eng- 
lish writer,  youngest  son  of  Sir  Robert,  and 
friend  of  Gray ;  retired  from  public  Ufe 
in  1768,  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  fine  arts.  He  wrote  Memoirs, 
The  Castle  of  Otranto,  a  novel,  Historic 
Doubts  on  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard 
III.,  and  other  works,  and  his  published 
correspondence  extends  from  1735  to  1797. 
In  1791  he  became  Earl  of  Orford. 
V  V 


Walpole,  Sir  Eobert  (b.  1676,  d.  1745), 
statesman  ;  entered  Parliament  as  a  Whig 
in  1701,  became  Secretary -at -War  in  1708, 
and  having  been  one  of  the  managers  of 
Sacheverell's  impeachment  was  expelled  the 
House  by  the  Tories  on  the  fall  of  Marl- 
borough on  a  charge  of  corruj)tion.  He 
again  held  office  from  the  accession  of 
George  I.  till  1717,  and  from  1720  till  his 
resignation  in  1742  was  the  most  influential 
minister,  his  power  being  founded  on  his 
conduct  in  relation  to  the  failure  of  the 
South  Sea  scheme,  and  later  on  the  favoxir 
of  Queen  Caroline.  He  was  created  Earl  of 
Orford  in  1742. 

Walpole,  Right  Hon.  Spencer  Horatio  {b. 
1806),  statesman;  was  Home  Secretary 
under  Lord  Derby  in  1852,  and  in  1858-59 
held  the  same  ofiice,  as  also  in  1866-67.  He 
represented  Cambridge  University  from  1856 
to  1882: 

Walpole,  Spencer  (Jb.  1839),  son  of  the 
above ;  became  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
Isle  of  Man  in  1882,  and  published  a  History 
of  England  from  1815,  a.  Life  of  Mr.  Perceval, 
and  other  historical  works. 

Walsh,  Right  Rev.  WilKam  John  {b.  1841), 
Irish  Catholic  divine :  became  president  of 
Maynooth  College  in  1880,  and  Archbishop 
of  Dublin  1885.  He  acts  with  the  Na- 
tionahst  party,  but  declared  against  Mr. 
Parnell  on  the  decision  of  the  Divorce  Court 
against  him. 

Walshe,  Walter  Hayle,  M.D.  {b.  1816), 
Irish  physician ;  was  for  several  years  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  in  University  College, 
London,  resigning  in  1862,  and  published 
Practical  Treatise  on  the  Lungs,  and  several 
other  works. 

Walsingham,  Sir  Francis  {b.  1536,  d. 
15'.»()),  statesman;  having  been  ambassador 
at  Paris  for  tliree  years,  became  Secretary  of 
State  in  1573.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners for  the  trial  of  Mary  Stuart, 
whose  designs,  and  those  of  the  Jesuits,  he 
succeeded  in  thwarting  by  his  elaborate 
system  of  espionage. 

Walsingham,  Thomas  (15th  century), 
Benedictine  monk ;  author  of  a  History  jyf 
England  from  1^3  to  the  Death  of  Henry  V., 
and  other  works. 

Walter,  John  (i.  1773,  d.  1847),  succeeded 
his  fatlier  in  the  proprietorship  of  the  Times 
in  1803,  and  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for 
several  years.  It  was  under  his  mau;ige- 
ment  that  steam-power  was  first  applied  to 
printing  in  1814. 

Walter,  John  (b.  1818),  son  of  the  above, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  the  chief  proprietor- 
ship of  the  Times,  represented  Nottingham 
as  a  moderate  Liberal  from  1847  to  1859,  and 


Wal 


(  722  ) 


War 


Berkshire  from  1859  to  1865,  and  from  1868 
to  1885. 

Waltber,  Bernard  {d.  1504),  German 
astrouomer,  and  supposed  discoverer  of  the 
regular  effect  of  atmospheric  refraction. 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  {ft.  1200), 
miuuesinger ;  patronised  by  Frederick  II. 
(whose  crusade  in  1228  he  accompanied), 
and  other  German  princes  of  the  time; 
travelled  widely,  took  part  in  the  poetical 
contest  in  the  Wartburg  (1206),  and  wrote 
love  songs  and  uatioual  airs,  which  have 
been  since  modernised.  A  life  of  the  poet 
was  written  by  Uhlaud. 

Walton,  Brian  (*.  1600,  d.  1661),  EngHsh 
divine  ;  projector  and  editor  of  the  Polyglot 
Bible  (1651-57),  was  deprived  of  his  prebend 
at  St.  Paul's  as  a  delinquent,  but  on  the 
Restoration  became  chaplain  to  tl^e  king 
and  Bishop  of  Chester. 

Walton,  Izaak  {b.  1593,  d.  1683),  was  for 
some  time  a  hosier  in  Fleet  Street,  and  took 
part  with  the  Royalists  during  the  Civil 
war.  The  Compleat  Angler :  or,  Contem- 
plative Mail's  Jtecreatioii,  appeared  in  1653, 
and  a  facsimile  of  the  first  edition  was 
printed  in  1879.  Walton  also  wrote  lives  of 
Dr.  Donne,  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  and  other 
friends  and  contemporaries. 

Wanklyn,  James  Alfred  {b.  1834),  chemist ; 
was  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  London 
Institution  1863-70,  and  lecturer  at  St. 
George's  Hospital  1877-80.  With  some 
others  he  invented  the  ammonia  process  of 
water  analysis,  and  (with  W.  J.  Cooper)  the 
moist  combustion  process,  and  published 
Bread  Analysis,  Treatise  on  Tea,  Coffee,  and 
Cocoa,  with  other  works. 

Wappera,  Gustaf,  Baron  {b.  1803,  d.  1874), 
Belgian  painter ;  founded  a  new  national 
school,  examples  of  which  were  TJie  Devo- 
tion of  the  Burgomasters  of  Leyden,  The 
Farting  of  Charles  I.  with  his  Children,  and 
The  Defence  of  the  Island  of  Rhodes. 

Warbeck,  Perkin  {d.  1499),  landed  in 
Ireland  in  1492,  calling  himself  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  and  five  years  after,  with  the 
support  of  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy,  of 
France  and  of  Scotland,  invaded  Cornwall. 
Having  been  induced  to  quit  sanctuary,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower  and  executed,  a  con- 
fession of  his  imposture  being  published ;  but 
his  identity  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
established. 

Warburton,  Eliot  (Jb.  1810,  d.  1852),  Eng- 
lish writer,  author  of  The  Crescent  and  the 
Cross  (an  account  of  his  travels  in  the  East), 
Monoirs  of  Prince  Rupert,  etc.  ;  perished  in 
the  Amazon,  which  was  burnt  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay. 


Warburton,  WilUam  (b.  1698,  d.  1779), 
divine  and  writer,  was  successively  chaplain 
to  the  king.  Dean  of  Bristol,  and  Bishop  of 
Gloucester,  his  chief  works  having  been 
A  Critical  and  Fhilosophlcal  Inquiry  into  the 
Causes  of  Prodigies  and  Miracles  as  Related  by 
Historians,  The  Divine  Legation  of  Moses, 
and  editions  of  Shakespeare  and  Pope. 

Ward,  Adolphus  William,  Litt.  D.  {b. 
1837),  English  writer;  became  professor  of 
history  and  literature  at  Owens  College 
in  1866,  and  subsequently  vice-chancellor  of 
the  Victoria  University.  Besides  contribu- 
tions to  the  Dictionary  of  National  Bio- 
graphy, etc.,  he  published  ^iiiory  of  Greece, 
The  House  of  Austria  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  and  several  other  works. 


Ward,  Artemus, 
Farrer  IBrowne  {b. 
humorist ;  after 
years  a  journalist, 
1861,  and  visited 
published  sketches 
as  Tlie  Complete  W 


nom  de  plume  of  Charles 
1834,  d.  1867),  American 
having  been  for  some 
began  to  give  lectm'es  in 
England  in  1866.  His 
were  collected  and  issued 
orks  of  Artemus  Ward. 


Ward,  Edward  Matthew,  R.A.  {b.  1816, 
d.  1879),  historical  painter,  pupil  of  Wilkie, 
several  of  whose  pictures  {^The  Disgrace  of 
Lord  Clarendon,  The  South  Sea  Bubble,  etc.) 
are  in  the  National  Gallery,  London  ;  com- 
mitted suicide  while  suffering  from  de- 
pression. 

Ward,  H.  Marshall,  F.R.S.  (*.  1854), 
physiological  botanist ;  was  sent  to  report  on 
the  causes  of  the  coffee  leaf  disease  in  1879, 
and  in  1885  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Cooper's  Hill.  His  chief  works  are  The 
Diseases  of  Plants,  and  Timber,  and  Some  of 
its  Diseases. 

Ward,  James,  R.A.  {b.  1769,  d.  1859), 
animal  painter,  his  most  famous  works 
being  The  Bull  Bait,  The  Bull,  and  Land- 
scape with  Cattle,  now  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London. 

Ward,  John  Quincey  Adams  (b.  1830), 
American  sculptor,  among  whose  produc- 
tions are  colossal  statues  of  Washington 
and  Garfield,  and  The  Pilgrim  at  New- 
York. 

Ward,  Maiy  Augusta  {b.  1851),  English 
writer,  niece  of  Matthew  Arnold,  and 
author  of  Robert  Elsmere  (1888),  a  trans- 
lation of  Amiel's  Journal  (1885),  and  The 
History  of  David  Grieve  (1892),  married  in 
1872  Mr.  T.  Humphry  Waed  (b.  1845), 
journalist,  editor  of  Men  of  the  Reign,  The 
Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  other  works. 

Ward,  Robert  Plumer  (b.  1765,  d.  1846), 
politician  and  novelist,  held  several  sub- 
ordinate offices  between  1805  and  1810 ; 
wrote  Tremaine  and  other  novels,  and  His- 
tory of  the  Law  of  Nations.    His  son,  Sir 


War 


(723) 


Wat 


Henet  Waed  (d.  1860),  held  the  office  of 
governor  of  the  Ionian  Islands  (1849),  of 
Ceylon  (1856)  aaid  of  Madras  (I860). 

Ward,  William  George,  D.D.  (Jb.  1812,  d. 
1882),  theologian;  -while  fellow  of  Balliol 
took  part  in  the  Tractarian  movement,  and 
in  1844  published  The  Ideal  of  a  Christian 
Church  Considered  in  Comparison  with  its 
Existing  Practice,  which  was  condemned  by 
Convocation.  The  writer  shortly  after 
joined  the  Boman  Church. 

Warham,  William  {b.  1460,  d.  1532),  divine, 
was  Master  of  the  Rolls  and  Lord  Chan- 
cellor under  Henry  VII. ;  became  Bishop  of 
London  in  1503,  and  Primate  next  year,  but 
resigned  the  Great  Seal  in  1515,  bemg  again 
ofiEered  it  on  the  fall  of  Wolsey. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley  {b.  1829),  Ameri- 
can humorist;  author  of  My  Summer  in  a 
Garden  (1870),  The  Gilded  Age  (with  Mark 
Twain),  Studies  in  the  South  and  West,  etc. 

Warner,  John  {d.  1666),  English  divine, 
successively  Dean  of  Lichfield  and  Bishop 
of  Rochester,  founded  Bromley  College  near 
that  town,  and  also  some  scholarships  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford. 

Warner,  William  (b.  circa  1558),    poet, 

author  of  Albion'' s  England. 

Warre,  Edmond,  D.D.  (b.  1836),  was  ap- 
pointed head-master  of  Eton  College  in  1884, 
having  been  assistant-master  since  1860. 

Warren,  Colonel  Sir  Charles,  F.R.S.  {b. 
1840),  administrator;  conducted  excavations 
for  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  and 
wrote  Underground  Jerusalem,  and  other 
works  on  the  subject;  held  commands  in 
the  Gaika  war  and  Bechuanaland,  and  as 
administrator  of  Griqualand  West  organised 
a  volunteer  force  in  the  Zulu  war  of  1880. 
He  was  employed  in  Egypt  (1882),  Bechu- 
analand (1884-5),  and  was  Commissioner  of 
the  Metropolitan  Police  1886-8,  after  which 
he  became  governor  of  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments. 

Warren,  Sir  Peter  {b.  1703,  d.  1752), 
admiral,  took  Louisbourg  in  1745,  and 
defeated  a  French  attempt  to  recover  it. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

_  Warren.  Samuel  {h.  1807,  d.  1877),  Eng- 
lish lawyer  and  writer,  whose  chief  works 
were  Diary  of  a  Late  Physician,  Ten  Thou- 
sand a  Year  (1841),  and  The  Moral  and 
Intellectual  Development  of  the  Age  (1854), 
was  appointed  Master  in  Lunacy  in  1859. 

Warton,  Thomas  {b.  1728,  d.  1790),  author 
of  History  of  English  Toetry  (1774-81),  was 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  1757-67,  and 
was  named  poet-laureate  in  1785.  Besides 
some  satires,  h«  also  published  an  edition 

T7U2 


of  Theocritus.  His  brother,  Joseph  {d. 
1800),  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  poetry,  and 
was  head-master  of  Winchester  for  many 
years. 

Warwick,  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of,  "the 
Bang-maker"  {b.  circa  1420,  d.  1471),  was 
created  EaxI  in  1449,  and  joined  the  York- 
ists, getting  Edward  IV.  crowned  by  his  in- 
fluence, and  defeating  his  enemies  at  Towton 
(1461);  quarrelled  with  Edward,  and  restored 
Henry  VI.  in  1470,  but  was  defeated  and 
slain  at  Bamet  next  year. 

Warwick,  Edward  Plantagenet,  Earl  of 
{d.  1499),  son  of  George,  Duke  of  Clarence, 
and  grandson  of  the  above  ;  was  imprisoned 
and  beheaded  by  Henry  VII.  as  the  heir  of 
the  Yorkist  claims. 

Washington,  George  (*.  1732,  d.  1799), 
American  leader,  son  of  a  Virginian  planter ; 
was  defeated  by  a  sujierior  French  force  at 
Great  Meadows,  and  shared  in  the  disaster 
of  Braddock  (1755) ;  opposed  the  taxation 
of  the  colonies,  and  was  named  commander 
of  the  Continental  army  in  1775,  and  though 
badly  supported  brought  the  war  to  a  suc- 
cessful issue  by  the  capture  of  Yorktown 
(1781).  In  1789  he  was  elected  first  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  of  America,  was 
re-elected  in  1793,  and  resigned  in  1797. 

Watelet,  Claude  Henri  (b.  \1\%  d.  1786), 
wrote  and  illustrated  L'Art  de  Eeindre,  a 
poem  (1760). 

Waterhouse,  Alfred,  R.A.  (J.  1830),  archi- 
tect and  painter,  the  chief  specimens  of 
whose  skill  are  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  GLrton  College,  Cambridge,  and 
the  Manchester  Assize  Courts. 

Waterland,  Daniel  {b.  1683,  d.  1740), 
divine ;  held  a  controversy  with  Clarke  on 
the  Trinity,  and  with  Tindal  the  Deist,  and 
also  wrote  a  History  of  the  Athanasian 
Creed. 

Waterloo,  Anthony  {d.  1662),  Dutch 
engraver  and  landscape  painter,  whose  pic- 
tures are  rare. 

Waterton,  Charles  {b.  1782,  d.  1865), 
naturalist,  author  of  Wanderings  in  South 
Ar.ierica  between  IS  12  and  18Z2,  and  Essays 
in  Natural  History. 

Watson,  Charles  {b.  1714,  d.  1757),  admiral, 
cooperated  with  Clive  in  India  (1754-7), 
especially  in  the  attack  on  Chandemagore. 

Watson,  John  Forbes,  M.D.  {b.  1827,  d. 
189li),  was  reporter  on  the  products  of  India 
and  director  of  the  India  Museum  1858-79, 
and  had  charge  of  the  Indian  departments 
in  tlie  London  Exhibition  of  1862,  that  of 
Paris  in  1867,  and  of  Vienna  in  1873.  He 
published  Industrial  Survey  of  India  and 
other  works. 


Wat 


(724) 


WeT) 


Watson,  Lord  {b.  1828),  was  Solicitor- 
Geueral  lor  Scotland  1874-6,  Lord  Advo- 
cate 1676-80,  and  in  the  latter  year  became 
Lord  Justice  of  Appeal  and  a  life-peer. 

Watson,  Musgrave  {b.  1804,  d.  1866), 
sculptor,  whose  chief  works  are  the  statue 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  Royal  Exchange, 
and  those  of  Lords  Eldon  and  Stowell  in  the 
library  of  University  College,  Oxford. 

Watson,  Richard  {b.  1737,  d.  1816),  divine, 
author  of  Apology  for  the  Bible  (against 
Tom  Paine)  and  Ghemical  Essays,  also  of 
An  Address  to  the  People  of  Great  Britain 
(1798),  in  support  of  the  French  war;  be- 
came Bishop  of  Llandaff  in  1782. 

Watson,  Thomas  (b.  1646,  d.  circa  1690), 
Nonconformist  divLue ;  was  imprisoned  for 
his  share  in  a  plot  to  restore  Chaiies  II.  His 
chief  work  was  his  Body  of  Divinity. 

Watson,  Sir  William  (6.  1715,  d.  1787), 
received  the  Copley  medal  in  1745  for  dis- 
coveries in  electricity,  and  was  also  a  dis- 
tinguished botanist. 

Watt,  James  (*.  1736,  d.  1819),  engineer, 
was  son  of  a  Greenock  merchant ;  as  instru- 
ment-maker to  Glasgow  University  improved 
Newcomen's  engine  by  the  separate  con- 
denser and  by  making  steam  the  motive- 
power,  and  afterwards  made  engines  of  his 
own.     He  also  invented  the  copying-press. 

Watteau,  Antoine  {b.  1684,  d.  1721), 
French  painter ;  founded  the  conventional 
pastoral  school  in  French  art. 

Watts,  Alaric  (b.  1797,  d.  1864),  English 
poet,  author  of  Lyrics  of  the  Heart  (1851), 
received  a  pension  and  an  appointment  at 
Somerset  House. 

Watts,  George  Frederick,  R.A.  (6.  1820), 
painter,  gained  a  reputation  by  his  Carac- 
tacus  Led  in  Triumph  through  the  Streets  of 
Rome  (1842).  Among  his  chief  works  are 
Fata  Morgana  (1848),  Love  and  Death 
(1877),  Time,  Death,  and  Judgment  (1878), 
and  portraits  of  Joachim,  Manning,  William 
Morris,  etc. 

Watts,  Isaac  (b.  1674,  d.  1748),  Noncon- 
formist divine ;  is  chiefly  remembered  by  his 
Dinne  and  Moral  Songs,  his  metrical  ver- 
sions of  the  Psalms,  and  his  hymns. 

Watts,  Theodore  (*.  1836),  art-critic  and 
poet,  friend  of  D.  G.  Rossetti,  his  criticism 
being  chiefly  foimd  in  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica  (niuth  edition),  and  the  Athenceum, 
while  The  Armada  and  the  Ode  to  Mother 
Carey's  Chickens  are  his  best-known  poems. 

Wauters,  !fimile  (6.  1846),  Belgian  artist, 
his  subjects  being  chiefly  historical ;  painted 
in  18S1  the  panorama  Cairo  and  the  Banks  of 
the  NxU. 


Way,  Albert  (Jb.  1805,  d.  1875),  antiquary, 
founder  of  the  Archaeological  Institute, 
whose  Journal  he  edited  for  many  years. 

Way,  Hon.  Samuel  James  {b.  1836),  Aua- 
traUan  statesman ;  was  appointed  attorney- 
general  of  South  AustraUa  in  1875,  chief 
justice  in  1876,  and  in  1890  Ueutenant- 
govemor.  He  directed  the  government  of 
the  colony  in  1877-79,  in  1883,  and  1889. 

Waynflete,  William  {d.  1486),  ecclesiastical 
statesman ;  after  being  the  first  head  of 
Eton  College  and  master  of  Winchester, 
became  Bishop  of  Winchester  in  1447,  and 
was  for  four  years  (1456-60)  Lord  Chancellor. 
He  was  the  founder  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford. 

Webbe,  Samuel  (*.  1740,  d.  1816),  English 
musician,  originally  a  cabinet-maker,  com- 
posed many  glees  and  part-songs. 

Weber,  Karl  Maria  von  (A.  1786,  d.  1826), 
German  composer,  came  of  a  musical  family, 
and  was  couuected  vrith  Mozart,  being  also 
a  pupU  of  Michael  Haydn,  and  husband  of 
CaroUne  Brand.  He  was  named  theatrical 
director  at  Prague  in  1813,  and  four  years 
later  became  conductor  of  German  opera 
at  Dresden,  and  superintended  the  produc- 
tion of  Oberon  at  Covent  Garden  shortly 
before  his  death.  His  greatest  works  were 
the  operas  Der  Freischutz  (1821)  and  Eury- 
anthe  (1823),  the  Jubilee  Overture  (1818), 
and  settings  of  national  airs. 

Webster,  Augusta  (weVDaviss),  poet,  her 
early  works  appearing  over  the  signature 
"  Cecil  Howe,"  but  her  chief  poems,  A 
Woman  Sold  (1867),  The  Auspicious  Day, 
/♦■  a  Day,  and  other  dramas  were  published 
u^der  her  own  name.  She  was  a  member  of 
the  London  School  Board  for  several  years. 

Webster,  Benjamin  (*.  1800,  d.  1882), 
actor  and  manager;  became  lessee  of  the 
Haymarket  in  1829,  and  produced  some  of 
the  best  contemporary  plays  which  were 
interpreted  by  Macready  and  the  best 
players  of  the  day.  Of  his  own  parts 
Triplet  {Masks  and  Faces)  and  Robert 
Landry  {The  Dead  Heart)  were  among  the 
best.  He  afterwards  held  the  management 
of  the  Adelphi  and  other  houses,  where  his 
One  Touch  of  Nature  was  produced  in  1859. 

Webster,  Daniel  {h.  1782,  d.  1852),  Ameri- 
can statesman ;  entered  Congress  in  1812, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  debates  concerning 
the  war  with  England,  and  in  1818  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  advocate  in  the  Dart- 
mouth College  case.  He  made  notable 
orations  on  the  bi-centenary  celebration  of 
the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  on 
otlier  anniversaries,  and  was  secretary  of 
state  under  Hairison  (1840-43),  and  again 
held  tliat  office  from  1850  till  his  death, 
being  a  prominent  Whig  leader. 


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Webster,  John  (I7th  century),  English 
drdmatist,  who&e  chief  plays  were  The  JVhite 
Devil,  The  Duchess  of  MaJfi  (1616),  and 
Appius  and  Virgi7iia. 

Webster,  Noah  {b.  1758,  d.  1843),  Ameri- 
can lexicographer;  author  of  a  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language  (1806),  American 
Dictionarg,  etc. 

Webster,  Sir  Richard  {b.  1842),  Charter- 
house  and  Trinity  College,  English  lawyer  ; 
became  Queen's  Counsel  ia  1878,  was 
Attorney -General  1885-86,  and  again  iu 
Lord  Salisbury's  second  ministry.  He  led 
the  case  for  the  Times  against  the  Irish 
members  in  1888-89. 

Webster,  Thomas,  R.A.  (b.  1800,  d.  1886), 
English  artist,  best  known  by  his  popular 
pictures — The  Smile,  The  Frown,  and  The 
Boy  with  Many  Friends  (exhibited  1841). 

Wedgwood,  Josiah  (J>.  1730,  d.  1795), 
potter  ;  set  up  at  Burslem  in  1759,  and  seven 
years  later  founded  the  village  of  Etruria, 
at  the  same  time  opening  a  branch  in. 
London.  He  made  a  large  fortune,  his 
greatest  work  being  the  imitation  of  the 
Barberini  (Portland)  vase  in  1790. 

Wedmore,  Frederick  {b.  1844),  writer  on 
art,  his  chief  works  being  Studies  in  F)igHsh 
Art,  Masters  of  Genre  Painting  (1880),  and 
a  Life  of  Balzac.  He  made  known  in  Eng- 
land the  works  of  Mt'ryon  the  etcher. 

Weekes,  Henry,  E.A.  (*.  1807,  d.  1877), 
Englisli  sculptor,  among  his  best  productions 
being  America  in  the  Albert  Memorial,  and 
busts  of  Queen  Victoria  after  her  accession, 
and  of  Dean  Bnckland  in  the  National 
Portrait  Gallery,  London. 

Weenix,  Jan,  "the  Elder"  (*.  1621,  d. 
1660),  Dutch  painter,  excelled  in  the  paint- 
ing of  birds. 

Weenix,  Jan,  "the  Younger"  {b.  1640,  d. 
1719),  son  of  the  above.  His  speciality 
weis  hunting  pieces  and  pictures  of  dead 
game. 

Weever,  John  {d.  circa  1662),  antiquary, 
author  of  Ancient  Funeral  Momitnents  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Weir,  Harrison  William  (b.  1824),  artist 
and  writer  on  natural  history,  his  chief 
books  being  The  Poetry  of  Nature  and 
Animal  Stories,  Old  and  Neiv,  his  pictures 
dealing  with  similar  subjects,  besides  illus- 
trations of  popular  publications. 

Weishaupt,  Adam  {b.  1748,  d.  18.^0), 
fomided  in  1776  the  order  of  the  "  Illu- 
minati,"  in  order  to  combat  the  influence 
of  the  Jesuits,  but  this,  as  a  secret  society, 
was  looked  upon  with  disfavour  by  the 
German  princes. 


Weisse,  Christian  Felix  {b.  1726,  d.  1804), 
German  writer,  friend  of  Lessing,  and 
author  of  Der  Kinder- Freund. 

Weld,  Charles  Robert  {b.  1818,  d.  1869), 
miscellaneous  writer,  his  chief  work  being 
his  History  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  whose  expe- 
ditions he  assisted  to  organise. 

Weldon,John  (a.  173G),  English  composer, 
pupil  of  Purcell  and  organist  of  the  Chapel 
Royal ;  composed  many  anthems  and  songs. 

Welldon,  James  Cowell  {b.  1854),  scholar ; 
after  a  distinguished  course  at  Cambridge, 
became  head-master  of  Dulwich  in  1883, 
and  of  Harrow  in  1885.  He  pubUshed  a 
translation  of  Aristotle's  Politics. 

Wellesley,  Richard  Colley,  Marquis  (i. 
1760,  d.  1842),  statesman,  elder  brother  of  the 
Duke  of  WelUngton  ;  succeeded  to  the  Lish 
title  of  Earl  of  Mornington  on  the  death  of 
his  father,  and  in  1785  entered  the  English 
House  of  Commons.  In  1797  he  became  a 
British  peer,  and  was  named  Governor- 
General  of  India,  a  post  which  he  held  till 
1805.  He  was  created  marquis  in  1799.  On 
his  return  he  joined  the  Canningites,  and  in 
1809  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Madrid  to 
support  his  brother,  and  in  the  same  year 
became  Foreign  Secretary,  holding  office  for 
about  two  years.  On  the  death  of  Perceval 
he  was  invited  to  take  office,  but  was  unable, 
and  for  the  next  ten  years  supported  Catholic 
Emancipation  with  the  Whigs.  From  1821 
to  1828  he  was  Lord -Lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
and  again  in  1833-34.  He  retired  from 
public  life  in  1835. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley  [Wesley], 
Diike  of  {b.  1769,  d.  1852),  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  the  Military  Academy  of  Angers, 
and  entered  the  army  in  1787.  As  lieutenant- 
colonel  he  served  in  Holland  (1794),  and  in 
1797  was  sent  to  India.  In  1799,  under 
General  Harris,  he  stormed  Seriugapatam, 
^'°eated  the  Mahrattas  at  Assaye  in  1803, 
and  returned  home  two  years  later.  After 
serving  at  Copeuliagen  (1806),  and  sitting 
in  Parliament  for  two  years  (being  Irish 
Secretary  in  1807),  he  was  sent  to  Portugal 
in  1808.  Having  won  the  victories  of  Roli^a 
and  Vimiera,  he  was  superseded,  but  m 
1809  was  again  in  the  Peninsula.  He 
was  made  a  peer  for  the  victorj-  of  Talavera, 
and  won  the  battle  of  Busaco  iu  1810,  after 
which  he  constructed  the  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras.  This  was  followed  by  Fuentes  d' 
Ofloro  (1811),  the  capture  of  CiudadRodrigo 
and  Badajoz  (1812),  and  the  victory  of 
Salamanca  in  the  same  year.  He  was  now 
created  marquis,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Vittoria  drove  the  French  across  the 
Pyrenees.  After  being  made  field-marshal 
and  duke,  he  attended  the  CoTigresB  of 
Vienna,  which  he  left  to  meet  Napoleon  at 


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Waterloo.  In  1827  lie  became  commander- 
in-chief,  and  in  1828  was  for  the  first  time 
Premier.  After  yielding  on  the  Catholic 
question,  he  resigned  in  1830  on  that  of 
reform,  incurring  great  unpopularity.  In 
1834  he  again  held  office,  but  resigned  next 
year,  and  in  1841  joined  the  Cabinet  of  Sir 
R.  Peel.  He  attended  the  House  of  Lords 
to  the  last,  and  received  a  state  funeral  at 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

WeUs,  Charles  Jeremiah  (*.  1800,  d.  1879), 
poet  and  friend  of  Keats ;  published  the 
drama  Joseph  and,  his  Brethren  in  1822,  but 
is  said  to  have  destroyed  most  of  his  work, 
which  was  highly  praised  by  Hazlitt  and 
Swinburne  among  others.  He  left  England 
in  1840,  and  died  in  France. 

Wells,  Charles  William  (Jb.  1757,  d.  1817), 
natural  philosopher  and  physician  to  St. 
Thomas's  Hospital;  published  in  1814  his 
Essay  on  Dew,  which  was  reprinted  in 
1866. 

Wells,  Henry  Tan  worth,  R.A.  (b.  1828), 
artist ;  made  his  reputation  as  a  miniaturist, 
among  his  best  efforts  being  Victoria  Regiiia 
(1880)  and  Friends  at  Tewden  (1882). 

WeUs,  Sir  Thomas  Spencer,  Bart.,  M.D. 
(b.  1818),  surgeon ;  served  in  the  Crimean 
war,  in  the  Smyrna  and  Bankoi  hospitals, 
and  on  his  return  made  a  speciality  of  gynae- 
cology. In  1883,  in  which  year  he  was 
president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
he  received  a  baronetcy. 

Welsli,  John  {d.  1622),  Presbyterian 
divine  ;  resisted  the  church  policy  of  James 
I.  in  Scotland,  and  in  1606  was  exiled  for 
high  treason  to  France.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  John  Knox. 

Wemyss,  Right  Hon.  Francis  Charteris, 
Earl  of  {b.  1818),  politician ;  represented 
East  Gloucestershire  1841-46,  and  Had- 
dingtonshire (1847-82)  as  Lord  Elcho.  He 
was  a  lord  of  the  Treasury  18.53-54,  and 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  Volunteer 
movement,  and  an  opponent  of  State  inter- 
ference. 

Wenceslaus,  King  of  Bohemia  and  Em- 
peror (Jb.  1361,  d.  1419),  ruled  with  great 
cruelty,  cancelling  debts  due  to  the  Jews, 
He  was  deposed  from  the  empire  in  1400, 
but  retained  the  Bohemian  crown. 

^  Wendover,  Roger  of  {d.  1237),  monk  of 
St.  Alban's ;  author  of  Flores  Historiarum, 
which  was  translated  by  Dr.  Giles  (Bohn's 
Antiquarian  Library). 

Wensleydale,  James  Parke,  Baron  {b. 
1782,  d.  1868),  became  a  judge  of  the  Coiirt 
of  King's  Bench  in  1823,  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Exchequer  six  years  later.  In 
1856    he  was  created  a  life  peer,  but  his 


right  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords  was  dis- 
puted. 

WentwortlL     [^See  Strafford.] 

Wemer,  Abraham  {b.  1750,  d.  1817), 
German  geologist,  of  great  authority  till  the 
days  of  Lyell,  his  great  work  being  New 
Theory  on  the  Formation  of  Mineral  Veins. 

Werner,  Friedrich  Zacharias  (b.  1768,  d. 
1823),  mad  German  dramatist,  patronised  by 
Schlegel  and  Madame  de  Stael.  His  chief 
works  were  Die  Sohne  des  Thais  (1803),  and 
The  Twenty-fourth  of  February  (1815).  He 
divorced  three  wives,  and  in  1814  became  a 
Roman  priest. 

Wesley,  Charles  (b.  1708,  d.  1788),  divine, 
younger  brother  oi  John  Wesley  (q.v.),  is 
chiefly  remembered  by  his  hymns. 

Wesley,  John  (J>.  1703,  d.  1791),  founder 
of  the  Wesleyan  "  Methodists,"  a  name 
given  to  him  while  at  Oxford  in  1730  from 
his  strict  observances.  From  1735  to  1737 
he  was  in  Georgia  on  a  mission  to  the  In- 
dians, and  soon  after  his  return  began 
preaching  and  organising  a  rehgious  move- 
ment. He  at  first  acted  with  Whitefield  and 
the  Moravians,  but  differences  afterwards 
arose  between  them. 

Wesley,  Samuel  (*.  1766,  d.  1837),  com- 
poser,  nephew  of  the  above;  was  a  brilliant 
organist  from  childhood,  possessing  great 
facility  in  extempore  playing.  His  anthem 
Blesst'd  be  the  God  and  Father  is,  perhaps, 
his  best-known  work. 

West,  Benjamin  {b.  1738,  d.  1820),  painter; 
became  president  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1792.  Among  his  pictures  are  Orestes  and 
Pylades  (now  ra  the  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don) The  Death  of  Wolfe,  and  Death  on  the 
Pale  Horse. 

Westbury,  Richard  Bethell,  Lord  (b.  1800, 
d.  1873),  lawyer;  took  silk  in  1840,  entered 
Parliament  in  1851,  and  soon  after  became 
SoHcitor  -  General.  As  Attorney  -  General 
(1856  and  1859)  he  framed  the  Probate  and 
Divorce  and  Fraudulent  Trustees  Acts,  and 
was  Lord  Chancellor  from  1861  to  1865. 

Westcott,  Brooke  Foss.  D.D.  (b.  1825), 
theologian ;  after  a  brilliant  course  at  Cam- 
bridge, became  fellow  of  Trinity  in  1849, 
Canon  of  Peterborough  in  1869,  and  Regius 
professor  of  di^•^mty  in  1870.  In  1890  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Durham.  His  chief 
works  are  A  General  Survey  of  the  History 
of  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  First 
Four  Centuries,  and  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Gospels. 

Westmacott,  Sir  Richard,  R.A.  (b.  1775,  d. 
1856),  sculptor;  was  knighted  in  1837,  hia 
chief    productions    being    the    statues    of 


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Addison,  Pitt,  Fox,  and  Perceval,  in  "West- 
minster Abbey,  of  Lord  W.  Bentinck  at 
Calcutta,  and  the  pediment  of  the  British 
Museum. 

Westmacott,  Richard,  R.A.  (*.  1799,  d. 
1872),  son  of  the  above ;  besides  executing 
several  busts  and  statues,  and  the  pediment 
of  the  Royal  Exchange,  wrote  A  uandbook 
of  Sculpture,  Ancient  and  Modern  (1864). 

Westwood,  John  Obadiah,  F.L.S.  {b. 
1805),  entomologist;  held  from  1861  the 
professorship  of  zoology  at  Oxford,  and 
published  Entomologist^ s  Text-Book,  in  addi- 
tion to  numerous  monographs. 

Wliaxncliffe,  James  Wortley  Mackenzie, 
Lord  (b.  1776,  d.  1845),  politician;  moved  a 
resolution  in  the  Commons  in  1812  for  "a 
strong  and  efficient  miuistry,"  and  when 
raised  to  the  peerage,  was  the  leading  Tory 
who  supported  the  Reform  BiU.  He  held 
offices  m  1834  and  1841  under  Peel,  but 
was  opposed  to  free  trade. 

Wlxaxton,  Thomas,  Marquis  of  (d.  1640, 
d.  1715),  was  a  leading  Whig  politician 
imder  William  III.  and  his  successors,  and 
was  Lord- Lieutenant  of  Lreland  for  two 
years  under  Anne.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  author  of  Lillibicllero.  His  son 
(6.  1698,  d.  1731),  after  an  intrigue  with  the 
Pretender,  was  created  duke  by  George  I. 

Whately,  Richard,  D.D.  (b.  1787,  d.  1863), 
divine  ;  after  having  been  principal  of  Alban 
Hall  and  professor  of  political  economy  at 
Oxford,  was  named  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
in  1831.  He  published  Elements  of  Logic 
(1826),  and  other  works,  and  his  religious 
views  were  broad. 

Wlieatley,  Henry  Benjamin  {b.  1838), 
bibliophile,  author  of  Wnat  is  an  Index  ? 
Sow  to  Form  a  Library,  and  editor  of 
WraxaWs  Memoirs. 

Wlieaton,  Henry  {b.  1785,  d.  1848),  Ameri- 
can jurist,  reporter  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  and  subsequently 
ambassador  in  Prussia  and  professor  of 
international  law  at  Harvard  ;  pubUshed 
Elements  of  International  Law  (1836), 
and  several  works  on  similar  subjects. 

Wieatstone,  Sir  Charles,  F.R.S.  (*.  1802, 
d.  1875),  English  physicist ;  took  out  in  1837 
a  joint  patent  with  Sir  W.  F.  Cooke  for  the 
first  telegraphic  instrument ;  had  a  share  in 
the  invention  of  the  stereoscope,  and  devised 
an  automatic  telegraph  and  various  other 
instruments.  He  twice  received  the  Royal 
medal  at  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1848  won 
the  Copley  medal. 

Wheeler,  Sir  Hugh  (*.  1789,  d.  1857), 
British  officer ;  was  in  command  of  the 
Cawnpore   district  on  the  outbreak  of  the 


Indian  Mutiny,  and  after  a  resistance  of 
three  weeks,  was  massacred  by  Nana  Sahib 
with  whom  he  had  concluded  an  armistice. 

WheweU,  WiUiam,  D.D.  (*.  1794,  d.  1866), 
philosophical  writer ;  was  son  of  a  carpenter, 
but  having  been  sent  to  Cambridge  was 
second  wrangler  in  1816,  became  professor 
of  mineralogy  in  1828,  of  moral  theology 
ten  years  later,  and  in  1841  master  of 
Trinity,  being  the  same  year  president  of 
the  British  Association.  His  chief  works 
are  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences  (1837), 
Philosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,  repub- 
lished as  History  ofScientiJic  Ideas  (1858-61) , 
and  an  edition  of  Grotius. 

Whistler,  James  McNeill  {b.  1835),  etcher 
and  painter  of  American  birth,  came  to 
Europe  in  1857,  and  settled  in  England  soon 
after.  Among  his  paintings  are  portraits 
of  Carlyle,  of  his  own  mother  (purchased 
by  the  French  government)  and  of  Sarasate. 
He  was  elected  in  1886  president  of  the 
Society  of  British  Artists.  His  etchings  are 
very  numerous  and  excellent.  His  lectures 
and  books  have  created  some  stir. 

Whiston,  WiUiam  {b.  1667,  d.  1752), 
mathematician ;  was  elected  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Cambridge  in  1703,  but 
deprived  some  years  later  on  account  of 
his  religious  opinions,  and  finally  became 
a  Baptist.  Is  chiefly  remembered  as  the 
translator  of  Josephus. 

Whitbread,  Samuel  (*.  1758,  d.  1815), Whig 
politician;  entered  ParUament  in  1790,  be- 
came intimate  with  Fox,  and  in  1805  con- 
ducted the  attack  on  Lord  Melville.  His 
marriage  with  a  daughter  of  Earl  Grey 
increased  his  influence,  but  he  ultimately, 
in  an  attack  of  insanity,  put  an  end  to  his 
life. 

WWte,  Andrew  Dickson  (J>.  1832),  Ameri- 
can educationist ;  was  chosen  first  presi- 
dent of  Cornell  University  in  1867,  in  which 
institution  he  endowed  a  school  of  history 
and  political  science,  giving  to  it  his  own 
library.  He  was  American  minister  in 
Germany  1879-81,  and  published  European 
Schools  of  History  and  Folitios  (1887),  and 
other  works. 

Wliite,  Gilbert  {b.  1720,  d.  1793),  natural- 
ist, author  of  Natural  History  of  Selborne 
(Hants),  first  published  in  1789,  was  for 
some  time  fellow  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford. 

Wliite,  Henry  Kirke  {b.  1785,  d.  1806), 
poet,  bom  of  poor  parents  at  Nottingham  ; 
was  sent  to  Cambridge,  where  he  killed 
himself  by  over-reading.  His  Remains  were 
edited  by  Southey. 

Wliite,  Joseph  Blanco  {b.  1775,  d.  1841), 
theological  and  general  writer;  of  Spanish 
orio-in ;    left  the    Roman  Church    for    the 


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Anglican,  but  ultimately  became  a  Uni- 
tarian. He  enjoyed  the  friendsliip  of  Col- 
eridge, Newman,  Mill,  and  Whately,  the 
last  of  whom  published  his  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence (1866).  His  autobiography  was 
edited  by  J.  H.  Thorns  in  1845. 

White,  Sir  Thomas  {h.  1492,  d.  1666), 
founder  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford ;  was 
Lord  Mayor  during  Wyatt's  rebellion. 

Wnite,  Sir  WiUiam  Arthur  {b.  1824,  d. 
1891),  English  diplomatist;  went  to  Servia 
in  1875  as  consul-general  and  was  sum- 
moned to  the  Constantinople  Conference 
1876-7.  Having  been  appointed  envoy  at 
Bucharest,  he  conducted  the  negotiations 
relating  to  Servia  and  Bulgaria  in  1885, 
and  next  year  was  appointed  ambassador 
at  Constautiuople. 

WMte,  William  Henry,  F.R.S.  (b.  1845), 
became  director  of  naval  construction  in 
1885,  being  thus  responsible  for  all  the 
new  ships  which  were  ordered  to  be  built 
at  that  time.  He  published  A  Manual  of 
Naval  Architecture,  which  has  been  adopted 
officially  in  Germany  and  Italy  as  well  as  at 
home. 

Wmtefleld,  George  (*.  1714,  d.  1770), 
preacher;  joined  the  Wesleys  at  Oxford, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Georgia,  on  his 
return  from  which  he  began  his  field- 
preaching.  In  1748  he  became  chaplain 
to  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon,  and  died 
in  New  England,  which  he  had  visited  for 
the  seventh  time. 

WWtehead,  Charles  (*.  1804,  d.  1862), 
poet  and  novelist,  author  of  Autobiography 
of  Jack  Ketch,  Richard  Savage  (1842),  The 
Solitary,  and  other  poems. 

WMtelock,  Bulstrode  (*.  1605,  d.  1676), 
statesman;  took  an  active  part  ia  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Long  Parliament,  but 
opposed  the  trial  of  the  ting.  He  was 
much  trusted  by  Cromwell  ia  spite  of 
frequent  disa^eements,  but  is  now  chiefly 
known  by  his  Memorials  of  the  English 
Affairs. 

Wlutgift,  John  (*.  1530,  d.  1604),  divine ; 
having  held  many  important  offices  at 
Cambridge,  became  Bishop  of  Worcester  in 
1577,  and  in  1583  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, in  which  office  he  sternly  enforced 
uniformity. 

WMtman,  Walt  (A.  1819,  d.  1892) ,  Ameri- 
can poet;  was  in  his  early  years  a  printer 
and  journalist,  and  for  some  years  built 
houses  in  Brooklyn.  In  1854  he  began  to 
write,  and  next  year  the  first  issue  of  Leaves 
of  Grass  appeared,  but  it  was  long  before 
they  obtained  any  sale,  and  were  even 
threatened  with  suppression.  In  1862  the 
poet  went  to  the  seat  of  war,  where   he 


devoted  himself  to  the  care  of  the  wounded, 
and  held  for  some  years  government  clerk- 
ships. In  1883  a  tinal  Leaves  of  Grass  was 
published  at  Philadelphia  as  well  as  Speci- 
men Days  and  Collect,  prose  writings. 

WMttier,  John  Greenleaf  {b.  1807),  Ameri- 
can poet,  of  Quaker  parentage  ;  was  in  early 
life  a  farmer's  boy  and  shoemaker's  assistant, 
and  then  became  a  journahst.  In  1836  he 
became  a  secretary  of  the  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  and  published  many  l3rrics  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Freeman.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  Legends  of  New  England,  Songs 
of  Labour,  National  Lyrics,  Snow-Bound 
(1866),  Ballads  of  New  England  (1870). 

Whittington,  Sir  Eichard  {Jl.  1400),  was 
Lord  Mayor  in  1397,  1406,  and  1419 ;  was 
a  mercer  by  trade,  and  lent  large  simis  to 
Henry  IV.  and  his  son.  He  had  a  share  in 
the  rebuilding  of  the  nave  at  Westmiaster, 
and  left  his  fortune  to  the  community. 

WMtwortli,  Charles,  Earl  (*.  1754,  d. 
1825),  diplomatist,  son  of  the  author  of 
An  Account  of  Mussia  ;  was,  Hke  his  father, 
ambassador  for  several  years  in  Russia,  but 
is  best  remembered  by  his  interview  with 
Napoleon  in  1802  when  ambassador  at  Paris. 
He  was  made  viceroy  of  Ireland  in  1814. 

Wbitworth,  Sir  Joseph,  Bart.  {b.  1803, 
d.  1887),  mechanician ;  invented,  when  at 
Manchester,  the  true  plane,  and  applied  to 
steel  the  process  known  by  his  name.  He 
founded  the  Whitworth  scholarships  for  the 
promotion  of  mechanics  and  engineering. 

Wlijrte  Melville.     [See  Melville.] 

Wickliffe.    \_See  Wycliffe.] 

Wieland,  Christoph  {b.  1733,  d.  1813^, 
German  poet,  author  of  Oberon^  (1780), 
Musarion,  and  other  poems,  his  chief  prose 
work  being  Geschichte  der  Abderiten,  He 
translated  Lucian  and  Cicero's  Letters,  and 
produced  the  first  German  version  of  Shake- 
speare. 

Wier,  Johann  {b.  1515,  d.  1588),  Flemish 
physician,  author  of  Be  Prcestigiis  Bcemo- 
num  et  Lncantationibus  et  Venejiciis  (1564]), 
the  first  great  attack  upon  the  belief  in 
witchcraft. 

Wiertz,  Antoine  (*.  1806,  d.  1865),  Bel- 
gian painter,  specimens  of  whose  work  were 
Fatroclus,  Christ  in  the  Tomb,  and  Satan  and 
Eve.     He  wrote  also  an  £loge  de  Rubens. 

Wiffen,  Jeremiah  (6.  1792,  d.  1836),  Quaker 
poet,  best  known  for  his  translation  of  Tasso. 
His  brother,  Benjamin  {d.  1867),  discovered 
and  translated  the  Alfabeto  Christiana  of 
Valdes,  of  whom  he  also  wrote  a  life. 

Wigan,  Alfred  (A.  1814,  d.  1878),  actor, 


Wil 


(729) 


Wil 


played  vrith  success  in  Still  Waters  Bun 
Deep,  The  Bengal  Tiger,  etc.,  and  was 
manager  of  the  St.  James's  for  three  years 
(1860-3).  He  married  Leonoba  Pincott  {d. 
1884). 

Wilberforce,  Ernest  [p.  1840),  son  of  the 

Bishop   of  Winchester,    became  Canon    of 

Winchester  in  1878,  and  first  Bishop  of 
Newcastle  ia  1882. 

Wilberforce,  Samuel,  D.D,  (4.  1805,  d. 
1873),  was  third  son  of  W.  Wilberforce, 
and  an  active  High  Church  leader,  who 
became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1845,  and  of 
Winchester  in  1869.  He  was  an  able  speaker 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  had  much  social 
influence. 

Wilberforce,  William  {b.  1759,  d.  1S33), 
philanthropist,  entered  Parliament  in  ^/SO, 
and  seven  years  later  entered  upon  the 
movement  against  the  slave  trade,  his 
aboUtion  motion  in  1789  gaining  the  support 
of  the  leaders  of  every  party  in  the  House, 
though  it  was  not  carried  for  fifteen  years. 
Just  before  his  death  slavery  itself  was 
abolished  in  the  British  dominions. 

WUde,  Henry,  F.E.S.  (A.  1833),  made 
several  discoveries  in  electricity ;  constructed 
the  "dynamo"  in  1865,  and  succeeded  in 
applying  his  inventions  to  the  search -light 
now  used  in  the  navy.  He  was  the  fitrst  to 
call  himself  by  the  name  "electrical  en- 
gineer." 

Wilde,  Oscar  (J.  1856),  poet  and  art-critic, 
Bon  of  the  next,  gained  much  distinction  at 
Dublin  and  Oxford,  and  in  1879  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  aesthetic  movement. 
He  published  some  poems  in  1880,  delivered 
art-lectures  in  America  next  year,  and  after- 
wards wrote  Vera  and  Lady  Windermere^s 
Fan  (plays),  Dorian  Gray  (a  novel),  and 
many  critical  articles. 

WUde,  Sir  William  Wills  (*.  1796,  d. 
1869),  Irish  physician,  author  of  Practical 
Observations  on  Aural  Surgery  (1853),  and  of 
a  Memoir  of  Beranger,  finished  by  his  wife 
{nee  Elgee),  who,  under  the  pseudonym 
"Speranza,"  published  poems  and  transla- 
tions. 

Wilfred,  Saint  {b.  634,  d.  709),  having  re- 
turned from  a  visit  to  Rome,  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  Synod  of  Whitby,  which  adopted 
Roman  views  on  the  subject  of  Easter  and 
other  questions.  He  was  then  made  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  but  was  soon  deprived, 
being  reinstated  in  667.  Twice  subsequently 
he  was  deposed,  but  reinstated  on  appeal  to 
the  Pope. 

WiUielmina,  H^Bne  Pauline  Marie,  Queen 
of  the  Netherlands,  was  bom  in  1880,  and 
succeeded  to  the  crown,  under  her  mother's 
regency,  in  1890. 


Wilkes,  Charles  {b.  1801,  d.  1877),  American 
naval  officer :  discovered  several  islands  in 
Antarctic  region,  and  in  1861  caused  a  dis- 
pute with  Great  Britain  by  his  seizure  of 
Confederate  commissioners  on  the  Trent,  a 
British  vessel. 

Wilkes,  John  {b.  1727,  d.  1797),  politician, 
with  whose  name  is  connected  the  abolition 
of  general  warrants  (1762),  the  freedom  of 
constituencies  in  the  choice  of  members, 
and  the  right  of  reporting  the  debates  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  He  was  prosecuted  for 
his  attack  on  the  king  in  the  North  Briton 
(No.  45),  was  outlawed,  and  excluded  the 
House  till  he  had  been  four  times  re-elected 
for  Middlesex.  The  resolutions  against  him 
were  expimged  in  1782. 

Willde,  Sir  David  (i.  1785,  d.  1841), 
Scotch  painter,  was  elected  R.A.  in  1811, 
and  was  knighted  in  1836.  Among  his  best- 
known  works  are  The  Blind  Fiddler,  Chelsea 
Feusioners  Heading  the  Gazette  of  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo,  and  some  portraits.  Several  of  his 
pictures  are  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Wilkins,  Sir  Charles  (b.  1749,  d.  1836), 
Orientalist,  employed  in  the  Bengal  Civil 
Service ;  published  a  Sanscrit  grammar  and 
several  translations. 

Wilkins,  David  {b.  1685,  d.  1745),  Arch- 
deacon of  Suffolk,  and  author  of  Concilia 
Magnce  Britannice. 

Wilkins,  WiUiam  {b.  1778,  d.  1839),  archi- 
tect, designed,  among  other  buildings,  St. 
George's  Hospital  and  the  National  Gallery, 
London. 

Wilkinson,  James  John  Garth  (b.  1812), 
medical  writer  and  biographer  of  Sweden- 
borg  (1849),  whose  Animal  Kingdom  he 
also  translated ;  pubUshed  The  Ministry  of 
FLealth,  and  many  other  works. 

Wilks,  Samuel,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (J.  1824), 
physician,  author  of  Lectures  on  Diseases  of 
the  Nervous  System,  was  a  member  of  two 
commissions  on  the  Contagious  Diseases 
Act  (1868  and  1871),  and  filled  the  offices  of 
president  of  the  Pathological  Society,  vice- 
president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians, etc. 

Willan,  Robert  {b.  1757,  d.  1812),  phy- 
sician,  author  of  Description  and  Treatment 
of  Cutaneous  Diseases, 

Willaumez,  Jean  Philibert  (*.  1763,  d. 
1845),  French  admiral,  accompanied  the 
expedition  in  search  of  La  Perouse,  and  sub- 
sequently rendered  important  services  in 
attacking  the  English  colonies,  his  breaking 
of  the  blockade  of  the  He  de  France  being  a 
brilliant  exploit. 

WUle,  Johann  Georg  (b.  1715,  d.  1806), 
German  engraver ;  made  a  reputation  by  hifl 


Wil 


(730) 


Wil 


prints  of  Gerard  Douw,  Miens,  and  other 
artists. 

Willems,  Jan  Fraus  (b.  1792,  d.  1846), 
Dutch  scholar,  whose  chief  work  was  Bu- 
sertation  on  the  Butch  Language  and  Litera- 
ture in  Connection  with  the  Houthern  Provinces 
of  the  Netherlands  (1819-24). 

Willes,  Sir  James  Shaw  {b.  1814,  d.  1876), 
judge;  was  chietiy  instrumental  in  promot- 
ing legislation  for  the  reform  of  common  law 
procedure,  was  raised  to  the  bench  in  1855, 
and  committed  suicide  under  stress  of  bad 
health. 

Williain  of  Malmestoury  [d.  1143),  Eng- 
lish historian,  author  of  Be  Gestis  Regum 
Anglorum  (449-1126),  Htstorice  Novellx  (a 
continuation),  and  lives  of  Dunstan,  St. 
Patrick,  and  others. 

William,  "the  Lion,"  Kin§  of  Scotland 
{d.  1214),  came  to  the  throne  in  1165  ;  took 
part  in  the  rising  of  the  sons  of  Henry  II.  in 
1173,  and  having  been  captured  was  com- 
pelled to  do  homage  for  his  kingdom,  which 
homage  was  redeemed  by  a  payment  to 
Richard  I. 

WiUiam  of  Orange.     {See  Orange.] 

Williain  I.,  "the  Conqueror,"  King  of 
England  and  Duke  of  Normandy  (A.  1027, 
d.  10S7),  defeated  Harold  at  Hastings  in  1066, 
and  received  the  crown ;  put  down  various 
rismgs  of  the  English  and  Normans,  and 
asserted  his  supremacy  over  Scotland  in 
1072,  being  also  engaged  in  constant  war 
with  France. 

William  II.  (*.  1056,  d.  1100),  succeeded 
his  father  in  1087,  though  not  the  eldest 
son  ;  obtained  the  help  of  the  English  against 
Robert,  who  was  supported  by  many  of  the 
nobles,  and  in  1096  acquired  Nomiandy. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  the  establishment 
of  feudalism  and  a  quarrel  with  Anselm  on 
the  Investiture  question.  The  manner  of 
his  death  is  uncertain. 

William  III.  {b.  1650,  d  1702),  having 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  James  11.,  was 
regarded  as  a  Protestant  reserve  against  the 
latter,  and  in  1688  was  called  in  to  replace 
him.  He  defeated  James  at  the  Boyue  in 
1690,  obtained  the  acknowledgment  of  his 
title  from  Louis  XIV.  by  the  Peace  of 
Eyswick  (1697),  but  had  prepared  a  grand 
alliance  to  renew  the  war  with  him  just 
before  he  died,  Louis  having  favoured  the 
claim  of  James  Edward. 

WiUiam  IV.  {b.  1765,  d.  1837)  succeeded 
George  IV.  in  1830,  having  been  admiral  of 
the  fleet  since  1801.  He  assisted  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  by  agreeing 
to  create  peers  should  it  be  necessary. 

WiUiam  I.,  German  Emperor  and  King 


of  Prussia  (i.  1797,  d.  1888),  came  to  the 
Prussian  throne  in  1861,  having  been  regent 
since  1857;  wrested  the  supremacy  of  Ger- 
many from  Austria  by  the  war  of  1866,  and, 
with  the  help  of  Bismarck  and  Moltke,  de- 
feated the  French  and  took  from  them 
Alsace-Lorraine  (1870-71).  The  King  of 
Prussia  was  proclaimed  German  Emperor  at 
Versailles  in  January,  1871. 

WUliam  II.  (6.  1859),  succeeded  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  in  June,  1888,  and  took  an 
active  personal  part  in  the  government  of 
the  empire,  having  early  brought  about  the 
resignation  of  Bismarck.  He  married  in 
1881  the  Duchess  of  Sleswig-Holstein-Son- 
derburg-Augustenburg. 

William  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands  (d. 
1772,  d.  1843),  son  of  WUliam  IV.,  Prince 
of  Orange  ;  served  against  the  French  in 
the  revolutionary  wars,  was  proclaimed 
sovereign  of  Holland  in  1813,  and  King  of 
the  Netherlands  in  1815,  but  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  Belgivun  separated  from  Hol- 
land, of  which  country  WiUiam  remained 
king  till  his  abdication  in  1840. 

WUliam  H.  (b.  1792,  d.  1848)  was  edu- 
cated in  England,  and  served  in  the  Pen- 
insula campaigns,  and  was  also  present  at 
Waterloo,  where  he  was  wounded.  He 
was  King  of  Holland  from  1840  to  1848. 

Wmiam  III.  {Ji.  1817,  d.  1890)  came  to 
the  throne  in  1849,  and  «iid  much  to  develop 
the  resources  of  Holland  and  to  reform  the 
finances. 

WUUams,  Helen  Maria  (6.  1762,  d.  1827), 
English  writer,  author  of  Letters  from 
France,  etc. ;  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
on  the  fall  of  the  Girondins. 

WiUiams,  John  (b.  1582,  d.  1650),  divine, 
successively  Dean  of  Westminster,  Bishop 
of  Lincoln,  and  Archbishop  of  York  (1641) ; 
was  Lord  Keeper  from  1621  till  the  death  of 
James  I.,  but  was  imprisoned  for  four  years 
as  the  result  of  a  Star  Chamber  prosecution 
instituted  by  Laud,  whose  patron  he  had 
been.  He  held  Conway  Castle  for  the  king 
during  the  war. 

WiUiams,  John  {b.  1796,  d.  1839),  mis- 
sionary, author  of  Narrative  of  Missionary 
Enterprise  in  the  South  Seas,  where  he  dis- 
covered Raratonga  and  organised  a  govern- 
ment. He  was  murdered  by  the  natives  at 
Erromanga. 

WiUiams,  John  (*.  1811,  d.  1862),  Welsh 
scholar,  author  of  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities 
of  the  Cymry,  and  editor  of  Annales  Cam- 
bria and  other  works  in  the  Rolls  series. 

WiUiams,Roger(J.  1599,^.1683),  the  foun- 
der of  Rhode  Island ;  landed  at  Boston  in 
1631,  and  settled  in  Rhode  Island  five  years 


Wil 


(731) 


Wil 


later,  for  wtich,  after  a  visit  to  England,  he 
obtainsd  a  charter  in  1(343. 

Williams,  Hon.  Roland  Vaughan  (b.  1838), 
judge  ;  took  silk  Ln  1889,  and  was  appointed 
a  judge  of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  in 
1890. 

WiUiams,  Rowland  (i.  1817,  d.  1870), 
divine,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
vice-principal  of  Lampeter  in  1850,  but  had 
to  resign  in  consequence  of  his  contribution 
to  Essays  and  Reviews. 

Williams,  Samuel  {b.  1788,  d.  1853),  wood- 
engraver,  lounder  of  the  modem  school. 

Williams,  Sir  William  Fenwick  [b.  1800,  d. 
1883),  general;  defended  Kars  from  June 
16  to  November  30,  1855,  against  the 
Russians,  but  was  compelled  at  last  to 
capitulate.  He  received  a  baronetcy  and  a 
pension,  and  was  afterwards  commander  of 
the  forces  in  Canada,  governor  of  Gibraltar, 
and  constable  of  the  Tower. 

Williams,  William  Mattieu  (b.  1820'), 
scientific  writer,  author  of  The  Fuel  of  the 
Sun,  A  Simple  Treatise  cm  Seat,  etc. 

Williamson,  Alexander  William,  F.R.S., 
etc.  {b.  1824),  chemist ;  for  many  years  (till 
1887)  professor  of  chemistry  at  University 
College ;  was  president  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation in  1873,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  Chemistry  for  Sttulents,  On  the 
Atomic  Theory^  and  On  a  New  Method  of 
Gas  Analysis  (with  W.  J.  Russell). 

Williamson,  Benjamin,  F.R.S.  (*.  1827"), 
mathematician ;  author  of  Treatises  on  the 
Differential  and  the  Integral  Calculus  (1871 
and  1872),  was  appointed  in  1884  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  Dublin  University. 

Williamson,  William,  F.R.S.,  etc.  {b. 
18 IG),  biologist;  gained  a  reputation  by  the 
publication  in  1848  of  Monographs  on  the 
Minute  Organisms  of  the  Levant  and  On  the 
Recent  Foraminifera  of  Great  Britain,  and 
in  1851  became  the  first  professor  of  biology 
and  geology  at  Owens  College.  He  after- 
wards received  the  Royal  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  for  his  memoirs  on  Organisa- 
tion of  the  Fossil  Plants  of  the  Coal  Measures. 

Willibrod,  Saint  {d.  737),  Northumbrian 
monk  ;  evangeUsed  Friesland,  and  was  made 
Bishop  of  Utrecht. 

Willis,  Browne  (i.  1682,  d.  1760),  antiquary, 
his  oliief  work  being  Survey  of  the  Cathedrals 
of  England. 

Willis,  Francis  {d.  1807),  physician :  while 
in  holy  orders  established  a  private  limatic 
asylum  in  Lincolnshire,  and  afterwards 
became  known  aa  the  medical  attendant  of 
George  in. 


Willis,  Nathaniel  P.  (i.  1807,  d.  1867), 
American  writer;  founded  and  edited  The 
American  Monthly  Magazine  (afterwards 
The  New  York  Mirror) ,  and  wrote  Fencillings 
by  the  Way,  Inklings  of  Adventure,  etc. 

Willis,  Rev.  Robert,  F.R.S.  {b.  1800,  d. 
1875),  mechanician  and  writer;  was  ap- 
pointed in  1837  Jacksoniau  professor  of 
natm-al  philosophy  at  Cambridge.  He  in- 
vented the  lyophone  and  the  oaontograph, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  architecture — 
Remarks  on  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  of  Italy,  etc. 

WiUis,  Robert  (b.  1799,  d.  1878),  medical 
biographer ;  hbrarian  to  the  College  of 
Surgeons,  edited  the  works  of  Harvey,  and 
wrote  his  life,  as  well  as  those  of  Spinoza 
and  Servetus. 

WiUis,  Thomas  (b.  1621,  d.  1675),  anato- 
mist, author  of  Cerebri  Anatotne,  cui  Accessit 
Nervorum  Descriptio  et  Ustis. 

Wills,  Sir  Alfred  {b.  1828),  judge,  be- 
came Queen's  Counsel  in  1872;  was  ap- 
pointed judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench  in  1884, 
and  was  president  of  the  Railway  Commis- 
sion (1888). 

Wills,  WiUiam  Gorman  (*.  1828,  d.  1891), 
dramatist ;  author  of  The  Man  o'  Airlie, 
Charles  I.,  Eugene  Aram,  Olivia,  and  other 
plays.  He  also  wrote  several  novels,  Mel- 
ehior,  a  poem,  and  a  life  of  Chantrey,  and 
had  been  in  early  life  at  Dublin  a  successful 
portrait  painter. 

Wills,  William  John  (d.  1834,  d.  1861), 
Australian  explorer  ;  emigrated  in  1852,  and 
in  1860  joined  the  expedition  of  Burke  into 
the  interior  of  Australia,  which  traversed 
the  continent  from  Melbourne  to  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  but  ended  in  the  death  of  the 
leaders. 

Wilson,  Alexander  (*.  1766,  d.  1813), 
ornithologist ;  was  brought  up  as  a  weaver 
at  Paisley,  but  went  to  America  in  1794,  and 
brought  out,  after  years  of  travelling  and 
hard  work,  his  American  Ornithology. 

WUson,  Sir  Archdale,  Bart.,  G.C.B.  (b. 
1803,  d.  1874),  British  officer;  was  the  first 
to  defeat  the  mutineers  during  the  Sepoy 
rising,  and  stormed  Delhi  on  Se^  tember  14, 
1857,  for  which  service  he  received  a 
baronetcy,  and  a  pension  from  the  East 
India  Company.  He  afterwards  took  part 
in  the  capture  of  Lucknow. 

Wilson,  Sir  Charles  Rivers,  K.C.M.G. 
{b.  1831),  administrator ;  was  named  comp- 
troller-general of  the  National  Debt  Office 
in  1874,  and  in  1878,  after  his  report  on 
the  resources  of  Egypt,  was  made  minister 
of  finance  in  that  country.  In  1880  he 
became    president     of     the     International 


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Commission   for    the    Liquidation    of    the 
Egyptian  Debt. 

Wilson,  Sir  Charles  William,  K.C.B., 
F.K.S.  (*.  1836),  British  ofacer ;  served 
in  the  Egjrptian  campaign  of  1882-83,  and 
was  head  of  the  intelligence  department  in 
the  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Gordon, 
which  he  described  in  From  Korti  to  Khar- 
toum (1S85).  He  also  edited  Picturesque 
Falestme,  Sinai,  and  Egypt  (1880). 

Wilson,  Sir  Daniel  {b.  1816),  philologist; 
became  president  of  Toronto  University  in 
1881,  and  was  author  of  Archmology  and  Pre- 
hiitsric  Annals  of  Scotland,  Prehistoric  Man, 
and  other  works. 

Wilson,  George  (b.  1808,  d.  1870),  re- 
former ;  was  elected  chairman  of  the  Anti- 
Corn  Law  League  in  1839,  and  received  a 
public  testimonial  on  his  retirement.  He 
was  subsequently  president  of  the  National 
Reform  Union. 

Wilson,  Right  Hon.  James  (b.  1805,  d. 
1860),  politician ;  began  hfo  as  a  hatter,  but 
subsequently  founded  and  edited  The  Econo- 
mist, and  wrote  several  financial  pamphlets. 
Having  entered  Parhament,  he  became  sec- 
retary to  the  Board  of  Control,  financial 
secretary  to  the  Treasxuy,  vice-president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade,  and  in  1859  financial 
member  of  the  Council  of  India. 

Wilson,  Sir  James  Erasmus  (J.  1809,  d. 
1884),  surgeon ;  made  an  extensive  study  of 
dermatology,  and  was  a  skilful  operator, 
writing  several  works  on  the  subject.  He 
fovmded  a  chair  of  dermatology  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons  and  of  pathology  at  Aber- 
deen, and  he  bore  the  cost  of  the  passage  of 
Cleopatra's  Needle  to  England, 

Wilson,  John  [Christopher  North]  (b.  1785, 
d.  1854),  Scotch  writer,  friend  of  Words- 
worth and  his  circle ;  published  some  poems 
before  1820,  and  in  1823  The  Trials  of  Mar- 
garet Lyndsay,  but  gained  his  name  chiefly 
by  his  criticisms  published  in  Blackwood,^ s 
Magazine  (1822-35).  He  also  obtained  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh,  on 
his  retirement  from  wmch  he  obtained  a 
CivU  List  pension. 

Wilson,  John,  D.D.  (J.  1804,  d.  1875), 
OrientaHst ;  went  to  Bombay  as  a  missionary 
in  1828,  and  became  a  great  linguist.  Among 
his  works  were  The  Parsi  Religion,  The 
Lands  of  the  Bible,  and  Indian  Caste.  His 
son,  Andeew  Wilson  {d.  1881),  wrote  With 
the  Ever-  Victorious  Army,  an  account  of 
Gordon  in  China. 

Wilson,  Richard  (i.  1713,  d.  1782),  land- 
scape painter,  called  the  English  Claude. 
Several  of  his  pictures,  including  Ntobe,  are 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London.    R.  A.  1768. 


Wilson,  Sir  Robert  (b.  1777,  d.  1849), 
general ;  published  an  account  of  Aber- 
cromby's  campaign  in  Egypt,  containing 
charges  of  cruelty  against  Bonaparte  at 
Jaffa,  and  was  attached  to  the  aUied  armies 
in  the  campaigns  against  Napoleon  during 
ahnost  the  whole  of  the  war.  He  represented 
Southwark  from  1818  to  1831. 

Wilson,  Thomas  (b.  1663,  d.  1755),  divine ; 
was  made  Bishop  of  the  Isle  of  Man  in  1697 
by  the  Earl  of  Derby,  to  whom  he  had  been 
chaplain.  He  translated  the  Gospels  into 
Manx,  and  did  much  good.  His  works  were 
published  in  1780. 

Winchester,  William  Paulet,  Marquis  of 
(d.  1572),  statesman;  was  made  marquis  by 
Edward  VI.,  and  became  lord  high  treasm-er 
in  1551,  holding  that  office  also  under  Mary 
and  Ehzabeth.     He  built  Basing  House. 

Winckelmann,  Johann  Joachim  {b.  1717, 
d.  1768),  German  writer  on  art,  friend  of 
Mengs,  his  chief  work  being  Geschichte  der 
Kunst  des  Alterthums.  He  was  assassinated 
at  Trieste,  on  his  way  from  Vienna  to 
Italy. 

Windham,  Sir  Charles  Ash  (6.  1810,  d. 
1870),  English  general;  commanded  at  In- 
kermann  after  the  fall  of  Cathcart,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  attack  on  the 
Redan,  while  he  also  served  in  the  Indian 
Mutiny. 

Windham,  William  (*.  1750,  d.  1810), 
statesman ;  was  elected  for  Norwich  as  a 
Whig  in  1783,  was  Secretary-at-War  under 
Pitt  for  seven  years,  after  which  he  remained 
in  opposition  till  1806,  when  in  the  "  Ministry 
of  All  the  Talents  "  he  resvuned  his  former 
office.  His  portrait  by  Reynolds  is  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Windhorst,  Ludwig  {b.  1812,  d.  1891), 
German  poUtician  ;  was  minister  of  justice  in 
Hanover,  and  by  his  Austrian  poHcy  contri- 
buted to  its  annexation  by  Prussia,  after  which 
he  was  returned  to  the  Prussian  Chamber, 
and  ultimately  became  leader  of  the  Ultra- 
montane party  in  the  German  Reichstag. 

Windischgratz,  Alfred,  Prince  {b.  1787,  d. 
1862),  Austrian  field-marshal;  suppressed 
the  Slav  movement  at  Prague  in  1848,  his 
wife  being  shot  by  the  insurgents,  and  in  the 
same  year  capttired  Vienna  from  the  revo- 
lutionists. 

Winmarleigh.Lord  [John  Wilson-Patten] 
(b.  1802,  d.  1892),  statesman;  entered  Parli- 
ament in  1830,  represented  Lancashire  as  a 
Conservative  from  1832  to  1868,  and  the 
northern  division  till  1874,  when  he  was 
created  a  peer.  He  was  Chairman  of  Com- 
mittees (1852-53),  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster  (1867-68),  and  Irish  Secretary 
September-December,  1868. 


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Winslow,  Forbes  Beniguus,  M.D.  {b.  1810, 
d.  187-1),  phj-sician  ;  made  a  speciality  of 
insanity,  establishing  two  private  asyluu:^ 
and  publishing  several  worta  on  the  subject 
(Plea  of  Insanity  in  Criminal  Cases,  Obscure 
IJiseases  of  the  Brain,  etc.) 

Winslow,  Jacques  Bengne  {b.  1669,  d. 
1760),  Danish  anatomist,  author  of  Exposi- 
tion Anatoinique  de  la  Structure  du  Corps 
Humain,  a  work  frequently  translated. 

Winslow,  John  Ancmm  {b.  1811,  d.  1873), 
American  naval  officer ;  when  in  command 
of  the  Kearsarge  sunk  the  Alabai,^  off  Cher- 
bourg, Jime  19th,  1864. 

Wtastanley,  Henry  {d.  1703),  built  the 
fii-st  Eddystone  UgLthouse  (begun  in  1696), 
and  perished  with  it  in  a  great  storm. 

Wint,  Peter  de  (4.  1784,  d.  1849),  English 
water-colour  painter  of  the  old  school,  whose 
scenes  were  generally  taken  from  the  vicinity 
of  Lincoln. 

Winter,  Jan  Willem  de  (*.  1750,  d.  1812), 
Dutch  admiral;  fled  to  France  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Burgher  party,  and  served  in 
the  French  army,  but  returned  in  1795 ;  was 
made  vice-admiral,  and  was  defeated  by 
Duncan  off  Texel  in  1797. 

Winther,  Basmus  Ferdinand  (6.  1796, 
d.  1870),  Danish  poet,  author  of  Traesnit 
(TFoodcuta)  and  other  lyrics;  received  a 
pension  as  state -poet  in  1851. 

Winwood,  Sir  Ealph  (d.  1617),  statesman 
and  diplomatist;  was  Secretary  of  State 
from  1614  till  his  death,  and  left  Memorials 
of  Affairs  of  State  in  the  Eeigns  of  Qtteen 
Elizabeth  and  Jatnes  I. 

Wiseman,  Nicholas  Patrick  (b.  1802,  d. 
1865),  Romanist  divine,  born  in  Spain,  but 
educated  in  England ;  was  named  cardinal 
and  Archbishop  of  Westminster  in  1850, 
and  was  the  author  of  several  theological 
works. 

Wishart,  George  {d.  1546),  Scottish  re- 
former and  friend  of  Knox;  was,  on  his 
return  to  Scotland,  burnt  for  heresy,  having 
probably  been  concerned  in  plots  against 
Cardinal  Beaton's  life. 

Wishart,  George  {b.  1602,  d.  1671),  Scotch 
writer,  chaplain  to  Montrose,  a  Latin  history 
of  whose  campaigns  he  wrote ;  was  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Edinburgh. 

Wither,  George  (A.  1588,  d.  1667),  satirist 
and  poet ;  author  of  Abuses  Stript  and 
Whipt,  Hymns  and  Songs  of  the  Church, 
and  Britain's  Remembrances,  an  account  in 
verse  of  the  Plague,  during  which  he  did 
good  service.  He  took  the  side  of  the  Par- 
liament in  the  war,  and  was  imprisoned  at 
the  Restoration. 


Witheringrton,  WUliam,  R.A.  {d.  1865), 
landscape  painter,  whose  Hop-Garden  and 
Stepping  Stones  are  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London. 

Witt,  Henrietta  Guizot  de  (6.  1829), 
French  writer,  daughter  of  Guizot;  edited 
several  of  her  father's  works,  and  wrote 
Contes  d'une  Mere  a  ses  JPetits  Enfants,  etc. 

Witt,  John  de  ib.  1625,  d.  1672),  Dutch 
statesman ;  became  grand  pensionary  of 
Holland  in  1653,  and  conducted  the  second 
war  with  England.  He  obtained  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  office  of  stadtholder,  which, 
however,  was  regained  by  the  Orange 
family  in  1672,  when  the  French  invaded 
the  country,  and  De  Witt  and  his  brother 
ComeUus  were  murdered. 

Wittgenstein,  Priuz  von  (b.  1769,  d.  1843), 
Russian  field-marshal ;  distinguished  him- 
self in  1812  against  the  French,  commanded 
the  Russian  and  Prussian  forces  in  the 
campaign  of  1813,  and  held  commands  in 
the  following  years. 

Wofflngton,  Margaret  (fi.  1718,  d.  1760), 
actress,  friend  of  Garrick ;  was  distinguished 
in  comedy,  her  Sylvia  in  the  Mecruiting 
Officer  being  one  of  her  best  parts. 

Wohler,  Friedrich  (b.  1800,  d.  1882),  Ger- 
man chemist,  professor  of  medicine  at  Got- 
ttngen ;  wrote  a  treatise  on  chemistry,  and 
achieved  the  isolation  of  aluminium. 

Wohlgemuth,  Michael  (6.  1484,  d.  1519), 
German  painter  and  engraver,  master  and 
friend  of  Diirer,  whose  portrait  (now  at 
Munich)  he  painted. 

Wolcot,  John,  "Peter  Pindar"  {b.  1738, 
d.  1819),  satirist,  physician,  and  clergyman, 
author  of  Lyric  Odes  (against  the  Acade- 
micians), Feeps  at  St.  James's  and  the 
Louisiad. 

Wolf,  Christian  Friedrich  August  (A.  1 759, 
d.  1824),  German  critic,  pupil  of  Heyne,  with 
whom  he  carried  on  a  controversy  ou  the 
subject  of  the  authorship  of  the  Homeric 
Poems.  The  Prolegomena  ad  Homerum  (17^5) 
was  the  first  attack  on  the  single  authorship 
of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  respectively.  Ha 
was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle  from 
1783  to  1807,  and  afterwards  at  Berlin. 

Wolfe,  Charles  {b.  1791,  d.  1823),  Irish 
divine  and  poet,  author  of  The  Burial  of 
Sir  John  Moore,  etc. 

Wolfe,  James  {b.  1726,  d.  1759),  British 
general;  after  serving  vdth  distinction  in 
the  Austrian  Succession  war,  in  the  expedi- 
tion against  Rochefort  (1757),  and  under 
Lord  Amherst  in  North  America,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  force  sent 
against  Quebec,  which  he  took,  but  feU  in 


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the  battle.  There  is  a  monument  to  him 
in  Westminster  Abhej',  and  his  portrait  is 
in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery,  London. 

Wolff,  Joseph,  D.D.  {/>.  1795,  d.  1862), 
German  traveller  and  missionary,  bom  a 
Jew;  entered  the  Roman  Church  in  1812, 
but  came  to  London  in  1819,  and  soon  be- 
came an  Anglican.  He  went  on  two  missions 
to  the  Jews,  travelling  through  Egypt,  Pales- 
tine, Cyprus,  Persia,  and  Armenia  on  his  first 
journey  (1821-26),  and  on  his  second  visiting 
Bokhara  and  India  in  addition.  After  a 
third  journey,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
visited  the  United  States  and  was  ordained, 
he  set  out  for  Bokhara  in  1843  in  search  of 
Stoddart  and  Conolly,  returning  two  years 
later.  His  Travels  and  Adventtires  appeared 
in  1860-61. 

Wolff,  Sir  H.  Drummond,  G.C.B.,  etc. 
{b.  1830),  diplomatist,  son  of  the  above; 
entered  the  Foreign  Office  in  1846,  and  was 
secretary  to  the  government  of  the  Ionian 
Islands  from  1857  to  1864.  He  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Conservative  ten  years  later, 
and  in  the  Parliament  of  1880  was  a  member 
of  the  Fourth  Party.  In  1885  (when  he  be- 
came a  Privy  Councillor)  he  was  sent  on  a 
special  mission  to  the  Sultan,  and  after  being 
engaged  in  the  reorganisation  of  Egjrpt,  was 
named  envoy  to  Persia  in  1887.  In  1892  he 
became  ambassador  at  Madi'id. 

Wollaston,  WiUiam  Hyde  {b.  1766,  d. 
1828),  chemist;  gained  the  gold  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society  for  his  discovery  of  the 
malleabiUty  of  platinum. 

Wollstonecraft,  Mary  {b.  1759,  d.  1797), 
author  of  ]  liidicafiou  of  the  Rights  of  Women; 
■was  married  to  William  Godwin  just  before 
her  death,  their  daughter  Mabt,  author  of 
Frankenstein,  etc.,  becoming  the  wife  of 
Shelley. 

Wolseley,  Garnet  Joseph,  Viscoimt,G.  C.B., 
etc.  (6.  1833),  general,  bom  near  Dublin; 
entered  the  army  in  1850,  was  wounded  in 
the  Bxirmese  war,  and  served  in  the  Crimean 
campaign,  and  in  the  Indian  Mutiny.  He 
became  major-general  in  1868,  and  after 
commanding  the  Red  River  expedition 
(1870)  was  knighted.  In  1873-74  he  con- 
ducted the  campaign  against  the  King  of 
the  Ashantis,  :or  which  he  received  a 
grant  of  £25,000  and  other  honours.  In 
1878  he  became  high  commissioner  of  Cyprus, 
and  next  year  was  sent  to  complete  the  Zulu 
war.  After  being  quarter-master-general 
(1880-82)  he  planned  and  carried  out  the 
defeat  of  Arabi  Pasha,  after  which  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  In  1882  he  became 
adjutant-general,  and  advocated  the  short 
service  system,  and  in  1884-85  commanded 
the  force  sent  against  the  Mahdi  for  the 
relief  of  Gordon,  on  his  return  from  which 
he  was  created  viscount.     He  was  appointed 


Commander-in-chief  in  Ireland  1891.  He 
has  published  several  military  handbooks. 

Wolsey,  Thomas  (*.  1471,  d.  1530),  eccle- 
siastical  statesman ;  was  employed  diplo- 
matically by  Henry  VII.,  and  made  Dean  of 
Lincoln,  becoming  in  the  next  reign  suc- 
cessively Dean  of  York,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
and  Archbishop  of  York,  while  holding  at 
the  same  time  the  sees  of  Bath  and  Wells, 
Durham,  and  Winchester.  He  became  also 
Chancellor  ( 1 565) ,  cardinal,  and  papal  legate, 
and  aimed  at  being  pope.  His  overthrow, 
in  1529,  was  caused  by  the  jealousy  of  the 
great  nobles  and  his  disagreement  with  the 
king  on  the  divorce  question.  He  founded 
Christ  Church  (Cardinal  College),  Oxford, 
where  there  is  a  portrait  of  him  by  Holbein, 
and  built  a  palace  at  Hampton  Court. 

Wood,  Anthony  {b.  1632,  d.  1695),  anti- 
quary; author  of  History  and  Antiquities 
of  Oxford  wi^  Athence  Oxonienses  (1691). 

Wood,  Sir  Charles  [Lord  Halifax]  (6. 
1800,  d.  1885),  statesman ;  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1875,  and  represented  Halifax  as 
a  Whig  for  thirty-two  years  (from  1832). 
After  holding  a  subordinate  office  under 
Lord  Melbourne,  he  was  made  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  by  Russell  in  1846,  and 
held  oflice  till  1852.  He  afterwards  served 
under  Lord  Aberdeen  and  Palmerston,  being 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  1855-58,  and 
Secretary  for  India  1859-66,  when  he  re- 
signed with  a  peerage.  He  was  Lord  Privy 
Seal  from  1870  to  1874. 

Wood,  EUen  [Mrs.  Henry]  (*.  circa  1820, 
d.  1887),  novelist;  author  of  East  Lynne 
(1861),  The  Channin^s,  Johnnie  Ludlow,  and 
numerous  other  stones. 

Wood,  Sir  Henry  Evelyn,  K.C.B.,  V.C, 

etc.  (6.  1838),  general;  served  in  the  naval 
brigade  in  the  early  part  of  the  Crimean 
war,  but  in  1855  entered  the  army,  and 
gained  the  Victoria  Cross  and  much  dis- 
tinction during  the  Mutiny.  He  served  in 
the  Ashanti  war,  won  the  battle  of  Ulundi 
in  the  Zulu  campaign,  and  was  second-in- 
command  in  the  Boer  war.  He  served  also 
in  the  Egyptian  campaign  of  1882,  and 
commanded  the  army  of  occupation  till  the 
year  1885,  when  he  received  a  post  at  home. 

Wood,  John  (b.  1811,  d.  1871),  captain  in 
the  Indian  navy ;  discovered  the  source  of 
the  Oxus  in  1838,  an  account  of  his  Journey 
appearing  in  1842. 

Wood,  Rev.  John  George  (*.  1827,  <?.  1889), 
popular  naturalist ;  author  of  Illustrated 
Nattiral  History,  The  Natural  History  of 
Man,  and  numerous  smaller  works. 

Wood,  Mrs.  John  \_nee  Vining]  {b.  circa 
1845),  comedy  actress ;  shortly  after  her 
debut  in  England,  became  manageress  of  the 


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Empire  theatre,  New  York.  In  1869  she 
took  the  St.  James's  theatre,  and  appeared 
in  several  burlesques.  At  the  Haymarket 
she  played  with  great  success  in  'The  Crisis 
(1878)  and  The  Urerland  Route  (1882),  and 
afterwards  at  the  Court  theatre,  of  which 
she  became  joint  lessee  in  1888. 

WoodfaOl,  William  (d.  1803),  printer  of 
the  Tublic  Advertiser,  in  which  appeared 
the  Letters  of  Junius;  was  also  the  first 
regular  reporter  of  parliamentary  debates. 

WoodhulL     ISee  Martin.] 

Woods,  Sir  Albert  WHliam  {b.  1816), 
entered  the  College  of  Arms  in  1838,  became 
IJancaster  Herald  in  1841,  and  Garter-King- 
at-Arms  in  1869, 

Woods,  Henry,  A.R.A.  (b.  1847),  painter, 
whose  pictures  are  chiefly  Venetian  studies ; 
was  one  of  the  original  staff  of  the  Graphic. 

Woodward,  Henry,  F.R.S.,  etc.  (Jb.  1832), 
geologist,  son  of  SaitoklWoodwaei),  author 
of  Geology  of  Norfolk,  and  brother  of  Pro- 
fessor S.  P.  WooDWAUD,  who  wrote  Manual 
of  Mollusca;  entered  the  natural  history 
department  of  the  British  Museum,  in  which 
his  brother  was  serving,  and  after  many 
services  to  geological  science,  became  in 
1880  keeper  of  the  department  of  geology. 

Woodward,  John  (b.  1665,  d.  1728),  ge- 
ologist ;  wrote  A  Natural  History  of  the 
Earth  (1695),  and  founded  a  chair  of  geology 
at  Cambridge. 

Woolett,  "William  {b.  1735,  d.  1785),  en- 
graver, his  prints  of  West's  Beath  of  Wolfe 
and  Wilson's  landscapes  being  especially 
excellent. 

Wooley,  Celia  Parker  {b.  1848),  American 
novelist ;  author  of  Love  and  Theology 
(Rachel  Armstrong)  and  A  Girl  Graduate. 

Woolner,  Thomas,  R.A.  (6. 1825,  d.  1892), 
sculptor  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite  school ;  gained 
a  name  by  his  Death  of  Boadicea  (exhibited 
in  Westminster  Hall  1844) ;  afterwards  exe- 
cuted statues  and  busts  of  Carlyle,  Tenny- 
son, Darwin,  Gladstone,  and  other  con- 
temporaries, and  also  published  some  poems 
{My  Beautiful  Lady,  etc.). 

WoolBton,  Thomas  {h.  1669,  d.  1732), 
theologian ;  was  prosecuted  for  his  deistical 
work.  Six  Discourses  on  Miracles. 

Worcester,  Edward  Somerset,  Marquis  of 
{d.  1667),  inventor  ;  after  suffering  exile  and 
imprisonment  for  his  services  to  Charles 
I.  during  the  war,  devoted  himself  to 
mechanics,  and  published  in  1663  his  Cen- 
tury of  Inventions,  in  which  he  anticipated 
the  invention  of  the  steam-engine.  In 
1865  a  book  deahng  with  his  life,  and  re- 
printing his  work,  was  pubhshed  by  Mr. 
Dircks,  C.E. 


Worcester,  Joseph  Emerson  {b.  1784,  d. 
1865),  American  lexicographer;  compiled  a 
t  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  which 
appeared  in  1860. 

Worde,  Wynkyn  de  {d.  circa  1534),  Eng- 
lish printer;  assisted  Caxton,  and  after- 
wards carried  on  his  busiaess,  first  making 
use  of  title-pages.  His  Polychronicon  (1495) 
is  esteemed  his  chef-d^ ceuvre. 

Wordswortli,  Christopher,  D.D.  (*.  1807, 
d.  1885),  diviue,  son  of  the  master  of  Trinity 
(d.  1846),  and  nephew  of  the  poet ;  after  a 
distinguished  career  at  Cambridge,  became 
head-master  of  Harrow  in  1836,  Canon  of 
Westminster  in  1844,  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln 
in  1869.  He  was  author  of  Athens  and 
Attica,  Memoirs  of  W.  TFordsu-orth  (1851), 
an  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  (1856-60), 
and  many  controversial  and  learned  works. 

Wordswortli,  Charles  {b.  1806),  elder 
brother  of  the  preceding ;  was  distinguished 
both  as  scholar  and  athlete  at  Oxford,  and 
having  been  second  master  at  Winchester 
and  warden  of  Glenalmond,  became  Bishop 
of  St.  Andrews  in  1852.  He  was  one  of  the 
revisers  of  the  New  Testament,  and,  besides 
other  works,  pubhshed  an  autobiography  in 

Wordsworth,  John,  D.D.  (b.  1843),  son 
of  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln ;  after  having  been 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Brasenose,  Oriel  pro- 
fessor of  interpretation,  and  Bampton  lec- 
turer (1881)  at  Oxford,  became  Canon  of 
Rochester  in  1883,  and  Bishop  of  Salisbury 
in  1885.  He  'pnhMB'hed  Fragments  and  Speci- 
mens of  Early  Latin  (1874)  among  other 
works,  and  was  active  in  attempting  union 
with  the  Old  CathoUcs. 

Wordswortli,  WUliam  {b.  1770,  d.  1850), 
poet,  was  bom  in  Cumberland ;  visited 
France  in  the  early  years  of  the  revolution 
1790-91,  and  in  the  following  gained  the 
friendship  of  Coleridge  by  the  publication 
of  his  first  poems,  and  went  to  hve  near  him 
in  Somersetshire.  The  friends  went  on  a 
walking  tour,  the  result  of  which  was 
Lyrical  Ballads,  published  in  1798  at  Bristol. 
After  a  tour  in  Germany,  Wordsworth  and 
his  sister  lived  at  Grasmere  till  1808,  the 
poet  being  married  in  1802,  and  The  Prelude 
(begun  in  1799)  being  finished  in  1805.  In 
1813  Wordsworth  was  named  distributor  of 
stamps  for  Westmoreland,  and  henceforth 
lived  at  Rydal  Moimt.  The  Excursion  ap- 
peared next  year,  and  in  1815  The  White 
Doe  ofRylstone  was  published.  Other  poems 
followed,  but  the  whole  fragment  of  The 
Recluse  was  not  pubhshed  till  1888.  In  1843 
Wordsworth  became  poet-laureate. 

Worlidge,  Thomas  {b.  1700,  d.  1766), 
painter  and  engraver,  his  etchings  in  the 
manner  of  Rembrandt  being  pecuharly  good. 


Wor 


(736) 


Wyk 


Worms,  Baron  Henry  de,  P.O.,   F.R.S. 

(b.  IS  10),  statesman  ;  entered  Parliament  as 
a  Conservative  in  1880,  held  the  office  of 
secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade  in  both 
ministries  of  Lord  Salisbury,  until  in  1888 
he  became  und?r-secretary  for  the  Colonies. 
He  was  president  of  the  International  Con- 
ference for  the  Abohtion  of  the  Sugar 
Bounties,  and  pubhshed  I'Ae  Earth  and  its 
Mechanisvi,  an  edition  of  Count  BeusVs 
Memoirs,  and  other  works. 

Womum,  Ralph  Nicholson  {b.  1812,  d. 
1.S77),  writer  on  art;  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  National  Gallery  in  1855.  He  wrote  a 
History  of  Painting,  a  Life  of  Holbein,  and 
other  works. 

Woronzow,  Mikhail,  Pi-ince  (b.  1782,  d. 
1856),  Russian  general,  educated  in  Eng- 
land ;  was  wounded  at  Borodino,  com- 
manded the  cavalry  at  Leipzig  (1813),  and 
as  governor  of  the  Caucasus  crushed  the 
rising  of  Schamyl. 

Worsley,  PliiUp  Stanhope  {d.  1866),  poet, 
his  chief  work  being  lus  translation  oi 
Homer  into  English  verse. 

Wouvermans,  Philip  {b.  1619,  d.  1668), 
Dutch  painter  of  battle-pieces,  landscapes 
and  hunting-scenes,  many  of  which  are  in 
the  Dulwich  gallery,  Loudon. 

Wrangel,  Friedrich,  Graf  von  {b.  1784,  d. 
1877),  Prussian  field-marshal ;  served  in  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  and  in  1864  commanded 
the  allied  army  against  Denmark. 

Wrangel,  Karl  Gustaf,  Count  {b.  1613,  d. 

1676),  Swedish  general  and  admiral,  dis- 
tinguished in  the  Thirty  Years'  war ;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in 
1645,  and  won  the  battle  of  Sommershausen 
in  1648.  In  the  Polish  war  he  rendered 
great  service  both  as  admiral  and  general. 

WraxaU,  Sir  Nathaniel,  Bart.  {b.  \lb\,  d. 
1831),  traveller  and  writer;  visited  aU  parts 
of  Europe,  and  entered  Parliament  in  1780. 
He  left  several  historical  inemoirs,  the  chief 
of  which  is  Historical  Memoirs  of  my  own 
Time,  for  a  libel  in  which  on  Count  Woron- 
zow he  was  fined  and  imprisoned.  Pos- 
ihumous  Memoirs  appeared  in  1836. 

Wray,  Robert  Bateman  (*.  1715,  d.  1770), 
engraver  of  gems,  among  his  masterpieces 
being  a  Lying  Cleopatra,  a  head  of  Medusa, 
and  heads  of  Milton. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher  {b.  1632,  d.  1723), 
architect,  son  of  Matthew  Wren,  Bishop 
of  Ely ;  was  elected  to  a  professorship  at 
Gresham  College  in  1657,  and  three  years 
after  at  Oxford,  and  became  president  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1680.  His  chief  designs 
were  St.  Paul's,  Chelsea  and  Greenwich 
hospitals,  and  the  Monument. 


WrigM,  Sir  Robert  Samuel,  judge ;  had 
a  very  distinguished  career  at  Oxford,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1865,  and  after  being 
some  years  junior  common  law  counsel  to 
the  Treasury,  was  made  a  Justice  of  the 
High  Court  in  1890. 

Wright,  Thomas  {b.  1810,  d.  1877),  anti- 
quary ;  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Camden 
Society  and  the  original  Shakespeare  Society. 
His  "hief  works  were  History  of  Domestic 
Mati/ters  in  England  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
History  of  Caricature  and  the  Grotesque  in 
Literature. 

Wyatt,  James  {b.  1746,  d.  1813),  architect ; 
built  the  Pantheon,  Oxford  Street ;  became 
an  academician  in  1785,  and  was  president 
1805-6. 

Wyatt,  Sir  Matthew  Digby  (J).  1820,  d. 
1877),  architect;  Slade  professor  of  art  at 
Cambridge,  and  author  of  What  Illumina- 
tion Was  and  What  Illumination  Should  Be, 
Art  Treasures  of  the  United  Kingdom,  etc. 

Wyatt,  Richard  James  {b.  1795,  d.  1850), 
sculptor,  pupil  of  Rossi ;  his  chief  productions 
were  Penelope  (executed  for  the  Queen  in 
1841),  Ino  and  the  Infant  Bacchus,  and 
Olycera. 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas  (Jb.  1503,  d.  1542), 
statesman  and  poet,  his  works  being  pub- 
lished in  1557. 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas  (A.  1534,  d.  1554), 
soldier  ;  did  good  service  against  the  French 
under  Henry  VIII.,  but  was  beheaded  in 
the  reign  of  Mary  for  heading  a  Protestant 
rising  in  Kent. 

Wycherley,  William  {b.  1640,  d.  1715^, 
dramatist,  author  of  Love  for  Love,  The 
Country  Wife,  The  Plain  Dealer,  etc. 

Wycliffe,  John  {b.  1324,  d.  1387),  divine ; 
actively  opposed  the  Mendicant  Friars,  and 
in  1361  was  elected  master  of  BalHol  Hall; 
obtained  the  favour  of  John  of  Gaunt  by  his 
reply  to  the  pope's  claim  for  tribute,  and  in 
1 374  obtained  the  living  of  Lutterworth.  In 
1377  he  was  suromoned  to  St.  Paul's  to 
answer  a  charge  from  the  pope  of  heretical 
opinions,  but  was  protected  by  the  court. 
Next  year  he  was  again  accused  but  with 
no  effect,  and  after  this  he  was  occupied 
with  his  translation  of  the  Bible  and  attacks 
on  transubstantiation,  his  opinions  on  which 
he  was  forced  partially  to  withdraw,  and 
was  expelled  from  Oxford. 

Wydeville,  or  Woodville,  Elizabeth  {d. 
1498),  widow  of  Sir  John  Grey;  was 
married  to  Edward  IV.  in  1484. 

Wykeham,  WiUiam  of  (4.  1324,  d.  1404), 
Bishop  of  Winchester  and  Chancellor  of 
England  (1367-71);  founded  Winchester 
College  and  New  College,  Oxford. 


Wyn 


(737) 


Yea 


Wynants,  Jan  {b.  1600,  d.  circa  1675), 
Dutch  laudscape  painter;  founder  of  the 
school  of  which  Vandevelde  and  Wouver- 
mans  were  exponents. 

W5mdiiain,  Charles  (b.  1841),  actor;  first 
appeared  at  Washington,  and  served  as  a 
surgeon  during  the  American  Civil  war. 
He  made  his  debut  in  London  in  1866,  and 
three  years  later  played  Charles  Surface  at 


New  York.  In  1877  he  became  lessee  of 
the  Criterion,  where  Rover  in  Wild  Oats 
and   David   Garrick  were  among  his  best 

parts. 

Wyndiam,  Sir  William  {b.  1687,  d.  1740), 
Tory  statesman,  one  of  the  chief  opponents 
of  Walpole  ;  held  office  tinder  Anne  as  Secre- 
tary-at-War  (1710),  and  Chaaicellor  of  tiie 
Exchequer  (1713). 


Zanthippe 

Socrates. 


(5th   century  B.C.),  'wife  of 


Xanthippus  (5th  century  B.C.),  Athenian 
admiral ;  father  of  Pericles ;  defeated  the 
Persians  at  Mycale  479  B.C. 

Xavler,  Saint  Francis,  "  the  apostle  of  the 
Indies"  (b.  1506,  d.  1552),  one  of  the  first 
disciples  of  Loyola;  sailed  for  the  East  in 
1541,  and  preached  in  India  and  Japan, 
dying  when  on  the  way  to  China. 

Xenophanes  (^.  500  b.c),  Greek  philo- 
sopher and  poet;  founder  of  the  Eleatic 
school. 

Xenophon  (*.  circa  444;  d.  circa  359  B.C.), 
Athenian  general  and  historian ;  led  the  ten 
thousand  Greeks  in  their  retreat  after  the 


battle  of  Cnnasa  (401  B.C.)  ;  wrote  Anaiatiaf 

Mellenica,  and  Memorabilia  Socratis. 

Xerxes  I.,  King  of  Persia  {d.  465  B.C.), 
came  to  the  throne  in  485  B.C.,  invaded 
Greece  in  480,  but  was  defeated  at  Salamis. 
He  was  murdered  in  465. 

Xerxes  IL  {d.  425  B.C.)  succeeded  Arta- 
xerxes  I.  in  425,  but  was  murdered  two 
months  later  by  Sogdianus. 

Ximenes  de  Cisneros,  Francisco  {h.  1437, 
d.  1517),  Spanish  cardinal,  confessor  to  Isa- 
bella of  Castile  and  Archbishop  of  Toledo ; 
founded  the  imiversity  of  Alcala,  led  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  Moors  in  1509,  and  was 
appointed  regent  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic.  He  published  the  Complu- 
tensian  Folyglot  Bible  (1514-17). 


Takonb  {d.  879)  founded  in  872  the 
SofFaride  dynasty  in  Persia. 

Yakoub  Khan  (*.  circa  1847),  Amir  of 
Afghanistan,  son  of  Sheee  Ali,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1879  as  nominee  of  the  British, 
but  being  suspected  of  complicity  in  the 
murder  of  Cavagnari  (September  3),  was 
deposed  and  sent  to  India. 

Yalden,  or  Youlding,  Thomas  (rf.  1736), 
poet  and  friend  of  Addison;  wrote  The 
Temple  of  Fame,  and  other  works. 

YarreU,  William  {b.  1784,  d.  1856),  natu- 
ralist ;  author  of  History  of  British  Fishes 
(1835-9),  and  History  of  British  Birds 
(1839-43). 

Yates,  Anna  Maria  \nee  Graham]  (J.  1737, 

v  V 


d.  1787),  tragic  actress,  wife  of  Biohasd 

Yates,  the  comedian  (d.  1796).  She  played 
Lady  Macbeth  and  Cleopatra  with  Garrick 
in  1759. 

Yates,  Edmund  (Jb.  1831),  novelist,  sou  of 
Feederick  Yates,  actor ;  held  a  position  in 
the  Post  Office  for  some  years.  He  edited 
Temple  Bar  for  some  years,  published  Black 
Sheep,  Broken  to  Harness,  Mirth  and  Metre 
(1854,  with  F.  Smedley),  and  other  novels, 
besides  Personal  Reminiscences  (1884).  In 
1874  he  established  The  World. 

Yeames,  William  Frederick,  R.A.  {b. 
1835),  historical  painter;  first  exhibited  at 
the  Academy  in  1859,  being  elected  associate 
in  18GG  and  full  member  in  1878.  Among 
his  pictures  are  Arming  the  Young  Knight 


Tel 


(738  ) 


You 


(1865),  Dr.  Harvey  and  the  Children  of 
Charles  I.  (1871),  Amy  Robsart  (1877),  La 
Bigolante  (1879),  Tender  Thoughts  (1883), 
etc. 

Yelverton,  Sir  Henry  {b.  1562,  d.  1630), 
judge;  became  Attorney- General  in  1616, 
justice  of  the  King's  Bench  in  1625,  and  of 
the  Common  Pleas  in  the  same  year.  His 
Reports  were  published  in  1661. 

Yeo,  Gerald,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (*.  1845), 
surgeon ;  was  bom  in  Dublin  and  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  but  in  1875  became 
professor  of  physiology  at  King's  College, 
London,  and  published  Manual  of  Physi- 
ology for  the  Use  of  Students  of  Medicine. 

Yeo,  Isaac  Bumey,  physician  ;  was  elected 
F.R.C.P.  in  1876,  and  professor  of  clinical 
therapeutics  at  King's  College  in  1885. 
Among  his  works  are  Climate  and  Health 
Resorts  and  On  Consumption. 

Yezdedjerd  III.,  King  of  Persia  (*.  617,  d. 
651),  the  last  of  the  Sassanide  dynasty ; 
after  his  defeat  by  the  Moslems,  fled  to 
China,  but  was  betrayed  to  and  killed  by 
his  enemies. 

Yonge,  Charles  Duke  (*.  1812,  d.  1891), 
historical  writer ;  held  the  professorship  of 
modem  history  at  Queen's  College,  Belfa-st, 
from  1866  till  his  death,  and  published 
besides  History  of  the  British  Navy  (1863), 
History  of  France  1589-1830,  and  other  his- 
torical works,  an  English-Greek  Lexicon. 

Yonge,  Charlotte  M.  {h.  1823),  novelist  and 
historical  writer;  author  of  The  Heir  of 
Redely ffe.  The  Dove  in  the  Eagle's  Nest,  and^ 
other  stories,  besides  Latidmarks  of  History' 
Cameos  from  English  History  (reprinted 
from  the  Monthly  Packet),  etc. 

Yorck,Johann  David  (*.  1759,  d.  1839), 
Prussian  general,  chiefly  remembered  by  Ids 
conduct  in  signing  a  convention  with  the 
Russians  in  1812,  though  his  government 
was  still  nominally  an  ally  of  Napoleon. 

York,  Frederick,  Duke  of  {b.  1763,  d. 
1827),  second  son  of  George  III. ;  com- 
manded the  British  forces  m  Flanders  in 
the  campaign  of  1793,  and  afterwards  the 
Russo-English  expedition  against  Holland 
(1799).  He  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  1794. 

York,  George,  Duke  of  {b.  1875),  only 
surviving  son  of  Albert  Edward,  Prince  of 
Wales.  Created  Duke  of  York  1892.  A 
commander  in  the  Royal  Navy. 

York,  Henry  Benedict  Stewart,  Cardinal 
(fi.  1725,  d.  1807),  was  the  last  male  of  the 
Stewart  dynasty. 

York,  Richard,  Duke  of  {d.  1460),  the 
father  of  Edward  LV. ;  was  made  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1449,  and  on  his 
return  in  1454  Lord  Protector  of  England, 


and  after  the  first  battle  of  St.  Albans  again 
held  that  ofiice.  War  having  again  broken 
out,  however,  he  claimed  the  crown,  but 
was  defeated  and  killed  at  Wakefield. 

York,  Richard,  Duke  of,  his  grandson; 
was  probably  murdered  in  the  Tower  with 
Edward  V.  in  1483. 

Yorke,  Charles  (b.  1722,  d.  1770),  states- 
man, second  son  of  Lord  Hardwicke  ;  having 
been  Solicitor-General,  and  twice  Attorney- 
General  (1762-3  and  1765-6)  became  Lord 
Chancellor  in  1770,  but  put  an  end  to  his 
life  soon  after. 

Yorke,  Philip.     {See  Hardwicke,  Earl  of.] 

Yoiing,  Sir  Allen,  Arctic  explorer ;  made 
an  attempt  in  the  Pandora  to  accomplish  the 
North-West  Passage  in  1875,  and  next  year 
was  employed  to  communicate  with  the 
dep6ts  of  the  Government  expedition  in 
Smith's  Sound.  The  Two  Voyages  of  the 
Pandora  was  published  in  1879. 

Young,  Arthur  (Jb.  1741,  d.  1820),  writer 
on  agriculture ;  for  many  years  secretary  to 
the  Board  of  Agriculture ;  published  A  Tour 
through  the  Southern  Counties  of  England, 
Annals  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  Survey 
of  Prance,  and  Tour  in  Ireland. 

Young,  Brigham  (A.  1801,  d.  1877), 
Mormon  "prophet,"  son  of  a  New  Eng- 
land farmer ;  became  president  on  the  death 
of  Smith  in  1844,  and  two  years  later  led 
his  followers  to  Salt  Lake  valley.  Salt  Lake 
City  being  built  soon  after.  In  1852  he  pro- 
claimed polygamy,  which  had  been  con- 
demned by  the  Mormon  Church,  and  in 
1856,  after  having  been  United  States 
governor  for  several  years,  he  was  super- 
seded, troops  being  sent  to  enforce  the  de- 
cision of  the  government. 

Young,  Charles  Mayne  (*.  1777,  d.  1856), 
actor ;  made  his  debut  in  1798,  and  in  1807 
played  Hamlet  with  success  at  the  Hay- 
market.  In  1812  he  played  Cassius  with 
Kemble,  and  in  1822  at  Drury  Lane  took 
Othello  and  lago  alternately  with  Edmund 
Kean.     He  was  last  seen  in  1832. 

Young,  Edward  {b.  1684,  d.  1765),  poet, 
chaplain  to  George  II.,  and  clerk-of-the- 
closet  to  the  Princess  Dowager  of  Wales. 
His  chief  work  was  Night  Thoughts,  which 
had  great  vogue  in  its  day. 

Young,  Right  Hon.  George,  Lord  {b. 
1819),  Scotch  judge  ;  was  twice  Solicitor- 
General  for  Scotland,  and  in  1869  became 
Lord  Advocate,  being  appointed  a  lord  of 
session  in  1874. 

Young,  Dr.  James  (b.  1811,  d.  1883), 
chemist ;  discovered  a  mode  of  distilling  oil 
from  shale,  and  founded  the  Scotch  mineral 
oil  industry.  He  fitted  out  the  expedition 
for  the  recovery  of  his  friend  Livingstone's 


-r 


You 


(  739) 


Zen 


body,  and  he  also  endowed  a  chair  of 
technical  chemistry  at  Anderson's  College, 
Glasgow. 

young,  Robert  {d.  1700),  criminal ;  fabri- 
cated the  story  of  a  plot  against  James  II., 
for  which  several  persons  were  tried,  and  in 
1692  forged  the  signatures  of  Marlborough, 
Bancroft,  and  others  to  a  document  in  favour 
of  a  restoration  of  the  late  king.  He  was 
defeated  in  this  and  a  similar  conspiracy,  and 
was  finally  hanged  for  coining. 

Young,  Thomaa,  M.D.  (*.  1773,  d.  1829), 


natural  philosopher ;  promulgated  the  theory 
of  interferences  in  his  Lectures  on  Natural 
rhilosophy  and  Mechanical  Arts  at  the  Royal 
Institution  (1807).  His  Miscellaneous  JFor&s 
appeared  m  1855. 

Yussef-ben-Abdel  Rahman   AI-Feliri  (d. 

759),  last  Mohammedan  Emir  of  Spain. 

Yussef  ben  Taxtyn  (d.  1105),  founder  of 
the  kmgdom  of  Morocco  ;  made  four  expe- 
ditions against  the  Christians  in  Spain,  con- 
quering the  whole  of  the  south  from 
Badajoz  to  Valencia. 


z 


Zachaiia,  Just  Friedrich  {b.  1726,  d.  1777), 
German  comic  poet,  translated  Paradise  Lost 
mto  German  hexameters. 

Zacharia,  Karl  Salomon  {b.  1769,  d.  1843), 
(ierman  jurist,  professor  at  Wittenberg  and 
Heidelberg,  and  author  of  Vterzig  Uucher 
voni  Staate,  etc. 

Zacharias,  Pope  {d.  752),  a  Greek ;  elected 
m  741,  prohibited  the  Venetian  slave  trade, 
and  sanctioned  the  deposition  of  the  Mer- 
wings  by  Pepin  le  Bref. 

Zagoskin,  Mikhail  {b.  1789,  d.  1852), 
Russian  vrriter,  author  of  George  Milo- 
»la/vsky  and  other  novels,  and  some  comedies 
and  essays. 

Zaleucus  [temp,  incert.),  legislator  of  the 
Epiiiephyrian  Locrians,  whose  code  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  written  one  possessed 
by  the  Greeks. 

ZalusM,  Josef  (b.  1701,  d.  1774).  PoUsh 
noble,  whose  library  was  seized  by  the 
Russians,  and  became  the  nucleus  of  the 
Imperial  library  at  St.  Petersburg. 

ZamoysU,  John  Sarins  (*.  1541,  d.  1605), 
Pohsh  statesman;  chancellor  and  general 
under  Stephen  Bathori  and  his  successor, 
was  named  at  his  death  "Defender  of  his 
country  and  protector  of  the  sciences  " 
His  grandson  [d.  1665)  distinguished  himself 
agamst  the  Russians. 

ZamoysM,  Andrew  (b.  1716,  d.  1792),  of 
the  same  family ;  prepared  a  code  for  Poland 
^  27m '  ^^^^'  ^*  firs*  rejected,  was  adopted 

Zanzibar,    Ali-bin-Sa'id,    Sultan  of    (b. 
1856),  came  to  the  throne  in  1890,  in  succes- 
sion to  his  brother.  RHAUFA-BiN-SA'ri),  who 
accepted  the  British  protectorate,  and  carried 
vv2  I 


out  the  treaties  made  by  his  predecessor 
in  1873-75  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave 
trade. 

Zarathustra.     [See  Zoroaster.] 

Zebelir  Pasha  (i.  circa  1830),  began  to  be 
known  about  1870  as  a  large  slave-dealer, 
but  was  induced  to  give  up  the  trade  by 
being  made  governor  of  the  Soudan.  He 
was  superseded  by  Gordon  in  1873,  against 
whom  his  son  rebelled,  for  which  Zebehr 
was  sentenced  to  death.  In  1884  Gordon 
demanded  his  re-appointment,  which  was 
refused,  and  next  year  the  pasha  was 
arrested  for  correspondence  with  the  Mahdi, 
and  was  detained  at  Gibraltar  till  1887. 

Zedlitz,  Joseph,  Baron  von  {b.  1790,  d. 
1862),  German  poet,  author  of  Stem  von 
Sevilla,  Kerker  und  Krona  (plays),  and  some 
lyrics  (1832).  u-   j  y, 

Zedner,  Joseph  (*.  1804,  d.  1871),  German 
Hebraist,  of  Jewish  birth ;  was  appointed 
assistant  in  the  British  Museum  in  1846,  and 
drew  up  the  catalogue  of  Hebrew  books. 

Zeller,  Eduard  {b.  1814),  German  philo- 
sopher ;  having  held  chairs  at  Marburg  and 
Heidelberg,  was  appointed  professor  at 
Berlin  in  1872.  His  chief  works  are  History 
of  Greek  Philosophy  (of  which  an  English 
version  appeared  in  1881),  History  of  German 
Philosophy  since  Leibnitz  (1875),  The  Contents 
and  Origin  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Eng- 
lish translation,  1853),  and  studies  of  Strauss 
and  Renan. 

Zelotti,  Battista  (b.  1632),  Italian  fresco- 
painter,  imitator  of  Paolo  Veronese.  His 
portrait  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Zenghis  Kban  (b.  1162,  d.  1227),  Khan  of 
the  Moguls  and  Tatars,  conquered  territories 


Zen 


(740) 


Zol 


(rhich  at  his  death  extended  from  Northern 
China  to  Tartary,  his  wars  being  said  to  have 
cost  5,000,000  lives.  His  dominions  were 
divided  among  his  four  sons. 

Zeno  (d.  circa  263  B.C.),  Greek  philo- 
sopher, founder  of  the  Stoic  school ;  horn  in 
Cyprus ;  was  accidentally  shipwrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Attica  when  trading,  and  became  a 
student  at  Athens.  He  is  said  to  have  put 
an  end  to  his  life. 

Zeno,  Emperor  of  the  East  {d.  491), 
assumed  the  purple  in  474,  but  was  next 
year  driven  out  by  Basilicus,  who,  however, 
was  banished  in  477.  In  482  Zeno  published 
his  Senoticon,  an  attempt  to  put  aai  end  to 
ecclesiastical  disputes. 

Zeno,  Antonio  and  Niccolo  (1 4th  century), 
Venetian  navigators,  are  said  to  have  dis- 
covered America  before  Columbus. 

Zeno,  Carlo  {d.  1418),  grand-admiral  of 
Venice ;  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  war 
and  diplomacy,  particularly  in  the  contest 
witli  the  Genoese. 

Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra  (3rd  century), 
married  Odenathus,  who  was  named 
"Augustus"  by  GaUienus  in  264,  and  on 
his  death,  three  years  later,  reigned  alone ; 
but  in  272  Aurelian  invaded  her  territories, 
defeated  and  captured  her,  and  took  her  to 
Eome  in  274. 

Zeuss,  Johann  Kaspar  (b.  1306,  d.  1856), 
German  historian  and  philologist ;  author  of 
Grainmatica  Celtica  (1853). 

Zeuxis  {ft.  450  b.c),  Greek  painter,  whose 
picture  of  Helen  for  a  temple  at  Croton  was 
his  most  celebrated  work. 

Zhukovsky,  Vasili  Andreevich  {b.  1783,  d. 
1852),  Russian  poet,  tutor  to  Alexander  II., 
and  author  of  Svietlana,  and  a  translation  of 
Gray's  Elegy. 

Ziethen,  Johann  Joachim  von  {b.  1699, 
d.  1786),  Prussian  general,  favourite  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  to  whom  he  rendered 
great  services  in  all  his  wars,  his  greatest 
exploit  being  the  victory  of  Torgau  (No- 
vember, 1760). 

Zimisces,  John,  Emperor  of  the  East  {d. 
976),  an  Armenian  in  the  service  of 
Nicephorus  Phocas,  with  whose  wife  he 
intrigued,  and  in  969  conspired  against  and 
assassinated  the  emperor.  He  associated 
himself  in  the  purple  with  the  sons  of 
Romanus  II.,  and  carried  on  wars  with  the 
Russians,  Bulgarians,  and  Saracens. 

Zimmermann,  Agnes  {b.  1847),  pianist; 
came  to  England  at  an  early  age,  and  studied 
at  the  Academy  of  Music  under  Cipriani, 
Potter,  and  Macfarren,  making  her  debut  at 
the  Crystal  Palace  in   1863.      Besides  her 


compositions,  she  published  standard  editions 
of  the  sonatas  of  Beethoven  and  Mozart. 

Zinunermann,  Johann  Georg  (Jb.  1728, 
d.  1795),  physician  and  writer ;  attended 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  was  physician 
to  George  III.  at  Hanover ;  became 
insane  soon  after  the  death  of  the  former. 
His  great  work  was  his  essay  Ueber 
die  Einsamkeit  (Solitude),  which  appeared 
m  1784-85. 

Zimmem,  Helen  {b.  1846),  naturalised 
English  woman,  boni  at  Hamburg ;  published 
works  on  the  life  and  writings  of  Schopen- 
hauer and  Lessing,  Tales  from  the  Edda 
(1882),  and  The  Hanse  Towns  (1889). 

Zingarelli,  Nicolo  {b.  1752,  d.  1837), 
Italian  composer,  whose  chief  work  is  The 
Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  an  oratorio. 

Zinzendorf,  Nicolaus  von  Graf  {b.  1700,  d. 
1760),  founder  of  the  Moravian  settlement 
at  Herrnhut ;  travelled  much  in  America  for 
religious  purposes,  and  in  1737  met  John 
Wesley  in  London. 

Zlska  [Zi^ka],  Johann  (b.  1360,  d.  1424), 
Bohemian  reformer ;  fought  in  the  English 
ai-my  at  Agincourt,  and  also  served  in  the 
Polish  army,  being  present  at  Tannenberg, 
became  a  leader  of  the  Hussites  after  the 
Council  of  Constance,  and  having  defeated 
the  emperor,  obtained  toleration,  and  was 
made  governor  of  Bohemia,  but  died  of  the 
plague  soon  after. 

Zizim  [Djem]  {b.  1459,  d.  1495),  Ottoman 
prince ;  conspired  against  his  brother  Baja- 
zet  II.,  and  lied  to  Rhodes,  where  the  grand- 
master, however,  kept  him  in  prison.  He 
was  afterwards  in  the  hands  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  but  was  given  up  to  Charles 
VIII.  of  France  just  before  his  death, 
probably  due  to  poison. 

Zee,  Empress  of  the  East  {d.  after  919), 
fourth  wife  of  Leo  the  Philosopher,  who 
banished  the  patriarch  for  refusing  to 
sanction  the  marriage.  On  the  recall  of  the 
latter  she  was  banished,  and  finally  died  in 
a  monastery. 

ZofFany,  Johann  (b.  1735,  d.  1810),  German 
painter,  settled  in  England,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy.  He  executed 
portraits  of  George  IH.,  Gainsborough, 
Wilkes,  Fox,  and  other  contemporaries. 

Zoilus  (4th  century),  Greek  rhetorician, 
criticised  unfavourably  the  works  of  Homer, 
Plato,  and  others. 

Zola,  fimile  {b.  1840),  French  novelist  of 
the  "  natirralist "  school,  began  Hfe  as  an 
employe  of  the  Hachette  firm,  but  in  1863 
published  Contes  a  Ninon.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  Therhse  Raquin  (1867),  Les  Rougon 
Macquart    (1871-92) — a    series    of    which 


Zop 


(741) 


Zwi 


UAssomtnoir  and  Nana,  Germinal  (1885), 
Za  Terre  (1887),  La  BHe  Humaine 
(1889),  La  Debacle,  etc.,  are  the  most 
striking. 

Zoppo,  Marco  (Jl.  1450),  Italian  painter, 
founder  of  the  Bolognese  school.  Has  works 
are  at  Bologna,  Venice,  and  Berlin. 

Zoroaster  [ZarathustraJ ,  the  time  of 
whose  hi'e  is  uncertain,  founded  the  national 
religion  of  Persia  (the  chief  principle  of 
which  is  the  doctrine  of  duaUan),  as  em- 
bodied in  the  Zend-Avesta. 

ZorrUla,  Manuel  Ruiz  {b.  1834),  Spanish 
politician  ;  became  minister  of  public  works 
after  the  revolution  of  1868,  and  was  after- 
wards minister  of  justice  and  president  of 
the  Cortes.  He  was  a  supporter  of  Amadeus 
of  Savoy,  and  was  his  minister  while  King 
of  Spain,  and  having  subsequently  been 
engaged  in  many  republican  conspiracies, 
was  banished  by  Alfonso  XII. 

Zosimus  (5th  century),  Greek  writer, 
author  of  a  history  of  the  Roman  Empire 
from  a  pagan  standpoint. 

Zucchero,  or  Zuccaro,  Taddeo  {b.  1629,  d. 
1566),  Italian  painter,  whose  best  works 
were  the  frescoes  in  the  Consolazione  at 
Rome,  and  some  paintings  executed  for 
Cardinal  Alessandro  Famese  at  Caprarola. 

Zucchero,  Federico  {b.  1543,  d.  1609),  his 
brother  and  pupU ;  painted  the  roof  of  the 
Duomo   at  Florence,   came  to  England  in 


1574,  and  took  portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
Mary  Stuart,  and  others,  and  in  1595 
founded  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  at  Rome. 

Zumpt,  Karl  Gottlob  {b.  1792,  d.  1849), 
German  scholar,  whose  chief  work  was  his 
Latui  grammar  (1818),  of  which  several 
English  editions  have  appeared.  His 
nephew,  AtratrsT  {d.  1877),  wi-ote  The 
Criminal  Law  of  the  Roman  Eepublic,  and 
other  works. 

Zurbaran,  Francisco  {b.  1598,  d.  1662), 
painter,  called  "  the  Spanish  Caravaggio." 
Most  of  his  works  are  at  Seville,  but  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  contains  a  minor 
specimen. 

Zurita,  Geronimo  {b.  1612,  d.  1581), 
Spanish  historian,  author  of  Annates  de  la 
Corona  de  Aragon. 

Zwingle,  or  Zwingli,  Ulrich  {b.  1484,  d. 
1531),  Swiss  reformer  ;  served  in  Italy  as  a 
soldier,  visited  Erasmus  at  Basel  in  1514, 
and  two  years  later  at  the  monastery  of 
Einsiedlen  began  to  preach  freely.  In  1519 
he  was  appointed  to  the  cathedral  at  Ziirich, 
having  previously  opposed  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences by  Sansom.  Attempts  were  made  to 
prohibit  his  preaching,  but  the  reformation 
grew  at  Ziirich.  'hi  1529  Zwingle  met 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Marburg,  but 
two  years  later  he  fell  in  the  battle  of  Kappel 
in  the  war  with  Beme. 

Zwlmer,  Ernest  F.  {b.  1802,  d.  1861), 
German  architect. 


THE  EMSl 


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